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HUMANITIES
(Arts Appreciation)1
OBJECTIVES: for the students to:
1. understand and appreciate their value as human whose identities are
shaped through participation in a wider community;
2. develop critical and analytical thinking;
3. gain historical consciousness with regard to the development of arts;
4. be aware of the aesthetic values and develop creativity, imagination and
artistic expression of feelings.
IMPORTANCE:
1. Provides enjoyment and stimulation if we try to understand;
2. Develop and refine our initial responses to arrive at a mature and meaningful
undertaking;
3. Satisfies our comprehension and appreciation and eventually evaluate our
experiences
4. Delights our desire for beautiful things.
Other Objectives
To survey the development of the arts (painting, sculpture, architecture, music
and literature) to help students appreciate our cultural heritage and give them
background for understanding and evaluating the arts of our own day.
Generally, this study aims to see how man’s thinking and feelings are reflected in
the arts which were produced in a given period so that students may appreciate
a work of art in the light of the age which produced it.
To give students a historical and aesthetic background for a more
comprehensive response to art in general.
I. INTRODUCTION
This subject is primarily intended for college students, particularly to those students who
are pursuing the arts, sciences and technological courses. Their exposure to the arts is
imperative which science and technology alone are not adequate to make them truly
appreciate the value of being human. As Salvador Gonzales puts it, “Science educates
our minds and hearts while humanities educate our feelings and sensitivities. With the
end in view to use our minds without forgetting that we are human beings”.
1 Doris Van de Bogart, Introduction to the Humanities: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, Music and Literature,
Barnes & Noble, Inc., New York, 1970
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II. OVERVIEW
A. HUMANITIES
a. Meaning Generally mean Art, Literature, music, dance & theater
Where appreciation of arts can be strengthened because
artists convey their thoughts, beliefs, values and feelings through
visual arts, literary arts, dance and music.
b. Concerns With the importance of human beings and his feelings and how
he expresses those feelings
c. Origin It came from the Latin word, “humanus” meaning refined and
cultured.
Based on the philosophical view of humanism which stresses the
dictum of Protagoras2 that “man is the measure of all things,”
implying that humanities emphasizes the dignity and worthiness
of a man and recognizes creative expressions.
d. Branch/field
of learning
Which include different disciplines in Liberal Arts like: History,
Philosophy, Theology & all languages
B. ART
a. Origin Came from the Latin word, “ars” meaning ability or skill. Thus,
art covers those areas of artistic creativity that seek to
communicate beauty primarily through the senses
b. Meaning Appeals to the senses or emotions, especially beauty.
c. Involvement
and function
Art applies to activities that expresses aesthetic ideas by the use
of skill and imagination in the creation of objects, environment
and experiences which can be shared with others.
We can say that we are involve in art if we:
1. plan, design and construct houses artistically;
2. paint and decorate our house beautifully;
3. landscape6 the garden;
4. paint a poster;
5. write poems, essays, biographies, short stories and plays.
6. compose a melody;
7. sing songs beautifully; and
8. dance gracefully
All these simply imply that anything accomplished with great
skill is art. Hence, in almost all human activities, there is the
9. Art of dressing
10. Relaxing
11. Art of cooking
2 A Greek Philosopher who comes to us from the, writings of other philosophers especially Plato,
Aristotle, Diogenes Laertius. He was a sophistThe sophists were self-proclaimed teachers who
travelled the Greek cities offering to teach young men arts such as rhetoric and public speaking.
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III. WORK OF ART
A work of art is an activity that involves both imagination and skill in
accomplishing it. It creates aesthetic feelings or experiences which delight and satisfy
our desire for beautiful things.
IV. SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES OF ART WORKS
DIFFERENCES 1. Words are used in verbal arts like in
Poetry
Prose
Drama
2. Musical notes used in musical composition
3. Visual Arts use colors lines and tones or canvass.
Like in
Painting
Sculpture
Architecture
3. Performing art tell stories like in
Dance
Operas
Music
Dances
However, it is easy to understand and appreciate
as song or a dance than a painting and a
symphony.
4. Poetry: fixtures of poetic frame are rhyme, meter,
expressive sound and distinctive grammatical
construction of words and metaphor. These are not
found in novels and short stories.
6. Emotions or passion evoked by a work of art
differs from person to person due to feelings (how
one perceives, moves and carried away with)
SIMILARITIES There is one common element among the works of
art and that is, they are concerned with the
audience’s feelings and emotions.
V. THE ARTISTS IN THE WORLD OF ART
A. Artist Credo “art for art sake” – implies that beauty is the reason for the art
work. Thus artist concerns with the minds of the viewers.
Role of Artist – The artist communicates through his art his:
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1. thoughts
2. fantacies
3. observations
4. self-revelation
He seeks to open our minds and ears so that we may see the beauty of the world
clearly and find the meaning of arts in our lives.
Role of Audience: To sense what the artist is trying to convey and tell through his
work of art.
B. ARTIST ARE CALLED BY MANY NAMES
1. VISUAL ARTISTS – “I think, I see”
a. Painter – paints picture and objects from his own imaginations to
reveal what he thinks he has seen so that we too can see it with our
own eyes.
Ex. Fernando Amorsolo – “Girl in mangoes” 1957
Vincent Van Gogh – Starry Night
Starry Night by Vincent van Gogh has risen to the
peak of artistic achievements. Although Van Gogh
sold only one painting in his life, the aftermath of his
work is enormous. Starry Night is one of the most well
known images in modern culture as well as being one
of the most replicated and sought after prints. From
Don McLean's song 'Starry, Starry Night' (Based on the
Painting), to the endless number of merchandise
products sporting this image, it is nearly impossible to
shy away from this amazing painting.
Van Gogh painted Starry Night while in an Asylum at
Saint-Remy in 1889.
Juan Luna – Spolarium-
Painting shows fallen gladiators being dragged to an
unseen pile of corpses in a chamber beneath the
Roman arena. It won the highest award at the
National Exposition of Fine Arts of Madrid in 1884.
b. Sculptor – drawn and carved from the original designs and sketches.
1. Makes scale model statues of
human beings
monuments
buildings
2. Decorations in clays
3. Chisels out:
statues from marbles
wood
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clay
c. Architecture
a. Plans – the layout of the structures and coordinates the structural
ornamental elements into a unified design.
b. Designs – prepares sketches of proposed buildings and writes the
specifications
- prepares scale drawings and details for the use of
building sites to ensure compliance with the plans and
specifications.
- Designs and oversees the repair and remodeling of
buildings
- Lays out the development of urban areas
- Landscape architect works with:
-lawns
-plants
-Roads
c. Constructs – public and commercial buildings
Other artists in the VISUAL ARTS:
a. Photographer
Often specialize in areas such as commercial photography, industrial
photography, or portrait photography. Many photographers work in
portrait or commercial photography studios, while others are employed
by newspapers, magazines, television broadcasters, or advertising
agencies.
b. Filmmaker
Art directors are those who develop the design concepts that other artists
implement, either for print or digital publications. They decide how to
present the information and which photographs or artwork to use so that it
is visually appealing.
Multimedia artists create visual images using film, video, and
other electronic media. They may work for advertising
companies, electronic publishers, and the television and
movie industries.
c. Graphic Arts
The types of courses visual arts students take vary depending
on the discipline, ranging from graphic design to art history
and Web design to watercolor painting.
FINE ARTISTS
Include painters, illustrators, sculptors, sketch artists, and others. Their work may be
displayed in museums, galleries, or private homes, or they may work for organizations or
companies. A sketch artist, for example, might work for a law enforcement agency
sketching courtroom scenes, while an illustrator might work for a greeting card company designing cards, wrapping paper, and accessories.
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2. ARTIST IN MUSIC
a. Musicians “I think, I hear”– put together and composes melodies and
songs and conveys his thoughts and feelings which he wishes to share with
others.
b. Singers – an artist who sings to delight and entertain others.
Songster An opera Prima donna or diva
Vocalist Soloist Choir singer
c. composers – a person who writes music whose works include operas,
symphonies, concertos, and sonatas (ex. Mozart and Beethoven)
d. choreographer – composes and teaches
choreography representing stage dancing
by signs and music. Arrange dance movements or
patterns to accompanying music to develop a theme.
3. DANCER (Art of Movement) – artist who moves his body artistically, makes
gestures beautifully with the music:
- stage or ballet dancing
- female ballet dancer – danseuse
- street dance
4. LITERARY ARTS –
a. Poet puts words aesthetically together in verse form. Expresses his thoughts
and feelings in verses and poems
b. Novelist – a writer of fiction with originality. Write stories.
c. Authors also known as writer; an author of a dramatic play is a dramatist
d. Playwright writes plays and adapts his materials for the stage, radio,
television or motion pictures production.
e. Dramatist writes compositions in prose and poetry arranged for
excitement to be performed by actors and actresses on stage to portray
a character or tell a story through action or dialogue of characters.
WHY ARTISTS HAVE SO MANY NAMES – because of their varied expertise in the use of
different media or materials.
Painter – paints with pigments and uses oil and colors, canvass or tempera
Architect – works with designs
Sculptor – works with images
Poet – uses words and speak in rhymes,
Musician and composer – use musical notes or tones and spoken words that are
sang.
Writer, novelist, playwright and dramatist – use words to express their thoughts
and feelings
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Decorative arts are traditionally defined as ornamental and functional works in
ceramic, wood, glass, metal, textile. The field includes ceramics, furniture, furnishings,
interior design, and architecture. The decorative arts are often categorized in
opposition to the "fine arts", namely, painting, drawing, photography, and large-scale
sculpture. Some distinguish between decorative and fine art based on functionality,
intended purpose, importance, status as a unique creation, or single-artist production.
Decorative arts, or furnishings, may be fixed (for example, wallpaper), or moveable (for
example, lamps).
Style
There are certain common denominators of subject matter, treatment, and
emphasis which appear again and again in art works of a given epoch. These
characterize the style of a period, perhaps the result of a certain community of feeling
in the leading spirits of an age.
1. Historical Factors
When an artist searches for new perceptions, he is tied to the world around him. If
he ignores or loses this tie, his work becomes unintelligible to his contemporaries.
His is also affected by geographical and ethnic differences within the period.
2. Geographical Factors
Artists are conditioned by their nationality. For example, artistic expression may
be typically Dutch, French, or English. More particularly, in Italy they may be
Florentine, Roman, Or Venetian; in Germany, south German or north German.
3. Political, Psychological, and Sociological Factors
Political systems and social patterns contribute to changes in style. If an artist
broke away from this environment, as Voltaire did, he had a rough time and
might even be banished from the country. With social and economic change,
the groups in a society which sponsor art also changes.
4. Ideational Factors
Spiritual movements such as Christianity, the Renaissance, Humanism, the
Counter Reformation, and the Enlightenment brought striking changes in social
and political structures and they also influenced directly changes in art styles.
5. Technical Factors
The importance of technique has been overemphasized in the past. Modern
piano technique with its cult of the virtuoso could not exist before the modern
piano was perfected. Landscapes painted out-of-doors were limited before light
canvas and readily transportable oil paints in tubes had come into general use.
But these technical and material influences are not nearly so important as other
style-shaping factors.
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Major Stylistic Periods
Greek Golden Age 500 B.C. – 410 B.C.
Hellenistic 336 B.C. – A.D. 146
Roman 146 – 323
Medieval 323 – 1400
Renaissance 1270 – 1594
Mannerist 1530 – 1616
Baroque 1600 – 1750
Classic 1644 – 1793
Rococo 1715 – 1774
Romantic 1773 – 1848
Realist and Naturalist 1827 – 1927
Impressionist 1863 – 1900
Modern 1895 to the present
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THE GREEKS
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
It was said that the Athenians who for the first time in history discovered how to
achieve happiness by using their minds.
During this age, they are already aware between the difference in tragedy and
comedy. Homer wrote the greatest epic ever penned which shows the
difference.
Greeks believed in sound mind and in sound body, they cultivate their play as
systematically as their wars or their politics. It was shown in their athletic contest
held at Olympia which is popularly known nowadays as Olympic games.
Notably, the victors were awarded laurel wreaths and honor equal to that of the
bravest warrior.
It was the Athenian who invented the idea of freedom in democratic society.
For most Greeks, a daily trip to some temple to offer sacrifice to a god was
common practice, but they didn’t take it very seriously.
Greeks were intellectuals with a passion for using their minds. Our word school
comes from the Greek word for leisure. They thought that if a man had leisure he
would use it in thinking and finding out about the world. Further, our scientific
method is founded on the concept, “Man the measure of all things”, which
became the Athenian motto.
ARCHAIC ART
Greek started where the Egyptians left off. In Athens, from the eight to the sixth
century and extending into the early fifth century B.C., the so-called Archaic
period, occurred the most astonishing revolution in the whole history of art. They
studied the anatomy of bones and muscles and what effect these would have
on representation; they discovered that every part of the body does not have to
be shown, that a foot or had is often concealed behind the torso; they also
discovered foreshortening.
The free-standing figures of the Archaic period are usually young athletic males
(kouros), such as were winners in athletic games, and young women (kore, korai,
plural), fully clothed with long crimped locks of hair and with the corners of the
mouth turned up in a stereotyped smile so that they would look more “lifelike”.
The Greek Temples have three basic orders of columns.
a. Doric order – plain, short and thick. It expresses strength and nobility.
b. Ionic order – more slender and graceful, with its capital imitating the softness
of a cushion. It represents the naturalness and tender sentiment of the fourth
century B.C.
c. Corinthian order – the highest, most slender, and most decorative of the
three. It uses Oriental decorative elements like the acanthus leaves at the top
of the column.
SCULPTURE and ARCHITECTURE of the GOLDEN AGE
Greece was divided into many small, autonomous city-states, each self-
contained, self-supporting, and proudly self-sufficient.
Since the Athenians were intellectuals, it is just proper to approach their art
intellectually; there are no trivia to capture the emotions.
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The finest of the buildings were those on the Acropolis, a hill formerly used as a
fortress.
Propylaea – consisting of noble colonnades and porticoes
Athena the defender – colossal bronze statue
Athena Nike – small temple
Parthenon and Erechtheum – two largest buildings; figures in Parthenon were the
highest expression of the Greek spirit
Parthenon eastern pediment
Represents the birth of Athena
It contains the figure of Mount Olympus, the three Fates on one
side of the central figure; Persephone, Demeter and Artimis
Parthenon western pediment
It represents the dispute between Athena and Poseidon for the
sponsorship of the cty
THE FOURTH-CENTURY IDEAL of BEAUTY
Toward the end of the fifth century B.C. artists had become fully aware of their
mastery and ordinary people had become more art-conscious. They demanded less of
the ideal and impersonal, and more of the natural and graceful.
Artist Artwork Distinctness
Praxiteles Hermes holding the infant
Dionysus
Figure of Hermes is not erect but
assumes a S curve
No violent emotion
First to portray a feminine body
Lysippus Head of Alexander the Great Faces looks animated and
expresses personality
Avoided strong feeling
The Erechtheum - The Erechtheion or Erechtheum is an ancient Greek temple on
the north side of the Acropolis of Athens in Greece which was dedicated to both
Athena and Poseidon.
GREEK MUSIC
Two subjects required of every Greek schoolboy, mathematics and music
Two meanings of music: first, mathematics of music; second, music and poetry
Compared to our two scales, major and minor, Greeks formed a new scale or
tonal system on every degree of our diatonic scale
While music may have existed without poetry, poetry did not exist without music
As a rule, Greek singing was accompanied by an instrument, the seven-stringed
lyre
The highest form of choric poetry was the dithyramb (ex. Epitaph of Seikelos and
Hymn of Apollo, consisting of strophe (turn), antistrophe (counter turn), and
epode (aftersong). Though none of the dithyramb has survived
As the chorus of only twelve singers chanted the words, they executed slow,
rhythmic steps, bringing out the meaning of the words by gestures and attitudes
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According to the doctrine ethos, held by Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek
philosophers, certain tonal successions were capable of calling forth definite
emotions
Not one Greek dithyramb has survived
GREEK LITERATURE
The greatest Greek literary legacy consists of the drama of four men: Aeschylus,
Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes
Artist Artwork Distinctness
Aeschylus The Persians – a play
Agamemnon
The Eumenides
Affirmation of the will to live in the face
of death is the underlying theme of his
plays.
He presents suffering and death in such
a way that it exalts rather than depresses
us.
The Greeks were inclined to believe that
the gods were jealous of man’s
happiness and prosperity.
Sophocles Oedipus Tyrannus Understanding Aristotle’s poetics will
understand Greek’s drama.
According to Aristotle:
- Tragedy is an imitation of action
- It should be long enough to show a
character passing gradually from
happiness to misery
- A good plot involves peripety
(reversal), which is a change from
one state of affairs to its opposite,
and discovery, a change from
ignorance to knowledge
Euripedes Hippolytus
Electra and Medea -
heroines
He was the poet of the world’s grief, but
not necessarily the most tragic
He knew pain better than exaltation
Aristophanes The Wasps
The Birds
The Frogs
The Clouds
Greeks comedy is often bawdy and
satire
Known device for comedy: parody,
burlesque, farce, apt quotations, and
unexpected turns
GREEK PHILOSOPHY
Great Philosophers of the
“Golden Age”
Notes on the Philosophers
Socrates One of the greatest of all time, yet wrote nothing
Was put to death; was accused of “corrupting the
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youth”
Influenced and taught Plato
Plato Was an aristocrat, a soldier, an athlete, and a musician
A philosopher and passionate lover of wisdom
Wrote The Republic, his most important legacy
He gave ideas in theology, ethics, psychology, politics
arts; including modern thoughts like communism and
socialism
Aristotle Studied under Plato’s academy
Tutored Alexander the Great
Became the world’s first scientist
He established the world’s first zoological garden
He created a new science, logic, which is explained in
his Organon
THE HELLENISTIC PERIOD
The period during the empire of Alexander the Great
The period started during the conquest of King Philip, a Macedonian.
Macedonians are part Greek and part Oriental
Alexander the Great conquest is considered the greatest cultural conquest in
history
Art:
The most flourishing cultural centers during Hellenistic Period were
Alexandria in Egypt, Antioch in Syria, and Pergamum in Asia Minor
Philosophy:
Popular philosopher during this period were the Epicureans, Stoics, Cynics,
Skeptics, and Neoplatonism
Map of Ancient Greece
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Comparison of Greek and Roman Mythologies
Greek Roman Description
Zeus Jupiter Lord of the sky and supreme ruler of the gods. Known for throwing lightening bolts.
Poseidon Neptune Ruler of the sea. Brother of Zeus. Carried a three-pronged spear known as a trident.
Hades Pluto Ruler of the underworld and the dead. Brother of Zeus. Had a helmet which rendered its wearer
invisible.
Hestia Vesta
A virgin goddess and sister of Zeus. No distinct
personality or part in myths. Goddess of the Hearth, the symbol of the home.
Hera Juno
Zeus's wife and sister. Protector of marriage, spent most of her time punishing the many
women Zeus fell in love with. Likes cows and peacocks.
Ares Mars God of war and son of Zeus and Hera. Likes vultures and dogs.
Athena Minerva
Daughter of Zeus alone. No mother.(?) She sprang from his head full-grown and in full armor. The protector of civilized life, handicrafts, and
agriculture. Invented the bridle, and first to tame the horse. Likes Athens, olives, and owls.
Apollo Apollo Son of Zeus. Master musician, archer god, healer, god of light, god of truth, sun god. A busy god
who likes the laurel tree, dolphins, and crows.
Aphrodite Venus Daughter of Zeus. Goddess of Love and Beauty.
Likes the myrtle tree, doves, sparrows, and swans.
Hermes Mercury Son of Zeus. Wore wings on his sandals and his
hat, thus was graceful and swift.
Artemis Diana Apollo's twin sister and daughter of Zeus. Lady of wild things and huntsman to the gods. As Apollo is the Sun, Artemis is the moon.
Hephaestus Vulcan Son of Hera, God of Fire. The only ugly and deformed god. Makes armor and weapons forged
under volcanoes.
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THE ROMANS
Introduction
For several centuries Ancient Rome was the most powerful nation on earth, excelling all
others at military organization and warfare, engineering, and architecture. Its unique
cultural achievements include the invention of the dome and the groin vault, the
development of concrete and a European-wide network of roads and bridges. Despite
this, Roman sculptors and painters produced only a limited amount of outstanding
original fine art, preferring instead to recycle designs from Greek art, which they
revered as far superior to their own. Indeed, many types of art practised by the Romans
- including, sculpture (bronze and marble statuary, sarcophagi), fine art painting
(murals, portraiture, vase-painting), and decorative art (including metalwork, mosaics,
jewellery, ivory carving) had already been fully mastered by Ancient Greek artists. Not
surprisingly, therefore, while numerous Greek sculptors (like Phidias, Kresilas, Myron,
Polykleitos, Callimachus, Skopas, Lysippos, Praxiteles, and Leochares, Phyromachos)
and painters (like Apollodorus, Zeuxis of Heraclea, Agatharchos, Parrhasius, Apelles of
Kos, Antiphilus, Euphranor of Corinth) were accorded great respect throughout the
Hellenistic world, most Roman artists were regarded as no more than skilled tradesmen
and have remained anonymous.
Of course it is wrong to say that Roman art was devoid of innovation: its urban
architecture was ground-breaking, as was its landscape painting and portrait busts. Nor
is it true that Roman artists produced no great masterpieces - witness the extraordinary
relief sculpture on monuments like Ara Pacis Augustae and Trajan's Column. But on the
whole, we can say that Roman art was predominantly derivative and, above all,
utilitarian. It served a purpose, a higher good: the dissemination of Roman values along
with a respect for Roman power. As it transpired, classical Roman art has been
immensely influential on many subsequent cultures, through revivalist movements like
Neoclassical architecture, which have shaped much European and American
architecture, as exemplified by the US Capitol Building.
History of Roman Art
Origins
Although Rome was founded as far back as 750 BCE, it led a precarious existence for
several centuries. Initially, it was ruled by Etruscan kings who commissioned a variety of
Etruscan art (murals, sculptures and metalwork) for their tombs as well as their palaces,
and to celebrate their military victories. After the founding of the Roman Republic in 500
BCE, Etruscan influence waned and, from 300 BCE, as the Romans started coming into
contact with the flourishing Greek cities of southern Italy and the eastern
Mediterranean, they fell under the influence of Greek art - a process known as
Hellenization. Soon many Greek works of art were being taken to Rome as booty, and
many Greek artists followed to pursue their careers under Roman patronage.
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However, the arts were still not a priority for Roman leaders who were more concerned
about survival and military affairs. It wasn't until about 200 BCE after it won the first Punic
War against Hannibal and the Carthaginians, that Rome felt secure enough to develop
its culture. Even then, the absence of an independent cultural tradition of its own
meant that most ancient art of Rome imitated Greek works. Rome was unique among
the powers of the ancient world in developing only a limited artistic language of its
own.
Cultural Inferiority Complex
Roman architecture and engineering was never less than bold, but its painting and
sculpture was based on Greek traditions and also on art forms developed in its vassal
states like Egypt and Ancient Persia. To put it another way, despite their spectacular
military triumphs, the Romans had an inferiority complex in the face of Greek artistic
achievement. Their ultra-pragmatic response was to recycle Greek sculpture at every
opportunity. Greek poses, reworked with Roman clothes and accessories, were pressed
into service to reinforce Roman power. Heroic Greek statues were even supplied
headless, to enable the buyer to fit his own portrait head.
An example is the equestrian bronze statue of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (c.175 CE),
whose stance is reworked from the Greek statue "Doryphorus" (440 BCE). See: Greek
Sculpture Made Simple.
The reason for Rome's cultural inferiority complex remains unclear. Some Classical
scholars have pointed to the pragmatic Roman temperament; others, to the overriding
Roman need for territorial security against the waves of marauding tribes from eastern
and central Europe and the consequent low priority accorded to art and culture. To
which we might add that - judging by the narrowness of Celtic art (c.500 BCE - 100 CE) -
Roman artists weren't doing too badly. Moreover, we should note that cities in Ancient
Rome were less provincial and far more powerful than Greek city-states, so that its art
invariably played a more functional role - not least because Roman culture was
actually a melange of different beliefs and customs, all of which had to be
accomodated. Thus, for example, art quickly became something of a status symbol:
something to enhance the buyer's home and social position. And since most Romans
recognized the intrinsic value of Greek artistry, buyers wanted Greek-style works.
Realist Propaganda
Like the Romans themselves, early Roman art (c.510 BCE to 27 BCE) tended to be
realistic and direct. Portraits, both two-dimensional and three-dimensional, were
typically detailed and unidealized, although later during the age of Hellenistic-Roman
art (c.27 BCE - 200 CE), the Romans became aware of the propaganda value of busts
and statuary, and sought to convey political messages through poses and accessories.
The same PR value was accorded to relief sculpture (see, for instance, the Column of
Marcus Aurelius), and to history painting (see, Triumphal Paintings, below). Thus when
commemorating a battle, for example, the artwork used would be executed in a
realistic - almost "documentary" style. This realistic down-to-earth Roman style is in vivid
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contrast to Hellenistic art which illustrated military achievements with mythological
imagery. Paradoxically, one reason for the ultimate fall of Rome was because it
became too attached to the propagandist value of its art, and squandered huge
resources on grandiose building projects purely to impress the people. Construction of
the Baths of Diocletian (298-306), for instance, monopolised the entire brick industry of
Rome, for several years.
Types of Roman Art
Architecture
Rome's greatest contribution to the history of art is undoubtedly to be found in the field
of architectural design. Roman architecture during the age of the Republic (knowledge
of which derives largely from the 1st-century Roman architect Vitruvius) discovered the
round temple and the curved arch but, after the turn of the Millennium, Roman
architects and engineers developed techniques for urban building on a massive scale.
The erection of monumental structures like the Pantheon and the Colosseum, would
have been impossible without Rome's development of the arch and the dome, as well
as its mastery of strong and low-cost materials like concrete and bricks.
The Romans didn't invent the arch - it was known but not much used in Greek
architecture - but they were the first to master the use of multiple arches, or vaults. From
this, they invented the Roman groin vault - two barrel vaults set at right-angles - which
represented a revolutionary improvement on the old Greek post-and-lintel method, as it
enabled architects to support far heavier loads and to span much wider openings. The
Romans also made frequent use of the semicircular arch, typically without resorting to
mortar: relying instead on the precision of their stonework.
Arches and vaults played a critical role in the erection of buildings like the Baths of
Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla, the Basilica of Maxentius and the Colosseum.
The arch was also an essential component in the building of bridges, exemplified by the
Pont du Gard and the bridge at Merida, and aqueducts, exemplified by the one at
Segovia, and also the Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus in Rome itself.
A further architectural development was the dome (vaulted ceiling), which made
possible the construction and roofing of large open areas inside buildings, like Hadrian's
Pantheon, the Basilica of Constantine, as well as numerous other temples and basilicas,
since far fewer columns were needed to support the weight of the domed roof. The use
of domes went hand in hand with the extensive use of concrete - a combination
sometimes referred to as the "Roman Architectural Revolution". But flagship buildings
with domes were far from being the only architectural masterpieces built by Ancient
Rome. Just as important was the five-storey apartment building known as an insula,
which accommodated thousands of citizens.
It was during the age of Emperor Trajan (98-117 CE) and Emperor Hadrian (117-138 CE)
that Rome reached the zenith of its architectural glory, attained through numerous
building programs of monuments, baths, aqueducts, palaces, temples and
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mausoleums. Many of the buildings from this era and later, served as models for
architects of the Italian Renaissance, such as Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) designer of
the iconic dome of the cathedral in Florence, and both Donato Bramante (1444-1514)
and Michelangelo (1475-1564), designers of St Peter's Basilica. The time of Constantine
(306-337 CE) witnessed the last great building programs in the city of Rome, including
the completion of the Baths of Diocletian and the erection of the Basilica of Maxentius
and the Arch of Constantine.
Famous Roman Buildings
Circus Maximus (6th century BCE - 4th century CE)
Dating back to Etruscan times, and located in the valley between the Aventine and
Palatine hills, this was the main Roman chariot racing venue in Rome, Italy. Measuring
roughly 2,000 feet in length (610 metres) and 400 feet in width (120 metres), it was rebuilt
in the age of Julius Caesar to seat an estimated 150,000 spectators, and again during
the reign of Constantine to seat about 250,000. It is now a park.
Colosseum (72-80 CE)
Built in the centre of Rome by Vespasian to appease the masses, this elliptical
amphitheatre was named after a colossal statue of Nero that stood nearby. Built to seat
some 50,000 spectators, its intricate design, along with its model system of tiered seating
and spacious passageways, makes it one of the greatest works of Roman architecture.
The Colosseum was one of the key sights on the Grand Tour of the 18th century.
The Arch of Titus (c.81 CE)
The oldest surviving Roman triumphal arch, it was built after the young Emperor's death
to celebrate his suppression of the Jewish uprising in Judea, in 70 CE. Standing on the
Via Sacra, south-east of the Roman Forum, the Arch of Titus was the model for
Napoleon's Arc de Triomphe in Paris (1806-36).
Baths of Trajan (104-9 CE)
A huge bathing and leisure complex on the south side of the Oppian Hill, designed by
Apollodorus of Damascus, it continued to be used up until the early fifth century, or
possibly later, until the destruction of the Roman aqueducts compelled its
abandonment.
Pantheon (c.125 CE)
Built by Marcus Agrippa as a temple dedicated to the seven gods of Ancient Rome,
and rebuilt by Hadrian in 126 CE, the Pantheon is a daring early instance of concrete
construction. The interior space is based on a perfect sphere, and its coffered ceiling
remains the largest non-reinforced concrete dome in the world. In the middle of its
dome an oculus lets in a beam of light.
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Baths of Caracalla (212-16 CE)
Capable of holding up to 16,000 people, the building was roofed by a series of groin
vaults and included shops, two gymnasiums (palaestras) and two public libraries. The
baths proper consisted of a central 185 x 80 feet cold room (frigidarium) a room of
medium temperature (tepidarium) with two pools, and a 115-foot diameter hot room
(caldarium), as well as two palaestras. The entire structure was built on a 20-foot high
base containing storage areas and furnaces. The baths were supplied with water from
the Marcian Aqueduct.
Baths of Diocletian (298-306)
These baths (thermae) were probably the most grandiose of all Rome's public baths.
Standing on high ground on the northeast part of the Viminal, the smallest of the Seven
hills of Rome, the baths occupied an area well in excess of 1 million square feet and
was supposedly capable of holding up to 3,000 people at one time. The complex used
water supplied by the Aqua Marcia and Aqua Antoniniana aqueducts.
Basilica of Maxentius (308-12 CE)
The largest building in the Roman Forum, it featured a full complement of arches and
barrel vaults and a folded roof. It had a central nave overlooked by three groin vaults
suspended 120 feet above the floor on four piers. There was a massive open space in
the central nave, but unlike other basilicas it didn't need the usual complement of
columns to support the ceiling, because the entire building was supported on arches.
Moreover, its folded roof reduced the total weight of the structure thus minimizing the
horizontal force on the outer arches.
Sculpture: Types and Characteristics
Roman sculpture may be divided into four main categories: historical reliefs; portrait
busts and statues, including equestrian statues; funerary reliefs, sarcophagi or tomb
sculpture; and copies of ancient Greek works. Like architecture, a good deal of Roman
sculpture was created to serve a purpose: namely, to impress the public - be they
Roman citizens or 'barbarians' - and communicate the power and majesty of Rome. In
its important works, at least, there was a constant expression of seriousness, with none of
the Greek conceptualism or introspection. The mood, pose and facial features of the
Roman statue of an Emperor, for instance, was typically solemn and unsmiling. As Rome
grew more confident from the reign of Augustus (31 BCE - 14 CE), its leaders might
appear in more magnanimous poses, but gravitas and an underlying sense of Roman
greatness was never far from the surface. Another important characteristic of Rome's
plastic art was its realism. The highly detailed reliefs on Trajan's Column and the Column
of Marcus Aurelius, for instance, are perfect illustrations of this focus on accurate
representation, and have been important sources of information for scholars on many
aspects of the Roman Legion, its equipment and battle tactics.
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Nonetheless, as we have seen, Roman sculptors borrowed heavily from the sculpture of
Ancient Greece, and - aside from the sheer numbers of portrait busts, and the quality of
its historical reliefs - Roman sculpture was dominated by High Classical Greek sculpture
as well as by Hellenistic Greek sculpture. What's more, with the expansion of Rome's
empire and the huge rise in demand for statuary, sculptors churned out endless copies
of Greek statues.
Historical Reliefs
Rome didn't invent relief sculpture - Stone Age man did. Nor was there any particular
genius in the skill of its carvers and stone masons: both the reliefs of the Parthenon (447-
422 BCE) and the frieze of the Pergamon Altar of Zeus (c.166-154 BCE) outshone
anything created in Italy. See also: Pergamene School of Hellenistic Sculpture (241-133
BCE). What Rome did was to inject the genre with a new set of aesthetics, a new
purpose: namely, to make history. After all, if an event or campaign is "carved in stone",
it must be true, right? The Greeks adopted the more "cultured" approach of recording
their history more obliquely, using scenes from mythology. The Romans were far more
down to earth: they sculpted their history as it happened, warts and all.
Trajan's Column (106-113 CE)
The greatest relief sculpture of Ancient Rome, Trajan's Column is a 125-foot Doric-style
monument, designed by the architect Apollodorus of Damascus. It has a spiral frieze
that winds 23 times around its shaft, commemorating the Dacian triumphs of Emperor
Trajan (98-117 CE). Sculpted in the cool, balanced style of the 2nd century, its
composition and extraordinarily meticulous detail makes it one of the finest reliefs in the
history of sculpture. A full-size cast of Trajan's Column is on show at the Victoria and
Albert Museum, London, and the National History Museum of Romania, Bucharest.
Marcus Aurelius' Column (c.180-193 CE)
Second only to Trajan's monument, this 100-foot Doric column in the Piazza Colonna
also features a winding ribbon of marble sculpture carved in low relief, which illustrates
the story of the Emperor's Danubian or Marcomannic wars, waged by him during the
period 166-180 CE. It includes the controversial "rain miracle", in which a colossal
thunderstorm saves the Roman army from death at the hands of the barbarian Quadi
tribes. The sculptural style of the column differs significantly from that of Trajan's Column,
as it introduces the more expressive style of the 3rd century, seen also in the triumphal
arch of Septimius Severus (199-203 CE) by the foot of the Capitoline Hill. The heads of
the Marcus Aurelius figures are larger than normal, to show off their facial expressions. A
higher relief is used, permitting greater contrast between light and shadow. Overall,
much more dramatic - a style which clearly reflected the uncertain state of the Roman
Empire.
Other famous relief works of stone sculpture carved by Roman artists include: the
processional marble frieze on the Ara Pacis Augustae (13-9 BCE) in the Campus Martius,
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and the architectural relief sculpture on the Arch of Titus (c.85-90 CE) and the Arch of
Constantine (312-15 CE).
Portrait Busts and Statues
These works of marble and (occasionally) bronze sculpture were another important
Roman contribution to the art of Antiquity. Effigies of Roman leaders had been
displayed in public places for centuries, but with the onset of Empire in the late 1st-
century BCE, marble portrait busts and statues of the Emperor - which were copied en
masse and sent to all parts of the Roman world - served an important function in
reminding people of Rome's reach. They also served an important unifying force.
Roman administrators had them placed or erected in squares or public buildings
throughout the empire, and affluent citizens bought them for their reception rooms and
gardens to demonstrate loyalty. The traditional head-and-shoulders bust was probably
borrowed from Etruscan art, since Greek busts were usually made without shoulders.
Roman statues and portrait busts are in many of the best art museums around the
world, notably the Louvre (Paris), the Vatican Museums (Rome), the British Museum
(London), the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York) the Getty Museum (Los Angeles).
Famous Portraits of Roman Emperors
Famous busts and statues of Roman leaders include:
- Statue of Augustus (Ruled 27-14 CE) (Livia's Villa, Prima Porta)
- Statue of Tiberius in Old Age (14-37) (Capitoline Museum)
- Bust of Caligula (37-41) (Louvre)
- Statue of Claudius as the God Jupiter (41-54) (Vatican Museum)
- Head of Nero (54-68) (British Museum)
- Bust of Galba (68-69) (Capitoline Museum)
- Statue of Titus (79-81) (Vatican Museum)
- Bust of Trajan (98-117) (British Museum)
- Bronze Statue of Hadrian (117-138) (Israel Museum)
- Bronze Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius (180) (Piazza del Campidoglio)
- Statue of Commodus as Hercules (180-192) (Capitoline Museum)
- Bust of Gordian II (238) (Capitoline Museum)
- Bust of Pupienus (238) (Capitoline Museum)
- Bust of Balbinus (238) (Capitoline Museum)
- Bust of Maxentius (306-312) (Museo Torlonia)
- Colossal Head of Constantine (307-337) (Basilica Nova)
Religious and Funerary Sculpture
Religious art was also a popular if less unique form of Roman sculpture. An important
feature of a Roman temple was the statue of the deity to whom it was dedicated. Such
statues were also erected in public parks and private gardens. Small devotional
statuettes of varying quality were also popular for personal and family shrines. These
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smaller works, when commissioned for the wealthier upper classes, might involve ivory
carving and chyselephantine works, wood-carving, and terracotta sculpture,
sometimes glazed for colour.
As Rome turned from cremation to burial at the end of the 1st century CE, stone coffins,
known as sarcophagi, were much in demand: the three most common types being
Metropolitan Roman (made in Rome), Attic-style (made in Athens) and Asiatic (made in
Dokimeion, Phrygia). All were carved and usually decorated with sculpture - in this case
reliefs. The most expensive sarcophagi were carved from marble, though other stone
was also used, as was wood and even lead. In addition to a range of different
depictions of the deceased - such as Etruscan-style full-length sculptural portraits of the
person reclining on a sofa - popular motifs used by sculptors included episodes from
Roman (or Greek) mythology, as well as genre and hunting scenes, and garlands of fruit
and leaves. Towards the end of the Roman Empire, sarcophagi became an important
medium for Christian-Roman Art (313 onwards).
Copies of Ancient Greek Sculpture
Although the wholesale replication of Greek statues indicated a hesitancy and lack of
creativity on the part of Roman artists, the history of art could not be more grateful to
them, for their efforts. Indeed, it is fair to say that one of the greatest contributions of
Rome to the history of art, lies in its replication of original Greek statues, 99 percent of
which have disappeared. Without Roman copies of the originals, Greek art would never
have received the appreciation it deserves, and Renaissance art (and thus Western Art
in general) might have taken a very different course.
Painting
The greatest innovation of Roman painters was the development of landscape
painting, a genre in which the Greeks showed little interest. Also noteworthy was their
development of a very crude form of linear perspective. In their effort to satisfy the
huge demand for paintings throughout the empire, from officials, senior army officers,
householders and the general public, Roman artists produced panel paintings (in
encaustic and tempera), large and small-scale murals (in fresco), and mastered all the
painting genres, including their own brand of "triumphal" history painting. Most surviving
Roman paintings are from Pompeii and Herculanum, as the erruption of Vesuvius in 79
helped to preserve them. Most of them are decorative murals, featuring seascapes and
landscapes, and were painted by skilled 'interior decorators' rather than virtuoso artists -
a clue to the function of art in Roman society.
Panel Paintings
In Rome, as in Greece, the highest form of painting was panel painting. Executed using
the encaustic or tempera methods, panel paintings were mass-produced in their
thousands for display in offices and public buildings throughout the empire.
Unfortunately, almost all painted panels have been lost. The best surviving example
from the art of Classical Antiquity is probably the "Severan Tondo" (c.200 CE,
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Antikensammlung Berlin), a portrait of Roman Emperor Septimus Severus with his family,
painted in tempera on a circular wood panel. The best example from the Roman
Empire is the astonishing series of Fayum Mummy portraits painted in Egypt during the
period 50 BCE to 250 CE.
Triumphal Paintings
Roman artists were also frequently commissioned to produce pictures highlighting
military successes - a form known as Triumphal Painting. This type of history painting -
usually executed as a mural painting in fresco - would depict the battle or campaign in
meticulous detail, and might incorporate mixed-media adornments and map designs
to inform and impress the public. Since they were quick to produce, many of these
triumphal works would have influenced the composition of historical reliefs like the
Column of Marcus Aurelius.
Murals
Roman murals - executed either "al fresco" with paint being applied to wet plaster, or
"al secco" using paint on dry walls - are usually classified into four periods, as set out by
the German archaeologist August Mau following his excavations at Pompeii.
• The First Style (c.200-80 BCE)
Also known as incrustation or masonry style, it derived from Hellenistic palaces in the
Middle East. Useing vivid colours it simulates the appearance of marble.
• The Second Style (c.80 BCE - 100 CE)
This aimed to create the illusion of extra space by painting pictures with significant
depth, such as views overlooking a garden or other landscape. In time, the style
developed to cover the entire wall, creating the impression that one was looking out of
a room onto a real scene.
• The Third Style (c.100-200)
This was more ornamental with less illusion of depth. The wall was divided into precise
zones, using pictures of columns or foliage. Scenes painted in the zones were typically
either exotic representations of real or imaginery animals, or merely monochromatic
linear drawings.
• The Fourth Style (c.200-400)
This was a mixture of the previous two styles. Depth returned to the mural but it was
executed more decoratively, with greater use of ornamentation. For example, the artist
might paint several windows which, instead of looking out onto a landscape or
cityscape, showed scenes from Greek myths or other fantasy scenes, including still lifes.
Art Styles From the Roman Empire
The Roman Empire incorporated a host of different nationalities, religious groups and
associated styles of art. Chief among them, in addition to earlier Etruscan art of the
Italian mainland, were forms of Celtic culture - namely the Iron Age La Tene style (c.450-
50 BCE) - which was accomodated within the Empire in an idiom known as Roman-
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Celtic art, and the hieratic style of Egyptian art, which was absorbed into the Hellenistic-
Roman idiom.
Late Roman Art (c.350-500)
During the Christian epoch, the division of the Roman Empire into a weak Western
Roman Empire (based in Ravenna and Rome) and a strong Eastern Roman Empire
(based in Constantinople), led to changes in Late Roman art. While wall painting,
mosaic art, and funerary sculpture thrived, life-size statues and panel painting
dwindled. In Constantinople, Roman art absorbed Eastern influences to produce the
Byzantine art of the late empire, and well before Rome was overrun by Visigoths under
Alaric (410) and sacked by Vandals under Gaiseric, Roman artists, master-craftsmen
and artisans moved to the Eastern capital to continue their trade. (See Christian-
Byzantine Art.) The Church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, for instance, one of the
most famous examples of Roman dome architecture, provided employment for some
10,000 of these specialists and other workmen. Commissioned by Emperor Justinian
(527-565), the Hagia Sophia, together with the shimmering mosaics of Ravenna,
represented the final gasp of Roman art.
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MEDIEVAL ART
The medieval period of art history spans from the fall of the Roman Empire in 300 AD to
the beginning of the Renaissance in 1400 AD. In the Middle Ages, art evolves as humans
continue addressing the traditional and the new, including Biblical subjects, Christian
dogma, and Classical mythology. This article introduces a few concepts of three
periods—Early Christian, Romanesque, and Gothic.
During the Early Middle Ages, the Catholic Church financed many projects, and the
oldest examples of Christian art survive in the Roman catacombs, or burial crypts
beneath the city. By 350 AD, the Church had two power centers, Rome in the West and
Constantinople (the capital of the Byzantine Empire) in the East. Medieval artists
decorated churches and works for public appreciation using classical themes. For
example, Roman mosaics3 made of small stone cubes called tesserae offered Christian
scenery. In about 350 AD, Rome’s Santa Costanza, a mausoleum built for Constantine’s
daughter, included a vault decorated with mosaics. Nearby, in Santa Maria Maggiore,
the mosaic called Melchizedek Offering Bread and Wine to Abraham was constructed
80 years later. Early Christian mosaics used muted colors like classical mosaics, but in the
fourth century, mosaicists moved to brighter colors and patterns.
At the beginning of the eleventh century, Romanesque architecture symbolized the
growing wealth of European cities and the power of Church monasteries. For example,
Romanesque buildings, especially monasteries and churches, were marked by semi-
circular arches, thick stone walls, and stable construction. In 1070 or 1077 AD, St. Sernin,
located in Toulouse, France, was built with a stone barrel vault ceiling. St. Sernin is
remembered as a model of the Romanesque “pilgrimage church.”
The Gothic style developed in the middle of the twelfth century and is named after the
Goths who ruled France. Some contemporaries of the Goths thought the use of figures
such as gargoyles was hideous, but Gothic cathedrals represent the most beautiful and
timeless accomplishments of the period. For example, Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris
has been added to many times since the twelfth century, but it still bears important
Gothic features such as gargoyles and flying buttresses.
There are plenty of ways to analyze 900 years of medieval art, including examining
decorations inside churches. Human forms such as the Madonna and Baby Jesus
evolve from large heads on small bodies in Early Christianity to abstract forms in the
Romanesque era. In the Gothic era, the Madonna and Child are more naturalistic with
tall, bony figures. Even the facial features of the Madonna and Child changed over 900
years. By the Gothic era in France, Mary had an approachable, warm countenance,
signaling the Church’s recognition that images should attract people instead of
intimidating them. In the Renaissance, artists would become bolder about exploring the
themes of Christianity even in works commissioned by the Church.
3 Mosaic is the art of creating images with an assemblage of small pieces of colored glass, stone, or
other materials. It is a technique of decorative art or interior decoration.
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The Early Medieval Period
The dark age started when the age of reason from the Greek tradition
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THE RENAISSANCE
Notes on Renaissance
Renaissance was primarily a gradual shift in attitude, interest and concern about
the next world to an awakened interest in and concern for this world.
Factors that contributed to the shift from Medieval to Renaissance:
a. The enormous power and wealth of the Church had led to abuses which
caused a certain loss of prestige.
b. The Crusaders had found in some Hellenistic cities like Alexandria a standard
of culture superior to that of most European cities.
c. Explorers like Marco Polo and Vasco da Gama had brought back tales of
Oriental luxuries that whetted the appetite of wealthy Europeans.
d. The new trade routes by sea and land were actually bringing back Oriental
treasures in quantity.
e. Cities were growing in size at the termini of such trade routes. Cities needing
tradesmen and merchants found them in serfs who were ready and willing to
leave the feudal estates and to run off to a city where they would be paid for
their work.
f. There was a change from an economy based on land to an economy based
on money.
g. The new aristocracy of wealth sought identification with the ancient Roman
world.
Renaissance zest for life precluded any danger of boredom, and it spread to old,
young rich, poor, educated, and uneducated.
The uomo universale, especially the artist, engaged in a bewildering number of
activities.
No one date can ever be found to mark the beginning of a stylistic epoch.
Artists in all fields realized that great technical questions remained to be
solved, and they set out to solve these problems with exuberance and energy.
The literary men began to study Roman stylisms so that they might use them in
their own creations.
The sculptors became interested in the structure of the human body and tried
to establish laws governing its representation.
The painters began to formulate the laws of linear and aerial perspective and
the mathematics of space.
Then the musicians began to study the laws of the vibration of sound and to
reassess tonal relationships.
They were all stimulated by an enormous demand for their creations and an
awareness of their own dignity and importance.
The Church remained the greatest patron of the art, but the courts of the
great merchant princes created a whole new market.
Renaissance merchant princes had the wealth and leisure to cultivate the arts:
to collect books and to hire painters, sculptors, architects, and musicians to
gratify their desire for sumptuous living. The intent was not to impress their rivals
but to become, each one, an oumo universal, “universal man,” trained in
body, mind, and spirit for his exalted position as head of a great family, a
Humanists whose life, based on classical models, should be a work of art and
a reflection of the divine.
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The Humanistic leaders did not aim to resuscitate the classical part, but
through the study of that past they tried to find guiding principles for a new
cultural life of their own outside the religious sphere.
Vittorino’s School
These courts also provided schools where the children were trained to become
oumini universali.
One famous school began in Mantua in 1423 under the direction of Vittorino da
Feltre, an inspired Humanist.
His object was to train the mind and body according to the Platonic doctrine,
with Christianity inculcated to train the heart.
Renaissance Italy made woman the equal of man, and in her important position
as head of the household, she needed the same education as her husband.
Sculpture
Lorenzo Ghiberti – Although he lost against Filippo Brunelleschi in the famous
competition to create the sculpture of the bronze doors for the north side of the
Baptistry at Florence, he made the north doors which depict the twenty-eight
scenes from the life of Christ, each in a geometrical frame.
Donatello – The best Floretine sculptor of this period. He made the bronze
“David”. There are two other “Davids”, one by Verrocchio and one by
Michelangelo. Other works of Donatello were the equestrian statue of the soldier
Gattamelata, the bust of the “Child Jesus”, and the “Singing Choir” in the
Cathedral of Florence.
Andrea del Verrocchio – was a master of anatomy and realistic form. It was in his
studio that the youthful Leonardo da Vinci got his start.
Architecture
Brunelleschi – He closed the contract for the dome of the Cathedral of Santa
Maria del Fiore. He built two concentric, octagonal domes, joined at the corners
by ribs and held together by great oaken beams fastened by iron clamps. This
dome and the beautiful lacy campanile, or bell tower, of Giotto are the most
familiar features of the Florentine skyline.
Leon Battista Alberti – He was a real uomo universale, proficient in everything. His
ideas in his book on Roman architecture provided norms for the classical revival.
One of his popular designs was the Rucellai Palace in Florence.
Painting
Giotto de Bondone – considered to have started the fourteenth century
Renaissance painting. His series of thirty-eight frescoes on the walls of the Arena
Chapel are his greatest contributions. Some of these are the “Flight into Egypt”
and the “Lamentation”. “Giotto changed painting from an art of symbols to an
art of passion”. He was a close friend of Dante, and he painted the lovely fresco
of “St. Francis Blessing the Birds”.
Fifteenth-century Painters – All the painters of the 15th century were concerned
with technical problems: how to represent 3-dimensional reality on a 2-
dimensional surface. This involved perspective, foreshortening, unity, thought in
posture and facial expression, arrangement of individuals in a crowd, and effects
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of light, shade, and color. All these problems were mastered largely by Florentine
painters from Massaccio to Botticelli. The architect Brunelleschi was the first to
work out mathematically the rules of linear perspective, and the painter
Massaccio was the first to put them into practice.
Massaccio – He recognized that painting is nought but the imitation of things as
they are. Some of his works are “The Expulsion of Adam and Eve” and “The
Tribute Money”.
Piero della Francesca – He solved the problem of space for Raphael and the
problem of chiaroscuro for Leonardo da Vinci. His portraits were the Duke of
Urbino and his wife, Battista Sforza.
Fra Filippo Lippi – Some of his superb portraits were the Virgins and “Madonna
and Child with Angels”.
Sandro Botticelli – He started realistically, like his teacher Lippi, but became
increasingly idealistic and abstract. His best-know paintings were the “Spring”
and “Birth of Venus”.
Music
The most important concept which the Renaissance has bequeathed to us is the
optimistic faith in man’s ability to create enduring works of beauty.
Not every uomo universale could paint a picture or build a church, but he could
make music.
Participation, not passive listening, was the key to enjoyment.
Italians were so innately musical that they mastered polyphonic complexities
and in the High Renaissance period produced some glorious music.
In the fifteenth century, there was an increasing trend toward secular forms and
also toward greater simplicity and lyricism which came from English, Italian, and
minstrel influences.
The lute was the favourite household instrument of the entire Renaissance
because its tone was soft and intimate.
The development of polyphony has already been traced from its rather
haphazard beginnings perhaps in England, through the Gothic motets of
Leoninus and Perotinus.
Guillaume de Machaut – a great composer, musician, poet, priest, and the
much-travelled diplomatic agent to King John of Bohemia, brother-in-law of
Charles IV of France. The French compared his poetry to that of the
contemporary Petrarch and the younger Chaucer. (The idea that proficiency in
one art implied proficiency in other arts was new in the Renaissance.) He set
many of his own love poems to a sophisticated type of music which marks him as
an innovator. This worldly prelate composed more secular works than sacred, but
is remembered chiefly for his Mass of Notre Dame, the first completely integrated
polyphonic four-part mass. Integrated means that the same melodic and
rhythmic material runs through all six sections of the mass. This unifying principle
anticipates not only the masters of the High Renaissance, but also Bach,
Beethoven, in fact all composers of extended works right down to modern times.
When he called his work ars nova, “new art”, he spoke more truly than he knew.
There is a tradition that this mass was used at the coronation of Charles V in 1364.
Guillaume Dufay –His style reconciles French with Italian and English elements. In
religious music he often builds on a secular instead of a Gregrorian cantus firmus.
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His secular songs, rather plaintive and melancholy, give a perfect picture of the
poem and its meaning.
Francesco Landino – The Italian ars nova of the fourteenth century is best
exemplified by him, who in fact composed more than a third of all the extant
Italian music of blind since childhood (probably from smallpox). He played every
instrument known to his period and is usually pictured in the manuscript playing a
small portative organ held in his arm. A great friend of Petrarch, he wrote much
poetry and was awarded a laurel crown for a poem in Venice in 1364. His
compositions fall into three types, all secular: madrigals (real art songs), ballate
(rhythmic dance songs), and cacce ( programmatic fun songs). While all these
types are polyphonic and show as great artistry as those of Machaut, Landino’s
style shows a greater emphasis on the soprano part, greater interest in thirds and
sixths (the lush intervals), a strong trend toward our major and minor tonalities,
and a preference for the A B B A form.
Literature
Italy produced no great literary masterpiece during the Renaissance. The reason
is that all the literary men were trying to find in the works of antiquity literary
canons which would ensure excellence in structure and style. Sometimes their
work shows creativeness and sometimes only imitation of classical models. At
least their efforts produced the Petrarchan sonnet, the short story, the pastoral
romance, and the romantic epic, which, if not great, provided the raw material
upon which future French, English, Spanish, and German writers built. It is
sometimes said that the Italian writers had a Freudian obsession with sex, but
most of them were attached to one of the courts and they wrot to entertain their
frivolous courtly clientele.
Francesco Petrarch – One of the most popular lyricists. Like Boccaccio, Petrarch
was in love with a young married woman, who appears as Laura in his poetry He
was a real Humanist, intensely interested in the classics. He expressed his love
and torment in highly polished intellectual poems which, while they show careful
workmanship, do not always seem sincere. The balanced structure and
parallelism between form and content made the Petrarchan sonnet the most
popular form during the Renaissance and gave it lasting validity even into our
own day.
Giovanni Boccaccio – His fame rests on the short stories in The Decameron,
which means “ten days”, that tells about the escape from the plague-ridden city
during the Black Death of 1348, taking refuge to their country estates.
Romantic Epics – Storytelling was popular entertainment at Renaissance courts
just as it had been in the Middle Ages. To satisfy this demand Luigi Pulci created
the romantic epic tale based on the French hero, Roland. On the other hand,
the love affair is woven through a bewildering tapestry of battles, magic, pursuit,
and fantasy with all sorts of digression involving King Arthur’s knights and
Charlemagne.
Next to elaborate the Roland narrative was Ariosto. His work, called Orlando
Furioso. Every line of the poetry is polished like a jewel, but there is little internal
unity. In the poem Roland has gone mad because of love and another
character makes a trip to the moon to recover his lost senses.
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The last poet to deal the Roland material was Torquato Tasso, who lived when
Inquistion was in force. He wrote Gerusalemme Liberata (“Jerusalem Liberated”)
at the court of the Duke of Ferrara. A story of the First Crusade, it attempts to
achieve the unity of action which other epics lacked.