Potential of biodiesel as a renewable energy source in Bangladesh

M. Habibullah n, H.H. Masjuki, M.A. Kalam, S.M. Ashrafur Rahman, M. Mofijur,H.M. Mobarak, A.M. AshrafulCentre for Energy Sciences, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 5 January 2014Received in revised form28 August 2014Accepted 23 April 2015

Keywords:BiodieselRenewable energyTransesterificationDiesel enginePropertiesPerformance and emission

a b s t r a c t

The transportation, agricultural, and power sector of Bangladesh is largely dependent on fossil fuels thatdecrease day by day. The government has to import large volumes of fuel from foreign sources to meet thefuel demand for power production, causing a negative impact on the country’s economy. Finding analternative to fossil fuels is becoming the most urgent issue. Biodiesel can thus be a destined source tofuture energy demands. Increasing the usage of biodiesel will also decrease the global problem ofenvironmental pollution, as fossil fuels are considered to be the major source of harmful emissions.Biodiesel is renewable, bio-degradable, non-toxic, technologically feasible, and can be used as a bio-lubricant. In this study, the current energy scenario of Bangladesh, available potential biodiesel feedstocks,production process and engine fuel property, environmental impact, performance and emission char-acteristics on diesel engines, comparison of cost analysis, and future direction are discussed. Variousresearch related to these feedstocks are performed in Bangladesh, which include an overview of biodieselproperties, engine performance, and emission parameters used in diesel engines. All types of biodieselhave similar functional properties compared with diesel fuel and can be successfully used in compressionignition engines. Biodiesel can thus serve as a subsequent replacement of non-renewable fossil fuels.Compared with diesel fuel, CO and HC emission were also low, but a slight increase in NOx was observed insome cases. One of the major advantages is that Bangladesh is a country with plenty of biodiesel feedstocksources, such as mustered, Jatropha curcas, rapeseed, sesame, castor, cottonseed, neem, algae, coconut, andgroundnut. In conclusion, producing biodiesel from different feedstocks is greatly possible and can thusassist in future energy needs.

& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8202. Energy scenario in Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821

2.1. Available energy for supply. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8212.2. Electricity policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8212.3. Structure of energy consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821

3. Biodiesel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8223.1. Feedstocks of biodiesel available in Bangladesh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8223.2. Conventional production of biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823

4. Potentiality of various biodiesel feedstocks in Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8244.1. Mustard oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8244.2. Soybean oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8254.3. Cottonseed oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8254.4. Coconut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8254.5. Micro algae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8254.6. Rubber seed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.1491364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

n Corresponding author at: Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel.: þ60 3 79674448; fax: þ60 3 79675317.E-mail address: habib.duetian@gmail.com (M. Habibullah).

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 819–834

4.7. Sesame oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8264.8. Mosna oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8264.9. Jatropha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8264.10. Karanja . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8274.11. Castor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8274.12. Neem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8274.13. Linseed oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827

5. Major physical and chemical properties of biodiesel feedstocks in Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8285.1. Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8285.2. Lubricating properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8285.3. Cetane number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8285.4. Cloud and pour points. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8285.5. Flash point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828

6. Biodiesel as diesel engine fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8286.1. Environmental consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8306.2. Greenhouse gas reductions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8306.3. Pollution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830

7. Price comparison of biodiesel feedstocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8308. Recommendation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8319. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831Acknowledgement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831

1. Introduction

In recent times, the continuous increase in energy demand forglobal industrialization and modernization has led to a non-renewableenergy crisis. Considering that energy is a major factor for globaliza-tion, the awareness towards searching for renewable and sustainablealternative energy sources is increasing day by day. The current powerscenario in Bangladesh is very critical as major power stations areoperated with natural gas. Hence, this natural reserve will soon fall toan alarmingly low level if any other reserve is not discovered in thenear future [1]. Bangladesh is already heavily dependent on importingcrude oil from other countries, and during the fiscal year 2011/2012,approximately 1550232 Million tonne was imported [2]. The totalimport bill was US$125.50 billion to fulfill the energy demand in thisfiscal year, which is a large setback for a developing country [2].Household life and industrial production are suffering heavily becauseof insufficient electricity production resulting from gas supply shortageall over the country; this scenario also causes a regular load sheddingproblem that affects economic development [3]. A greater portion ofpower is produced from natural gas, but the generation capacity is notsufficient because of the gas supply shortage. Hence, the Governmentof Bangladesh is now concentrating on finding renewable sources ofenergy. Another disadvantage of using fossil fuel is the emissionsproduced from its combustion that has an adverse effect on humanhealth and the environment, especially greenhouse gas (GHG) emis-sions [4]. It causes global warming, the melting of polar ice sheets andcaps, sea level rise and subsequent coastal inundations, as well asdamage to agriculture and natural ecosystems [5]. For differenthazardous emissions such as CO2, CO, SO2, NO2, and PM, visible smokeis produced by combustion of petro diesel, and Bangladesh is currentlycontributing 0.14% CO2 to the world’s total emissions [6]. Fossil fuelconsumption is growing by more than 5% per year [4]. Utilization ofrenewable and sustainable energy may be the fruitful solution to solveseveral problems, including diminishing reserves, high price, importdependence, and ecological factor [7–9].

Biodiesel has drawn the attention of many researchers as arenewable energy resource because of its immense potential to bepart of a sustainable energy mix in the near future. It is non-toxic,biodegradable, and more eco-friendly in nature, which has the qualityto be used successfully as an alternative to diesel fuel in compress-ion ignition engines [10,11]. Biodiesel is produced from edible and

non-edible vegetable oils, waste cooking oils, and animal fats [12–14].Most vegetable oils have been considered as a potential renewableresource that is available in Bangladesh. Fuel from vegetable oil alsoemits less pollution than diesel fuels [15]. In this paper, the recentlypublished research works highlighting the potential of biodieselalternative to diesel as a renewable energy source in Bangladesh isreviewed. Available promising biodiesel feedstocks in Bangladeshinclude mustered, Jatropha curcas, rapeseed, sesame, castor, cotton-seed, neem, algae, coconut, and groundnut [16–24] that can be imple-mented to produce biodiesel. These biodiesel feedstocks have beenawaiting sustainable production in recent years. Different propertiessuch as calorific value, density, viscosity, flash point, pour point,boiling point, cloud point, and cetane number are also reported in thisreview. The Bangladesh government is encouraging the use of renew-able energy sources to supply fuel for diesel engines primarily used insmall irrigation pumping systems and electricity generators, anddecrease fossil fuel dependence. The unemployment problem ofBangladesh has become a great concern presently because of over-population comparable with the lack of work area in the country [25].The problems of using biodiesel in Bangladesh are: food security, lackof available technology and available lands to use produce biodiesel.Bangladesh has a huge population, almost over 150 million. In orderto feed this huge amount of population, lots of land needed to harvestfood. Thus, these lands cannot be used to produce biodiesel. Secondly,edible feedstock cannot be used to produce biodiesel. And lastly, stateof the art biodiesel production technology needs to be introduced assoon as possible. At present there is actually no working projectsrunning in Bangladesh for producing biofuels [26]. But in future someinitiatives should be taken care of. According to Energy-Bangla,Japanese industrial giant Honda Denki Co. Ltd. has expressed itsinterest to invest up to US$1 billion in Bangladesh’s green power,biofuels and sugar sectors [27]. Many unused land areas can be foundall over the country where commercial biodiesel plants can be built.Ferdous et al. [28] reported that, by using the available rail and roadsides of Bangladesh 2387,500 t of non-edible oil seeds can beproduced every year which will supply 1322,235 t oil leading with1001,881 t biodiesel. Also, they reported that, if commercial agentsare used to produce biodiesel, cost per liter of biodiesel will be lessthan 120 Taka (1.5 USD/Liter). The costs are: Raw oil cost (44.5–49.5Taka/L), H2SO4 (0.5–0.6 Taka/L), CH3OH (94–113 Taka/L, recovery43–51 Taka/L). Aminul et al. [29] reported that, if 50% of the available

M. Habibullah et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 819–834820

land can used, Jatropha: 1.19 million tons, Castor: 0.15 million tons,Pithraj: 1.04 million tons can be produced annually. Sazdanoff et al.[30] reported that, 700, 285, 201, 126, 112, 99 and 62 Gallons of Algae,Coconut, Jatropha, Rapeseed, Peanut, Sunflower and Soybean biodie-sel per acre can be respectively produced if the available lands areused. Thus using the potential sources for biodiesel production, dep-endency on imported oils can be reduced significantly. In addition,feedstock plantations could cause forestation and create ecologicalbalance all over the country.

This paper focuses on the potential of biodiesel feedstock as arenewable energy source that can mitigate the current depen-dence on the fossil fuel source in Bangladesh. Various recentpublications related to potential biodiesel feedstocks in Bangla-desh, production process, and their engine fuel property, theirimpact on environment, performance, and emission characteristicson diesel engine, and comparison of cost analysis are reviewed inthis paper.

2. Energy scenario in Bangladesh

Bangladesh is located in the north-eastern part of South Asia; itis a very densely populated country, and only 33% of the totalpopulation is electrified that still suffers severe load shading [31].Energy is the main driving force for the economic development ofa country.

2.1. Available energy for supply

Commercial and biomass energy resources are the main energyresources of the Bangladesh. Presently among known commercialenergy resources, has the highest dependence on natural gas:locally produced and consumed and contributing 53.61% of totalenergy use, while biofuel and waste 28.38%, crude oil 4.03%, oilproducts 10.83%, coal 2.94% and hydropower 0.2% comprises thebalance (Fig. 1) [32]. A total of 12,344 kilo ton of oil equivalent(ktoe) was supplied in the fiscal year 2006, while in the fiscal year2011 total gas supplied was 16,614 ktoe (Fig. 2).

2.2. Electricity policy

Electricity is the most usable form of energy and importantissues for development of the country.

An adequate supply of electricity must be achieved to achievethe digital Bangladesh vision-2021, which was the primary goal ofthe Awami League’s Election Manifesto-2008. Currently the coun-try’s power demand is 10,000 MW/day (Fig. 3), but productionoutput is at only 6350 MW/day [34,35]. Given the high demand

rate, the total installed capacity was 4005 MW in the FY 2000–2001which has been increased to 6685 MW in the FY 2010–2011 with anannual increasing rate of 6.62%. However, the maximum generationhas been increased from 3033 MW in the FY 2000–2001 to4699 MW in the FY 2010–2011 with an annual increasing rate of5.49% (Table 1) [34–36]. Both the installed capacity and maximumgeneration rate has been increased slightly over the time. Thenatural gas is the main primary fuel that is contributing 82.81% toproduce electricity (Fig. 4). Many power plants are idle to producetheir rated capacity because of the gas supply shortage [32].

2.3. Structure of energy consumption

The primary energy consumption, which includes traded fuelsand modern renewables, was 14.1 million tons oil equivalent for2001 and 24.3 million tons oil equivalent for 2011 [37]. Fossil fuel

Fig. 1. Total primary energy supply pattern in Bangladesh (2010).

Fig. 2. Year-wise total primary energy supplies.

Nomenclature

ASTM American Society for Testing and MaterialsBP brake powerktoe kilo ton of oil equivalentFY fiscal yearmmcm million cubic meterBSFC brake specific fuel consumptionBTE brake thermal efficiencyBGFC Bangladesh gas fields companySGF Sylhet gas fieldsBAPEX Bangladesh petroleum exploration & production

companyIOC International oil company

RSO Rubber seed oilHC hydrocarbonNO nitric oxideNOx oxides of nitrogenPM particulate matterCO carbon monoxideCO2 carbon dioxideNOME neem oil methyl esterCN Cetane numberDF diesel fuelEGR exhaust gas recirculationBD BangladeshMY Malaysia

M. Habibullah et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 819–834 821

energy consumption is increasing drastically (Fig. 5) and commer-cial energy sources such as natural gas and coal are limitedcompared to the requirement of the country the rate of gasproduction capacity is declining day by day (Table 3). The hydro-power plant could not run at full rated capacity due to declinationof water head but the demand for electricity is increasing dras-tically due to the growth of population and industry. So all thecountry’s natural resources of the country will eventually beexhausted [38]. For this reason, importing fuel from other coun-tries is increasing every year (Table 2), which also increasesexposure to external price shocks in the international market. Ifnecessary steps are not taken immediately and the current situa-tion continues, the production of industries will lower because ofthe power crisis. As a result, the country’s economy will suffer, andthe poverty and unemployment problem will increase. We canaddress this situation with renewable energy such as biodiesel

that can help us improve the power crisis and move forwardeconomically and environmentally [31].

3. Biodiesel

Biodiesel is known as fatty acid methyl ester which can be used asan alternative fuel for diesel engines is produced by chemicallyreacting a vegetable oil or animal fat with an alcohol such asmethanol using transesterification process [39,40]. In this process acatalyst, usually a strong base, is needed, such as sodium or potassiumhydroxide, and produces new chemical compounds called methylester which is referred as biodiesel. Biodiesel is non-explosive, non-flammable biodegradable, non-toxic, renewable and environmentfriendly [41,42]. Compared to diesel fuel it has almost similaroperational properties (such as cetane number, viscosity, heatingvalue, and flash point) [43]. The main advantage of using biodieselis that it is biodegradable, can be used in unmodified engine, andproduces less harmful gas emissions to the environment such assulfur oxide, carbon dioxide etc. [44].

3.1. Feedstocks of biodiesel available in Bangladesh

Bangladesh, one of the world’s forward movement countries,emits one tenth of the world’s CO2 [6]. The consumption of fossilfuel has been growing by more than 5 percent per year [38]. Sobiodiesel production may be an alternative energy for fossil fuel inthe accessibility of biodiesel feedstocks worldwide. This mayreduce the country’s fossil fuel consumption which is also aburning issue for increasing global warming. There are more than350 potential oil-bearing crops, among which mustered, J. curcas,rapeseed, soybean, palm, sunflower, sesame, castor, cottonseedand groundnut oils can be regarded as potential alternative feed-stocks in Bangladesh [45,46]. Already Malaysia, India, Indonesia,and China are producing biodiesel successfully from J. curcasand oil palm. Many others indigenous plant seeds available in

Table 2Import of fuel in fiscal year (FY) [2].

FY Crude oil Kerosene, octane & diesel Lubricating oil Furnace oil

Quantity (MT) Price (crore tk.) Quantity (MT) Price (Crore tk.) Quantity (MT) Price (Crore tk.) Quantity (MT) Price (Crore tk.)

2004–05 1063,208 2261.98 2691,750 7,213.88 10,189 38.14 39,935 61.532005–06 1253,285 3901.16 2380,582 9,382.77 5,137 35.53 – –

2006–07 1211,037 4196.85 2536,535 10,443.20 4,277 25.13 – –

2007–08 1040,084 5288.85 2227,753 14,343.04 5,006 29.94 – –

2008–09 860,877 3431.40 2507,819 10,945.24 4,828 23.63 29,959 60.382009–10 1136,567 4491.41 2634,212 12,024.18 7,262 52.03 – –

2010–11 1409,302 7037.00 2488,456 21,403.69 4,749 43.75 230,524 1123.172011–12 1550,232 7740.70 2737,301 23,544.06 4,986 45.94 253,576 1235.49

Fig. 4. Total installed electricity capacity by fuel type (2010).

Table 1Installed capacity and maximum generation [34,35].

FY Installedcapacity (MW)

Growthrate (%)

Maximumgeneration (MW)

Growthrate (%)

2000–01 4005 – 3033 –

2001–02 4230 5.62 3218 6.102002–03 4710 11.35 3458 7.462003–04 4710 0 3622 4.742004–05 5025 6.69 3751 3.562005–06 5275 4.98 3812 1.632006–07 5262 �0.25 3718 �2.472007–08 5262 0 4130 11.082008–09 5803 10.28 4162 0.772009–10 5978 3.02 4606 10.672010–11(13 June, 2011)

6658 11.38 4699 2.02

Fig. 3. Year-wise electricity Demand Projection curve for Bangladesh [33,34].

M. Habibullah et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 819–834822

Bangladesh and these should be investigating for their potentialityto produce oil. Generally, feedstocks have been divided into 4 maincategories as follow [46–52].

a. Edible vegetable oil: mustered, cottonseed, ground nut, mosna,sesame, rapeseed, sunflower, coconut, palm and soybean oil.

b. Non-edible vegetable oil: J. curcas, karanja, castor, rubber,neem, linseed and algae.

c. Waste or recycled oil.d. Animal fats-tallow, yellow grease and chicken fat.

Fig. 6 shows some common biodiesel feedstock available inBangladesh. The available edible feedstock in Bangladesh aremustered, cottonseed, ground nut, sesame, rapeseed, sunflower,palm and coconut oil and some available non edible feedstock nBangladesh are J. curcas, karanja, castor, rubber, neem, linseed andalgae. Among all the feedstocks Mustard oil biodiesel can be themost feasible, economic and clean feedstock in Bangladesh. Table 4shows the oil yield of available feedstock in Bangladesh andcompared with from Malaysia.

3.2. Conventional production of biodiesel

The problems of using vegetable oil can be overcome by fourmethods; pyrolysis, dilution with hydrocarbons blending, micro-emulsion, and transesterification [70–72]. Transesterification process,amongst the four processes, is the most assuring and conventionalprocess to reduce the viscosity in order to overcome the high viscosityproblem. This process refers to a catalyzed chemical reaction invol-ving vegetable oil and an alcohol to yield fatty acid alkyl esters (i.e.biodiesel) and glycerol [73]. Furthermore, this process has manyadvantages over other processes as shown in Table 5. It is performedunder normal conditions and can assure production of better quality

Mustered oil plant Sesame oil plant Groundnut Algae

Coconut Jatropha curcas soybean Neem

Cottonseed Karanja Rapeseed Rubberseed

Castor CallophyllumOil palmLinseed

Fig. 6. Some common biodiesel feedstock available in Bangladesh.

Fig. 5. Fossil fuel energy consumption curve (% of total) [38].

Table 3Recent trend of production (Natural gas).Source: Petrobangla (2011), Bangladesh.

FY mmcm BGFC(%)

SGF(%)

BAPEX(%)

Domestic(%)

IOC(%)

Total(%)

2005–2006

14,921 52 12 4 68 32 100

2006–2007

15,921 49 12 3 64 36 100

2007–2008

17,015 43 10 2 55 45 100

2008–2009

18,511 39 9 2 50 50 100

2009–2010

19,919 37 8 2 47 53 100

2010–2011

16,690 38 8 2 48 52 100

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biodiesel [74,75]. It involves three reversible reactions, whereby thetriglyceride is converted successively to diglyceride, monoglycerideand glycerol, consuming one mole of alcohol in each step andliberating one mole of ester [76–78] named as biodiesel.

This process consists of consecutive reversible processes asshown below [79–82].

triglycerideþmethanol¼ diglcyerideþester ð1Þ

diglycerideþmethanol¼monoglycerideþester ð2Þ

monoglycerideþmethanol¼ glycerolþester ð3Þ

The only by-product of transesterification is glycerol. In thisprocess a catalyst is needed to complete the reaction, most of thetime either sodium hydroxide or sodium methoxide is used,sometimes other base and acid catalysts are used. Methanol mustbe removed from the product to increase flash point and cetanenumber. This recovery is also essential for economic reasons.Methanol is removed by flash or water washing or by combinationof both [61]. Generally, removing reaction is done at a temperatureof 50–75 1C and the time taken is around 15 min to 2 h [83].Biodiesel is separated from glycerol gravitationally or centrifugally[84,85]. This process is mostly used process in Bangladesh. Table 6shows the summary of different biodiesel production by usingtransesterification process in Bangladesh. The basic flow diagramof biodiesel production is shown in Fig. 7. Details schematic ofbiodiesel processing flow diagram has shown in Fig. 8 [86,87].

Where R1, R2, and R3 are long hydrocarbon chains, sometimescalled fatty acid chains.

4. Potentiality of various biodiesel feedstocks in Bangladesh

Different types of oil seed crops or trees available in Bangladeshmay be used to produce biodiesel as alternative to diesel asfollows:

4.1. Mustard oil

In Bangladesh mustard oil is used as edible oil throughout thecountry. Mustard plants grow widely all over the country, and theproduction of mustard seed exceeds the demand every year [91].This endeavor aims to use the surplus mustard oil as an alternativeto diesel fuel. A number of studies indicated that mustard oil canbe a potential source of biodiesel [23,92,93]. Mustard oil containshigh amounts of uric acid that can harm human health. For thisreason, many countries consider mustard oil as unsuitable forhuman consumption. Though mustard seed oil is not considered asa common biodiesel feedstock, it may become famous in the nearfuture as it is cheaper than other common oil seeds used forbiodiesel. Hasib et al. [23] studied the potential of biodieselproduction from mustard oil using the transesterification processand reported that the properties of biodiesel from mustard oilmeet the ASTM standards and are comparable with other biodie-sels. They found that the calorific value and viscosity (at 40 1C) of

Table 5Comparison of different biodiesel production methods [55].

Methods Advantages Disadvantages

Transesterification � Fuel properties is closer to diesel � Low free fatty acid and water content are required (for base catalyst)� High conversion efficiency � Pollutants will be produced because products must be neutralized and washed� Low cost � Accompanied by side reactions� It is suitable for industrialized production � Difficult reaction products separation

Pyrolysis � Simple process � High temperature is required� No-polluting � Equipment is expensive

� Low purity

Dilution with hydrocarbons blending � Simple process � High viscosity� Bad volatility� Bad stability

Micro-emulsion � No catalyst � High temperature and pressure are required� Short reaction Time � Equipment cost is high� High conversion � High energy consumption� Good adaptability

Table 4Oil yield of biodiesel feedstock.

Oil yield(kg/ha) Percentage of oil yield % Percentage of Biodiesel yield % References

BD MY BD MY BD MY

Mustard oil 91.5 300 39–44 42 – [17,53,54]Ground nut 156.0 1,059 48–50 45–55 – [17,55]Sesame 55.2 696 42.5–46 82.64 [17,24,55]Soybean 52.0 450 19–20 15–20 89.75 [17,55,56]Sunflower 91.0 500 42–44 25–35 – [17,55,56]Microalgae 58,700 97,800 50 50 – [17,55]Neem 2670 2670 45 25–45 94 – [22,54,57,58]Rubber 217 80–120 49 40–50 86 [56,59,60]Jatropha curcas 2,000 1,590 30–40 35–40 96 96–98 [60,61]Karanja 225–250 225–250 31 30–40 97 [60,62,63]Oil palm 3,850 46–50 79–99 [56,64,65]Castor 450 1,188 37–50 53 – [60,66,67]Cottonseed oil – 325 – 18–25 77 [55,68]Linseed oil – 402 – 35–45 88 88–98 [54,69]

M. Habibullah et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 819–834824

mustard biodiesel are 39.51 MJ/kg and 10.1 m2/s, respectively. Theresearchers also mentioned that the production cost for the blendof B20 mustered oil biodiesel is 76 TK/L, which is slightly highercompared with conventional diesel fuel.

4.2. Soybean oil

Every year, Bangladesh produces about 0.16 million tons ofedible oil, whereas the demand is 0.5 million tons. Soybean is ahigh quality crop. It contains a high quantity of protein (its seedcontains approximately 40% protein) per unit area [91]. Althoughsoybean cultivation in Bangladesh is quite limited, an ample scopeexists on increasing its cultivation through the use of integratednutrient management. Approximately 7 to 8 Lakh ha of lands inchar areas could be brought under soybean cultivation if govern-ment support is available, where 17 to 18 Lakh metric tons ofsoybean could be produced and approximately 40% of soybean oildemand could be met [94]. The oil content of soybean is about 20%,whereas all other pulses contain only approximately 1% to 2% oil[95]. Soybean is considered as a minor crop in terms of area andproduction in Bangladesh, concentrated only in a few distinctlocations. The total production of the country stands at 4000 t ofsoybean over a total cropped area of 5000 ha [96]. Abdullah et al.[18] studied the potential of biodiesel from soybean oil using the

transesterification process. They found that soybean biodiesel has acalorific value of 41.57 MJ/kg and a viscosity of 2.068 m2/s at 40 1C,which is very similar to conventional diesel fuel. The productioncost of biodiesels from soybean oil is Tk. 296.8 per liter. This oil orany of its blends could be used as an alternative in case of a crisis.Roy et al. [97] reported that the B20 soybean oil biodiesel hassimilar thermal efficiency compared to diesel fuel.

4.3. Cottonseed oil

Cottonseed oil is a vegetable oil extracted from the seeds of thecotton plant after the cotton lint has been removed. It containshigh levels of saturated fat and pesticide residue as well, hence, itis not considered as healthy for human consumption [24]. Cotton-seeds have little use except for producing oil. Three alternativesare considered to increase the production of cottonseed in Ban-gladesh: increase the total amount of land used to raise cotton,increase seed-lint ratios to obtain a greater seed yield (mass perunit area), and/or increase the proportion of cotton land that isirrigated. Cottonseed oil is non-edible oil, so the food versus fuelconflict will not arise if this is used for biodiesel production.However, the optimum conditions for biodiesel production aresuggested in this paper. A maximum of 77% biodiesel may beproduced with 20% methanol [68]. Wakil et al. [24] studied thepotential of biodiesel from cottonseed oil using the transesterifica-tion process. They found that cottonseed biodiesel has a calorificvalue of 38.51 MJ/kg and viscosity of 7.2 m2/s at 40 1C, which isvery similar to conventional diesel fuel. The production cost ofbiodiesels from cottonseed oil is Tk. 210 per liter. This oil or any ofits blends could be used as an alternative in case of a crisis.

4.4. Coconut

Coconut is one of the important nut crops in Bangladesh, whoseoil is edible oil extracted from the kernel or meat of maturedcoconuts harvested from the coconut palm. In Bangladesh, 907255metric tons of coconut is produced from 12825 ac of land in 2004 to2005 [98]. It is mostly grown in the southern part of the country suchas St. Martin’s Island in cox’s bazar. Hossain et al. [21] producedcoconut biodiesel using the transesterification process and comparedthe properties of different biodiesel blends with diesel fuel that metthe ASTM standards. Their coconut biodiesel producing cost was 124TK/L, which is quite high for small production, but the cost will bedrastically decreased if largely produced. Besides, this coconutbiodiesel has a much better lubrication property, and it flash pointis similar to that of diesel fuel.

4.5. Micro algae

Algae grow abundantly as the climate of Bangladesh is perfectfor production. Bangladesh has many ponds and canals that are

Fig. 7. Transesterification of vegetable oils [88,89].

Fig. 8. Schematic flow chart of biodiesel production [90].

Table 6Summary of biodiesel production from transesterification process [17,18,22,59,61,68,69].

No. Sample Catalyst Alcohol Temperature (1C) Ration of alcohol to oil Yields (%)

1 Microalgae NaOH Methanol 80 3:1 602 Karanja oil H2SO4 (1%, w/w) Methanol 50 5:1 973 Soybean oil NaOH Methanol 45–55 3:1 89.754 Coconut oil NaOH Methanol 65 – –

5 Cottonseed oil NaOH Methanol 55–60 3.5:1 86.676 Sesame oil NaOH Methanol 45–55 3:1 82.647 Linseed oil NaOH (0.5%, v/v) Methanol 20% 55 – 888 Rubber seed oil H2SO4 (0.5%, v/v) Methanol 45 5:1 989 Neem NaOH (1%, w/w) Methanol 55–61 5:1 9510 Mustard oil NaOH Methanol 55 4:1 –

11 Jatropha curcas oil NaOH (0.6%, w/w) Methanol 60 6:1 96

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suitable for algal growth. With these large amounts of algae, we caneasily produce biodiesel that may be used in power plants insteadof diesel fuel to generate electricity. Microalgae appear to be goodsources of renewable biodiesel that may be able to meet the globaldemand for transport fuels. The cultivation of microalgae needsfewer lands compared with that of terraneous plants [17]. They cancontain up to 70% of their weight as lipid oil, and the oil yield per hais extremely high compared with other oil sources. Oil content ofmicroalgae varies according to the species, but most of themcontain enough lipid oil to produce biodiesel. Space is anotherrequirement for algae production, which is largely available inBangladesh. At present, 0.73 million ha of land (Table 7) are notsuitable for any crop production, but can instantly be used for algaeproduction. The saline lands can also be used for algae production.

Kais et al. [17] studied the potential of biodiesel from microalgaeoil using the transesterification process and found that microalgaebiodiesel have a calorific value of 35 MJ/kg and viscosity of 5 m2/s at40 1C, which is quite similar to diesel fuel. Hence, microalgae oilbiodiesel can be used instead of diesel. Extensive research needs tobe carried out to decrease the price to as low as diesel fuel. Theproduction costs of biodiesels from microalgae oil is Tk. 136 perliter. With favorable algae growth, cheaper production cost thanother biodiesels, and more eco-friendly nature, microalgae biodieselcan be a great source of renewable energy in Bangladesh.

4.6. Rubber seed

Rubber production is a profitable sector in Bangladesh. Rubberplantations yield from 100 to 150 kg/ha of rubber seeds. Rubberseeds contain approximately 49% oil [59]. Rubber seed oil (RSO) is asemi-drying type oil [99,100] that does not contain any unusualfatty acids, but is a rich source of polyunsaturated fatty acids, C18:2and C18:3, that make up 52% of its total fatty acid composition[101]. Large areas of land for rubber plantation are already allottedin Bangladesh, and over 92,000 ac of rubber plantation are underthe Bangladesh Forest Industries Corporation (BFIDC) and non-governmental organizations [102]. Bangladesh already producesmore than 2000 t of seeds per year, at approximately 150 kg/ac[103]. Currently, it has no economic use, is rather considered aswaste, and can yield more than 500 t (25%) of RSO annually. A totalof sixteen governmental rubber estates exist in 3 different zones ofBangladesh i.e., 7 in Chittagong Zone, 4 in Sylhet Zone, and 5 in theMadhupur Zone of Tangail District). The productivity of Rubber seedoil per ha per annum is reported as 217 kg oil/ha [100]. Consideringthe data, the expected annual RSO production in Bangladesh is 0.02million tons. Morshed et al. [59] studied the potential of RSO as asource for biodiesel in Bangladesh and also compared physico-chemical properties with diesel fuel using the transesterificationprocess that met ASTM standards. They found that the calorificvalue was 32.6 MJ/kg, specific gravity at 30 1C was 0.85, and the acidvalue was 0.12 mgKOH/g. A rubber plantation can be established inthe unused lands, which accounts around 0.32 million ha [104]. RSOprovides an additional value as a potential feedstock of energy tothe original latex value of rubber plants.

4.7. Sesame oil

Sesame is another important oil seed crop, which is the secondlargest source of edible oil seed in Bangladesh [24]. The plants mayattain a height of about one meter, usually with side branches. It isgrown in almost all districts of Bangladesh, but grows well ingreater Khulna, Faridpur, Pabna, Shirajganj, Rajshahi, Rangpur,Jessore, Barisal, Comilla, Sylhet, and Mymensingh districts as theseplaces have a climatic condition suitable for its cultivation. InBangladesh, 96,000 ha of land is cultivated for sesame productionand 25,000 metric tons is produced [94]. Sesame contains 42% to50% oil, 25% protein and 16% to 18% carbohydrate [105]. Abdullahet al. [18] has shown that 82.64% biodiesels were producedexperimentally from sesame oil. Produced biodiesels’ calorificvalue was 41.57 MJ/kg compared with 44.5 MJ/kg of diesel fuel.The production cost of biodiesels from sesame oil is Tk. 370 perliter [24], which is quite high for small production. The commonlycultivated varieties in the country are black- and white-seeded.Presently, sesame is cultivated in both the kharif and autumnseasons, but two-thirds sesame is produced in the kharif season.High lands with sandy loam are best suited for sesame cultivation.

4.8. Mosna oil

Among many edible oils, Mosna is one that is mainly cultivatedin the southern part of Bangladesh such as Barisal, Comilla, andChittagong, and is used mainly for cooking. The cultivation startsin Kartik and ripe at Poush (Bengali calendar month). Nowadays,the use of mosna oil is replaced by soybean oil and mustered oilbecause of similar properties and availability all over the country.However, Mosna requires less fertile land, and cultivation ischeaper than other kinds of vegetable oil. Hence, finding a suitableuse for this oil so that cultivation can be increased is necessary toprovide farmers with financial benefits. Wakil et al. [24] studiedthe experimental production of biodiesels from Mosna oil andreported that the obtained density was 0.875 g/cm3, which issimilar to diesel (0.84 g/cm3). Its boiling point is 198 1C, which isquite lower than diesel (248 1C); its calorific value is obtained at52.12 MJ/kg (diesel is at 44.5 MJ/kg), which meets the ASTMstandard and is 7 MJ/kg higher than diesel fuel. However, theproduction rate is very low. The production cost of biodiesels fromMosna oil is Tk. 285 per liter.

4.9. Jatropha

J. curcas is a renewable, non-edible plant that grows in arid andsemi-arid regions of the country on degraded soils that have lowfertility and moisture. Jatropha can be cultivated in the southernpart of Bangladesh, where large unused areas is available. Theseeds of jatropha contain 30% to 40% oil and the transesterificationresult [24] shows that approximately 96% biodiesel production isexperienced with 20 vol%. The properties of jatropha biodieselare much closer or even better than conventional diesel fuel. Byplanting jatropha, Bangladesh can save a large amount of importedpetroleum products from foreign countries. Jatropha’s oil

Table 7Type of land in BangladeshSource: 1. DAE and Agriculture Ministry, 2004 2. Fisheries Department, 2007 [17].

Type of land Amount (million ha)

Dry land 0.73Ponds 0.31Low marshy land 3.16Coastal saline land 0.218

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properties are the most exciting in the field of biodiesel fuels. Nabiet al. [61] demonstrated experimentally that at same poweroutput, J. curcas oil specific consumption and efficiencies arehigher than those of diesel fuel. Tests conducted also showed thatcompared with diesel fuel, density (0.87 g/cm3), kinematic viscos-ity (4.5 cSt at 30 1C), and heating value (39.5 MJ/kg) are verysimilar, in which Jatropha biodiesel has significant potential foruse as an alternative fuel in compression-ignition (diesel) engines.Azad [19] has observed that 75.5% biodiesel production wereobtained with 20% methanol. Jatropha plantation [106] can beestablished at a spacing of 2 m�2 m in a pit filled with soil, andthe soil can be mixed with organic manure. Approximately 2500plants per ha with the spacing mentioned above are needed. InBangladesh, 0.32 million ha [94] are unused land. Jatrophaplantation can be established in such a large area. The expectedjatropha oil from such land is as follows:

Plants needed per ha: 2500Seeds expected from each plant: 2.5 kg.

The expected jatropha oil is thus approximately 2.00 t per haper year (considering 38% conversion from seed to jatropha oil).Biodiesel from jatropha oil is 1.92 t per ha per year (considering96% conversion from jatropha oil to biodiesel). In 0.32 million ha ofland, the amount of biodiesel production will thus be 0.62 milliontons per year. If jatropha plantation is successful in Bangladesh,the country saves a large amount of currency, which is needed forimporting diesel fuel. The country can decrease importing dieselfuel by 25% from foreign countries [61].

4.10. Karanja

Karanja is a medium-sized tree that is one of the few nitrogen-fixing trees that produces significant oil content seeds [107–109].Karanja seeds are heavy, contain greater food reserves, andapproximately 800 seeds to 1200 seeds are weigh 1 kg. The seedscontain 31% oil, and a maximum of 97% biodiesel is produced fromthis oil by the transesterification process. Nabi et al. [62] studiedthe fuel properties of karanja oil biodiesel that is close to dieselfuel. They tested the fuel properties in different blends wheredensity and viscosity are higher for B100, but within the ASTMstandard. The flash point and cetane number of karanja biodieselis higher than that of diesel fuel, which is helpful for safetransportation. They mentioned that diesel imported from foreigncountries will decrease by 28% if karanja is cultivated in theunused lands of Bangladesh. The study has enabled us to confirmthat karanja oil can be used as raw material to obtain biodieselthat can be used as alternative fuel for diesel engine.

4.11. Castor

Castor grows almost everywhere in Bangladesh, even on gravelly,sandy, and saline soils. The plant grows wild in forests and fields and isconsidered wild or unwanted. Local people are unaware of the plant’slife span, uses, and economic values. The plant can live for many yearsand produce huge amounts of seeds every year, from which biodieselcan be easily produced. This production will meet the increasingdemand for fuel in the country, which is currently not possible fromany other renewable energy sources. The seeds contain approximately37% to 50% oil [67], which is combustible as fuel without being refined.The oil burns with clear smoke-free flame and tested successfully asfuel in diesel engines. The oil also helps provide jobs to rural men andwomen and promotes their financial independence in Bangladesh.Nabi et al. [57] mentioned the potentiality of castor oil biodiesel, as theesters of castor has some important fuel properties that can be used asalternative for diesel fuel. The key to the future of biodiesel is finding

inexpensive feedstock that farmers of Bangladesh can grow on unusedagricultural land, and castor is the important and promising alternativecrop that can reduce our future dependence on fossil fuel imports.Castor could be introduced, as the soils of Bangladesh and its climaticcondition are suitable for commercial cultivation. Moreover, second-generation plants will not lead to food shortages as they are inedibleby both humans and cattle and will be grown on lands that are notsuitable for traditional farming [67]. Currently, castor is cultivated inBangladesh on a commercialized scale for the seeds and oils, whichare less expensive vegetable oils and can be used as feedstock in theproduction of biodiesel.

4.12. Neem

Neem oil is a non-edible vegetable oil, grows, plenty in variousparts of Bangladesh, as the climatic and soil condition is suitablefor the production especially in the rural areas, pressed from thefruits and seeds of the neem tree, which is not used for cookingpurposes. The seeds have 45% oil from which maximum 94%biodiesel can be produced by transisterification process [57] andmay be a high potential source for the production of biodiesel.Neem oil is generally light to dark brown, bitter, and has a ratherstrong odor that is said to combine the odors of peanut and garlic.In Bangladesh, neem can play a vital role in the production ofbiodiesel as an alternative to diesel fuel. Hassan et al. [22] studiedbiodiesel from neem oil as an alternative fuel for diesel engineusing the transesterification process. They investigated the fuel’sproperties at different temperatures and found that density(0.61 g/cm3), kinematic viscosity (5.96 cSt at 35 1C), calorific value(38.15 MJ/kg) are within the standard biodiesel properties. Theyalso recommended that neem oil can be a potential substitute toreduce the import burden of crude petroleum oil. Nabi et al. [57]tested the fuel properties of NOME diesel–biodiesel blends andcompared this with neat diesel fuel by using the transesterificationprocess. They found that the fuel properties including viscosity(8.8 cSt at 25 1C), density (0.82 g/cm3 at 25 1C), and cetane number(51) are higher than those of diesel fuel, and the heating value(40.1 MJ/kg) is lower. Absence of sulfur in the ester of this oilmakes it an environment-friendly alternative fuel for diesel engineand thus food versus fuel conflict will not arise.

4.13. Linseed oil

Linseed oil can play an important role in the production ofalternative diesel fuel in Bangladesh, as the climatic and soil conditionof our country is convenient for the production of linseed crop.Tropical subsistence farmers would gain cash from this crop. Nabiand Najmul Hoque [69] investigated the fuel properties of linseed oiland linseed oil methyl ester (shown in Table 8), which are generallysimilar to those of petroleum-based diesel fuel. Heating value oflinseed biodiesel is lower, whereas viscosity and density are slightlyhigher than those of petroleum-based diesel fuel. They also studiedperformance and emission evaluation using the transesterificationprocess, and a maximum of 88% biodiesel production was found. Theyalso reported that thermal efficiency of biodiesel is almost similar tothat of conventional diesel fuel. Efficiency of biodiesel (B10 and B20) is1% and 2% lower than those of diesel fuel because of low volatility,higher viscosity, and density. CO emissions reduced with diesel–biodiesel-blended fuel, whereas oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissionincreased for the diesel–biodiesel-blended fuel compared with theconventional diesel fuel. Biodiesel (B10 and B20) reduces 9% and 23%CO emission than diesel fuel. However, NOx level is 6% and 13%higherthan diesel fuel. The wastelands and other uplands including the hugearea of Chittagong hill tracts, low land, lake, and riverside can be easilyconsidered for castor cultivation. The plant-seed oil can be directlyused for engines, especially farming machinery in villages without any

M. Habibullah et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 819–834 827

modification of the oil structure. Linseed cultivation will be moreprofitable, and land productivity can be increased manifold in com-parison with other crops cultivated in Bangladesh.

5. Major physical and chemical properties of biodieselfeedstocks in Bangladesh

Properties such as density, viscosity, flash point, cloud point,pour point, higher heating value, CN, oxidation stability, watercontent, sulfur content, acid value, Conradson carbon residue, andlubricity characterize the properties of biodiesel. Engine perfor-mance and emission significantly depend on the different biodie-sel properties, chemical composition, and fatty acid composition[90,110–112]. Table 8 shows the main physical and chemical pro-perties of biodiesel from both edible and non-edible oil sources inBangladesh and Malaysia.

5.1. Viscosity

Viscosity is the important fuel property because it influences theatomization of the fuel being inserted into the engine combustionchamber. For complete combustion, a very small fuel drop is req-uired. High viscosity causes poorer atomization of the fuel spray andless accurate operation of the fuel injectors. Lower viscosity of thebiodiesel helps to pump and atomize easily and achieve finerdroplets [113]. The conversion of biodiesel by transesterificationreduces the molecular weight to one third that of the triglycerideand reduces the viscosity by a factor of approximately eight, whichcomes close to near the diesel fuel. High fuel viscosity is a majorproblem in using pure vegetable oil as fuel for diesel engines.Therefore, vegetable oils are converted into biodiesel by transester-ification. The viscosity of biodiesel is determined by using ASTMD445 (1.9 mm2/s to 6.0 mm2/s) and EN ISO 3104 (3.5 mm2/s to5.0 mm2/s) [9,114,115].

5.2. Lubricating properties

The other main property of biodiesel fuel is its lubricatingproperties, which helps in reducing fuel system wear. Comparedwith diesel fuel, biodiesel fuel has much better lubrication and ahigher cetane rating [116]. The life of a fuel injection equipmentdepends on the lubrication properties, which is better for biodiesel[117]. Giving better lubricity and a more complete combustionincreases the engine energy output, thus partially balancing forthe higher energy density of petroleum diesel. The use of biodiesel

can also extend the life of diesel engines also because biodiesel hasmore lubricity than petroleum diesel fuel [118].

5.3. Cetane number

CN is the master property of the fuel for diesel engine, which isbased on two compounds: hexadecane, with a CN of 100 andheptamethylnonane, with a CN of 15. CN is a measure of theignition quality of diesel fuels, and a high CN implies short ignitiondelay. The CN of biodiesel is generally higher than conventionaldiesel and higher than the required CN, as ASTM D975 is less than40. The longer the fatty acid carbon chains and the more saturatedthe molecules, the higher the CN [9]. Table 8 shows the CN ofvarious biodiesel feedstock. From the table, jatropha biodiesel hasbeen observed to have the lowest CN than other biodiesel andhigher properties than diesel fuel.

5.4. Cloud and pour points

A diesel fuel’s cold-weather characteristics are measured by thetwo main characteristics, cloud (CP) and the pour points (PP). CP isthe temperature of the fuel at which small solid crystals can beobserved as the fuel cools, and the PP refers to the lowest tempera-ture at which movement of the fuel is present when the container istipped. Compared with petroleum diesel, biodiesel tends to havenear range of temperatures between the CP and the PP whereas, a201 difference exists between the CP and the PP of petroleum diesel,and biodiesel may have a difference of only a few degrees [119].

5.5. Flash point

The flash point is the lowest temperature at which a liquid startsto give off sufficient vapors to form an ignitable mixture in the airnear the surface of the liquid. The relationships between viscosityand flash point for vegetable oil methyl esters are considerablyregular. The flash point values of biodiesel are considerably higherthan those of petroleum diesel [120]. Biodiesel has a high flashpoint, usually more than 150 1C whereas diesel fuel has 98 1C. FromTable 8, micro-algae shows the lowest flash point than others.

6. Biodiesel as diesel engine fuel

Biodiesel is used in compression-ignition diesel engine, asbiodiesel has almost similar properties compared with diesel fuel.Table 9 shows the diesel engine emission result at different

Table 8Major physical and chemical properties of biodiesel feedstock.

Feedstock Density at 151C(kg/l)

Calorific value(Mj/kg)

Viscosity at 40 1c(m2/s)

Flash point (1C) Boiling point (1C) Cetane no. Cloud point (1C) Reference

BD MY BD MY BD MY BD MY BD MY BD MY BD MY

Fossil diesel 0.838 0.829 45.71 45.238 4.01 3.0738 98 69.5 248 47 48 – 8 [21,121]Mustered oil 0.89 39.51 10.1 4.5 – Z120 – – 52 – [23,54]Coconut oil – 0.858 40.37 38.284 8.34 4.0927 145.5 118.5 – – – [21,122]Jatropha curcas 0.875 0.865 41 39.82 5.34 4.73 170 184.5 255 51.5 51 – 3 [19,123–125]Micro algae 0.864 0.864 35 41 5.0 5.2 75 115 – – 48.31 – [17,126,127]Soybean 0.683 0.9073 41.57 39.579 2.068 3.17 96 280.5 – – – [18,90]Sesame 0.697 0.882 43.67 38.836 2.292 5.34 94 170 380 – – �19 [18,128,129]Karanja 0.89 40.75 35.56 4.85 180 180 – 58 – [54,62]Cottonseed 0.88 0.885 38.51 40.58 7.2 4 – 70 262 – 38 – [24,130]Mosna 0.875 52.13 9.24 – 198 – – [24]Linseed oil 0.872 0.865 37.5 8.2 4.2 86 161 – – 48 – [69,131]Rubber seed oil 0.85 0.86 32.6 36.5 4.5 5.81 120 130 – – 3 4 [54,59]Neem oil 0.82 0.920 40.1 39 8.8 3.8 – 245 51 47 – [57,132]

M. Habibullah et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 819–834828

rotations per minute by various researchers using biodiesel feed-stock in Bangladesh and Malaysia. Biodiesel can be produced fromseveral different feedstocks of edible and non-edible vegetable oilsor animal fats. The energy value of biodiesel varies from 39 MJ/kgto 41 MJ/kg and slightly lower compared to those of gasoline(46 MJ/kg), petroleum diesel (43 MJ/kg), or petroleum (42 MJ/kg)but greater than coal (32 MJ/kg to 37 MJ/kg). Azad et al. [16] studiedbiodiesel as vehicular fuel and concluded that almost all types ofvegetable oil biodiesel can be used as an alternative to the diesel oiland recommended that rapeseed oil and palm oil can be the mostsuitable, as these oils do not contain carcinogenic substances andtheir sulfur content level is also lower than in petroleum diesel.Biodiesel has the ability to be highly biodegradable and has lubricitywhen used in compression ignition engine. In addition, biodieselhas good potential and practical usability because of renewabilityand almost similar operational properties as fuel for the replace-ment of petroleum diesel in the nearest future.

Nabi et al. [62] studied the effect of karanja biodiesel on perfor-mance and exhaust emission of a diesel engine and reported thatcompared to DF, B100 reduced CO (50%), smoke (43%), and engine noise(2.5 dB) where NOx is increased (15%) at high load condition. Thepresence of oxygen is the major factor for reducing CO, smoke, andengine noise, and increasing NOx emission and low aromatics in thekaranja biodiesel molecular structure may be an additional factor forreducing these emissions. The authors also reported that the brakethermal efficiency is almost similar compared to diesel fuel. Hossainet al. [21] studied the emission of the engine fueled by coconutbiodiesel blend and concluded that the emissions produced frombiodiesel are cleaner compared to petroleum-based diesel fuel asparticulate emissions, soot, and carbon monoxide are lower, but NOx isquite higher and the cause is being studied. Hasib et al. [23] studiedthe effect of mustard oil biodiesel blend on performance and exhaustemission of a four-stroke diesel engine and reported that at higherload condition, B30 and B40 have lower exhaust temperature, whichreduces HC, PM, NOx, and engine efficiency compared with diesel fuel.They also reported that the presence of oxygen in mustard biodiesel

molecular structure is reasonable. Zaglul Shahadat et al. [133] con-ducted an experiment on combustion and exhaust emissions withneat diesel fuel and blends of diesel–biodiesel of neem oil in a four-stroke single-cylinder naturally aspirated (NA) diesel engine andreported that as blend percentages increased, NOx emission increased.However, if inlet is preheated, simultaneous reduction of NOx and COcan be achieved. They also reported that if B20 is preheated betteremission parameters than others even to pure diesel can be achieved.Nabi et al. [57] also investigated combustion and exhaust emissionswith neat diesel fuel and diesel–biodiesel blends for neem in a four-stroke NA direct injection (DI) diesel engine. They reported thatcompared with conventional diesel fuel, the NOx emission is increasedby 5% and the CO and smoke emissions are decreased by 4% with 15%NOME. They concluded that NOME–diesel blend emission has nosignificant difference with neat diesel fuel operation and presence ofoxygen causing a decrease in exhaust emission where the impact offuel injection timing may also be reasonable in higher NOx emissions,which was also be slightly reduced when exhaust gas recirculation(EGR) was applied.

Rahman et al. [134] studied the exhaust emission of a four-strokeDI NA diesel engine operated with the blends of linseed oil andmustard oil of various percentages with conventional diesel fuel. Theyalso reported that compared with diesel fuel, the NOx emission of thisblend was a little bit higher, CO and smoke emissions were lowerbecause of the presence of oxygen in the biofuel, and that significantimprovement in diesel exhaust emissions was achieved with ester-ified vegetable oils and their blends with diesel fuel, which can beeffectively used in existing diesel engine as suitable alternative fuels.Nabi et al. [135] studied the exhaust emission for biodiesel blends in adiesel engine based on non-edible neem oil and found that comparedwith the neat diesel fuel, B50 reduced PM, smoke, and CO emissionsby 30%, 34%, 31%, respectively, whereas a 10% increase in the NOx

emission was experienced with similar blend because oxygen waspresent in the molecular structure. In addition, another reason behindthe reduction is the low aromatic in biodiesel blends. Conversely, B50has resulted in a 10% increase in NOx emission and reduced CO,

Table 9Work done by various researchers on engine emissions using biodiesel feedstock as engine fuel.

Biodieselfeedstock

Engine Operating condition Emission results References

Mustard oilmethylester

BD Horizontal, 1-cylinder, 4-stroke, AC,DI

2200 rpm and 1 kg to 3.5 kg load is used Lower all HC, PM, NOx emissions with an increasein fuel blend

[23,136]

MY 1-Cylinder, 4-stroke, WC, RP: 5Hp,RS: 1500 rpm

At different engine load and fuel blend Decreases HC, CO2, emission with an increase infuel blend and increase in NOx

Cotton seedoil methylester

BD 1-Cylinder, WC, NA, 4 stroke, DI 1100–1800 rpm CO, PM, Smoke emission reduced, NOx increased [68,137]MY 1-Cylinder, 4S, DI, WC, NA, D:

553 cm3, RP: 4.476 kw, RS: 1800 rpmDifferent speeds and different blends (B10,B20, B30)

10% increase in NOx and lower CO, 24%PM, 14%smoke compare with diesel fuel

Jatropha oilmethylester

BD 1-Cylinder, WC, NA, 4 stroke, DI 1000–1600 rpm and full load Lower smoke, CO, HC and higher NOx [61,138]MY 1-Cylinder, 4S, WC, DI, RP: 8.82 kw,

CR: 17:1, RS: 2000 rpmDifferent speeds (1500 and 2000 rpm) anddifferent load

Decrease CO, HC and NOx with increase in enginespeed

Karanja oilmethylester

BD 1-Cylinder, WC, NA, 4 stroke, DI 1200 rpm Lower smoke, CO, Engine noise emission andhigher oxygen, combustion efficiency, NOx

[62,139]

MY 3 Cylinder, AVL make CI engine, CR:18.1, WC, RS: 2200 rpm, P: 44.1 kw

Full throttle at 1200 rpm, 1400 rpm and2200 rpm and 20%, 50% and 100% blends

Slightly increased CO, NOx and reduce HC, PMand smoke with an increase in blending ratio

Coconut oilmethylester

BD 1-Cylinder, 4 stroke, AC, DI 2600 rpm PM, Soot, CO, decrease and NOx increase [21,122]MY 1-Cylinder, 4 stroke, WC, NA, DI,

D:638 cm3, RP: 8.8 kw, RS: 2400 rpmAt full load varying speed condition Reduces CO, HC emissions and higher NOx

emissionSoy basedbiodiesel

BD 1-Cylinder, 4 stroke, WC, DI 1800 rpm under various load CO, PM decrease and NOx, bsfc increase [97,140]MY 1-Cylinder, 4 stroke, DI, CR:16.5:1,

RP: 11.03 kw, RS: 2000 rpmAt full load and different engine speed Decrease CO,HC, NOx and smoke by 27, 27, 5, 52%

respectivelyLinseed oilmethylester

BD 1-Cylinder, WC, NA, 4 stroke, DI 1000 rpm PM, CO, smoke lower and NOx higher [69,131]MY 1-Cylinder, 4S, DI, RP: 4.4 kw, CR:

17.5:1, RS: 1500 rpmAt different loads, constant speed anddifferent injection pressure

Decrease CO, HC and smoke emission butincrease in NOx

Neem oilmethylester

BD 1-Cylinder, WC, NA, 4 stroke, DI Various load NOx, CO, HC and smoke reduced [133,141]MY 1-Cylinder, AC, DI, CR: 17.5:1, RP:

4.4 kw, RS: 1500 rpmAt different blends, constant speed anddeferent break power

Lower CO, HC but increase NOx and smokeemission with increase in fuel blend and engineload

AC—air cooled, WC—water cooled, NA—natural aspirates, DI—direct injection, TC—turbocharged, PM—particulate matter.

M. Habibullah et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 819–834 829

smoke, and PM emission by 31%, 34%, and 34%, respectively, com-pared to neat diesel. They also observed that carbon deposit on theinjector nozzle was lower in all biodiesel blends. Azad et al. [19]studied the performance and emission in the single-cylinder DI dieselengine using Jatropha biodiesel blends. They reported that, NOx

emission for diesel is lower than that for biodiesel blends. Given thatoxygen content is higher in the biodiesel than the diesel fuel, the heatof combustion is slightly higher. For this reason, the increasing rate ofNOx in biodiesel blends is higher than in conventional diesel. CO fordiesel is more than that for biodiesel blends. Biodiesel blends containmore oxygen in their molecular structure; and their combustion inengines is more complete. For this reason, the CO for biodiesel blendsis lower than that of conventional diesel.

Nabi and Najmul Hoque [69] conducted production of biodieselfrom linseed oil and studied the performance of a diesel enginewith diesel biodiesel fuels. They reported that thermal efficiency ofbiodiesel is almost similar to conventional diesel fuel and efficiencyof biodiesel (B10 and B20) is 1% and 2% lower than diesel fuelbecause of low volatility, higher viscosity, and density. CO emissi-ons reduced with diesel biodiesel blended fuel, whereas NOx emi-ssion increased for the diesel–biodiesel-blended fuel comparedwith the conventional diesel fuel. Biodiesel (B10 and B20) reducesCO emission by 9% and 23%. However, NOx level is 6% and 13%higher than that in diesel fuel. Roy [20,97] investigated the prospectof biodiesel operated in a DI diesel engine and reported that B100reduced exhaust odor. However, brake thermal efficiency andbrake-specific fuel consumption were adversely affected. A signifi-cant reduction in CO and PM was obtained with B100 and B20 withan increase in NOx than diesel. Roy et al. [97] studied the engineperformance and emission of a DI diesel engine fueled by neatdiesel and 20% to 80% blend of soy-based biodiesel and diesel (B20)under various load conditions and engine speeds with and withoutlow-percentage of EGR conditions. They showed that the brakethermal efficiency (ηth) of B20 was almost similar or lower and atno- or low-load conditions without EGR, CO was higher and NOx

were lower with B20 than that with diesel. They also reported thatunder high load conditions, NOx became higher and CO decreasedsignificantly with B20. They suggested that, B20 with 10% EGR canbe used in diesel engine without any significant penalty in engineperformance and with higher NOx reductions.

6.1. Environmental consideration

Current energy policies address environmental issues includingincreasing renewable energy supplies and encouraging cleanerand more efficient energy use, greenhouse effect, global warming,and climate change. Renewable energy sources have the potentialto provide energy services with almost zero emissions of both airpollutants and greenhouse gases [142]. Excessive use of fossil fuelcauses CO2 increase in the atmosphere, and we are already facing atremendous effect—vicious change of climate. Most of the CO2

emission is caused by the USA, China, and EU countries; but thecountries at high risk of the impact of this phenomenon are theunderdeveloped countries like Bangladesh [17]. Therefore, Bangla-desh needs to take quick steps from this happening.

6.2. Greenhouse gas reductions

The increasing amount of greenhouse gases such as CO2, whichis causing global warming and climate change, has stronglyincreased the interest in the use of biodiesel [23]. An often-mentioned incentive for using biodiesel is its capacity to eliminatelifecycle of the CO2 gas emission compared to those of fossil fuels,which is one of the major causes of greenhouse gases. One recentstudy [143] found that the increased greenhouse gas emissionsfrom converting rainforests, peat lands, or grasslands to produce

biofuels in the tropics and the United States was 17 to 420 timeslarger than the greenhouse gas reductions these biofuels couldprovide by displacing fossil fuel use. Biodiesel reduces greenhouseeffect on our environment by reducing CO2 gas emission. Biodieselis very environment friendly because it increases the percentage ofO2 in exhaust gas than the ordinary diesel [124]. Biodiesel containsvirtually a trace amount of sulfur, so SO2 emissions are reduced indirect proportion to the diesel fuel replacement. As an energysource used in a diesel engine, biodiesel reduces the consumptionof diesel fuels and thereby reduces the greenhouse effect.

6.3. Pollution

Biodiesel has no sulfur content and reduces the particulateemission. Small particles of solid combustion products, soot, HC,CO, CO2, and many others clean up emissions compared to crudepetroleum diesel on vehicles, which causes pollution. Productionof particulate emissions is reduced by approximately 50% com-pared with fossil-sourced diesel. Biodiesel is considered carbonneutral because all the CO2 released during consumption had beensequestered from the atmosphere for the growth of oil crops. As aresult, the combustion of biodiesel has been reported to emitlesser pollutants in the environment compared with diesel [18].

7. Price comparison of biodiesel feedstocks

Currently, as the production cost of biodiesel is higher than that ofpetro-diesel fuel, production is not going commercialized as shownin Table 10. Some certain factors such as cost of raw materials,process technology, chemicals, and plant [144] are involved in theeconomic performance of biodiesel where the prime cost is rawmaterial cost according to some researchers [145,146]. Geographicarea, base stick, crude petroleum price, variability in crop productionfrom season to season are the factors that vary the production cost

Table 10Cost of biodiesel production and their blends in Bangladesh.

Sl.no.

Biodiesel Diesel(BDT/L)

B20(BDT/L)

B40(BDT/L)

B100(BDT/L)

Productionyear

Reference

1. Soybean 40 – – 296.82 2010 [18]2. Sesame 40 – – 370 2010 [18]3. Coconut 70 – 88 124 2012 [21]4. Mustard 40 58 76 – 2011 [23]5. Micro

algae55 – – 136 2011 [17]

6. Cottonseed 70 – – 210 2012 [24]7. Mosna 70 – – 285 2012 [24]8. Neem 85 – – 1845.78 2013 [22]

US$1¼BDT 77.42 (25.08.2014).

Table 11Biodiesel production cost and it’s potential in worldwide [149–152].

Rank Country Production ($/L) Biodiesel potential (ML)

1 Malaysia 0.53 14,5402 Indonesia 0.49 7,5953 Argentina 0.62 5,2554 USA 0.70 3,2125 Brazil 0.62 2,5676 Netherlands 0.75 2,4967 Germany 0.79 2,0248 Philippines 0.53 1,2349 Belgium 0.78 1,21310 Spain 1.71 1,073

M. Habibullah et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 819–834830

[147]. Some researches [145,146] studied the cost of biodiesel andconcluded that, overall biodiesel cost will be reduced using thechoice of exclusive feedstock varying from area to area, estimatedprocess cost, also recycling methanol after transesterification processand reached market profitability [148].

Projected costs for pure biodiesel, according to economic feasibilitystudies, range from TK124/L to 1,845.78/L (US$1.6/L to 23.96/L)compared with diesel fuel cost, which is TK55-70/L (US$0.71 to 0.91)in Bangladesh using transisterification, but the cost will be reduced ifblending is used. Table 11 shows the biodiesel production cost per litrefor different countries such as United States of America, Malaysia,Germany, France and other European countries. From this table, it canbe seen that the biodiesel production cost per litre for Bangladesh iscomparable and has the potential in use to other worldwide countries.The government of Bangladesh grants a huge subsidy on diesel fuel,which has caused the price of diesel fuel to lower. Therefore, athorough study is required for the feasibility analysis of biodiesel bycomparing production cost with the international market price ofdiesel [21]. In the case of smaller production, biodiesel production costper liter is high. However, if produced in a high volume, productioncost will be much lower, as chemical cost and raw vegetable cost willdecrease. In addition, increased use of byproducts, such as soap,glycerin, and oilcake will reduce the overall production cost of bio-diesel. Extraction of biodiesel from plants with the use of modernefficient techniques will decrease the use of chemical. These steps willhelp make biodiesel popular among the people.

8. Recommendation

Currently, biodiesel production is expanding rapidly around theworld due to energy security and environmental concern. How-ever, there are some challenges to produce biodiesel and use asalternative to diesel engine fuel. These challenges include feed-stock prices, availability, biodiesel properties, performance, emis-sion and combustion characteristics. Significant research andtechnological development are needed on combustion efficiencyof biodiesel in Bangladesh as no research found that was done onit. As a recommendation, supporting policies are also brutallyimportant to make lower the biodiesel cost and effectively used asa complement to other energy sources.

9. Conclusions

In the transport and industry sector, currently, biodiesel is rapidlybecoming popular fuel. Although biodiesels are produced and exportedby many countries around the world, these countries are not healthand environment conscious. They are not using biodiesel to a greatextent. Biodiesel produced from feedstock available in Bangladesh wascritically reviewed in this paper. From the review the followingfindings are summarized:

� The crisis for energy in Bangladesh is heading towards a severedilemma as supply of fossil fuel will come to an end by 2050considering a 5% flat increasing in demand. Furthermore, globalwarming is threatening Bangladesh to be climate changevictim. Biodiesel can be the ultimate solution to overcome thisproblem.

� CO and HC emissions from combustion of biodiesel are lowcompared with diesel fuel.

� Fifty percent reduction of particulate emissions can be achievedif biodiesels are used.

� In some cases, biodiesel emits a slightly higher amount of NOx

compared to diesel.

� Mustard oil biodiesel are considered the most suitable replace-ment for diesel fuel as it is available, cheaper and economic inBangladesh.

� As Jatropha curcus is non-edible and has many advantageous asa renewable feedstocks such as high oil content, Jatropha alsocan be alternative to diesel fuel.

� Calorific value of biodiesel feedstock produced using transester-ification in Bangladesh varied from 32.6 MJ/kg to 52.13 MJ/kg,whereas that of diesel is 45.71 MJ/kg.

� The physicochemical properties such as density, CP, and PP ofbiodiesel produced in Bangladesh from available feedstockwere very similar to those of diesel fuel and meets ASTMstandard. Therefore, biodiesel can be an alternative to diesel inan unmodified diesel engine.

� Produced biodiesels do not contain any sulfur content.� The cost of biodiesel production is also analyzed which is quite

expensive as conventional diesel fuel. This study shows theprojected cost for pure biodiesel in the range of US$1.6 to23.96/L compared with diesel fuel cost is US$0.71 to 0.91/L,whereas using a blend of 20% mustard biodiesel with dieselturned to cost of US$0.77/L. Cost can be reduced by reducingthe raw material cost and the estimated process cost, and byrecycling the methanol after transesterification if commerciallyproduced.

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to appreciate University of Malaya forfinancial support through Grant no. CG060-2013 and High ImpactResearch grant titled: Clean Diesel Technology for Military andCivilian Transport Vehicles having Grant number UM.C/HIR/MOHE/ENG/07.

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