1. WHAT IS RESEARCH2. PURPOSE OF RESEARCH3. SOCIAL AND BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE

STUDIES4. STEPS IN THE RESEARCH

INVESTIGATION5. RESOURCES FOR RESEARCH6. RESEARCH ETHICS7. RESEARCH PROJECT: A CHECKLIST

PART 1INTRODUCTION

RESEARCH - WHAT IS IT?

It is an investigative process that can be distinguished from other forms of investigations by three unique requirements:

1. Objectivity2. Reproducibility3. Systematization

Brown, 1980

WHAT IS RESEARCH?

“A scientific process of inquiry that involves purposeful, systematic and rigorous collection of data. Analysis and interpretation of the data are then made in order to gain new knowledge or add to existing knowledge. Research has the ultimate aim of developing an organized body of knowledge”.

- A cyclical process of steps that typically begins with identifying the problem or issue of the study. It then consists of reviewing the literature, specifying a purpose for the study, and forming an interpretation of the information. This process culminates in a report disseminated to the audience that is evaluated and used.

PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

0 Advancing Knowledge0 Development of Theories

THROUGH

Systematic, Logical, and Empirical Means and Results can be Replicated

MOTIVATIONS FOR RESEARCH

Reasons why research is undertaken:- address gaps in knowledge- expand knowledge- Improve practice through new ideas, new insights

into methods- make more informed choices/decisions based on

available information- create data base for policy making as research

provides an understanding of the factors affecting desired outcomes

- Helps build skills – organizational, analytical, writing, presentation, time management, etc.

USEFULNESS OF RESEARCH TO PRACTITIONERS

The practical relevance or usefulness of research may be assessed by using the practitioner as a form of reference:

1. Descriptive RelevanceAccuracy of findings in capturing phenomena encountered by practitioners.

2. Goal RelevanceRefers to the correspondence of outcome (dependent) variables in a theory to the things the practitioner wishes to influence.

3.Operational ValidityConcerns the ability of the practitioner to

implement action implications of a theory by manipulating its caused (independent variables).

4. Non ObviousnessDegree to which a theory meets or exceeds

the complexity of common sense theory already used by practitioner.

5. TimelinessConcerns the requirement that a theory be

available to practitioners in time to use it to deal with problems.

SOCIAL AND BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE STUDIES

There is a chronic pessimistic feeling in the social and behavioural sciences that, when compared to the natural sciences, their progress has been exceeding slow.

TWO GENERAL SOURCES OF PESSIMISM IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES:

1. POOR CUMULATIONRefers to the observation that the social sciences do not show orderly progress and development as shown by physical sciences such as physics and chemistry.The newer work of the physical sciences builds directly upon previous work.The social sciences seem almost to be starting new with each succeeding volume of their research journals.

2. SMALL EFFECTSThe second source of pessimism is the problem of small effects. Even when the results seem to be replicable, the practical magnitude of the effect is always small. That is, they account for only a trivial proportion of the variance. Thus, the size effect is likely to be so small that it might not be of any practical use.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The accumulation of knowledge in the Social Sciences can be obtained through day-to-day experience and observation which may or may not be based on some kind of testing (ie. Folk Knowledge).

However, much of the accumulation of knowledge utilizes the Scientific Method. This method yields Scientific Knowledge which combines the testing of Folk Knowledge and theorizing of Literary Knowledge (I.e. created by an abstracting process which highlights the essential elements of human experience).

Cont’d……

The Scientific approach to knowledge accumulation underlies the Deductive and Positive approaches to Social Scientific analysis.

DEDUCTION - A process whereby general statements or hypotheses are generated by starting from

some basic axioms or assumptions.

INDUCTION - A process whereby hypotheses are derivable from empirical observations which might show a high degree of regularity (e.g. grounded theory).

POSITIVE- Analysis is concerned with what is actually occurring or has occurred. The focus is on

explaining with a view of predicting.

STEPS IN THE RESEARCH INVESTIGATION

1. Identification of Research Issue and Research Question.

2. Formulation of Research Problem3. Review of Related Literature4. Clarification of Concept

Identification/Operationalization of VariablesStatement of Hypothesis

5. Selection of Research Design6. Selection of Data Collection Technique7. Selection of Subjects8. Data Coding9. Data Analysis10. Results11. Discussions

IDENTIFICATION OFRESEARCH ISSUE/QUESTIONS

FOPRMULATION OFRESEARCH PROBLEMS

REVIEW OFRELATED LITERATURE

CLARIFICATIONOF CONCEPTS

IDENTIFICATIONOF VARIABLES

STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESIS

1 2 34

SELECTION OFRESEARCHDESIGN

EXPLORATORY

DESCRIPTIVE

CAUSAL

SURVEYS

CASE STUDIES

LABORATORYEXPERIMENTS

FIELDEXPERIMENTS

SELECTION OFDATA COLLECTIONTECHNIQUES

PRIMARYDATA

SECONDARYDATA

OBSERVATION

DIRECTCOMMUNICATION

PARTICIPANT

NON-PARTICIPANT

QUESTIONNAIRES

INTERVIEWS

PROJECTIVE

5

6

SELECTION OFDATA COLLECTIONTECHNIQUES

PRIMARYDATA

SECONDARYDATA

OBSERVATION

DIRECTCOMMUNICATION

PARTICIPANT

NON-PARTICIPANT

QUESTIONNAIRES

INTERVIEWS

PROJECTIVE

6

SELECTION OF SUBJECTS

CENSUS

SAMPLES

7PROBABILITY

NON-PROBABILITY

RANDOM

SYSTEMATIC

STRATIFIED

CLUSTER

JUDGMENTAL

QUOTA

CONVENIENCE

PLANNING OFDATA CODING

PLANNING OF DATA ANALYSIS DATA ANALYSIS RESULTS DISCUSSIONS

8

910 11 12

INITIAL QUESTIONS

Is the Research Feasible?

Is it Practical?

Are there suitable techniques available for carrying it out?

Are adequate resources available? (Time, Facilities, Financial, Skills)

CHOICE WILL DEPEND UPON THE CONSIDERATION ON THE FOLLOWING FACTORS.

RESOURCES FOR RESEARCH

AVAILABILITY OF:

TIMEFUNDSSKILLS

PHYSICALINTEREST

QUESTIONS

WHYWHATHOW

WHENWHO WITHHOW MUCH

RESEARCH ETHICS

ETHICAL ISSUES

1. Conducting the Research Effort.

2. Reporting or Applying the results of the research

THREE SPECIFIC CONCERNS IN RESEARCH ETHICS

1. DECEPTION AND ITS EFFECTS

i) By Omission - researchers do not tell subjects the whole truth about the study.

ii) By Commission - researchers give subjects false information

i.e deliberate lying.

2. INVASION OF THE PRIVACY OF SUBJECTS- By violating their rights, whether, when, and to what extent that their attitudes, beliefs, behaviour, and opinion are to be shared with others or withheld. E.g. using hidden codes.

3. HARM TO INDIVIDUALS OR GROUPS, THE RESEARCH DISCIPLINE, OR TO SOCIETY IN GENERAL.- Results of a particular study may harm a

particular group.

THE RESEARCH REPORT : A CHECKLIST OF ITEMS FOR POSSIBLE INCLUSION.

The following is a checklist of items which are typically included in a research dissertation or report. Not all of the suggested categories are necessary or appropriate for all studies, and the order of items within chapters may vary somewhat. These items are intended to serve as a guide.

CHAPTER ONE: THE RESEARCH PROBLEM-----------Introduction-----------Background of the problem (eg. trends related to the problem, unresolved

issues, social concerns)-----------Statement of the problem situation

(basic difficulty - area of concern, felt need)-----------Purpose of the study (goal oriented) – emphasizing practical outcomes -----------Questions to be answered or objectives to be investigated-----------Conceptual or substantive assumptions (postulates)-----------Rationale and Theoretical framework (when appropriate)-----------Delineation of the research problem (explication of relationships

among variables or comparisons to be considered)-----------Statement of hypotheses (conceptual rendition subsequently followed

by operational statements in this Chapter and/or in the Methodology chapter)

-----------Importance of the study - may overlap with statement of the research problems)

-----------Definition of terms (largely conceptual here; operational definitions may follow in the Methodology chapter)

-----------Scope and delimitations of the study (narrowing of focus)-----------Outline of the remainder of the thesis or proposal

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

--------Organization of the present chapter – overview--------Historical background (if necessary)

Purposes to be served by Review of Related Literature:--------Acquaint reader with existing studies relative to what have been found,

who has done work, when and where latest research studies were completed, and what approaches involving research methodology, instrumentation, and statistical analyses were followed (literature review of methodology sometimes saved for chapter on Methodology.

--------Establish possible need for study and likelihood for obtaining meaningful, relevant, and significant results.

--------Furnish from delineation of various theoretical positions a conceptual framework affording bases for generation of hypotheses and statement of their rationale (when appropriate)

Note: In some highly theoretical studies the chapter “Review of Literature” may need to precede “The Research Problem” chapter so that the theoretical framework is established for a succinct statement of the research problem and hypotheses. In such a case, an advance organizer in the form of a brief general statement of the purpose of the entire investigation should come right at the beginning of the “Review of Related Literature” chapter.

Sources for Literature Review-------General integrative reviews cited that relate to the problem

situation or research problem such as those found in Review of Educational Research, Encyclopedia of Educational Research, or Psychological Bulletin.

------ Specific books, monographs, bulletin, reports and research articles - preference shown in most instances of literature of the last 10 years.

------ Unpublished materials (e.g. dissertations, theses, papers presented at recent professional meetings not yet in published form).

------ Selection and arrangement of literature review often in terms of questions to be considered, hypotheses set forth, or objectives or specific purposes delineated in the research problem chapter.

------ Summary of literature review (very brief)

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY OR PRECEDURES-------Overview -------Description of research methodology or approach (eg. Experimental, quasi-

experimental, correlation, causal-comparative, or survey)-------Research design (spell out independent, dependent and other variables and

sometimes formulate an operational statement of the research hypotheses in null form so as to set stage for an appropriate research design permitting statistical inferences).

-------Pilot studies (as they apply to research design, development of instruments, data collection techniques, and characteristics of the sample)

-------Selection of subjects (this is concerned with sample and population.-------Instrumentation (tests, measures, observations, scales, and questionnaires).-------Field, classroom or laboratory procedures (eg. Instructions to subjects or

distribution of materials)-------Data collection and recording-------Data processing and analysis (statistical analysis)-------Methodological assumptions-------Limitations (weaknesses)-------Possible restatement of conceptual hypotheses from problem chapter in

operational form relative to instrumentation and experimental procedure or design followed (operationally stated hypotheses amenable to statistical testing) – if not done elsewhere.

-------Summary (optional)

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS (ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION)

--------Findings are presented in table or charts when appropriate------- Findings reported with respect to furnishing evidence for each

question asked or hypothesis posted in problem statement------- Appropriate headings are established to correspond to each question

or hypothesis considered------- Factual information kept separate from interpretation, inference, and

evaluation (one section for findings and one section for interpretation or discussion)

Note: In certain historical, case study and anthropological investigations, factual and interpretive material may meet to be interwoven to sustain interest level, although the text should clearly reveal what is fact and what is interpretation.

------ Separate section often entitled “Discussion”, “Interpretation”, or “Evaluation” ties together findings in relation to theory, review of literature, or rationale.

------- Summary of chapter

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS

-------Brief summary of everything covered in first three chapters and in findings portion of Chapter Four

-------Conclusions (“so what” of findings: often the hypotheses restated as inferences with some degree of definitive commitment and generalizability)

------Recommendations (practical suggestions for implementation of findings or for additional research)