واحد نجف آباد

Dr. Rastegari - Email: rastegari@iaun.ac.ir - Tel: +98331-2291111-2488

Chapter 3

RESEARCH PROPOSAL

RESEARCHMETHODS

Objective

Research ProcessResearch ProblemOriginality and ContributionResearch Variables Research HypothesisSelecting a ProblemProblem FormulationWriting of Research ProblemEvaluating Research ProblemTypes of ResearchStructure of Proposal

Research Process

Problem identification1

Review Information2

Data Collection3

Analysis4

Drawing Conclusions5

Start Point of a ResearchChoosing a General topic (area of research),

Narrowing the topic and collecting information

Explaining the topic Concepts

Identifying a Research Problem

Formulate and Evaluate your research problem

Find Variables in your research

Proposing a Hypothesis to solve the problem

Writing research Proposal

Finding a ProblemThis marks the beginning of a research study and is the

most difficult and important steps.

The steps are:a. identifying and stating the problem in specific formb. identifying the variables in the problem situation and defining them sufficientlyc. generating uncertain guesses (hypotheses) about the relation of the variables, or writing explicitly the questions for which answers are required; andd. evaluating the problem for its researchability

OriginalitySetting down a major piece of new information in writing for the first time• Continuing a previously original piece of work• Carrying out original work• Providing a single original technique, observation, or consult in an otherwise unoriginal but competent piece of research• Having many original ideas, methods and interpretations all performed by others under the direction of the postgraduate

Contribution Contributions made to the field is identified– Gap filled– Insufficient addressed– Extending the boundary of knowledge

• Results of research could be applied for“practice” / in wider field• Implications for future research indicated– New domain – Extension of work

SELECT A PROBLEM?From past studies, i.e look for

– Solution already found in parallel situation– Incomplete solution– Result unclear, uncertain, arguable, etc.Sources: books, journals, periodicals, annual reports….

NOTENeed a Critical Study of the literature to:– Define the problem– Limit the problem area– Avoid unnecessary repetition– Search for new approaches– Recommend suitable methods

SELECT A PROBLEM?Consultation / interaction with others

– Ask experts in area of interest – industries, universities,… Study current developments and trends – newspaper

– Examine the theoretical structure of the field– Explore areas of dissatisfaction, public interest journal, magazine- Websites of various organizations – govt., private sectors,

Requests For ProposalsBrainstorming

Maintain an idea notebook

Problems

Criteria for

Selecting a Problem

Interest:Your Own Interest

topic

Size:Not too large

Economy:Time, Cost

Uniqueness:Different method,

design, or analyses

Capabilities and

Limitations

PROBLEM FORMULATIONBegin with two important questions:

WHAT PROBLEM CAN BE SOLVED?HOW CAN THE PROBLEM BE SOLVED?

OBJECTIVES:To focus on a subject for researchTo examine a subject in multi facets

Methods or ProcessesSubdividingFree AssociationQuestioningCombined Approach

MethodsFree Association:Write down words or phrases that occur to us as they come to mind, without worrying about order, spelling, usefulness, applicability, or any other judgment

Subdividing: Divide the general area into progressively small units, subdividing it until one reaches a subject that is interesting to research

Combined Methods: To combine the above approaches in formulating a research Problem (more satisfactory practice)

WHO?•People

WHY?•Causes•Reasons•Results

Ask

Conceptual Map to Identify Problem and Purpose

1. Identify Large Topic Area2. Determine what is attached. Make a conceptual map identifying related topics3. Which part do you wish to explore now? (Fence off place in diagram)4. What part is most important? Identify "real" problem area. What is the most important and possible relative to scope and scale of study?5. Identify purpose area. What question most interests you about the purpose area that meets the requirements of #4. Construct refined conceptual map of the purpose area.

Evaluating Research Problem

Researchable?

Worthwhile?

Too large?

Too narrow?

Specific?

Significant?

Too Broad?

Feasible?

Is the problem Feasible?how long the research will take to accomplish

• important ethical constraints that need

consideration

• can achieve the needed cooperation to take the

project to its successful conclusion

• how significant are the costs of conducting the

research

Is the problem Researchable?

The questions include:Has the problem been specified?Is the problem amenable to research?Is the problem too large?How is the availability of the data?Am I capable of solving the problem?

Will the result be Significant?

The questions include:Will the result advance knowledge?Will the research have some value?Will the results be of interest to others?

General Questions asked by Examiners

• Why do you choose the research problem (topic) – who will benefit?

• What contribution to knowledge you feel your research makes?

• The appropriateness of your choice of methodology and data analysis

• Outcome that are publishable• How the research can be extended (further

works?)

Variables Very simply, a VARIABLE is a measurable characteristic that varies. It may change from group to group, person to person, or even within one person over time.

All experiments must have at least one independent variable and at least one dependent variable. If a researcher does not have control over at least one variable then the study is not an experiment.

The value of Variables can be Quantities or qualities (how long, how match brave).

IndependentUnwanted

Dependent

Moderator

Control

Intervening

Types of Variables

Independent and dependent(i.e., cause and effect)Independent variables act as the "cause" in that they precede,

influence, and predict the dependent variableDependent variables act as the effect in that they change as a

result of being influenced by an independent variableExamplesThe effect of Multimedia (independent variable)

on a new language teaching (dependent variable)

Some situations do not lend themselves to the use of the terms independent or dependent because it is difficult to discuss them in causal terms like:

The relationship between creativity and critical thinking, that is, do high levels of creativity cause higher levels of critical thinking or do higher levels of critical thinking cause greater creativity?

Moderate and InterveningMODERATOR VARIABLES. . . affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables by modifying the effect of the moderator variable(s). moderator variables are measured and taken into consideration. (when they are not the major focus of the study) include the sex, age, culture, or language proficiency of the subjects (second independent variable).INTERVENING VARIABLES. . . refer to abstract processes that are not directly observable but that link the independent and dependent variables. In language learning and teaching, they are usually inside the subjects' heads, including various language learning processes which the researcher cannot observe.

Control and UnwantedCONTROL VARIABLESLanguage learning and teaching are very complex processes. It is not possible to consider every variable in a single study. Therefore, the variables that are not measured in a particular study must be held constant, balanced, or eliminated, so they will not have a biasing effect on the other variables. Variables that have been controlled in this way are called control variables.UNWANTED VARIABLES. . . are those factors in the research environment which may have an effect on the dependent variable(s) but which are not controlled. Extraneous or unwanted variables are dangerous. They may damage a study's validity, making it impossible to know whether the effects were caused by the independent and moderator variables or some extraneous factor. If they cannot be controlled, extraneous variables must at least be taken into consideration when interpreting results.

Theory A theory is more complex than an hypothesis. It comprises a set of related propositions that attempt to formally specify the relationship between a set of variables (which may be observable, or theoretical) and an observable phenomenon. A theory usually represents a summary of a body of empirical data. Theories may be used to generate hypotheses, explain laws, or to build models, e.g. the theory of fuzzy logic.

Model A model is a theory, or combination of theories, which applies to a specific area or situation.

Often, the goal is to mathematically describe the relationship between a set of variables within a specific situation. Because models are applicable to certain situations they are usually less parsimonious than are theories.

Law

A law describes a relationship between a set of variables and has been so strongly supported in so many studies that it is accepted as fact.

An example of a law related to business research is the ‘law of supply and demand’.

Hypothesis It is an attempt to explain the nature of the relationship between the variables identified in the problem. A hypothesis is an attempt to suggest a possible answer to the problem based on available facts or information that the researcher already knows.

Definition: The tentative proposition suggested as a solution to a problem or an explanation of some observed state of affairs.It is a statement of the problem solver’s expectations about a relationship between variables, within a problem.

:مفھوم و تعريف فرضيه فرضيه عبارت است از حدس يا گمان انديشمندانه درباره ماھيت چگونگي و

تشخيص نزديكترين و روابط بين پديده ھا ، اشيا ، و متغيرھا ،كه محقق را در.محتمل ترين را براي كشف مجھول كمك مي نمايد

.فرضيه بر اساس معلومات كلي و شناخت ھاي قبلي يا تجارب محقق پديد مي آيد تفاوت فرضيه و نظريه چيست ؟

نظريه و قوانين عمدتا مشتمل بر قضاياي كلي و عمومي ھستند و به مورد خاصي در حالي كه فرضيه حالت . باشند تعلق ندارند و مي توانند مصاديق زيادي داشته

كلي ندارد و مختص مساله تحقيق است كه از قضاياي كلي ناشي مي شود ولي در .خاص شكل مي گيرد يك قلمرو

:منظور از تناظر صوري اين است كه .به تعداد سوالھاي فرعي ، فرضيه تدوين شود: اوال .ھر فرضيه در مقابل سوال مربوط به آن قرار گيرد: ثانيا

پس از آنكه محقق فرضيه يا فرضيه ھاي تحقيق را تدوين و صورت بندي كرد :ارزيابي آنھا مي پردازد آنگاه با تشكيل جدولي نظير جدول زير به

آيا فرضيه قدرت سنجش و تبيين حقايق را دارد؟ 1آيا نتيجه حاصل از آزمون فرضيه پاسخ مساله را خواھد داد؟ 2آيا صورت فرضيه ساده و قابل فھم است؟ 3آيا فرضيه قابليت آزمون پذيري دارد؟ 4آيا فرضيه به صورت جمله خبري بيان شده است؟ 5آيا تمام فرضيه ھاي مورد نياز تحقيق تدوين شده است؟ 6آيا واژه ھا و اصالحات اختصاصي تعريف شده است؟ 7

Type of Research

FundamentalDiscovery of Fact and Law Presenting of New Knowledge Theoretical Research

AppliedApplication of Fundamental ResearchSolution of a Real Problems

DevelopmentDevelopment of a ProcessTesting of a Theory in Real WorldLocalization of a Theory

Basic Researchused to explore the fundamental bases of behavior, without regard to how those bases are manifested in the real world. aims to explain, predict, and describe fundamental bases of behavior. For example, a popular memory procedure is to have people respond to words on a computer screen as fast as possible (e.g., saying the word, pressing a key). This can tell researchers about how information in your memory is linked to other information. Does this ever happen in real life? Outside of a really weird video game, probably not. Is it important? Yes, it can tell us a great deal about the processes of memory. This procedure is just one example but in fact, much of psychological research is basic research.

32

Applied Research

Unlike basic research, applied research aims to address and answer real-world problems. Importantly, applied research is, like basic research, based on previous theory. Examples of applied research topics include persuasion, eyewitness memory, clinical treatments of psychological disorders, behavioral interventions for children with autism.

33

Common MethodologiesMethodologies are high-level approaches to conducting research.

The individual steps within the methodology might vary based on the research being performed.

Two commonly used research methodologies:

Quantitative.Qualitative.

34

Methodology Comparison

Quantitative

Explanation, predictionTest theoriesKnown variablesLarge sampleStandardized instrumentsDeductive

Qualitative

Explanation, descriptionBuild theoriesUnknown variablesSmall sampleObservations, interviewsInductive

35

Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Objective / purpose

•To gain an understanding of underlying reasons and motivations•To provide insights into the setting of a problem, generating ideas and/or hypotheses for later quantitative research•To uncover prevalent trends in thought and opinion

•To quantify data and generalize results from a sample to the population of interest•To measure the incidence of various views and opinions in a chosen sample•Sometimes followed by qualitative research which is used to explore some findings further

Sample Usually a small number of non-representative cases. Respondents selected to fulfil a given quota.

Usually a large number of cases representing the population of interest. Randomly selected respondents.

Data collection Unstructured or semi-structured techniques e.g. individual depth interviews or group discussions.

Structured techniques such as online questionnaires, on-street or telephone interviews.

36

Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Data analysis Non-statistical. Statistical data is usually in the form of tabulations (tabs). Findings are conclusive and usually descriptive in nature.

Outcome Exploratory and/or investigative. Findings are not conclusive and cannot be used to make generalizations about the population of interest. Develop an initial understanding and sound base for further decision making.

Used to recommend a final course of action.

واحد نجف آباد

Dr. Rastegari - Email: rastegari@iaun.ac.ir - Tel: +98331-2291111-2488

Structure of Proposal

Content of Research ProposalChapter 1 Introduction

Background of the problem (to give scholarlybackground & rationale for the investigation)

Statement of the problem (to state in general &specific way)Objectives of the study (should be measurable)

Scope of the study (what is covered?)Significant of the study (refers to the rationale for

the study & its relationship to theory, knowledgeor practice)

Content of Research ProposalChapter 2 Literature Review*Review of relevant research to providerationale of the work eg:Present unanswered questions, untriedmethodFindings of others that is being challengedand extended* [Should give an up to date & critical appraisal of review of literatureShould demonstrate awareness of the debates & issues raised– for PhD, need to demonstrate that proposed work has not beenstudied before – identify niche]

WHAT EXAMINERS LOOK FORDoes the thesis contain a concise critical review of whatis currently known?

Have the deficiencies in our current knowledge beenTHESIS EXAMINATION-clearly identified and the significance of addressingthem been established?

Is there sufficient background provided, so thatexaminer can appreciate the research problemsthat need to be tackled?

Are the objectives clear and justified?

Content of Research Proposal

Chapter 3 Research MethodologyResearch Design & ProcedureOperational FrameworkSubjects or data sourcesInstrumentation & Data AnalysisAssumptions & LimitationsResearch Planning & Schedule• Chapter 4 Expected Findings andSummary• References

WHAT EXAMINERS LOOK FORAre the materials and methods detailed enough toensure that the work is reproducible?

Is the use of novel or non-standard methods orapproaches, fully justified?

Is the experimental design clearly articulatedappropriate to the objectives

Are the methods of statistical analysis appropriate?

WRITING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM (THESIS)

Normally in Chapter 1:THE PROBLEM AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

IntroductionBackground of the problemStatement of the problem

Purpose of the studyTheoretical frameworkStatement of hypothesis or research questionWRITING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM (THESIS)(IN GENERAL FORM)Importance of studyObjective and Scope of studyDefinition of termsSummary

WHAT EXAMINERS LOOK FORIs the significance of the results fully explored in relation

to current literature?Are the substantive discussion points brought up withfinality? Can one sees clearly what the candidate has

concluded?Has the ownership of the contribution been established? Something new?

واحد نجف آباد

Dr. Rastegari - Email: rastegari@iaun.ac.ir - Tel: +98331-2291111-2488