research article crystalline coating and its influence on...

Research ArticleCrystalline Coating and Its Influence on the WaterTransport in Concrete

Pavel Reiterman1,2 and Jiri Pazderka1

1Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Thakurova 7, 166 29 Prague 6, Czech Republic2University Centre of Energy Efficient Buildings, Czech Technical University in Prague, Trinecka 1024,273 43 Bustehrad, Czech Republic

Correspondence should be addressed to Pavel Reiterman; [email protected]

Received 28 November 2015; Revised 26 June 2016; Accepted 11 July 2016

Academic Editor: Gianmarco De Felice

Copyright © 2016 P. Reiterman and J. Pazderka.This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons AttributionLicense, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in anymedium, provided the originalwork is properly cited.

The presented paper deals with an experimental study of the efficiency of surface coating treatment based on secondarycrystallization as an additional protection of the subsurface concrete structure loaded bymoisture or groundwater pressure.The aimof the experimental program was the evaluation of the depth impact of the crystalline coating and the assessment of the reliabilityof construction joints performed on models simulating real conditions of the concrete structure. The evolution of the secondarycrystallizing process was monitored using the water absorption test carried out at different depths of the samples.The coefficient ofadsorption decreased to 60% of the reference mixture for a surface layer of up to 40mm at 28 days and to 50% at 180 days after thecoating’s application. Furthermore, the electrical resistivity method was applied with respect to the nature of measurement and thelow accessibility of real subsurface concrete structures. The results of moisture measurement at a depth of 180–190mm from thesurface treated with a crystalline coating showed an essential decrease inmoisture content percentage in comparisonwith untreatedspecimens (measured 125 days after the coating’s application).

1. Introduction

Additional protection of buildings against subsurface waterand moisture is one of the most frequent types of repairsof buildings. Crystalline coating is a technology which isdesigned primarily for an additional protection of under-ground concrete parts of buildings against moisture and sub-surfacewater.The compound for a surface-applied crystallinecoat or sprayed layer (in a thickness of 1–1.5mm) is createdby mixing crystalline powder material with water. The drycrystalline material (powder), which underlies the crystallinecoating, consists of Portland cement, specially treated quartzsand, and a compound of “active chemicals.” The chemicalcomposition of active chemicals in the crystalline material iskept confidential by all producers. The crystalline material’swaterproofing effect in concrete is achieved by the reaction ofvarious chemical components contained in the solutionwhencombined within the concrete matrix [1]. The process onlyworkswhen the porous systemof concrete reaches a sufficient

level of moisture and has open character, which is typical forthe concrete of lower grades. Sufficient transport properties ofthe concrete are probably the necessary prerequisite for thecrystalline agent efficiency. Therefore, perfect moistening ofthe coated surface is very important. In the case of a shortageof moisture inside the concrete structure, the crystallinecoating’s components lie dormant.

Crystalline materials in principle work so that the chem-ical components chemically react with a cementitious matrixin the process of hydration with the temporary formationof Ca(OH)2 and the subsequent formation of disilicateand polysilicate anions. It is probable that the cumulativeprocess is accompanied by the formation of 3Ca⋅2SiO2⋅3H2O,together with the creation of 3CaO⋅Al2O3⋅Ca(OH)2⋅12H2O[2]. The product of this chemical reaction is a growth ofneedle-shaped crystals inside the pore structure of concrete.The needle-shaped crystals change the pore structure ofconcrete, which results in its waterproofing effect. Thanks tothis, concrete with a crystalline coating is effective against

Hindawi Publishing CorporationAdvances in Civil EngineeringVolume 2016, Article ID 2513514, 8 pageshttp://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/2513514

2 Advances in Civil Engineering

(a) (b)

Figure 1: (a) Documentation of the preparation of prismatic specimens (scheme). (b) Documentation of the preparation of prismaticspecimens (measurement).

hydrostatic pressure as demonstrated by many successfulapplications [3–7]. There have also been many experimentallaboratory measurements of the waterproofing ability ofcrystalline waterproofing systems in the past, focused onverifying the waterproofing [8–13] and the durability [14–17] of concrete with crystalline coatings or admixtures. Anintegral crystalline waterproofing admixture works on aprinciple similar to crystalline coatings (both are based on thesame crystalline material), but the admixture is designed fornewly constructed buildings.

The results of the above-mentioned tests are very convinc-ing; thus, it is possible to declare the water impermeabilityand high durability of concrete with the crystalline coating.Thewaterproofing effect of the crystalline coat is conditionedon a strict technological discipline, especially the thoroughcuring of the fresh coat [18]. As mentioned above, without asufficient level of moisture inside the pore structure duringat least two or three days after the coat application, thewaterproofing effect is missing. Generally, the importanceof the curing of fresh concrete is well known; it is alsoconfirmed by the results presented in literature [19]. Asignificant danger to the overall waterproofing effect of thecrystalline coating (and also the admixture) is the crackingof concrete (problems of cracks in concrete were analyzed inliterature [5, 20]). It is necessary to note that the experimentalworks were performed on the mortars or concrete mixturesof lowmechanical properties and presumed higher hydraulicconductivity, respectively. Construction joints in concretemay also have a negative effect here (the problems with jointsare described in literature [21]).

In addition to the aforementioned properties of crys-tallinematerials, there aremany other researchworks focusedon the crystalline technology which include, for example, theappropriateness of using steel fibers in concrete with crys-talline admixtures [22], the problems with fly-ash usage incrystalline materials [23], the uniform design for the prepa-ration of crystalline waterproofing coatings [24], changes inthe water vapor permeability of concrete due to crystallinematerials [25], or the comparison of the physical propertiesof both crystalline technologies (coating and admixtures) andthe analyses of the financial aspect of their use [26].

2. Experimental Program

The performed experimental program was focused on theevaluation of the reliability of crystalline coating as an addi-tional solution for reducing water transport into concrete.A couple of measurement methodologies were carried outto quantify the crystalline effect of the introduced surfacetreatment. With respect to the nature of the studied issue, thecombination of direct and indirect measurementmethodolo-gies was chosen. For the direct evaluation of decreasing thewater transport in concrete, the water absorption test whosesuitable resolution in the application on mortars had beenproved in previous researchwas selected [27].The second oneis presented by electric resistivity methods, which are oftenused for in situ measurements.

2.1. Depth Effect of Crystalline Coating Measured through theWater Absorption Test. The assessment of the depth impactof crystalline coating was studied on prismatic specimenswith dimensions of approximately 40 × 40 × 200mm3, whichwere cut out of original cubes with an edge of 200mm. Thecoating was applied on one lateral side of concrete cubes atthe age of one month, and the specimens were then keptin ambient laboratory conditions. In selected time intervalsafter the coating’s application (28, 60, 120, and 180 days),sets of cubes were freed from the coating and sliced up intoprisms which were subjected to the water absorption test.Theprisms were sliced up with different orientations, parallel andperpendicular to the applied coating. The prisms sliced upparallel to the coating then introduced four sections diverselyinfluenced by secondary crystallization.

The lower base of the prisms of the perpendicular orien-tation was constituted by a treated surface, so the effect ofthe studied coating changed with the height of prisms. Thatis why the lower parts of these prisms were gradually cut off(each 10mm) to obtain a better resolution.The preparation ofprisms is documented in Figure 1(a) (scheme) and Figure 1(b)(measurement).

Absorption was measured by using prismatic specimenswhich were partially wetted (just up to 5mm) in a waterbasin. In selected time intervals, the growth of the water

Advances in Civil Engineering 3

Figure 2: Set of specimens with the moisture load arrangement.

mass absorbed into hardened concrete was gravimetricallyrecorded. The absorption coefficient 𝐴 (kg⋅m−2s−1/2) wascalculated for the time of ten minutes for each set of prismsaccording to (1), where 𝑖 is the cumulative mass ingressof water (kg⋅m−2) and 𝑡 time (s). The above-described testpresents a very quick way of the water capability assessment:

𝑖 = 𝐴 ⋅ 𝑡1/2. (1)

The above-described laboratory procedure was carried outin three different time periods to monitor the evolution andthe velocity of the crystallizing process. The first measure-ment was performed before the coating’s application at theconcrete’s age of 28 days and continued after 28, 60, 120,and 180 days. The selected time period of 10 minutes for thewater absorption test documents the evolution of progressivecrystallization of the studied surface treatment.

2.2. Depth Effect of Crystalline Coating Measured by the Elec-trical Resistivity Method. There are two physical methods ofdetermining the crystalline coating depth effect: chemicalanalysis and radar scanning of damp concrete. The chemicalanalysis can detect changes in the chemical compositioninside the material at different depths, but this method isnot able to observe the changes in the physical propertiesof the material. The radar scanning of damp concrete usesthe following principle: according to the amount of water inradar images it is possible to determine the distance betweenthe outside surface and the water-resistant microstructure.Subtracting this distance from the interior surface of thestructure, it is possible to determine the depth of the crys-talline coat’s waterproofing effect. The authors of this paperhave tried an alternative method using electrical resistivity.

The objective of the experimental program was to verifythe coating’s ability to create an impermeable layer at aspecific depth (to reduce the transport of liquid water into theconcrete structure). The test parameters were adjusted withrespect to the existing concrete structure (basement wall of ablock of flats in Prague) to accurately simulate real conditions.The measurement was carried out in the laboratories of theFaculty of Civil Engineering’s Experimental Centre, CTU, inPrague.

Rectangular samples (300 × 300 × 220mm) were de-signed and produced, where the last dimension was similarto the thickness of the studied basement wall. Altogether,

three sets of blocks were produced; each set was composed ofthree samples. The specimens were made of concrete C20/25according to BS EN 12390-2 [28]. After 28 days of curing, acrystalline coating (Xypex Concentrate) was applied on thefront surface (300 × 300mm) of one set of specimens. Theapplication was performed according to the technical sheet ofthe producer (Xypex), which includes the surface treatment,application, and subsequent curing. The other two sets ofspecimens were not coated.

Two sets of specimens (one treated and one nontreatedwith a crystalline coating) were then equipped with anadditional apparatus to simulate the moisture conditions(Figure 2). The simulation apparatus consisted of a plasticreservoir glued to the vertical wall of the specimen with anopening so that the fluid could be refilled. The waterproofperformance of this joint was essential for the designedsimulation and the interpretation of the measured data. Inthe case of specimens treated with a crystalline coating, theapparatus was fastened on the opposite (nontreated) surfaceof the specimen. The reservoirs of all specimens were thenfilled with water. The level of the water in the reservoirs waskept constant to ensure that the initial moisture gradient wasmaintained. The specimens of the last set were placed undernormal laboratory conditions, without any direct moistureloading.

A couple of 6mm diameter holes, 90mm apart, weredrilled into each specimen. These were used for the placingof brush sensors of the electrical resistivity moisture meter,to measure the gravimetric moisture content in the samples.The measurement was performed at a distance of 30–40mmfrom the loaded surface.The Greisinger GMH 3810 electricalresistivity moisture meter with implemented material char-acteristics was selected for the testing. The determinationof moisture content is based on the measurement of theelectrical conductivity of a porous material (concrete in thiscase). The applied apparatus measures the value of specificelectrical resistivity, which is fundamentally influenced bythe actual moisture content. A previous calibration or imple-mentation of material characteristics is necessary for thefinal determination of the gravimetric moisture content. Thescheme and organization of testing are shown in Figures 3 and4.

The measurement with the electrical resistivity moisturemeter was performed on all sets of specimens at different timeintervals: 28, 45, 90, 125, and 132 days after the productionof the specimens. The experimental program was completedby the destruction of each specimen. This was carried out atright angles to the moisture load direction using a hydraulicpress. The fragments were then immediately subjected todirect gravimetric measurement of their moisture contentfor the verification of the data provided by the electricalresistivity moisture meter. The fragments were removedfrom the area where the moisture measurement using brushsensors had been performed (about 30–40mm from theloaded surface). The drying of fragments was carried outin standard conditions of 105∘C to constant weight. Themoisture determination demonstrated variations of up to 5%in both types of measurements.


Specimen

(concrete structure)

Crystalline coating

Moisture

meter

Brush sensors

Gasket

Fluid

(water)

Plastic

reservoir

Refilling opening

Measurement depth30–40mm

Figure 3: Scheme of the test arrangement.

Figure 4: Real measurement by the electrical resistivity moisturemeter.

2.3. Crystalline Coating Reliability Affected by the ConstructionJoints in Concrete. To simulate a real situation, a set of real-sized specimens of reinforced concrete C20/25 which repre-sented water reservoirs was designed. To create constructionjoints, the specimens’ preparation was divided into threestages so horizontal and vertical construction joints couldbe created. A couple of PVC tubes were inserted into themoulds of the walls to model the holes for folding elementsof system’s formwork. The production of concrete specimensis illustrated in Figures 5(a) and 5(b). One concrete modelwas treated with crystalline coating at the age of one month;the other one served as a reference one. Then, the concretespecimens were prepared for the electric resistivity measure-ment as described above and the PVC tubes were choked up.The organizing of the experiment presents the state of thebuilding with finished setting, for example, the state beforereconstruction, where the equilibrium depth of the cracks isexpected.

The following measurement was provided by using theelectrical resistivity method in areas of construction jointsrunning periodically during the next 180 days. Thanks to thedepth impact of the crystalline coating, a gradual decreasing

of moisture in concrete was expected. Attention was paidto specific areas of construction joints and folding tubes;the monitored areas are drawn in Figure 5(a) (scheme) andFigure 5(b) (model).

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Depth Effect of Crystalline Coating Measured throughWater Absorption. The measurement of the coefficient ofwater absorption was performed in various time periods.Theresults of both types of reference specimens for selected timeintervals are shown in Figures 6 and 7. The time periodassigned “0” represents the age of 28 days when parts ofcubes were treated with the crystalline coating. The values ofthe absorption coefficient of the specimens sliced up parallelto the coating present the profile of transport properties ofthe original cube for each time period. Peripheral prisms(0–40mm and 160–200mm) exhibited increased values ofthe absorption coefficient because of the absence of coarseaggregates in the concrete cover. The results determined forall time periods are very similar.

Changing the water transport properties of the concretecover is shown in Figure 7. The values of the coefficient ofabsorption measured at different depths are similar for eachtime period, too.

The application of the crystalline coating led to thegradual reduction of water transport properties of the usedconcrete. Figure 8 documents the evolution of secondarycrystallization considered by the decreasing values of theabsorption coefficient across the cubic specimen. The firstmeasured section presenting 0–40mm of the original cubewas the most affected area. After 180 days, the absorptioncoefficient was reduced to less than 50% of the referencemeasurement. The second depth profile (40–80mm) after180 days was not influenced by the crystallization so muchand the reduction was by about 20%.The remaining sectionswere affected by the crystallizing coating very slightly and theabsorption coefficient of the last one was on the referencemeasurement level.


AB

C C

D D

(a) (b)

Figure 5: (a) Illustration of concrete reservoirs production (scheme). (b) Documentation of the models.

28 60 120 1800

Time (days)

0–40mm

40–80 mm

80–

120–

160–200 mm

0

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

0.07

Ab

sorp

tio

n c

oeffi

cien

t (k

g·m

−2s−

1/2)

160mm

120mm

Figure 6: Evolution of the absorption coefficient of referencespecimens: parallel with the coating.

The progress of secondary crystallization is well notice-able for the measurement carried out on the concrete cover(0–40mm) by using specimens sliced up perpendicularlyto the coating. Detailed results of the absorption coefficientare shown in Figure 9. This setting of the measurementallowed a better resolution of the depth impact of thecrystalline coating on the surface layer. The sealing effect ofthe applied coating is obvious after 28 days for the sectionof 0–20mm of the concrete surface when the absorptioncoefficient values reached the level of 50% of the referencemeasurement. The crystalline effect is inwardly progressivelydecreasing. The original water transport properties of theconcrete cover presented by 20mmwere reduced to 30% dueto the crystalline coating.

3.2. Depth Effect of Crystalline Coating Measured by the Elec-trical Resistivity Method. The results of moisture measure-ment under the loaded surface at a depth of 30–40mm(180–190mm from the surface treated with the crystallinecoating) are shown in Table 1. An essential decrease in themoisture content percentage by weight is evident, in the caseof specimens treated with the crystalline coating, over time.

0

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

0.07

28 60 120 1800

Time (days)

0mm

10 mm

20 mm

30mm

40mm

Ab

sorp

tio

n c

oeffi

cien

t (k

g·m

−2s−

1/2)

Figure 7: Evolution of the absorption coefficient of referencespecimens: perpendicular to the coating.

After 125 days, the moisture content level is equal to thereference set of samples cured under common laboratoryconditions, which were not loaded by moisture. The gradualreduction of the moisture content of treated specimens overtime is shown in Figure 10.

3.3. Crystalline Coating Reliability Affected by the ConstructionJoints in Concrete. When concrete models were filled withwater, leakage of all joints was observed on the wet con-crete surface; escaped water was continuously refilled. Theevolution of moisture content in the monitored areas ofconcrete reservoirs is documented in Figures 11 and 12. Theinitial periods of measurement were affected by the highlevel of moisture given by the rest of mixing water. Theresults of measurement for the reference model (Figure 11)constitute progress to the equilibriummoisture state for givenconditions. It is noticeable that the final moisture is increasedin the critical sections.

The decrease in the moisture content of the concretereservoir with the outside application of the crystallinecoating is shown in Figure 12. The gradual reduction of themoisture content determined using the electrical resistivitymethod is the case of the treatedmodel affected by the natural


Table 1: Evolution of moisture content in time.

Type of specimen Exposure Number Weight moisture of concrete (%)28 days 45 days 90 days 125 days 132 days

C20/25 without coating Wet1 8.9

8.97.8

8.49.1

8.87.5

7.87.8

7.92 8.9 8.7 8.5 7.7 8.33 9.0 8.8 8.9 8.1 7.5

C20/25 with coating Wet1 8.8

8.58.0

7.86.6

6.14.1

4.74.3

4.62 8.7 7.8 5.9 4.1 4.53 8.1 7.7 5.8 5.9 5.1

C20/25 without coating Dry1 5.1

5.74.8

5.34.7

4.93.8

4.63.6

4.42 6.1 5.9 5.1 5.2 5.23 5.9 5.1 4.8 4.8 4.4

28 60 120 1800

Time (days)

0

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

0.07

0–40mm

40–80 mm 160–200 mm

Ab

sorp

tio

n c

oeffi

cien

t (k

g·m

−2s−

1/2)

80–

120–160mm

120mm

Figure 8: Evolution of the absorption coefficient of treated speci-mens: parallel with the coating.

28 60 120 1800

Time (days)

0

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

0.07

Ab

sorp

tio

n c

oeffi

cien

t (k

g·m

−2s−

1/2)

0mm

10 mm

20 mm

30mm

40mm

Figure 9: Evolution of the absorption coefficient of treated speci-mens: perpendicular to the coating.

C20/25 without treatment, wet

C20/25 treated, wet

C20/25 without treatment, dry

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Wei

ght

mo

istu

re c

on

ten

t (%

)

40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 13030

Time (days)

Figure 10: Evolution of moisture content in time: graph.

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

5

5.5

6

6.5

Mo

istu

re (

%)

50 100 150 2000

Time (days)

A

C

B

D

Figure 11: Evolution of moisture content of the reference model.

loss of the rest of mixing water. On the other hand, thecomparison with the reference model provided the proof ofthe crystalline coating’s efficiency. The final moisture contentvalues are lower by about 1.0% absolutely.


2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

5

5.5

6

6.5

Mo

istu

re (

%)

50 100 150 2000

Time (days)

A

C

B

D

Figure 12: Evolution of moisture content of the reference model.

4. Conclusions

The depth impact of crystalline coating and its evolution intime was studied in the performed experimental program.The motivation was to assess the sealing effect of the presentmodern solution applicable as an additional protection ofsubsurface concrete structures. The results of the tests pre-sented in the paper have confirmed that the crystallinecoating (Xypex) is able to change the concrete structure at aspecified depth under the cured surface.This process resultedin the creation of the waterproof concrete structure.

There was confirmed the ability of the crystalline coatingto reduce water ingress in the area of the construction jointsin the experimental program; however, the test organizingpresents the state of the structure with the finished setting.Brittle character of the secondary hydration products pre-vents the efficient sealing effect of the active cracks. Therange and the speed of secondary hydration caused by thecrystalline coating are dependent on (inter alia) the amountof water inside the concrete: a higher degree of saturationmeans a higher efficiency. This is apparent from the compar-ison of the results between the water absorption test and thetest using the electrical resistivity method. In the case of themeasurement using the electrical resistivity method, the testspecimens were loaded by water pressure, which resulted ina large amount of water in the concrete structure. Thanks tothis, the secondary hydration (waterproof structure creation)was executed in a larger scale andmore rapidly. Nevertheless,the secondary hydration of crystalline materials is very slowprocess even in the ideal conditions: the impact was evidentafter several months. In contrast to this, drier specimens usedin the water absorption test did not support the secondaryhydration so much as in the previous case and resultedin a slower creation of the waterproof structure. It canbe concluded that the water doping is one of the crucialprerequisites for the efficiency of the studied coating. Theefficiency of the crystalline coating is probably determinedby the character of porous system of the concrete. It can beexpected that, in case of concretes with increased density andclose porous system, the efficiency would be considerablyreduced. However, such focused experimental works using

high performance concrete (HPC) have not been publishedyet.

Competing Interests

The authors declare that there are no competing interests.

Acknowledgments

The paper was created with support from the ResearchProject no. TA03010501 funded by the Technology Agencyof the Czech Republic and the OP RDI Project no.CZ.1.05/2.1.00/03.0091 funded by the EuropeanUnion, whichcollectively supported presented research.

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