Research into the efficiency, environmental footprint and welfare 

aspects of animal production

Professor Phil GarnsworthyDivision of Animal Sciences

School of Biosciences

Milk & Meat

Questions

• Do animals have any place in Food Security?

• Can livestock leave a smaller carbon footprint?

• Is intensive farming bad for animal welfare?

Do animals have any place in Food Security?

Do animals have any place in Food Security?

Some Myths and Misconceptions -• It takes 10 lbs of grain to make 1 lb of beef• Dairy cows produce more methane than a family car• Milk causes heart attacks• Intensive animal farming is cruel

Total Meat Consumption, by Region, 1983‐2020

50

88

139

88 97

184188

115

303

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Developing World

Developed World World

(mill

ion

met

ric to

ns)

1983 1993 2020

• Sources: FAO annual data. Total meat consumption for 1983 and 1993 are three-year moving averages. The 2020 projections come from IFPRI's global model, IMPACT.

• Published in: Outlook on Agriculture, Vol 30, pg. 28

Milk does not cause heart attacksHigh milk consumption lowers the risk of many diseases

How much grain does it take to produce a kg of meat?

(Figures used in Policy)

Poultry Pigs Cattle

Cabinet Office (2008)Food Matters

- - 7 to 10

Garnett (2009)Livestock-related greenhouse gases: impacts and options for policy makers.Environmental Science and Policy

1.7 2.4 5 to 10

Godfray et al. (2010)Food security: The challenge of feeding 9 billion people. Science

1 4 8

World Land Utilisation

• 67% Total Wasteland

– low rainfall, high temperature, low temperature, high altitude

• 11% Cultivated

• 22% Natural Grassland

– rangeland, savannas, steppes, bush

There is twice as much grassland as cultivated land

UK Land Utilisation30% Arable/Horticulture

10% Grass (short term 1‐4 yrs)

30% Grass (permanent)

30% Rough grazing

Even in the UK, there is twice as much grassland as cultivated land

We have to utilise grassland if we are to feed the population.Ruminants are very efficient at using grass, with strategic grain supplements

Human-Edible Proportion of FeedsHuman-Edible

ProportionGrazed pasture, silage, hay zeroCereal and pulse grains 0.8

Cereal co-products 0.2

Soyabeans and meal 0.8Other oilseed meals 0.2Other by-products 0.2Minerals and vitamins zero

Wilkinson, 2010

Energy Feed Conversion (MJ/MJ)Total Feed Edible Feed

Milk 4.5 0.5Upland suckler beef 40.0 1.9Lowland suckler beef 37.0 4.218-20 month dairy beef 23.3 3.2Cereal beef 13.2 6.2Upland lamb 62.5 3.6Lowland lamb 52.6 2.5Pig meat 9.3 6.3Poultry meat 4.5 3.3Eggs 4.9 3.6

Wilkinson, 2010

Dairy cows produce twice as much human-edible foodas they consume. Beef and sheep are as efficient as pigs and poultry

Protein Feed Conversion (kg/kg)Total Edible

Milk 5.6 0.71

Upland suckler beef 26.3 0.92

Lowland suckler beef 23.8 2.0

18-20 month dairy beef 14.9 1.6

Cereal beef 8.3 3.0

Upland lamb 35.7 1.6

Lowland lamb 30.3 1.1

Pig meat 4.3 2.6

Poultry meat 3.0 2.1

Eggs 3.2 2.3

Wilkinson, 2010

Milk and upland beef produce more protein than they consumeALL animal protein is higher quality thanplant proteins.

Improving Protein Conversion• Target:  <1.0 for kg edible feed 

protein/kg edible animal protein• Can be achieved by:

– Replacing concentrates by forage – Better use of forage protein– Replacing grain and soyabean meal (edible) by cereal co‐products (inedible)  

– Genetic selection for protein efficiency– Better control of animal diseases & fertility

Wilkinson, 2010

SLP 167  Environmental and nutritional benefits of bioethanol co‐products 

(ENBBIO)

Richard Weightman,Julian Wiseman, Phil Garnsworthy 

Supply of wheat DDGS expected to increasefrom 250 to 960 kt/yr, providing 307,000 t protein for animal feed, replacing soya. 

The soya issue

• 2009‐10 UK soya imports for animal feed = 1.1 Mt

• 78% from Brazil to avoid GM

• Mostly for – poultry (60%)

– pigs (30%)

– dairy cows (8%)

• Soya is grown on landafter deforestation

Greenhouse Gas EmissionsPer kg

product1Per MJ edible energy

Per kg edible protein

Milk 1.0 0.4 29

Suckler Beef 17 1.9 90

Lamb 13 1.6 68

Pig meat 4.0 0.7 20

Poultry meat 2.7 0.3 14

Eggs 3.0 0.5 23

1 Whole milk, bone-in carcase, egg mass. From Gill et al., 2009 and Audsley, 2010

MethaneGlobal Warming Potential23 times CO2

Dairy cows account for 31% of UK methane emissions

(Beef 45%; Sheep 20%)

Methane monitoring

• The average dairy cow produces 500 litres of methane per day• It is very variable• We have developed an online system to monitor methane when

cows come in for milking.

Individual Cow Methane

Individual cows vary in:Frequency of burpingMethane concentration in each burp

Variation among individuals

Between‐cowvariation is 10 times within‐cowvariation forcows on the same diet

Higher‐yielding cows are more efficientMilk yield and energetic efficiency

(per million litres)

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000

Energetic efficiency

Num

ber of cow

s

Milk yield (l/cow/year)

cows efficiency

250 cows 100 cows

Methane and Milk Yield1 million litres

6% GE

Diet adjusted

Garnsworthy (2004)

Higher yielding cows produceless methane per litre milk

Underlying trend 88 kg/year

Milk yield trend UK

Milk yield per cow has increased for 40 years

Cow numbers UKCow numbers have decreasedTotal milk output has remained steady

Replacement numbers 1984‐2005

Defra Statistics

3 lactations

4 lactations

Lifetime Milk & Methane Output

Same milk from 80% of cows

Lactations

3 4

Milk (t) 22.7 28.9 +27%

Methane (GJ) 39.1 44.2 +13%

Methane (MJ/l) 1.72 1.53 ‐13%

Dairy Cow Fertility ‐ Background• Infertility is biggest cause of wastage in UK dairy

– 33% of cows are culled each year (after 3 lactations)– >50% are perfectly healthy but fail to conceive– National shortage of heifer replacements– UK no longer self‐sufficient in milk– Fewer crossbred calves for the beef industry– Poor fertility adds 20% to CH4 and NH3 emissions

• Genetics  = long‐term solution (20 – 30 years)• Hormone injections are not ethically acceptable• Nutrition offers immediate benefits, but multifactor interactions are complex and not fully evaluated

Dairy Cow Fertility ‐ Progress

• 23 dietary treatments identified many effects of nutrition on:

– Metabolic Hormones: insulin, IGF‐1, GH, leptin

– Production responses: milk yield and composition, milk fatty acids, body condition, cow health

– Physiological responses: follicle growth, ovulation, oocyte quality

• Best strategy so far:High Insulin for 50 dthen Low Insulin

Intensive farming and welfare

The Five Freedoms1. FREEDOM FROM HUNGER AND THIRST ‐ by ready access to 

fresh water and a diet to maintain full health and vigour. 

2. FREEDOM FROM DISCOMFORT ‐ by providing an appropriate environment including shelter and a comfortable resting area. 

3. FREEDOM FROM PAIN, INJURY OR DISEASE ‐ by prevention or rapid diagnosis and treatment. 

4. FREEDOM TO EXPRESS NORMAL BEHAVIOUR ‐ by providing sufficient space, proper facilities and company of the animal's own kind. 

5. FREEDOM FROM FEAR AND DISTRESS ‐ by ensuring conditions and treatment which avoid mental suffering.

Farm Animal Welfare Council

Extensive0.5-2.0 ewes/haLambs reared 77%Mortality

Lambs 10 – 30%Ewes 8% Starvation

ExposureLamenessMineral deficienciesParasitic infectionsDeath

Intensive7 ewes/haLambs reared135%

From the SAME ewes!

Feather PeckingVice thought to be associated with cages and 

high density housing

• Incidence is much greater in free‐range flocks (FAWC, 2004)

• Controlled by debeaking, which is painful

Farrowing crates

• Designed to restrict movement of sows

• Deprive sow of nest building behaviour

• Reduce crushing of pigletsPiglet Mortality ‐20% nests 6% crates(Kavanagh, 1995)

Manor Farm 2003Straw YardsMilk Yield 9000 l/cow/yMastitis 4 cases per weekLameness high

Nottingham Dairy Centre 2004Cubicles, scrapers, robotic milkingMilk Yield 10,000 l/cow/yMastitis 2 cases per monthLameness low

Cows can spend 50-90% of time outdoors

Harper Adams preference study(2010)Cows chose to stay indoors on 66% of occasionsThey spent 92% of their time indoors

Ministerial response to the Nocton proposal

(8000 dairy cow unit in Lincolnshire)

• “It is not scale that is the determinant of welfare: there can be animal welfare problems at both small and large‐scale units. It has everything to do with the quality of the husbandry”.

Caroline Spelman, 9 Sept 2010

Conclusions

• Animals have a big role in Food Security – they utilise food unsuitable for human consumption

• Livestock can leave a smaller carbon footprint –by improving efficiency and lowering emissions

• Intensive farming can be better or worse for animal welfare – design and husbandry are key