research: potential of 3r techniques to enhance fresh
TRANSCRIPT
Research: Potential of 3R techniques to
enhance fresh water availability in Bangladesh
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Executive Summary
Dry season in Bangladesh causes water crisis
In Bangladesh, due to high salinity in surface and groundwater, people are facing acute water
crisis in many areas of the coastal region and hence, are looking for alternatives. To address the
water crisis in this region, where rainfall is abundant, the 3R techniques (water recharge,
retention and reuse) are often thought as a potential solution by experts. Several techniques of
3R can increase water storage capacity and improve water availability throughout the seasons.
Some of these techniques are ancient and time-tested, others are new and innovative.
How to enhance water availability through 3R options?
While several 3R techniques (groundwater recharge, soil moisture storage, closed storage tanks
and open surface reservoirs) have been used under different projects in Bangladesh to address
water scarcity, the applications are often constrained by a number of factors, including lack of
information on technologies, limited skills, lack of research and lack of awareness. Therefore,
adequate research was needed to facilitate the utilization of 3R techniques and to encourage
investment decisions towards effective and efficient use of the water resources. Hence, this study
was carried out focusing on assessing the 3R practices (that includes rainwater harvesting) in
Bangladesh, especially in rural areas of coastal region where the 3R techniques have been
practiced.
Mixed method of best practices, previous studies and expert knowledge
The study focused on understanding the context of coastal region in relation to water supply
systems, identifying main challenges in bringing 3R techniques into practices, the benefits and
sustainability of such practices, and potential for scaling up of the 3R techniques in Bangladesh.
During the study reports and publications on previous research and development projects carried
out by organizations/researchers working in WASH sector were studied. In addition, field visits
were conducted to assess the current condition of the different 3R techniques and to gather
feedback from beneficiaries. The study also took support from sector professionals to identify
the challenges and draft recommendations. The FIETS (Financial, Institutional, Environmental,
Technological and Social) sustainability criteria approach of WASH Alliance International was
used in the study in assessing the sustainability of the 3R techniques in the study areas.
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Successes of existing application of 3R options in coastal areas
Among the available techniques of water recharge, retention and reuse, groundwater recharge
is still in research phase in coastal areas where potential of Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) is
currently being tested. Its potential for scaling up in coastal region would largely depend on its
performance, and identifying the specific conditions (e.g., salinity level, catchment
characteristics, depth of water table, etc.) where MAR would be beneficial.
The soil moisture storage practice was found in limited areas as the soil salinity in many areas of
the coastal region due to natural and man-made reasons has made agriculture difficult. However,
in areas that are favorable for agriculture, storing rainwater in soil and small ponds for irrigation
in dry period has shown good results and provides potential for improvement of existing farming
practices. This practice would keep the soil quality favorable for agriculture in saline-prone areas
and beneficial because with small low-cost farmer level interventions, less water from external
source is needed, limiting infrastructure needed for irrigation.
The closed tank storage technique, which is mainly rooftop rainwater harvesting system using
closed tanks, is one of the most popular options for rural communities in salinity affected areas.
Given the proven application this technique has good potential to be scaled up. If rainwater tank
of adequate capacity can be provided to the users, this technology can fulfill the year-round
demand. However, attention is needed on management of water quality and promotion of low-
cost systems considering the affordability of low-income people to install the systems.
The fourth technique is storing rainwater in open surface reservoirs for using in dry period for
drinking/cooking purposes as well as for agriculture. These ponds or reservoirs was found as
source of water in many villages where groundwater is saline or difficult to extract (hilly areas).
Since the acceptance of pond water is very high for drinking/cooking purposes in absence of fresh
groundwater and/or rainwater during dry season, there is scope of developing pond water based
water supply systems in saline affected areas. Few individuals/organizations have started making
business by selling pond water after treatment in few areas. Lack of proper management and
inadequate awareness among the stakeholders were found as the main challenges.
How to sustain 3R interventions in Bangladesh
In Bangladesh, there is potential for scaling up of the techniques of water recharge, retention
and reuse to address the challenge of water availability and to improve use of the abundant
rainfall in the dry period. While some of the 3R interventions have been found very popular (e.g.,
closed tank storage, use of small reservoirs for farming, etc.) in many areas of the coastal region,
its applicability could be enhanced through strong collaboration among government, its
development partners and local communities to improve the water supply system in coastal
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region of Bangladesh. To make the best use of the available 3R techniques and to be sure that
implementation of systems is sustainable, the following areas need to be emphasized: developing
mechanism for financial sustainability, including an institutional approach, performing site
specific research, awareness raising activities and local and regional capacity building on 3R.
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Contents
Executive Summary ................................................................................................................................ 1
Contents.................................................................................................................................................. 4
List of Figures .......................................................................................................................................... 6
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 7
2. Background and Objectives.................................................................................................................. 9
2.1 What is 3R ..................................................................................................................................... 9
2.1.1 Recharge ................................................................................................................................. 9
2.1.2 Retention ................................................................................................................................ 9
2.1.3 Reuse .................................................................................................................................... 10
2.2 Application of 3R ......................................................................................................................... 10
2.3 FIETS Sustainability Criteria .......................................................................................................... 13
2.4 Study Context and Objectives ...................................................................................................... 17
3. Methodologies .................................................................................................................................. 19
3.1 Collection and review of relevant publications/reports: ............................................................... 19
3.2 Collection and analysis of rainfall data: ........................................................................................ 19
3.3 Development and finalization of assessment tools: ...................................................................... 20
3.4 Site selection for field visits: ......................................................................................................... 20
3.5 Field visits, FGD and KII ................................................................................................................ 21
3.6 Consultative workshop: ............................................................................................................... 22
4. Groundwater Recharge and Storage .................................................................................................. 24
4.1 Technologies of groundwater recharge ........................................................................................ 24
4.2 Potential and practice of groundwater recharge .......................................................................... 25
4.3 FIETS Sustainability Assessment ............................................................................................... 28
5. Soil Moisture Storage ........................................................................................................................ 29
5.1 Technologies ................................................................................................................................ 29
5.2 Potential and practices of soil moisture storage ........................................................................... 30
5.3 FIETS sustainability assessment .................................................................................................... 36
6. Closed Tank Storage .......................................................................................................................... 38
6.1 Technologies ................................................................................................................................ 38
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6.2 Rooftop rainwater harvesting in coastal areas.............................................................................. 39
6.2.1 Household Rainwater Harvesting System .............................................................................. 40
6.2.2 Community-based Rainwater Harvesting System ................................................................... 43
6.3 FIETS sustainability assessment .................................................................................................... 46
7. Open Surface Reservoir ..................................................................................................................... 48
7.1 Technologies ................................................................................................................................ 48
7.2 Retention ponds in coastal areas ................................................................................................. 48
7.2.1 Case study: The Jholomoliya Pond ......................................................................................... 49
7.2.2 Case study: The Gasi Pond ..................................................................................................... 50
7.2.3 Case study: Water reservoirs in hilly areas............................................................................. 51
7.2.4 Case study: Retention pond in Dacope: earning money by selling pond water ....................... 53
7.2.5 Case study: Mini pond excavation for fish culture and watermelon ........................................... 54
7.3 FIETS sustainability assessment .................................................................................................... 55
8. Conclusion and Recommendation ...................................................................................................... 57
8.1 Conclusion and key learning from the study ................................................................................. 57
8.2 Recommendation ........................................................................................................................ 59
9. References ........................................................................................................................................ 62
Annex-1 ................................................................................................................................................. 65
Annex-2 ................................................................................................................................................. 67
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Buffering techniques for retaining unused water..................................................................... 11
Figure 2: Overview of 3R techniques (Tuinhof et. al., 2012) ................................................................... 12
Figure 3: Study areas including field visits and report review ................................................................. 21
Figure 4: Consultative workshop in Dhaka for sharing of research findings ............................................ 22
Figure 5: Mean ground water table depth (m) for the height of the dry season (March, April and May).
(BWDB) ................................................................................................................................................. 26
Figure 6: Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) system in Mongla upazila under Bagerhat district ............. 27
Figure 7: Rainwater based agriculture and aquaculture on same land in Voroshapur ............................. 33
Figure 8: Harvesting of Aman rice (left) and vegetable garden (right) where rainwater was used ........... 34
Figure 9: Dyke cropping using drip irrigation system in Satkhira ............................................................. 35
Figure 10: Sectional sketch of the rainwater harvesting reservoir system studied (not to scale) [Source:
Islam et. al., 2016] ................................................................................................................................. 36
Figure 11: Ferro-cement (left) and brick-made (right) rainwater reservoirs of 3,200 and 3,600 L capacity
respectively ........................................................................................................................................... 41
Figure 12: Household rooftop rainwater harvesting system of 1,000 L capacity in Satkhira .................... 41
Figure 13: Us of "Motka" for storing rainwater during rainy season in Khulna ........................................ 42
Figure 14: Use of "Motka" for storing rainwater at household level in Bagerhat .................................... 42
Figure 15: Community scale rainwater harvesting system in Bagerhat near a temple............................. 44
Figure 16: Rainwater harvesting system in Dacope union of Khulna district ........................................... 45
Figure 17: The Jholmoliya pond that is the source of water for more than 40,000 people during dry
season ................................................................................................................................................... 49
Figure 18: The Gasi Pond that is used as source of drinking and cooking water for the villagers ............. 51
Figure 19: Nayapara refugee camp reservoir in Teknaf upazila under Cox's Bazar district ...................... 52
Figure 20: Rainwater retention pond in Bajua village of Dacope union in Khulna district ........................ 53
Figure 21: Treatment plant used for treating rainwater stored in retention pond .................................. 54
Figure 22: Mini pond in Deluti Union used for aquaculture and water melon production ....................... 55
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1. Introduction
The WASH Alliance International (WAI) is a multi-national consortium of over 100 partners
worldwide. WASH Alliance works together with local NGOs, governments and business
organizations to make sure everybody on this planet has sustainable access to water and
sanitation. With its programs, WASH Alliance aims to achieve increased sustainable access to and
use of safe water and sanitation services. To realize this overall ambition, WAI has formulated
two supporting objectives (wash-alliance.org):
• Increased improved access to and use of safe water and sanitation services and improved
hygiene practices
• Civil society actors are strengthened to jointly and individually better respond to the
needs of the communities and influence decision making on WASH service delivery
WASH Alliance International stands for a shift from hardware-construction towards WASH sector
development. Its innovative acceleration approach will not only sustain after programs stop, it
will also accelerate and be able to meet the needs of a growing population. Although much has
been achieved under the Millennium Development Goals, it is also true that 700 million people
still do not have access to clean water and 2.5 billion people do not use improved sanitation
facilities. This makes WAI extra committed to achieve Sustainable Development Goal 6, aiming
at full coverage of WASH for everyone on this planet by 2030 (wash-alliance.org).
Accelerating WASH requires a mind-set focused on reaching everyone (‘thinking big’). This
encompasses standardization of products & services, cost efficiency, and using effective multi-
stakeholder techniques for lobbying the government, community mobilization and generating
demand. WAI facilitate the development of a system in which all stakeholders, such as private
sector, public sector, organized citizens and NGOs work together and know their roles and
responsibilities (wash-alliance.org).
In the countries in which WAI is active, it works on changing mindsets and creating systems for
sustainable and affordable WASH services that create structural change and can accelerate,
which is the only way to adapt to fast population growth and urbanization. The WASH Alliance
Bangladesh (BWA) is one of the partner country alliances of the WASH Alliance International. It
is an alliance and network of a number of national and international NGOs working on various
aspects of accelerating WASH in Bangladesh. BWA is working together with multi-stakeholders
towards a society where all people can assert and realize their right to sustainable access to safe
drinking water in sufficient quantities, adequate sanitation and hygienic living conditions to
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improve their health, nutritional status and economic living standard. Over the last 5 years, BWA
has achieved an additional 227,861 people that have access to and use improved sanitation
facilities, and additional 140,947 people use improved water resources. BWA partners proved
some best practices on WASH service delivery through contributing in functioning WASH market,
empowering and organizing citizens and functioning WASH public sector. Its sanitation
entrepreneurship development through market promotion and linking micro finance with
producers and buyers contributes in improved sanitation in the country. “Budget tracking” has
also yielded in increasing government budget for WASH and fecal sludge management by
involving pit emptier has shown positive results. BWA is working as a unique platform as well as
a good convener for the NGOs and civil society organizations for lobby and advocacy in
Bangladesh.
Recently WASH Alliance International has come forward to support further advancement in
water management in Bangladesh through a local research on identifying the potential of 3R
(recharge, retention and reuse of water) techniques in Bangladesh. RAIN
(www.rainfoundation.org), one of the founding members of the 3R consortium
(www.bebuffered.com), was recently asked by WASH Alliance International (WAI) to provide
more information about the possibilities of rainwater harvesting for WASH (water, sanitation and
hygiene), and in particular the options for 3R (water recharge, retention and reuse) applications
in Bangladesh. Bangladesh ranks as one of the most vulnerable country to the impacts of Climate
Change in the coming decades. Due to climate changes, it is expected that there will be more
variable precipitation, more extreme weather event, and more frequent floods. Bangladesh’s
water crisis affects both rural and urban areas, and is a matter of both water scarcity and water
quality. Salinity and arsenic pollutions in groundwater are decreasing the availability of fresh
water, leaving people to rely on unprotected water sources. At the same time the population is
increasing dramatically leading to the highest demand on water in history. Hence, considering 3R
solutions to address these problems is of major importance to both WASH Alliance International
and for its country partner Bangladesh WASH Alliance. This report presents the outcome of the
research carried out by RAIN on behalf of WASH Alliance International in coastal areas of
Bangladesh to assess the potential of up scaling 3R practices to improve access to safe water.
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2. Background and Objectives
2.1 What is 3R
3R stands for Recharge, Retention and Reuse - the main elements in managing the water buffer.
3R is about managing the water buffer - both for development and climate change adaptation -
through recharge, retention and reuse of groundwater and rainwater. 3R can substantially
contribute to increasing the quantity and quality of water resources. The use and reuse of
buffered water allows for the increased availability of water, as it circumvents water allocation
conflicts through simply using and re-circulating the water (RAIN and NWP, 2014). Groundwater
recharge, fresh water storage and rooftop rainwater harvesting are examples of some 3R
solutions with proven results worldwide. A brief description of the components of 3R is provided
in this section.
2.1.1 Recharge
Recharge may derive from a number of sources, for example, the interception of rain and run-off
water (natural recharge), from the increased infiltration of natural processes by manmade
interventions (e.g., managed aquifer recharge-MAR) or it can be a by-product from an alternative
source (for example, inefficient irrigation or leaking pipes in water supply systems). Recharge
requires the management of natural recharge, the application of artificial recharge and the
controlling of incidental recharge. Natural recharge management is very important and may be
derived from elements in the landscape that slow down or retain surface run-off, like terraces,
low bunds, depressions or intelligently designed roads. Natural recharge can also be derived from
direct infiltration through better tillage techniques and mulching. Recharge is essentially the
charging and recharging of the water capacity of an area (RAIN and NWP, 2014).
2.1.2 Retention
Retention is the storage of recharged groundwater, surface water or rainwater in one place. The
slowing down of the lateral flow of ground water and the creation of a buffer in the shallow
groundwater can result in groundwater retention. Surface water retention means that water is
held where it flows to, for example, in ponds or depressions. Retention can also be achieved
through manmade systems like below surface tanks or rainwater jars. Retaining water allows for
the extension of the chain of water use (RAIN and NWP, 2014).
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2.1.3 Reuse
Reuse is the third factor in buffer management. 3R’s biggest challenge is to allow water to
circulate as often as possible. Scarcity is not resolved simply by managing demand by reducing
usage or promoting more efficient use, it also requires actions to keep water in active circulation.
Three processes are important in managing reuse: controlled (non-beneficial) evaporation,
management of water quality and the ensuring of availability and accessibility over time.
Controlled evaporation may be achieved by efficient irrigation. This type of irrigation reduces the
evaporation loss in the irrigation process and makes sure that the majority of the water used
directly benefits the crops. It is important to strike a fine balance between keeping good soil
moisture and avoiding loss of water through evaporation. The second process of managing the
water quality is largely dependent on the required quality for the intended purpose, as different
purposes demand different qualities. It is important therefore that high-quality water is not
mixed with a lower quality of water. Special emphasis and effort must therefore be placed on
keeping the water quality within safety thresholds when reusing water, or in the circulation of
water. To thoroughly ensure water availability and accessibility requires water not be allowed to
migrate to an area from which it is hard to retrieve or reuse. Recharged water in a dry
unsaturated buffer, although not lost, is hard to retrieve and difficult to bring back into
circulation. Saturated buffers on the other hand allow for easy retrieval, therefore increasing ‘wet
water buffers’ is an important challenge for 3R (RAIN and NWP, 2014).
2.2 Application of 3R
Several techniques of water harvesting can increase storage capacity at the scale of a sub-basin
and improve its management. It is generally discernible that there are a number of
traditional/indigenous and modern/adopted rainwater-harvesting and water retention
techniques and practices being employed deserving to be considered as important alternatives
for improving the utility and augmenting the supply of fresh water and for other multiple uses,
which is ever dwindling. Some of these techniques are ancient and time-tested, others are new
and innovative. It is important to recognize that water should not only be managed when it is
scarce, as in arid areas, but also when it is abundant. The way this fact is addressed may differ in
arid and in humid areas, but better water management and climate change adaptation are
necessary everywhere. 3R aims to design and integrate these individual solutions for the entire
basin or sub-basin in a close link with all local planning activities including spatial planning, and
the planning of local infrastructure, land development, irrigation and nature areas (Steenbergen
and Tuinhoff, 2010).
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This approach focuses on water buffering to better manage natural recharge, and to extend the
chain of water use. When water is abundant, a substantial portion is commonly lost or unused
through floods, surface runoff and evaporation. Through buffering techniques this unused water
can be retained as indicated in figure 1 below.
Figure 1: Buffering techniques for retaining unused water
The 3R techniques can be distinguished in four main categories, or strategies (Studer and Liniger,
2013), which are:
(a) Groundwater recharge and storage: This is “closed” storage hence evaporation losses are
smaller than under open water storage. Water is not directly available as wells are
necessary to access it from the ground. Examples include sand dams, infiltration ponds,
and spate irrigation.
(b) Soil moisture conservation in the root zone: This storage option is relatively closed as
water is stored in the upper part of the soil (the root zone). Part of the water can be used
by crops though part percolates deeper to recharge the groundwater. Examples include
grass strips, deep ploughing, and conservation agriculture.
(c) Closed tank storage: This provides a method to store water in a clean manner, close to
the location where it is used as drinking water. Examples include rooftop tanks,
underground cisterns.
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(d) Open surface water storage: This provides a method to store larger volumes and can be
used for agricultural and industrial purposes. Examples include small storage reservoirs,
road water harvesting.
Each type of buffer option has its own strength and weakness, and local conditions usually help
define which to use. In general, the buffering capacity increases as one moves from small to large
storage, and from surface to soil or groundwater storage. Often different types of storage
complement each other in water buffering at landscape and basin level. There is no standard
approach to determining ‘buffer strategies’, as different socio-economical and environmental
conditions set different starting points. Much is to be gained, however, from tailoring 3R to local
opportunities and preferences (Studer and Liniger, 2013). In figure 2 a large sample of water
buffering techniques are shown, ordered by retention and recharge method. The advantage of
this classification is that it is system based and application oriented. The overview shows there
are many options at hand – which might be used under different local conditions (Tuinhof et. al.,
2012).
Figure 2: Overview of 3R techniques (Tuinhof et. al., 2012)
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2.3 FIETS Sustainability Criteria
Besides studying the technical sustainability of the practiced 3R techniques, WAI also focuses on
other aspects that help ensuring sustainability of the technology used. The focus of the WASH
Alliance is to create results that are able to sustain themselves after the support has stopped. To
realize this, WAI identified five key areas of sustainability that need to be addressed to achieve
structural impact, which are Financial, Institutional, Environmental, Technological and Social
sustainability (http://wash-alliance.org/our-approach/sustainability/). This approach is called
FIETS sustainability approach which has been used in this study.
The FIETS principles of sustainability were formulated by the Dutch WASH Alliance to help create
results that are able to at least sustain themselves, but that are preferably also able to scale-up
the projects to create more outreach. A brief description of each of the five sustainability criteria
is provided here.
Financial Sustainability:
Financial Sustainability means that continuity in the delivery of products and services related to
water, sanitation and hygiene is assured, because the activities are locally financed (e.g. taxes,
local fees, local financing) and do not depend on external (foreign) subsidies. It mainly focuses
on providing innovative financial concepts which diminish dependency on external subsidies,
using the principle “local finance first”, leading to the strengthening of the “in-country” structural
finance. The main strategies are business approaches and private sector involvement, innovative
financing and mobilize government budgets.
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The main criteria for financial sustainability are:
1. Projects are substantially and progressively co-financed by local stakeholders, especially
the share from (local) private investors is valued positively but also financing through tax
revenues is seen as sustainable.
2. Local entrepreneurs and companies take up an increasing and serious role in the provision
of WASH services.
3. Project and initiatives are based on a business (plan) approach, including operation,
maintenance and depreciation, preferably with positive financial results within the
project period. Payments by the end user are based on market research on paying ability
and life cycle costs.
4. After the project period, WASH service provision can be sustained based on local finance,
meaning based on payment for services by the end-users or tax revenues.
Institutional Sustainability:
Institutional sustainability in the WASH sector means that WASH systems, institutions, policies
and procedures at the local level are functional and meet the demand of users of WASH services.
Households and other WASH service users, authorities and service providers at the local and the
national level are clear on their own roles, tasks and responsibilities, can fulfil these roles
effectively and are transparent to each other. WASH stakeholders work together in the WASH
chain through a multi stakeholder approach. It helps to ensure systems, institutions, policies and
procedures at the local and national level that are functional to meet the (long term) demand of
users of water and sanitation services. Civil Society Organizations (CSO) work in close
collaboration with local stakeholders, including the private sector, as capacity builders,
facilitators and watch dogs representing the voice of ordinary people, working from a rights
based approach. The strategies may include multi-actor approach / PPPs, capacity building, policy
influencing & monitoring.
The main criteria for institutional sustainability are:
1. A mandated local party (local business or government), that is (or is made) responsible
for the delivery of services and/or products, and that represents especially the interests
of the weakest stakeholders, has (or gets) a leading role.
2. The interests of the different stakeholders in the WASH chain are structurally
incorporated and met.
3. Activities must be in accordance with local policies, laws and regulations. If not, this must
be solved through improved cooperation and coordination in line with sustainability
criteria.
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4. Transparency and accountability of planning, decision making, use of budgets and results
must be met by all stakeholders involved (for example by the use of innovative ICT
applications).
5. Training/capacity building of the local private sector must be structurally embedded in
order to ensure sustainability of the service/product.
Environmental Sustainability:
The element of environmental sustainability implies placing WASH interventions in the wider
context of the natural environment and implementing an approach of integrated and sustainable
management of water and waste(-water) flows and resources. WASH interventions connect to
and effect the natural environment and hence people’s livelihood. It helps ensuring long-term
availability of natural resources, climate resilience and a healthy environment. The strategies
include Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM), ecosystem approach, climate change
adaptation.
The main criteria for environmental sustainability are:
1. The project at its base has knowledge of the hydrological, ecological and socio-economic
situation of the (smallest) relevant catchment level in which the intervention takes place.
2. The project involves the analysis of the impact of the interventions on the environment
(particularly water and soil) and the immediate environment of the target by means of an
Environmental Impact Assessment. Crucial part of this is a hydrological analysis of the
project. The project preferably has a positive impact on the environment, but should have
no negative effect on it.
3. The project uses sustainable techniques. Here, preference is given to techniques which a)
make use of durable water (such as rainwater according to the approach 3R), or in such a
way that makes use of natural water while the groundwater level remains the same, b)
prevention or reduction of contamination of water, soil and air (due to CH4 methane
emissions) to an acceptable level (such as eco-sanitation), c) purification and reuse of
wastewater and sanitation, and 4) important/prevailing ecosystem services can be
maintained/are not diminished.
4. The project should strengthen capacities and increase knowledge and awareness on
linkage between WASH interventions and the natural environment. This can be done by:
• Including environmental actors in WASH platforms, committees, networks and
programs/projects at all levels,
• Strengthening capacities and knowledge (through trainings, learning alliances, pilots,
etc.) on environmentally sustainable tools and approaches (see criteria 1).
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5. The project should influence governmental key players in WASH to make informed
decisions and ensure integration of environmental sustainability in policies and programs.
This can be done by:
• Including environmental paragraphs in policies and legislations on WASH,
• Allocating budget to environmentally sustainable WASH programs.
Technological Sustainability:
Technological sustainability of WASH services is reached when the technology or hardware
needed for the services continues to function is maintained, repaired and replaced by local
people and it is not depleting the (natural) resources on which it depends for its functioning. It
helps to seeking and applying locally appropriate technologies of high quality, which are context-
specific, affordable, durable and demand-driven. The key strategies include appropriate
technologies, innovative ICT-solutions, systems approach.
The main criteria for technological sustainability are:
1. Sustainability (availability) of the hardware/ technology is based on a viable business
model; that is, the activities of the actors in the chain of supply, installation and
maintenance do have enough financial incentive to sustain the services;
2. Proposed technology is produced or procured, installed and maintained by the local
private sector (or in specific cases by end user groups or cooperatives that could take over
such a role).
3. For new technologies, training should be included to transfer all knowledge and expertise
needed for the continued functioning to the local level.
4. For household level options, it is essential that the technology can be acquired by the
majority of the intended users free of subsidy. In case where a (micro) financing scheme
is used, the repayment period of the loan does not exceed the expected lifetime of the
technology. For communal systems (like community hand pumps or piped water supply),
the users should (periodically) pay for the services to such an extent that not only costs
for repair and maintenance are covered but also reservations are made to replace the
system after its lifetime.
Social Sustainability:
Social sustainability refers to ensuring that the appropriate social conditions and prerequisites
are realized and sustained so the current and future society is able to create healthy and livable
communities. Social sustainable intervention is demand-driven, inclusive (equity), gender equal,
culturally sensitive and needs-based. It helps making WASH interventions demand-driven,
inclusive and needs-based, being sensitive to local and cultural incentives, addressing issues of
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exclusion and focusing specifically on women as change agents. The key strategies include gender
mainstreaming, rights based approach.
The main criteria for social sustainability are:
1. The project/program is demand driven and aimed at provision of basic services on the
basis of rights based approaches and enhances empowerment (of women and
marginalized groups).
2. The project/program includes concrete actions to ensure that the interests of all groups
in society, including women and especially the marginalized, are taken into account. The
project/program guarantees the interests of the marginalized people are anchored in
constitutions, bylaws, ownership agreements and consultation/coordination
mechanisms.
3. The project/program clearly guarantees good working conditions, appropriate
environmental measures and attention to include female employees and female
entrepreneurs.
4. The project/program takes into account socio-cultural and religious believes, habits,
practices and
5. The project/program includes actions to stimulate behavior change related to hygiene
improvements, for example through social marketing.
2.4 Study Context and Objectives
Bangladesh is a deltaic country with a total land area of 147,570 km2 and a population of over
160 million. It is often called the ‘land of rivers’ where more than 700 rivers and their tributaries
form a large network of hydro-system that has a length of 21,140 km (Basar, 2012). However,
despite having a large river network and plenty of water bodies in the country, many areas of the
country are suffering for shortage of adequate fresh water for irrigation and drinking. The coastal
area of the country has been suffering due to salinity in groundwater as well as poor management
of existing water resources. With climate change, it is expected that there will be more lows and
highs in water availability in this part.
While the coastal area is suffering for shortage of fresh water, it has been observed that in the
rainy season, a huge amount of fresh water is wasted due to lack of good rainwater management
practices. A better management of the water buffer in the systems can help using rainwater to
mitigate the problem. It is agreed by most of the water professionals in Bangladesh that
groundwater represents a vitally important resource for the country for its irrigation
development as well as the most popular source of drinking water. But the discussion on
groundwater often focuses on overuse and control, which is indeed of great concern in many
18 | P a g e
areas (Studer and Liniger, 2013). Moreover, water management is often limited to the paradigm
of water resource allocation, availability and efficiency. It often fails to take into consideration
the buffer capacity, water circulation or the re-use of buffered water (Steenbergen and Tuinhoff,
2010). To address this issue, there is a clear need for better water management system which
should include ways to maximizing recharge and storing rainwater where possible, storing water
from floods, managing water levels and ensuring water quality to make reuse possible.
While several techniques, especially rainwater harvesting, have been used under different
projects to address the water scarcity through 3R concept in Bangladesh, the applications are
often constrained by a number of factors, including lack of information on technologies, limited
skills, lack of research works and lack of awareness. Therefore, adequate research focus is needed
in order to facilitate for enhanced utilization of the rainwater harvesting, up take of 3R approach
and encourage investment decisions towards effective and efficient use of the water resource to
address multiple uses of water and sanitation needs of the people residing in the vulnerable parts
of the country. Hence, this study was carried out focusing on assessing the 3R practices (that
includes rainwater harvesting) in Bangladesh, especially in rural areas of coastal region where
water scarcity is acute and 3R techniques have been practiced addressing this challenge, to come
up with up scaling recommendations.
The general objectives of the study were to provide evidence based best practices from the
coastal zone for integration of 3R (including rainwater harvesting) practices into policies,
strategies, budgets and plans of local and national governments, as well as for private/corporate
users. The specific objectives of the study were:
• To carry out an assessment on the performance of selected rainwater harvesting / 3R
schemes in coastal areas, using the FIETS sustainability criteria,
• To assess the potential causes of success and limitations of the applied technologies,
• To generate sets of general and specific recommendations for up scaling of 3R
technologies,
• To identify relevant stakeholders involved in the use, uptake and promotion of 3R in
coastal rural areas of Bangladesh.
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3. Methodologies
To carry out this research study, the methodologies and approaches were set considering that
both quantitative and qualitative data/information were needed to accomplish the objectives of
this assignment. Data and information available from a combination of desk reviews and field
data/information collection were used to accomplish the objectives that were set for the study.
The methods included gathering of the available information on 3R technologies practiced in
Bangladesh, secondary rainfall data analysis, review of project reports, data collection from
fields, etc. The step-by-step methodologies used to gather relevant information during the study
are illustrated below.
3.1 Collection and review of relevant publications/reports:
Reports of different WASH organizations who implemented 3R techniques in the coastal region
of Bangladesh were collected. Relevant technical information describing the techniques and its
sustainability available in the reports was given attention and used during selection of areas/sites
for field visits.
The list of the research and implementing organizations that were contacted for relevant project
reports/documents/publications include OXFAM, Practical Action Bangladesh, WaterAid
Bangladesh, Caritas Bangladesh, NGO Forum for Public Health, International Training Network
Center of Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (ITN-BUET), University of Dhaka,
Khulna University of Engineering and Technology (KUET), Department of Public Health
Engineering (DPHE), United Nations High Commission for Refugees, iDE, Blue Gold, etc. Review
of available reports of previous research carried out by different organizations on rainwater
harvesting in coastal areas, e.g., Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, University
of Dhaka and Khulna University of Engineering and Technology was also performed. Moreover,
literature review involved study of research publications on coastal water supply challenges and
practices of different 3R techniques in coastal region. The key findings were taken into
consideration for this study, with major focus on FIETS sustainability assessment of the
implemented 3R techniques in coastal rural areas.
3.2 Collection and analysis of rainfall data:
From the Bangladesh, Meteorological Department (BMD), precipitation data of 22 weather
stations in the coastal region of 30 years (1984-2014) was collected. Since availability of rainwater
depends largely on rainfall, analysis of the rainfall data provided an idea on availability of
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rainwater in this region. The 22 stations were divided according to the divisions. Collected data
from Chittagong (Ambagan), Chittagong (Patenga), Chandpur, Comilla, Cox's Bazar, Rangamati,
Feni, Hatia, Kutubdia, Maijdi Court, Sandwip, Sitakunda and Teknaf were considered under
Chittagong division. Barisal, Bhola, Patuakhali and Khepupara stations were considered under
Barisal division. Khulna, Chuadanga, Jessore, Mongla and Satkhira stations were considered
under Khulna division. The rainfall data were analyzed for different seasons and was averaged
over the period of 30 years to find the annual average rainfall in each division..
3.3 Development and finalization of assessment tools:
For collection of data/information from the field, two types of questionnaires were developed.
One of these questionnaires was used for technical assessment of the system which included
collecting information on system design (catchment size, conveyance system, filtration, storage,
delivery, treatment, use), maintenance, water quality etc. The second questionnaire was used
for understanding the FIETS sustainability for the implemented schemes. A sample of each of the
questionnaires are attached as Annex-I with this report.
3.4 Site selection for field visits:
Based on collected information from different organizations, review of reports/publications, sites
were selected for assessment and collection of information. One MAR site, three rainwater based
irrigation sites, five closed storage tank sites and three rainwater reservoir sites. It is to be noted
that a site was selected for visit only after getting sufficient information that the system is still in
use by the beneficiaries. This was given priority as it has been observed in many cases that due
to lack of follow-up program, implementing organizations cannot present data or information
whether the system was functional after a certain period of ending of the project. Therefore,
within the scope of the study, information provided by different organizations about different
systems in coastal areas were checked with local informants if the system is still functional or
not. Moreover, it should also be noted that technologies with similarities were avoided unless a
different approach for ensuring sustainability was used by the organizations/communities.
Initially, the areas focused for the study included Khulna, Satkhira, Bagerhat, Cox's Bazar, Barisal,
Bhola and Patuakhali districts. These areas which were identified based on the collected
information from step 1 (collection and review of reports) as well as based on the focus areas of
the Bangladesh WASH Alliance within the new DGIS program (2017-2021). After getting
confirmation about the functionality of the systems, initially suggested by implementing
organizations, the sites selected for field visits were in Khulna, Bagerhat and Satkhira districts. It
is to be noted that sites where more information were needed to assess the systems were given
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priority for field visits. All together for 7 districts in the coastal areas, examples of 3R applications
are included in the research. The map in figure 3 shows the locations of the studied areas through
field visits, as well as includes areas where visits were not conducted, but review of reports on
3R practices in those areas were made.
Figure 3: Study areas including field visits and report review
3.5 Field visits, FGD and KII
The study team was divided into two groups and each group conducted field visits for technical
assessment as well as to collect information on FIETS sustainability criteria. Once technical
assessments of the system were made, the team collected additional required information
- Site visits and project report study - Project report study
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regarding the five criteria of FIETS sustainability tool through Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and
Key Informant Interviews (KIIs).
FGDs were conducted for community scale systems, e.g., community based rainwater harvesting
system and retention ponds. FGDs also helped collection of socio-economic information from
beneficiaries as well as impact of the 3R practices on their lives and livelihoods. During the Key
Informant Interviews (KIIs), the key informants were interviewed to get their feedback on the
project's sustainability where FIETS assessment tools were discussed.
3.6 Consultative workshop:
A consultative workshop was arranged at ITN-BUET seminar room in Dhaka on January 10, 2017,
after the desk review and field visit, and compilation and analysis of the gathered
data/information. The workshop was participated by partners of WAI as well as other
organizations implementing WASH interventions in coastal areas. Few academicians, researchers
and experts having experience of working on 3R techniques in the coastal region also attended
the workshop.
Figure 4: Consultative workshop in Dhaka for sharing of research findings
In the workshop, representatives of Practical Action, Caritas Bangladesh, Dhaka Ahsania Mission,
Village Education Resource Center (VERC), Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC),
Water and Sanitation for Urban Poor (WSUP), Development Organisation of the Rural Poor
(DORP), MAX Foundation, Dushtha Shasthya Kendra (DSK), International Training Network Center
(ITN-BUET), Stichting Land Ontwikkelings Project Bangladesh (SLOPB), Action for Sustainable
Green Development (ASGD), NGO Forum for Public Health, University of Dhaka, Bangladesh
University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), WASH Alliance Bangladesh (BWA), RAIN as well
as few researchers/experts attended and shared their feedback on the research findings. A
presentation on the findings on 3R practices and FIETS sustainability assessment of the
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technologies was made to share the study results from desk review and field visits. After the
presentation, the participants shared their opinion on challenges and opportunities regarding up-
scaling of 3R technologies in coastal region. The participants also provided their feedback on
FIETS sustainability assessment.
The recommendations from the participants of the consultative workshop has been considered
in the study and discussed in the following chapters of this report along with the findings from
desk review and field visits.
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4. Groundwater Recharge and Storage
In this chapter, one of the four major techniques of 3R, groundwater recharge and storage is
discussed in the context of the study areas. This is a “closed” storage system, and hence
evaporation losses are smaller than under open water storage. Through this technique, surface
runoff can recharge and replenish groundwater. This is conserved and stored to be re-used for
extending water supply during growing periods (mainly wet season) and/or for supplementary
irrigation during dry periods. In this technique, water is not directly available as wells are
necessary to access it from the ground. This technique is especially beneficial where water table
is declining. Also, it helps to store the runoff after rainfall for later use.
4.1 Technologies of groundwater recharge
Recharge of the groundwater often takes place under natural conditions which is called natural
recharge. Enhancing the recharge can be achieved in many ways: by a variety of methods usually
referred to as managed aquifer recharge (MAR). In addition, recharge can take place incidentally,
for instance through infiltration of excess irrigation water and leakage from water mains and
sewers.
Three basic methods of recharge are interception in the river bed, infiltration from the land
surface and direct infiltration through wells (Tuinhof et. al., 2012). The water source can be
rainwater, river water, surface water, storm water runoff or treated waste water. In all cases, the
primary goal is to increase the recharge of groundwater (saturated zone) where it can safely be
stored even for a relatively long period. A slightly different 3R technology under this category is
riverbank infiltration, where use is made of the natural storage of groundwater around the
riverbed, by inducing the infiltration through continued abstraction along the river bank.
The groundwater recharge techniques require a suitable aquifer to store the water. The aquifer
may be shallow or deep. Shallow aquifers which are not covered by a clay layer (like dunes and
alluvial sands) are particularly suitable for land surface infiltration like basin infiltration, ditches
or furrows. Where aquifers are covered by clay or in the case of deep aquifers, usually a well
injection system is needed to infiltrate the water – which adds to costs considerably. River bank
infiltration systems are either at perennial rivers with adjacent sand layers or in dry rivers through
subsurface dams or sand dams.
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4.2 Potential and practice of groundwater recharge
Whereas the total effect of storage in tanks or cisterns is small in terms of water quantity, it is
different as far as the storage in shallow aquifers is concerned. This is a major – though not often
well understood - part of the hydro(geo)logy of an area (Tuinhof et. al., 2012). Groundwater, both
from shallow and deep aquifers, is one of major resources to sustain agricultural in Bangladesh.
The most significantly affected areas in Bangladesh as far as declination of groundwater table is
concerned lie in the north-west (e.g., Braind Tract) and north-central (i.e., Madhupur Tract)
regions. These are areas of intensive boro cultivation and exhibit declining long-term
groundwater trends (Shamsudduha et al. 2009). In the northwestern region, water tables are
declining steadily but more slowly (0.1- 0.5 m per year), making the use of shallow tube wells
(STWs) tapping shallow aquifers unsustainable for intensive boro irrigation (Shamsudduha et al.
2009; Dey et al. 2013). In contrast, groundwater levels are slowly rising in southern Bangladesh,
a consequence of seawater intrusion and tidal movement (1.3–3.0 mm per year), creating
waterlogged conditions (Brammer, 2014).
In the coastal zone, three groundwater aquifers are recognized: the shallow aquifer, lower
shallow aquifer, and deep aquifer, within 20-50 m, 50-100 m, and 300-400 m of the ground
surface, respectively. Shallow aquifers may consequently be salinity affected, whereas little
concrete information is available for deep aquifers (Mainuddin, 2013). Unlike the north-west,
water tables are generally shallow and remain consistent for most of the year in the coastal areas,
except slight increases during the monsoon season. However, groundwater use in the coastal
zone is largely unexploited due to salinity concerns in shallow and lower shallow aquifers, and
the prohibitively high cost of deep tube well (DTW) installation (Qureshi et. al., 2014). Since water
table is very high in coastal areas, which can be seen from Figure 5, necessity of groundwater
recharge in few areas is often questioned by experts.
Among various technologies used for groundwater recharge, a couple of techniques have been
found in Bangladesh; one is managed aquifer recharge (MAR) which is currently being tested in
coastal areas. Another one is natural storage of groundwater around the riverbed by inducing
the infiltration through continued abstraction along the river bank in Chapai Nawabganj, which
is in the northern region of Bangladesh (outside the study area). In this study, the MAR
technology was given focus as it has been implemented in the coastal areas. Also, this technology
directly unlocks the use of re-charged water for drinking water, whereas other re-charge
techniques only indirectly enhance the availability of drinking water
Managed aquifer recharge schemes provide a range of benefits. This includes the protection of
water resources from pollution and evaporation and the distribution of water within the aquifer
using the aquifer as an alternative to surface channels. There are also many environmental
26 | P a g e
benefits related to enhancing groundwater levels which prevents saline groundwater intrusion
(Tuinhof et. al., 2012).
Figure 5: Mean ground water table depth (m) for the height of the dry season (March, April and May). (BWDB)
A study is being carried out by DPHE and UNICEF in coastal areas to test the feasibility of MAR
systems in coastal areas using rainwater from rooftop catchment and pond water. MAR has been
implemented by infiltrating pond and rooftop rainwater into shallow, locally confined brackish
aquifers in the southern deltaic plains of Bangladesh for providing safe drinking water. The action
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research on application of MAR with options to store pond water and rainwater into shallow,
brackish aquifers in 20 sites on the coastal plains of Bangladesh through recharge well under
gravity is currently being conducted in coastal areas of Satkhira, Khulna and Bagerhat (Sultana
and Ahmed, 2014).
Figure 6 shows a MAR system installed in Mongla upazila under Bagerhat district. This system
remains operational during rainy season when rainwater is abundant. The system uses pond
water, which is stored rainwater and have been used for drinking and cooking by the families
living around the pond. The pond water goes through a pre-treatment process in a chamber
containing filter materials, and then is allowed to pass through the recharge wells. The users
collect water from this system through tube wells for drinking, though exact number of families
collecting water was not registered.
Figure 6: Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) system in Mongla upazila under Bagerhat district
However, after successful construction of the systems in the selected sites, their performance
have not meet expectations or have failed entirely due to lack of proper management during
operation. The reduction in hydraulic conductivity1 around recharge wells is still a frequent
reason for abandonment of MAR schemes. A maximum infiltration rate of 6m3/day has been
achieved at a number of sites where the average is about 3 m3/day. This raises a concern over
the possible recharge rate through MAR systems (Sulatana and Ahmed, 2014). Clogging is a more
significant issue for recharge well and can occur in the well screen, filter pack or aquifer and can
have a physical, chemical or biological origin. Clogging issues related to aquifer material, design,
1 a property of soil that describes the ease with which a fluid (usually water) can move through pore spaces or fractures.
28 | P a g e
drilling and construction methods have also been reported in the MAR sites (Sulatana and
Ahmed, 2014). Observations at few sites showed that with only rainwater infiltration, the
volumes were not enough to reduce the salinity and make the water drinkable, suggesting that
further research is needed for intervention in high salinity sites (Tuinhof et. al., 2012). Though
MAR scheme is focused mostly on water supply aspect, there are various scientific aspects need
to be assessed for ensuring the long-term sustainability of the scheme for coastal region (Sultana
and Ahmed, 2014).
4.3 FIETS Sustainability Assessment
The potential of MAR system in coastal region is still in research phase in Bangladesh. Therefore,
adequate information to assess all five FIETS sustainability criteria were not available. Few
recommendations on opportunities and challenges regarding the criteria of FIETS sustainability
assessment are discussed here based on the findings from the study.
The financing mechanism is dependent on the typical size of the system, financial benefits to be
captured, the socio-economic setting and who is capturing these benefits. If the benefits are
mainly economic benefits, it will be hard to convince individual households to engage in financing
recharge schemes (Tuinhof et. al. 2012). If the system can affect considerable financial benefits
in rural settings, smaller schemes can be financed either through micro-financing schemes or
savings, while bigger recharge schemes will have to be financed and managed and maintained at
the community level.
Financing the maintenance and operations costs could take place through tariffs or fees in cases
where financial benefits are made. Meanwhile, the investment costs may have to be financed
through government budgets or external sources. If the financial returns are not adequate,
budgetary allocation at local government level will also be needed for operating and maintaining
these recharge schemes. External support might be required in case there is a lack of available
budgetary means (Tuinhof et. al., 2012).
The site selection and design usually needs a specialist input but the implementation can largely
be covered by local manpower (contractor, local administration, community) and with maximum
use of locally available materials. The systems are usually characterized by a higher degree of
technical complexity and a need for more professional expertise in design, construction and
management. At present, it appears that the major challenge for the MAR system in coastal areas
is proving its technological sustainability and maintenance problems for this area. There is not
much argument about its environmental benefits (e.g., reduced pressure on groundwater
extraction) and acceptance among local people, if proven successful. But its potential for scaling
up in coastal region would largely depend on its performance and identifying the specific
29 | P a g e
conditions (e.g., salinity level, catchment characteristics, depth of water table, etc.) where MAR
would prove beneficial.
5. Soil Moisture Storage
Soil moisture has advantages comparable to groundwater because it is a relatively ‘closed’ type
of storage with less evaporation losses as compared to open water storage. Soil water is stored
in the upper part of the soil, which coincides with the root zone. Therefore, the water stored as
soil moisture is available at the location where it is used by the crops. The findings from the study
on different technologies and practices of soil moisture storage is presented in this chapter.
5.1 Technologies
Soil moisture is available where crops need their water, which is in the root zone. Therefore,
increasing the amount of soil moisture can be very beneficial for agriculture. However, the water
is captured in the soil and is not freely available for other purposes or locations, as the water
cannot easily be abstracted from the soil. Therefore, soil moisture retention is best used in
agricultural areas. General guidelines for application of these techniques are (Tuinhof et. al.,
2012):
• Terraces and bunds are suited for areas with hill slopes (e.g. slopes > 0.5% with bunds);
• Spate irrigation, mulching and soil improvement can be combined with terraces or bunds;
• Mulching and soil improvement techniques are applicable either on flat terrain or on
slopes;
• Regular topography is not required (e.g. semi circular bunds);
• Most options employed for increasing soil moisture are easy to construct;
• Because of the ease of construction, they are suitable for remote areas.
Soil moisture storage can be accomplished either by increasing the amount of water that is added
to the soil by slowing down the surface runoff, or by increasing the amount of water that can be
stored in the soil by increasing its water holding capacity. It reduces the water that is escaped
from the soil by evaporation. Increasing the amount of water added to the soil can be
accomplished by reducing run-off and thus increasing the amount of time for which water is
retained on top of the soil and allowed to infiltrate. Options for run-off reduction include
terracing, which locally reduces the slope of the hill. Another less costly option is to construct
contour bunds, which provides obstacles to the water that runs downhill, so that it accumulates
30 | P a g e
behind them and its run-off velocity is decreased. They can be applied in various shapes along
hillsides over the length of the field or more locally (Tuinhof et. al., 2012).
Additionally, they can be combined with planting pits to create a micro-environment for plants
or specific trees. Also, the amount of water added to the soil can be increased by spate irrigation,
a technique in which water from a river is diverted to flow over the land during peak flows, thus
increasing the amount of water that infiltrates in the soil and increases thereby soil fertility (see
www.spate-irrigation.org).
The amount of water that infiltrates the soil depends on the soil conditions. These vary naturally,
but can be managed to optimize the amount of water that is able to infiltrate. Mismanagement,
or over-exploitation can reduce the infiltration capacity of the soil, and thus its fertility. By
maintaining more water in the soil, its water holding capacity can be increased as well. This can
be done by increasing the amount of organic matter in the soil, for example, by composting,
adding fertilizer or conservation tillage (in which more of crop residues are left on the field). Roots
and litter from plants also increase the infiltration capacity of the soil. This is used when reduced
or zero tillage is applied, where part or all the vegetation is maintained, and can be strengthened
by the planting of trees. With the latter methods, a possible increase in evapotranspiration
should be taken in account. Evapotranspiration losses from the soil and crops can be reduced by
mulching. In this practice, the soil is covered by natural or plastic materials. Since the coverage
material may be scarce, often only the soil around individual plants is covered (Tuinhof et. al.,
2012).
Soil moisture conservation practice can be applied independently, or in combination with other
techniques. For example, flood or spate irrigation can be combined with contour bunds or
terraces hence the spate water remains longer in the fields and can infiltrate. Soil moisture
conservation methods can also be successfully combined with methods of other water retention
categories. Irrigation water storage can be optimized when combined with soil water retention
methods. For example, less irrigation water will be lost (or will be needed) when the soil’s water
holding capacity is improved, or when mulching is applied. Terraces may make efficient irrigation
possible at locations that were previously to steep. For efficient agricultural practice, soil
moisture optimization techniques often form a relatively cost effective basis (Tuinhof et. al.,
2012).
5.2 Potential and practices of soil moisture storage
In Bangladesh, it is required to increase the agricultural water availability in rain-fed regions to
enhance the global food production (Pandey and Biswas, 2014). Approximately more than 80%
of the global crop land is rain-fed, which produces more than 70% of global food productions
31 | P a g e
currently (Human Development Report, 2010; Rockstrom et. al., 2009; Rockstrom et. al., 2003).
For improving food production further, additional water resources capable of providing the
irrigation to crop lands is required (World Bank, 2010). One option is increasing the
facilities/structures for rainwater harvesting in the crop land itself (Pandey et. al., 2011; Panigrahi
et. al., 2001). In many rain fed regions, for instance, in Bangladesh, more than 76% of rainfall
occurs in rainy season (May to October); however, a major portion of it losses as runoff. Due to
insufficient water storages, farmers often face irrigation water shortages during dry seasons.
Providing the facilities capable of storing the rain water during rainy season can potentially
facilitate water availability for irrigation. Previous studies have shown that harvested rainwater
in on-farm reservoirs during rainy season can enhance crop yield considerably (Pandey et. al.,
2006; Pandey et. al., 2013). In Bangladesh, application of three types of agricultural water
storages are observed, of which the first two ones help to increase soil moisture storage. Other
practices such as composting, fertilization or conservation tillage can be found as part of existing
farmer practices, which are promoted by farmer training programs (such as Farmer Field School,
Blue Gold Program).
5.2.1 Contour Bunds on Fields
One type is used to store water on plots which are slightly inclined; water accumulates in the
low-lying portions of the fields or in a low-lying areas nearby. The water is stored with help of
contour bunds. In arid or semi-arid regions, these bunds are part of soil moisture techniques.
However, in Bangladesh these bunds actually create open surface water storage options. In
Bangladesh, much more water is stored between the bunds because of the abundance of water
available (see Figure 7). Water stored using this method is used for both land preparation for
Aman paddy cropping (Aman is transplanted in June/July and harvested in October/November)
and during the growing/milking stage of paddy farming when the water requirement is most
critical.
5.2.2 Ditches and Depression Storage
The other type of agricultural water storage involves the storage of rainwater in ditches or
depressions located outside bunds or in land depressions beside road embankments. Water is
carried from these depression to the fields in buckets/pitchers whenever it is needed. In some
cases, if the water body is large enough, water may be used to irrigate a Rabi crop or for fishing
during the period of monsoonal inundation. In some upland areas of Bangladesh (North Central
zone), rainwater is stored in low lying plots between two hills for use in times of necessity (UNEP,
1998).
Rainwater stored using this technology may be transferred between fields by overflowing
successive plots and may be collected in the lowest fields in a given area. In the West-Central
32 | P a g e
region of Bangladesh, rainwater is harvested from lands situated at higher elevations and
conveyed to retention ponds through culverts. In this region, because farm lands are situated at
lower elevations than the storage ponds, stored rainwater may also be used for irrigating farm
fields during the dry season. The specific location of the catchment area and its elevation relative
to the fields to be irrigated are important factors in determining the potential for using these
types of rainwater harvesting technologies (UNEP, 1998).
Rainwater storage in low lying portions of farms or in neighboring plots is possible only when the
locations and elevations of the plots are suited to such storage. No detailed data on the extent
of use of this technology were identified, but the field survey suggested that, if such opportunities
exist, farmers will make use of these technologies. In upland areas, nearly all farms having access
to rainwater stored in depressions within hills made use of such water for irrigating Aman
paddies. In saline areas, this practice was observed on lands located within polders or
embankments erected to obstruct the intrusion of saline water. In these areas, there is a conflict
between aquaculture (saline water-based shrimp culture) and agriculture (freshwater-based
crop), which has led to violent confrontations (UNEP, 1998).
5.2.3 Small Farm Ponds
Rainfall dominates the cropping in the coastal regions of Bangladesh. In Bangladesh, about 2,000
mm rainfall occurs in the monsoon, which is more than the optimum water requirement for
successful cultivation of Aman rice. But in most cases, rainfall is not uniformly distributed and for
that only a portion of total rainfall is effectively utilized in crop production. The remaining portion
goes out as surface runoff from the rice field due to lack of proper management practices. Rainfall
could be utilized more beneficially if it is stored and managed properly. Bangladesh Rice Research
Institute (BRRI) reported that 90% of the total rainfall can be conserved in the paddy fields by
constructing and maintaining 15 cm levees around the fields. This technique of rainwater
harvesting is sufficient to stabilize Aman rice yield in moderate drought scenarios. BRRI also
reported that in drought-prone areas, construction of 2 m deep farm ponds in 5% of the land
areas (farmer area) is sufficient for supplemental irrigation to stabilize rice yield. This is
economically viable even if there is a drought once in five years (Mandal, 2010).
Intensification of agriculture in this region largely depends on the extent of irrigation facility
during post monsoon period. Groundwater is not suitable for irrigation and river water remains
saline during dry season. The alternative source is rainwater that can be harvested for crop
cultivation. Many farmers of the coastal districts constructed farm reservoir for fish and rice
cultivation. A study conducted by Khulna University showed that about 20% reservoir area is
sufficient to conserve rainwater for cultivation of short duration high yielding rice (like BRRI
dhan28) in the dry season (Mandal, 2010).
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Figure 7: Rainwater based agriculture and aquaculture on same land in Voroshapur
5.2.4 Case Study: Contour Bunds
In VoroshaPur village of Ujalkur union in Rampal upazila under Bagerhat district, Mr. Salam
Sheikh has planted boro rice on his one acre land. His land gets inundated by rainwater during
every monsoon. He traps rainwater by raising embankment on the sides of his land when water
starts to drain out and uses the stored rainwater for aquaculture. Moreover, before planting the
boro rice, he uses the stored rainwater for preparing the fields and also during plantation of
saplings (figure 7). This technique of small scale infrastructure on farm level is quite similar to the
techniques used in semi- and arid countries to capture flood water (spate irrigation, flood
recession Farming amongst others). The process starts from early November and he can use the
stored rainwater in his land till the end of January. Then he uses diesel pumps to irrigate the field
using groundwater. Almost 700 farmers in this union use this same approach of irrigating their
lands using stored rainwater in depressions/ponds, which is also used for aquaculture.
In many areas of coastal region, especially in Barisal division, rainwater is used for Aman rice
production which is shown in figure 8. Also stored rainwater is used for winter crops in many
areas of this region.
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Figure 8: Harvesting of Aman rice (left) and vegetable garden (right) where rainwater was used
5.2.5 Case Study: Dyke Cropping Practice
In many sub-districts of the South-Western coastal region of Bangladesh, shrimp farming has
been so dominant that cultivation of crops is almost absent since the mid-eighties. Salinity
intrusion into agricultural land is increasing because of sea level rise due to climate change. Thus
the practice of agriculture has been almost stopped in the coastal areas except for shrimp
farming. The introduction of cropping on the dyke of shrimp gher has been an important
innovation by Practical Action in these areas, although it was practiced a while back. However,
dyke cropping was neither very common, nor systematic. Practical Action, Bangladesh, under its
Climate Change Programme in the South Western Coastal District Satkhira demonstrated some
livelihoods technologies in 2013 including Dyke Cropping following an improved method.
Mr. Zillur Rahman (35) of Kalikapur village in Satkhira district, a small holder demonstrated
vegetable cultivation on the dyke of his shrimp farm (figure 9). He had prior experiences of dyke
cropping. In October-December 2011, he did ‘dyke cropping’ with Practical Action’s technical
support on 4 dykes of different lengths (25-30 to 130 feet). The dyke’s width was 3 feet and height
above the flood water level. Mr. Rahman cultivated vegetables on the dykes in winter (October-
December 2011) and during the monsoon (May-September 2012). Monsoon cropping required
no irrigation as there was sufficient rain, while drip irrigation technology was used for winter
cropping in the pits made on dykes. Drip irrigation is a form of irrigation that saves water by
allowing water to drip slowly to the roots of many different plants, either onto the soil surface or
directly onto the root zone, through a network of valves, pipes, tubing, and emitters. The water
for the drip irrigation schemes was stored in small depressions.
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Figure 9: Dyke cropping using drip irrigation system in Satkhira
Using drip irrigation in the dyke cropping, Mr. Rahman harvested 2.5 times more vegetables
compared to earlier practice. The dyke cropping using drip irrigation could suitably be expanded
and replicated at other locations in Bangladesh, where vegetable production is almost absent or
very poor due to salinity increase,. These initiatives could benefit the shrimp farmers by bringing
extra income along with household consumption.
5.2.6 Case Study: Small Farm Reservoir for irrigation
Agriculture in Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh is predominantly rain-fed with an average
2,210 mm monsoonal rain, but rainfall during dry winter period (December–February) is
inadequate for winter crop production. The natural soil water content (as low as 7 %) of hill slope
and hilltop during the dry season is not suitable for shallow-rooted crop cultivation (Islam et. al.,
2016). A study was conducted to investigate the potential of monsoonal rainwater harvesting
and its impact on local cropping system development in Khagrachari district (Islam et. al., 2016).
It was found from the study that irrigation facilities provided by the managed rainwater
harvesting reservoir increased cropping intensity from 155 to 300%. A simplified sketch of the
rainwater harvesting reservoir system is provided in figure 10. Both gravity flow irrigation of
valley land and low lift pumping to hill slope and hilltop from rainwater harvesting reservoir were
found much more economical compared to forced mode pumping of groundwater because of
the installation and annual operating cost of groundwater pumping. The improved water supply
system enabled triple cropping system for valley land and permanent horticultural intervention
at hilltop and hill slope. The perennial vegetation in hilltop and hill slope would also conserve soil
moisture. Water productivity and benefit–cost ratio analysis from the study showed that
vegetables and fruit production were more profitable than rice cultivation under irrigation with
harvested rainwater. Moreover, the reservoir showed potentiality of integrated farming in such
adverse area by facilitating fish production. The study provides water resource managers and
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government officials working with similar problems with valuable information for formulation of
plan, policy, and strategy.
Figure 10: Sectional sketch of the rainwater harvesting reservoir system studied (not to scale) [Source: Islam et. al., 2016]
5.3 FIETS sustainability assessment
An assessment was made based on the field assessment, FGD and interviews on sustainability of
using stored rainwater for agriculture in the study areas using FIETS criteria. Options considered
are both storing rainwater in the top soil layers as well as in small ponds. The questionnaire that
was used to assess the sustainability during field visits are attached as Annex-1. The major
findings of FIETS criteria assessment are presented here.
In areas where soil is not saline and sweet water aquaculture is practiced, use of rainwater for
agriculture could be a source of income which will make the local people and relevant
stakeholders interested. The mechanism for financial measures are typically taken at community-
level, because of the limited scale of interventions. The measures could be implemented and
financed through, for example, users’ associations, community groups or farmers’ associations.
There will be sufficient appetite for these measures to be financed and implemented, if there are
sufficient financial returns in terms of increased agricultural production. In that case, the
financing could take place through loans or funds from the government budget. But a clear policy
or strategy in terms of "financial sustainability" of soil moisture measures is absent yet.
Moreover, there is limited involvement of local banks, local companies or social entrepreneurs
as the issue between saline water based aquaculture and sweet water based
agriculture/aquaculture is yet to be solved in many parts of the coastal region.
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The agriculture department as well as other government organizations should encourage soil
moisture storage using the above techniques in non-saline areas of the coastal region. These
government organizations and as well as NGOs working in this area should also focus on local
capacity building through training on storing rainwater in soil and ponds to be used for irrigation
in the dry season.
Considering the environmental benefit, to keep the soil quality favorable for cropping, use of
rainwater is beneficial as it helps reducing soil salinity by washing the salt off the soil. This practice
would keep the soil quality favorable for agriculture in saline-prone areas. But lack of training on
management of storage of rainwater for irrigation in dry period is a major challenge. There is also
lack of initiative from the government to focus on the environmental benefit (both short and long
term) of using stored rainwater for soil moisture storage.
As far as the technology part for soil moisture use is concerned, the technology is simple and
local communities can easily maintain the system without any significant external support, if
trained properly. Lack of training often results in poor management practices, which causes
damage of the system due to natural and man-made hazards.
To make the practice of soil moisture storage using stored rainwater familiar and socially
accepted among the local communities, involvement of local stakeholders should be given
priority. Campaigning for increasing use of rainwater for agriculture, where possible, especially
for low income group, should be emphasized as this practice requires very limited resource.
Women can benefit more from such schemes as homestead gardening which requires less water,
which can be stored easily in depressions/bunds, can be an income generating source for them
that will help empowerment of women in the society.
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6. Closed Tank Storage
Closed tank (or cistern) storage of rainwater provides a method to store water in a very clean
manner, close to the location where it is used as drinking water. The volume of the tanks is often
limited and therefore the scale of use is relatively small, generally limited to providing drinking
water or water for livestock. In slightly larger tanks, the water can be used for supplementary
irrigation. Rainwater harvesting systems in Bangladesh? are sometimes a fully local initiative, but
in most cases they are part of rainwater harvesting projects with funding and implementation
support from NGOs or other development agencies at the international, national or local level.
Rainwater harvesting is a recognized water supply technology in use in many developing
countries. In the coastal districts, particularly in the offshore islands of Bangladesh, traditional
rainwater harvesting for drinking purposes in a limited scale (cistern size) is a common practice
for long time (Hussain and Ziauddin, 1992). This chapter discusses the different types of closed
thank storage options and its practices in Bangladesh.
6.1 Technologies
The classic example of this category of 3R technology is the collection of rainfall from roofs and
its storage in a tank. Alternatively runoff water can be harvested from prepared surfaces
(including storm water runoff in urban areas, roads) and stored in underground reservoirs and
cisterns. A rainwater harvesting system usually consists of three basic elements: the catchment
system, the conveyance system, and the storage system. Catchment systems can vary from the
rooftop of a domestic household to a large ground surface catchment area that recharges an
impounding reservoir. The classification of rainwater harvesting systems depends on factors like
the size and nature of the catchment areas and whether the systems are in urban or rural
settings. The appropriate storage capacity of a rainwater harvesting system is related to the
amount and distribution of rainfall. For example, in a region with abundant, steady rainfall all-
year round, smaller tanks would be sufficient to hold a few days of rainwater will be enough to
meet the demands for most of the year. On the other hand, drought-prone regions will need a
significantly larger catchment area and storage tank to meet the water demand. Calculations take
into account design parameters, based on a series of monthly rainfall data and sometimes
supported by simple models for the dimensions of a system.
A point of attention in small tanks systems is the quality of the water. Common measures are
avoiding the first foul flush to enter the tank, installing filters and screens, and regular cleaning
(Tuinhof et. al., 2012).
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6.2 Rooftop rainwater harvesting in coastal areas
Rooftop rainwater harvesting is one of the feasible options for fresh water in the coastal areas of
Bangladesh (Karim et al., 2015). In the salinity affected coastal rural areas, rainwater is the most
preferred source of water for drinking and cooking. A lot of initiatives and programs have been
undertaken to promote rooftop rainwater harvesting systems both in the coastal and arsenic
affected areas in Bangladesh (Karim et al., 2015). In the recent years, both government
organization and NGOs with the financial support from international donor agencies tried to
promote and install several types of household and community based rooftop rainwater
harvesting systems as an alternative water supply source. However, in areas where groundwater
is easily accessible and is of good quality, people are not willing to use rainwater. In areas where
fresh groundwater is available at a shallow depth, people prefer groundwater than rainwater as
the perception among people is groundwater quality is better than stored rainwater. But where
groundwater is saline, people store rainwater for drinking and cooking.
Rainwater is available in adequate quantity in Bangladesh and higher amount of rainfall received
in coastal areas is favorable for rainwater harvesting. A very high precipitation occurs in the
monsoon season and low precipitation in the winter season. The geographic distribution of
annual precipitation shows that the coastal zone experiences around 1,800-4,000 mm of
precipitation, but it is relatively higher over the southeastern coastal zone and gradually
decreases towards the west. From analysis of rainfall data of 30 years (1984-2014), the average
annual rainfall of Khulna, Barisal and Chittagong divisions were found from the study as 2,366
mm, 2,987 mm and 3,369 mm respectively.
The seasonal distribution shows that most of the precipitation occurs in the monsoon season
(June-September) amounting to 71% of the total annual precipitation. The pre-monsoon season
(March-May) receives about 18% of the annual precipitation. The post-monsoon season
(October-November) occupies 10% of the annual precipitation. The winter (December-February)
is relatively dry and receives only 1% of the annual precipitation (Rahman and Akter, 2011).
In most part of the country, people can have access to rainwater for about 6-8 months (Rahman
and Dakua, 2012). Since fresh water (surface or groundwater) is very scarce in many villages of
the coastal districts of Bangladesh, rooftop rainwater harvesting systems, both at household and
community level, are very popular. As average annual rainfall is Bangladesh is high, most of
households can get enough water for drinking and cooking purposes from rooftop rainwater
harvesting if they can store the water in a reservoir large enough to fulfill their yearlong demand
(Ahmed and Rahman, 2010).
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However, rainwater is not available throughout the year and need preservation for the yearlong
use. There is almost no rainfall for 4 to 6 months of scarcity period (November to March/April),
which denotes the longest period between two significant rainfall events (Rahman and Dakua,
2012). This long dry spell makes storage of rainwater for the whole year difficult for families with
low affordability as it needs large rainwater tanks to store water for the scarcity period.
Therefore, many households in the coastal area cannot afford to store rainwater for the whole
year (Dakua and Redwan, 2013).
Collection and storage of rainwater in the proper way and maintaining the quality of harvested
rainwater from bacteriological and other pollution especially during the dry period is a significant
problem (Karim et al., 2015). In some years, the prolonged dry period causes water scarcity as
the stored rainwater cannot fulfill the demand for the whole dry period. But the overall benefit
of rooftop rainwater harvesting in salinity affected coastal areas is very significant as this has
become the main source of safe water for people living in hundreds of villages.
Several techniques of rooftop rainwater harvesting have been used under different projects to
address the water scarcity in Bangladesh. Some of the examples in the coastal rural areas that
were visited during the study are presented here.
6.2.1 Household Rainwater Harvesting System
The households rainwater harvesting system that catches runoff from the rooftop and stores it
for subsequent use is very much popular in salinity affected areas of coastal region in Bangladesh.
In such areas, people tend to build their own rooftop rainwater harvesting system in their houses
as per their need and affordability. Many households use the 1,000 L plastic tank to store
rainwater for drinking and cooking. There are also plastic tanks of 500 L, 2,000 L, 5,000 L and
10,000 L capacity in the market. In areas where rainwater is the only source of freshwater, people
with higher financial capacity can buy tanks as per their need. There are also rainwater storage
tanks made of other different materials, e.g., reinforced concrete cement (RCC) tank, ferro-
cement tank, earthen tank (motka), etc. People who cannot afford to buy a tank from the market,
are found to be using buckets, jars, pots and other containers to store rainwater as much as
possible.
There is no specific government policy regarding providing rainwater harvesting system in water
scarce coastal rural areas, especially for drinking purpose. Although Rainwater Harvesting
Management is addressed in the Bangladesh National Building Code (BNBC) - especially for
kitchen water - in rural areas these codes are not mandatory to follow, unless buildings are
constructed (which are rare in coastal rural areas).
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Department of Public Health Engineering, through Government funded projects, sometimes
distribute rainwater tanks to poor people in these areas for storing water for drinking. There are
a large number of I/NGOs (World Vision, WaterAid, Practical Action, OXFAM, Caritas Bangladesh,
Prodipon, Muslim Aid, Uttaran, and many other) working in salinity affected areas to support the
poor people who cannot afford to buy tanks from the market. But overall the combined support
provided by government and I/NGOs is inadequate, hence the is demand of this system is still
significant.
In most of the donor funded projects for providing access to safe water to poor people in these
areas, rainwater harvesting tanks are provided for free. There were also few projects where
people had to pay contribution money (5-20%) to get the support from donors/implementing
organizations.
Figure 11: Ferro-cement (left) and brick-made (right) rainwater reservoirs of 3,200 and 3,600 L capacity respectively
Figure 12: Household rooftop rainwater harvesting system of 1,000 L capacity in Satkhira
Figure 11 shows two rainwater storage tanks made of ferro-cement and brick of 3,200 and 3,600
L capacity respectively. These tanks were installed by Practical Action Bangladesh. Figure 12
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shows a 1,000 L plastic tank used in a house to store rainwater. The tank was provided by Caritas
Bangladesh. This family has 4 members and they use the stored rainwater for drinking and
cooking purposes only. They get enough water for the whole rainy season and then the stored
rainwater in the tank can supply for 2-3 months of the dry season. Due to the limited capacity of
the tank, the stored water cannot fulfill the demand of the family for the whole dry period.
According to the them, the family needs 16-20 L water daily for drinking and cooking purposes,
which means the tank can store water for 50-60 days. Therefore, unless there is early rainfall in
the next year, they have to look for other options for drinking water as groundwater is saline in
this area. They think that a 2,000 L capacity tank would store sufficient amount of water for the
whole family for the dry period. According to the family members of this house, rainwater is clean
and safe for use, while they also mentioned that insects and dusts are often found in the tank.
During the interview, it was found that communities are not much aware of the bacteriological
contamination in drinking water (both in rainwater tanks and other sources, e.g., pond water)
and its health impact.
Figure 13: Us of "Motka" for storing rainwater during rainy season in Khulna
Figure 14: Use of "Motka" for storing rainwater at household level in Bagerhat
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Figure 13 and 14 show use of earthen jars (Motka) in households by people who cannot afford
to buy plastic tanks or have not received any tank from any organization. They use indigenous
techniques to collect rainwater from their roofs. These stories also indicate how important
rainwater is in this area to the people.
One household shown in figure 14 was found using five Motkas for storing rainwater. The
capacity of each of these Motkas was about 100 L. They said that they can use rainwater during
the rainy periods in the year using these Motkas. But once the rainy season is over, they
collect/buy water from other sources, e.g., ponds. The 5 Motkas that can store maximum of 500
L rainwater can only provide water for one month to this family which has 6 members. They use
the stored rainwater only for drinking and cooking purposes. Since fresh water is very scarce in
these areas, people cannot use the limited stored rainwater for other purposes, e.g., agriculture,
cattle, except those who have large size tanks.
While these Motkas are cheap, these are also fragile and does not last for more than 2-3 years.
They also reported about the poor water quality which was due to following unhygienic method
of collection of water and also for not being able to place the Motkas is hygienic places. According
to them, insects grow inside the tank after few weeks as they cannot take adequate measures to
protect the water quality. While interviewing the members of the families who store rainwater
for drinking and cooking purposes, it was reported by them that rainwater is abundant in this
part of country, especially during rainy seasons, which would be sufficient to fulfill the year-long
demand if stored in larger tanks. But unfortunately they cannot store enough rainwater due to
limited capacity of their storage tanks. Therefore, they depend on water from pond/canal for dry
season, which sometimes they need to buy in some areas. They reported that poor families need
support from government or NGOs to buy a large size tank (which would store sufficient amount
of water for the whole year) from market as the market price of rainwater tanks is too high for
them.
6.2.2 Community-based Rainwater Harvesting System
Rooftop rainwater harvesting systems at community scale is also practiced in salinity affected
coastal areas or in areas where other sources are not available. The major difference of
community based system from household systems is the size of the tank where the tank of
community based system stores water for more than one family. The size of the tank depends
on the number of target beneficiaries and purpose of use. Community scale rainwater harvesting
is mostly supported by I/NGOs and Government funding, while initiative of local communities to
install such systems is very rare as the ownership and maintenance of community managed
systems is a common problem.
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Community based large scale rainwater harvesting systems are mostly installed in schools, bazars
(market), government owned properties and institutions, and on lands that are common
property of a group of people. However, such systems are also found in few areas on private
lands where the land owner is willing to give his land for installation of the system. The
community scale large rainwater tanks are mainly large plastic tanks of 5,000/10,000 L capacity,
and RCC/ferro-cement tanks which are constructed as per the requirement.
Figure 15: Community scale rainwater harvesting system in Bagerhat near a temple
The rainwater harvesting system shown in figure 15 is built on a land of a temple (the piece of
land the temple is using now was provided by a villager) in Vojpatia union of Rampal upazila
under Bagerhat district which was provided by the authority of the temple considering the need
of fresh drinking water in this area. The capacity of the tank is 18,000 L and 15 families can collect
rainwater from this tank throughout the year. Approximately 75 people use this rainwater for
drinking purpose only. The tank was designed assuming that 75 people will need 2 liter water per
day for drinking where the design period (scarcity period) was assumed to be four months.
However, this may vary for other areas where people use more water for drinking and also collect
water for cooking from these tanks. Some organizations use longer design period (6-7 months)
and assume a demand of 2.5-3 liter water per capita per day. In the above case (figure 14), it was
reported by local people that the stored rainwater was sufficient for them for the whole dry
season, as they tried to not misuse the stored rainwater. For cooking water, they collect water
from a nearby fresh water pond. The beneficiaries are supposed to pay BDT 25 every month to
the caretaker of the system which would be used to pay caretaker salary and for maintenance of
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the system. But the temple authority said that they collect money for maintenance and other
causes once in a year now. The system is managed by a committee consisting of the members of
temple authority. Some of the members of the committee are also beneficiaries of the system
while others have their own rainwater harvesting system. This system was funded by DFID in
2014 where the local people contributed 5% of the total installation cost.
Figure 16 shows another community scale rainwater harvesting system installed on a school
premises in Dacope union of Dacope upazila under Khulna district. 116 school students and 5
school teachers are the beneficiaries of the system. Before installation of this system, the school
authority had to buy water every week. In 2016, Rupantor (a local NGO) with support from
WaterAid installed the system which collects rainwater runoff from the rooftop and stores the
runoff in three tanks, each of which is of 5,000 L capacity. During the installation of the system,
the school committee contributed 5% of the total cost of the system.
Figure 16: Rainwater harvesting system in Dacope union of Khulna district
During the interviews and FGDs, people’s perception and acceptance of different rainwater
harvesting systems in a coastal area in Bangladesh have been found very favorable to scaling up
of the technology as rainwater is the main sources of drinking and cooking water in the study
area. They also mentioned rainwater as their first choice of water sources. Though rainwater
quality is an issue as bacteriological contamination was found in studies of water quality of stored
rainwater, as per the findings from different studies (Karim et al., 2015), local people are not very
46 | P a g e
aware of this problem because of their perception of the visual quality of the harvested
rainwater, which is very satisfactory.
Most of the rainwater harvesting systems are running very well due to high community
participation in operation and maintaining, and social acceptance of RWH systems is very high in
this area. However, people were found more willing to have household rainwater harvesting
systems than community based systems as management of community based systems are often
reported to have negative impact on sustainability of the system. Where communities were not
found very willing to manage the systems, the systems often failed or became a personal
property of the land owner which the development organizations think is a problem for up scaling
of community based systems.
6.3 FIETS sustainability assessment
Rainwater harvesting typically takes place at individual households and at the village level.
Demand of stored rainwater in salinity affected coastal areas is very high. People are willing to
pay for the system, although their affordability will vary for different income groups. Affordability
of low income group is a major concern as the cost of available tanks in the market is high for
them. There is no clear budget allocation from the government to support people living in water
scarce areas until now as government (neither at the local level union council nor at level of
Department of Public Health Engineering) also waits for support from development partners in
WASH sector. Financial assistance could be made available via micro credit schemes at union or
district levels. In other cases, the installation of rainwater harvesting systems will have to be
subsidized from other sources, such as the government, NGOs and donors. Local
entrepreneurship could be encouraged to make the scheme financially sustainable in the long
run. Moreover, local research needs to be carried out for bringing low-cost reservoirs considering
the affordability of marginalized groups.
Due to high demand of the system and the users willingness to have their own systems, the
stakeholders should find it easier to institutionalize the practice in this area. Many I/NGOs are
working in this area and have a good network which would help in this regard. However, there is
no mandated party/institution who represents the stakeholders in these areas until now. There
is also a lack of a clear plan as far as "institutional sustainability" of this technique is concerned.
The organizations working in this area seem to lack in focus on institutional sustainability of the
systems they implement beyond the project period.
Considering the environmental benefit of this technology; scaling up of the technology would
reduce focus/pressure on groundwater, which is scarce in many areas and will utilize the
rainwater effectively, especially when it is abundantly available. But inadequate training and
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awareness raising programs results in lack of awareness among the target people. Lack of
initiatives from the government to focus on the environmental benefits of RWH, both short and
long term, is also a reason for people not scaling up this technology.
The rooftop rainwater harvesting technology is simple and local mechanics have already good
expertise on it. However, maintenance of the system has been found a major problem, especially
for community scale systems where roles and responsibilities for maintaining the system is not
often clearly distributed among the beneficiaries. Apart from that, water quality control is a big
challenge for stored rainwater, mainly for two reasons. The first reason is lack of awareness
among people regarding presence of bacteria in stored rainwater, which may cause due to bird
droppings in the catchment, insects inside the tank, etc. The second reason is absence of any low-
cost, easy-to-maintain and effective disinfection technology in market. This should be addressed
by arranging more awareness programs and promoting low-cost disinfection systems in the
market.
Collection of water for drinking and other household purposes are mainly women's responsibility.
Installing rooftop rainwater harvesting systems would reduce burden on women as by using this
system they will be able to store water near their houses. But it is often observed that during
implementation of projects, participation of women are not appreciated in many areas. It affects
design and sustainability of the system as women are the main user group of the system.
Therefore, the implementing organizations should consider including women during project
design phase. The system should also consider easy access to the water collection point for
people with disability, if any, in the community.
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7. Open Surface Reservoir
Open surface water storage provides a method to store larger volumes. It has the advantage of
being directly available. However, its large open surface is prone to relatively large evaporation
losses and has a relatively higher risk of contamination compared to the other systems discussed
in previous chapters. This chapter discusses use of rainwater stored in open surface reservoirs in
Bangladesh.
7.1 Technologies
Surface water reservoirs, often known as retention ponds, are characterized by a large variety in
size and scale. Small reservoirs usually meet the demands within a period of a few months. Many
surface reservoirs also provide recharge to the groundwater underneath the reservoir and into
the banks. Large numbers of small reservoirs can be found throughout semi-arid areas. While the
hydrological impact of small reservoirs is individually quite small, the existence of several
hundreds of such structures may have a notable impact on a regional scale. On a local scale, the
hydrological impact of small reservoirs is relatively small as they only capture parts of the total
runoff at the head of a watershed. In terms of food security, economic development, and income
diversification, small reservoirs have a significant impact on rural communities. On a regional
scale such structures can alter hydrology, e.g., base flows, basin water yields, regulation of flows
etc. (Tuinhof et. al., 2012). Examples of such techniques include retention ponds that store
rainwater received from surface runoff from surrounding areas and from direct precipitation.
7.2 Retention ponds in coastal areas
The water supply in some of the rural areas of coastal districts is heavily dependent on pond
water, especially during dry period when no rain is available. It has been observed in many areas
of Satkhira, Bagerhat and Khulna districts where salinity problem is acute, the fresh water ponds,
which are mainly rain-fed, are the only source of water during dry season. Rainwater stored in
large retention ponds are the main source of drinking and cooking water in hilly areas too, where
extraction of groundwater is very difficult due to complex hydro-geological profile (Dakua et. al.,
2016). Therefore, protection of these ponds from hazardous events, both natural and man-made
(e.g., washing, bathing, aquaculture, etc.), is very important in order to maintain its quality.
While the rainwater retention ponds can provide sufficient water that people use in this area
during rainy season (June to September), these sources become limited and scarce during dry
period. Therefore, availability of rainwater, rainfall pattern and storage capacity of these
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reservoirs are critical in terms of water supply in dry period in these areas. During this study, few
retention ponds were visited and studied to understand its impacts in water supply in coastal
areas which is presented here.
7.2.1 Case study: The Jholomoliya Pond
Jholmoliya pond (figure 17) is in the Hurka village of Hurka union2 in Rampal upazila (sub-district)
under Bagerhar district. The total area of this rain-fed pond is 8 acre. The pond is surrounded by
water bodies and a canal from all four sides that are saline. The Hurka union council mainly tries
to look after the pond on behalf of the district commissioner of Bagerhat district. People of two
upazilas under Bagerhat district, Mongla and Rampal, drink water of this pond. People of four
unions (Hurka, Rampal, Perikhali and Rajnagar) of Rampal upazila and one union (Burirdanga) of
Mongla upazila heavily depend on this pond. It was reported by local authority that
approximately 40,000 people collect water from this pond for drinking and cooking water during
dry period. Apart from drinking, people of Hurka union use this pond water for homestead
gardening during summer. A survey carried out by Caritas Bangladesh under a DFID-CAFOD
funded project revealed that approximately 150,000 L water was collected in a single day from
this pond during dry period, when people from remote places collect water from this pond and
transport it on water carrying vehicles.
Figure 17: The Jholmoliya pond that is the source of water for more than 40,000 people during dry season
During the rainy season, the pond becomes full with rainwater. To protect the pond from polluted
surface runoff, a protection wall has been constructed with support from Caritas Bangladesh,
2 Smallest rural administrative and local government units in Bangladesh.
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where local people contributed 5% of the total construction cost. The whole construction work
was carried out under supervision of union Chairman and staff of union council. The protection
wall is of 2 ft height which can stop polluted surface runoff from entering into the pond, but
cannot prevent cattle from entering which was reported as a source of contamination according
to some users. Every year, the union council takes initiative to clean the pond and to do necessary
maintenance works. Apart from this yearly maintenance, the union council does not play any
other role in pond water management.
It has been reported that local water vendors carry water of this pond on paddle vans and sell
water to people living in remote areas (cost varying from BDT 5-30 per jar where capacity of each
jar is approximately 30 L) based on distance from the pond). The union council do not earn any
money from selling water from this pond. The local people drink this pond water without any
treatment. According to local people, water of Jholmoliya pond is of very good quality, though
they could not tell anything about bacteriological/chemical contamination in water.
7.2.2 Case study: The Gasi Pond
The Gasi Pond is a fresh water pond (figure 18) on 15 katha land in South Chandpai Village of of
Chandpai union in Mongla upazila under Bagerhat district. Five years back, local people excavated
the land to use it for a pond when the objective was to get water for bathing, washing, cooking
etc. After the rainy season, the local people found that the pond water was very sweet and they
started using it for drinking also as the groundwater in this area was saline. Eight owners of the
land on which the pond was excavated manage this pond, who provided land for free for the
pond. All the 160 families who live in the South Chandpai village use water of this pond for
drinking and cooking. The pond water is used for free by the people. During dry period, people
from other neighboring villages also come to collect water. From interviewing local people, it was
found that the users drink water of this pond without any treatment or disinfection.
Due to high demand of pond water in this area during dry period, the pond used to get dried up
in February every year. In 2015, US Embassy through its AEIF grant re-excavated the pond to
increase its capacity and also supported some maintenance works. Among the maintenance
works, raising embankment on the sides of the pond to protect it from tidal surges, fencing
around the pond to prevent cattle from getting into the pond and installation of a tube well for
collection of pond water so that pond water do not get contaminated by human contact were
the major activities. The local people reported that the pond is a very popular source of drinking
water in this area and demand of water of this pond will increase in future with fresh water ponds
becoming scarce. Therefore, they recommended to increase the capacity of the pond to fulfill
the growing demand of other people living around this area.
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Figure 18: The Gasi Pond that is used as source of drinking and cooking water for the villagers
7.2.3 Case study: Water reservoirs in hilly areas
As far as water supply and sanitation facilities are concerned, most part of the hilly areas in
Bangladesh fall into the hard to reach (HtR) category, as identified by the government. The
drinking water and sanitation challenges in the hilly areas result primarily from different
geographic, socio-cultural and hydro-geologic conditions. Surface water sources in hilly areas,
e.g., springs, charra and streams have seasonal fluctuations that exacerbate due to climate
change as apparently observed during the past decades. These surface water sources, despite
subject to heavy pollution, are mostly used for drinking and other purposes by the people living
in hilly areas. Groundwater extractions are not successful everywhere in the hilly areas due to
varying altitude and rocky formation, and the water level also fluctuates seasonally. Therefore,
developing water reservoirs at appropriate altitude for capturing and storage of spring and/or
rainwater for distribution to downhill community through small pipe network could be adopted
as a strategy (National Strategy, 2011).
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Figure 19: Nayapara refugee camp reservoir in Teknaf upazila under Cox's Bazar district
Teknaf upazila is in the southeast corner of Bangladesh, where both hills and coastal ecosystem
are prominent. Figure 19 shows the surface water reservoir of Nayapara refugee camp, which is
surrounded by Bay of Bengal and Naf river, where dearth of water is acute due to absence of
fresh water aquifer at shallow depth in and around the camp area, leaving no other option for
people of this camp rather than depending solely on surface water sources like large reservoirs.
This water reservoir is the prime source of water supply in the Nayapara refugee camp for
approximately 20,000 refugees, which is mainly fed by rainwater runoff from the surrounding
hilly areas. As this reservoir's water storage totally depends on rainfall, it is critical that the
amount of stored rainwater at the end of rainy season is equal or more than the demand of the
whole dry period. If post monsoon (October-November) rainfall is not high in this area in a year,
it is very likely that the reservoir will get dried out in the last part of the dry season, during the
months from March to May, which leaves the refugees with very limited fresh water.
In the Nayapara refugee camp, initially the water supply system was fully dependent on a canal
from where water was pumped into a 21 ft diameter reservoir and treated before distribution.
In 2003, a reservoir was excavated in the camp on 2 acres land. In 2005, extension of area as well
as re-excavation of the reservoir was done to increase its capacity. Further re-excavations were
needed in 2008 and 2012, which have been the two largest maintenance works done by the camp
authority, supported by UNHCR, till now to increase the capacity of the reservoir. Surface runoff
from the catchment mainly feeds this reservoir. But this runoff carries huge amount of sediment,
which reduces the capacity of the reservoir every year as it settles onto reservoir bed. During
heavy rainfall events, the runoff brings a lot of sediment into the reservoir which results in
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significant reduction of volume of reservoir every year. Last time excavation was carried out in
May 2012, but the reservoir was completely dried out in early part of April, 2013, as the demand
of water was very high compared to the. After that, water was supplied in the camp by water
trucking for the remaining period of dry season, which is also a troublesome job as the daily
demand is huge. Since Nayapara refugee camp is a government registered camp, the government
is in charge of management of the water supply system as well as providing other basic services
to the refugees where UNHCR and other NGOs are supporting the government.
7.2.4 Case study: Retention pond in Dacope: earning money by selling pond
water
In Bajua village of Bajua union of Dacope sub-district under Khulna district, Mr. Prashen Boiragi
has started his own business of selling rainwater to local villagers after treatment. He took lease
of a four bigha (1 bigha = 52 decimal) land for ten years for BDT 700,000. The he excavated the
land and created a pond of 220' X 220' X 10' m? (L X W X D), where he stored only rainwater
(figure 20). Mr Boiragi worked in NGOs for ten years where he learned about harvesting rainwater
using different indigenous methods, which helped him gain understanding of rainwater
harvesting. After pond excavation and storing rainwater in the pond, he contacted Rural
Development Academy (RDA) in Bogra, from where he took loan of BDT 10,000,000 for Biogas
Plant and Water Treatment Plant. Using the treatment plant (figure 20), he is supplying treated
rainwater since October, 2015.
Figure 20: Rainwater retention pond in Bajua village of Dacope union in Khulna district
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The water treatment plant is capable of producing 40,000 L water per day. Currently he is selling
50 jar water (capacity of each jar is 20 L) at a rate of BDT 20 per jar in Mongla, Dighraj, Bajua
market and Chalna village. He is currently earning BDT 30,000 per month and the total production
cost (including electricity bill, salary etc.) is BDT 20,000 per month. Currently the pond has a
storage of 15,600,000 L water from which he expects to sell water is dry period worth of BDT
10,000,000.
Figure 21: Treatment plant used for treating rainwater stored in retention pond
7.2.5 Case study: Mini Pond Excavation for Fish Culture and Watermelon
Starting in June 2014, Blue Gold agricultural and food security component organized a
watermelon farmer field school (FFS) with 25 farmers from Sayedkhali village in Deluti Union of
polder 22 of Paikgacha Upazila under Khulna district. The selected farmers had the opportunity
to excavate/renovate a mini pond within their land. In polder 22 due to lack of non-saline water
during the dry season a vast area remains fallow. The main objective of this activity was to
increase the productivity of the land by conserving sweet water for using in the dry season.
Through FFS, it was shown to the farmers that digging a mini pond inside a crop land could be an
option for storing sweet water during the rainy season and using the water for fish culture and
watermelon cultivation following the rain fed T. Aman crop. The farmers received training on
improved technologies of watermelon cultivation and fish culture. The size of mini ponds varied
from 0.73 decimal to 2.29 decimal, with a depth of 2.75 to 3.00 meter. The water was harvested
during rainy season in July and August. After excavation of mini pond, two different types of
fingerlings (Tilapia and Raz puti) were released in the pond in July and harvested during
November to January. Watermelon was cultivated during February to May 2015.
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As calculated by a farmer, he received 33 kg fish worth Tk. 2,460 from a 1.15 decimal mini pond.
The cultivation of watermelon in 33 decimal brought in a net income of Tk. 18,700. This is an
additional income besides an income of Tk. 5,250 from cultivating T-aman in the same land.
Figure 22: Mini pond in Deluti Union used for aquaculture and water melon production
7.3 FIETS sustainability assessment
Since the demand of pond water is very high for drinking/cooking purposes, there is huge scope
of developing pond water based water supply systems in saline affected areas. Few
individuals/organizations have started making business by selling pond water after treatment in
few areas. There are also some NGOs who provide support for excavation of ponds. But
government at local level do not have any strategy to support pond protection activities till now
and there is no yearly budget allocation from the government in this regard. Involvement of local
company or social entrepreneurs is also inadequate as far as the demand is concerned. The
choice of financing mechanism would depend on the size of the water reservoir system. If it
involves a large-scale storage dam, the financing mechanism will most likely go through the
national government and a dedicated authority should be established to manage and operate
this dam and reservoir. Investments in the construction should generally be financed by
government budget or from external sources, while maintenance and operations costs could be
financed through user contributions. If it is a small-scale dam, the system could be managed and
operated at a more local level.
Due to high demand of pond water, the users of ponds understand the necessity of managing
the ponds they use for drinking and other household purposes. Therefore, stakeholders would
find a suitable environment for institutionalization of the practice of using pond-based water
supply systems in this area. But till now there is a lack of adequate focus from most of the
organizations on importance of pond water based water supply systems which needs to be
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addressed by training and programs. Lack of any mechanism for institutionalization often leads
to poor management and hence the ponds become more vulnerable to natural and man-made
hazards. Local government, DPHE and I/NGOs should formulate a plan to better manage and
protect the rainwater retention ponds which has huge potential of becoming a source of drinking
water for the whole year.
While rainwater retention ponds could become a long term solution to the problem of fresh
water in salinity affected areas, this would also help better management of surface runoff. Lack
of awareness raising programs on these scarce water resources in affected areas is a reason for
not having significant attention on its environmental benefits. Initiatives from local government,
DPHE and I/NGOs on the environmental benefits (both short and long term) of retention ponds
would help its environmental sustainability.
The technology used in retention pond-based water supply systems is simple and local
communities, if trained properly, would be easily able to maintain the system without any
significant external support. Lack of training often results in poor management practices, which
causes damage to the ponds due to natural and man-made hazards. Local government and other
stakeholders do not offer much support when technological problems occur, e.g., subsurface
saline water intrusion, tidal surges, etc., which could be due to lack of understanding among the
stakeholders. Proper management, protection and improvement of water quality need more
priority from stakeholders, which should be addressed jointly by DPHE and I/NGOs working in
WASH sector.
Since collection of water for drinking and other household purposes are mainly women's
responsibility in most of the families, solutions to this problem would help reducing workload on
women. During implementation of project, participation of women are still not appreciated in
many areas, which may affect the user-friendliness of the system as women are the main user
group. Therefore, women participation in designing the system as well as in the management of
the systems should be encouraged.
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8. Conclusion and Recommendation
8.1 Conclusion and key learning from the study
In the coastal districts of Bangladesh, all four techniques of 3R (water recharge, retention and
reuse) are practiced, where the application of different techniques depends on demand of users
as applicable for different purposes (e.g., drinking, cooking, agriculture etc.) in different areas.
Though all types of technologies for each of the four techniques, shown in figure 2, were not
found in the study area, few of them are very well known to the communities. The key learning
from the study on each of the four techniques of 3R are is described in this section.
Groundwater recharge
Though managed aquifer recharge (MAR) is increasingly being considered as a good option for
water supply in Bangladesh as it provides large storage capacity to capture intermittently
available excess seasonal water for useduring dry season, the system is yet to prove its
effectiveness in the context of salinity affected coastal districts. From the results of the research
currently being conducted in 20 sites in coastal districts, it appears that the major challenge for
the MAR system in coastal areas is proving its technological sustainability and solving
maintenance issues. There is not much argument about the environmental benefits (e.g.,
reducing pressure on groundwater) of MAR and its acceptance among people, if functions
successfully. Its potential for scaling up in coastal region would largely depend on its
performance, and identifying the specific conditions (e.g., salinity level, catchment
characteristics, depth of water table, etc.) where MAR would be beneficial.
Soil moisture storage
Even though agriculture is an integral part of rural livelihoods of communities in many areas of
the coastal districts, there are instances when farmers in water scarce areas are unable to
succeed in their agricultural ventures due to the unavailability of water at right time and in right
amounts. By storing rainwater in low lands and retention ponds, farmers can avail water for
irrigation needed during dry season. Since groundwater is not suitable for irrigation (saline and
arsenic pollution) and river water also becomes saline after the monsoon, stored rainwater can
be an alternate source for crop cultivation. In areas where soil is not saline, soil moisture storage
could help increase of crop production. Additional use of stored rainwater in reservoirs to further
enhance soil moisture could be a solution where people cannot practice winter cropping under
current conditions, which was also found in the study in a few areas. This option can also be
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adopted in hilly areas where natural water bodies cannot store enough water for irrigation in dry
season.
Considering the environmental benefit, to keep the soil quality favorable for cropping, use of
(sweet) rainwater is also beneficial as it helps reducing soil salinity by washing the salt off the
soil. This practice would keep the soil quality favorable for agriculture in saline-prone areas and
also beneficial because with small low-cost farmer level intervention, less water from external
source is needed, limiting infrastructure needed for irrigation. But lack of training on
management of storage of rainwater for irrigation in dry period is a major challenge. There is also
lack of initiative from the government to focus on the environmental benefit (both short and long
term) of using stored rainwater for soil moisture storage. As far as the technology part for soil
moisture use is concerned, the technology is simple and local communities can easily maintain
the system without any significant external support, once trained properly.
Closed storage tanks
Rooftop rainwater harvesting could be a good solution to the drinking/cooking water scarcity
issue in the coastal area. The technology is simple and well-known to local people. If rainwater
tank of adequate capacity can be provided to the users, this technology can fulfill the year-round
demand as seen in community rainwater harvesting systems installed by WaterAid and ITN-BUET.
Though government and I/NGOs are providing support for installation of rainwater harvesting
systems through different projects, there are still many families who are in need of better
rainwater harvesting system that will fulfill their demand for the whole year. While people are
willing to pay for such system, their affordability will vary for different income groups.
Affordability of low income group is a major concern as the cost of available rainwater storage
tanks in the market is too high for them. Maintenance of the system has also been found a major
problem, especially for community scale systems where roles and responsibilities for maintaining
the system is not often clearly distributed among the beneficiaries. Apart from that, water quality
control is a big challenge for rainwater in closed storage tanks.
Open surface reservoirs
Since the acceptance of pond water is very high for drinking/cooking purposes in absence of fresh
groundwater and/or rainwater during dry season, there is scope of developing pond water based
water supply systems in saline affected areas. Few individuals/organizations have started making
business by selling pond water after treatment in few areas. There are also some NGOs who
provide support for excavation of ponds. But government at local level is yet to develop any
strategy to support pond protection activities until now.
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Due to the demand of pond water, the users of ponds understand the necessity of managing the
ponds they use for drinking and other household purposes. Therefore, stakeholders would find a
suitable environment for institutionalization of the practice of using pond-based water supply
systems in this area. But till now there is a lack of adequate focus from most of the organizations
on importance of pond water based water supply systems.
While rainwater retention ponds could become a long term solution to the problem of fresh
water in salinity affected areas, this would also help better management of surface runoff. Lack
of awareness raising programs on these scarce water resources in affected areas is a reason for
not having significant attention on its environmental benefits. Local government and other
stakeholders do not offer much support when technological problems occur, e.g., subsurface
saline water intrusion, tidal surges, etc., which could be due to lack of understanding among the
stakeholders. Proper management, protection and improvement of water quality need more
priority from stakeholders, which should be addressed jointly by government and private sector.
8.2 Recommendation
This study was carried out focusing on assessing the existing 3R practices in Bangladesh so as to
come up with recommendations for up scaling of 3R technologies. Here recommendations are
made to implement different techniques of 3R concept in the coastal areas to address the local
need as well as to making those techniques sustainable.
Groundwater recharge through MAR:
1. The outcome of the action research on MAR technology in coastal districts will be critical
in making any decision on implementation of this technology at large scale. The findings
from the study on its performance in different site conditions and identification of
measures to address the operational and maintenance issues must be made available
before its larger application at field level.
2. Once the mechanism for sustainable MAR technology in the context of coastal areas of
Bangladesh is established, training should be arranged for local mechanics and
implementers for capacity building.
3. If the system can show considerable benefits in rural settings of the coastal areas of
Bangladesh, financing the maintenance and operations costs could take place through
tariffs or fees in cases where financial benefits are made. Meanwhile, the investment
costs may have to be financed through government budgets or external sources. External
support might be required in case there is a lack of available budgetary means for
implementation in future.
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Soil moisture storage:
1. Government should encourage soil moisture storage using the current practices
(retention ponds, terracing, bunds, dams, etc.) in areas of the coastal region where soil
salinity is low as well in hilly areas. Awareness campaigning for increasing use of soil
moisture storage options for agriculture, where possible, especially for low income group,
should also be emphasized.
2. To make the practice of soil moisture storage using stored rainwater more familiar among
the local communities, the government organizations and I/NGOs working in this area
should also focus on local capacity building through training
3. Research on using this technology both at small and large scales should be carried in local
context for developing an operational guideline.
4. The measures are typically taken at community-level. The measures could be
implemented and financed through, for example, individual farmers, users’ associations,
community groups or farmers’ associations.
Closed storage tanks (rooftop rainwater harvesting systems):
1. Research on low-cost materials for rainwater harvesting system to reduce the installation
cost for poor people is needed considering the affordability of the low income people.
2. Research on promotion of low-cost disinfection technology in the market should be given
priority to address the water quality issue in stored rainwater.
3. Financial assistance could be made available via micro credit schemes at union or district
levels. In other cases, the installation of rainwater harvesting systems will have to be
subsidized from other sources, such as the government, NGOs and donors. Local
entrepreneurship could be encouraged to make the scheme financially sustainable in the
long run.
4. Capacity building of local institutions on rainwater management at household and
community level will be needed and awareness raising events for communities should be
arranged to help improving the institutional and social sustainability of the systems.
Open surface reservoirs:
1. Local entrepreneurship should be encouraged and supported by government and its
development partners to promote pond- based water supply systems for drinking and
cooking purposes in salinity affected coastal areas, as large number of villagers in certain
areas depend solely on pond water during dry season.
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2. Capacity building of local institutions, entrepreneurs and local communities on pond
water management should be given emphasis as it would help further initiatives of scaling
up of pond water based water supply schemes at local level in future.
3. Government (Department of Public Health Engineering) and NGO representatives
working on these issues should be trained on supervision of pond based water supply
systems. The trainings should focus on methods of pond protection from natural disasters
and man-made hazards and water quality protection.
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9. References
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Basar, A., 2012. Water Security in Coastal Region of Bangladesh: Would Desalination be a Solution to the Vulnerable Communities of the Sundarbans?, Bangladesh e-Journal of Sociology. Volume 9, Number 2.
Brammer, H., 2014. Bangladesh’s dynamic coastal regions and sea-level rise. Climate Risk Management, 1:51-62.
Dakua, M., M. M. Rahman and A. M. Redwan, 2013. Rainwater harvesting system in coastal rural areas of Bangladesh at community level for low-income people considering socio-economic viability and climate change, Proceedings of the International Conference on Climate Change Impact and Adaptation (I3CIA-2013), Center for Climate Change and Sustainability Research, Department of Civil Engineering, DUET, Gazipur, Bangladesh, ISBN: 978-984-33-7884-2.
Dey, N.C., Bala, S.K., Saiful Islam, A.K.M., Rashid, M.A., 2013. Sustainability of groundwater use for irrigation in northwest Bangladesh. Policy Report prepared under the National Food Policy Capacity Strengthening Programme (NFPCSP). Dhaka, Bangladesh. 89 pp.
Hussain, M. D. and Ziauddin, A. T. M., 1992. Rainwater Harvesting and Storage Techniques from Bangladesh, Water Lines, Vol. 10, no. 3, pp 10-12
Human Development Report, 2010. The real wealth of nations: pathways to human development. United Nations Development Program (UNDP). http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_ reprint.pdf
Islam, T. M., M. M. Ullah, M. G. M. Amin and S. Hossain, 2016. Rainwater harvesting potential for farming system development in a hilly watershed of Bangladesh, Appl Water Science. doi:10.1007/s13201-016-0444-x
Karim, M. R., Sadik Rahman , Md. Asif Hossain , Md Atikul Islam , Shamsul Gafur Mahmud , Zahid Hayat Mahmud, 2015. Microbiological Effectiveness of Mineral Pot Filters as Household Water Treatment in the Coastal Areas of Bangladesh, Microbial Risk Analysis, doi: 10.1016/j.mran.2016.06.003
Mainuddin, M., 2013. Scoping study to assess constraints and opportunities for future research into intensification of cropping systems in Southern Bangladesh. ACIAR Report. Australia.
National Strategy for Water and Sanitation Hard to Reach Areas of Bangladesh, 2011. Government of Bangladesh.
Pandey, P. K. and S. Biswas, 2014. Modeling crop land soil moisture and impacts of supplimental irrigaiton in a rainfed region of Bangladesh. Journal of Agricultural Chemistry and Environment, Vol.3, No.1B, 16-19, http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jacen.2014.31B004.
Pandey, P.K., Soupir, M.L., Singh, V.P., Panda, S.N. and Pandey, V., 2011. Modelling rainwater storage in distributed reservoir systems in humid subtropical and tropical savannah regions. Water Resources Management, 25, 3091-3111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11269-011-9847-5
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Pandey, P.K., Panda, S.N. and Panigrahi, B., 2006. Sizing on-farm reservoirs for crop-fish integration in rainfed farming systems in Eastern India. Biosystems Engineering, 93, 475-489. ttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2006.01.009
Pandey, P.K., der Zaag, P., Soupir, M.L. and Singh, V.P., 2013. A new model to simulate hydro-economic potential of rainwater harvesting and supplemental irrigation rainfed agriculture. Water Resources Management, 27, 3145-3164. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11269-013-0340-1
Panigrahi, B., Panda, S.N. and Mull, R., 2001. Simulation of water harvesting potential in rainfed ricelands using water balance model. Agricultural Systems, 69, 165- 182. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0308-521X(01)00013-0
Qureshi, A.S., Ahmed, Z., Krupnik, T.J., 2014. Groundwater management in Bangladesh: An analysis of problems and opportunities. Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia Mechanization and Irrigation (CSISA-MI) Project, Research Report No. 2., Dhaka, Bangladesh: CIMMYT.
Rahman, M. M., Dakua, M., 2012. "A case study on Rainwater Harvesting for Drinking Water with Solar Disinfection System", ITN-BUET, Center for Water Supply and Waste Management, ISBN: 978-984-33-5331-3.
Rain and NWP (Netherlands Water Partnership), 2014. Smart 3R Solutions, available at: https://www.nwp.nl/_docs/Smart-solutions-3R.spread.pdf
Rockström, J., Falkenmark, M., Karlberg, L., Hoff, H., Rost, S. and Gerten, D. (2009) Future water availability for global food production: The potential of green water for increasing resilience to global change. Water Resources Research, 45, Article ID: W00A12.
Rockström, J., Barron, J. and Fox, P., 2003. Water productivity in rain-fed agriculture: Challenges and opportunities for smallholder farmers in drought-prone tropical agro-ecosystems. In: Kijne, J.W., Barker, R. and Molden, D., Eds., Water Productivity in Agriculture: Limits and Opportunities for Improvements, CABI, Publ., Oxon, 145-162.
Shamsudduha, M., Chandler, R.E., Taylor, R., Ahmed, K.M., 2009. Recent trends in groundwater levels in a highly seasonal hydrological system: the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna Delta. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 13, 2373–2385.
Sultana, S. and Ahmed, K. M. (2014), Assessing risk of clogging in community scale managed aquifer recharge sites for drinking water in the coastal plain of south-west bangladesh, Bangladesh Journal of Scientific Research, 27(1): 75-86, 2014 (June), DOI: 10.3329/bjsr.v27i1.26226
Steenbergen, F. V. and Albert Tuinhof, 2010. Managing the Water Buffer for Development and Climate Change Adaptation, Groundwater Recharge, Retention, Reuse and Rainwater Storage, isbn: 978-90-79658-03-9, available at: http://www.bebuffered.com/downloads/3R_managing_the_water_buffer_2010.pdf
Studer, M. R. and Liniger, H., 2013. Water Harvesting: Guidelines to Good Practice. Centre for Development and Environment (CDE), Bern; Rainwater Harvesting Implementation Network (RAIN), Amsterdam; MetaMeta, Wageningen; The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), Rome.
Tuinhof, A., Van Steenbergen, F., Vos, P. and L. Tolk., 2012. Profit from Storage. The costs and benefits of water buffering. Wageningen, The Netherlands: 3R Water Secretariat.
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Mondal, M., 2010. Rainwater Harvesting, article by Dr. Manoranjan Mondal, available at: ttp://archive.thedailystar.net/suppliments/2010/02/ds19/segment2/harvesting.html
United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), 1998. Division of Technology, Industry and Economics, Sourcebook of alternative technologies for freshwater augmentation in some countries in Asia, Newsletter and Technical Publication, available at: http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/publications/techpublications/techpub-8e/index.asp#1
World Bank, 2010. Water resource management. Washington, DC. http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTWAT/0,,contentMDK:21630583~menuPK:460244 5~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:4602123,00. html
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Annex-1
Technical Assessment Data Sheet for Field Visits:
Technique Sl. No.
Question
Closed Tank Storage
1. Size of the tank used for rainwater storage
2. Number of users
3. How many months/days can they store water for in the tank
4. Water quality perception
5. Availability of rainwater
Managed Aquifer Recharge
1. Amount of water recharged
2. Water quality
3. Number of users
4. Time of operation
Retention Ponds
1. Number of users
2. Availability of water in the pond throughout the year
3. Water quality of pond water
4. Catchment of retention pond
FIETS Sustainability Assessment Data Sheet:
FIETS Criteria Sl. No.
Discussion Points
Financial Sustainability
1. Are the projects co-financed by local stakeholders.
2. Do local entrepreneurs and companies take up an increasing and serious role in the provision of WASH services.
3. Are projects and initiatives are based on a business (plan) approach, including operation, maintenance?
4.
After the project period, can WASH service provision be sustained based on local finance, meaning based on payment for services by the end-users or tax revenues.
Institutional Sustainability
1.
Any mandated local party (local business or government), that is (or is made) responsible for the delivery of services and/or products, and that represents especially the interests of the weakest stakeholders, has (or gets) a leading role.
2. The interests of the different stakeholders in the WASH chain are structurally incorporated and met.
3. Activities are in accordance with local policies, laws and regulations.
4. Transparency and accountability of planning, decisions use of budget and results is met by all stakeholders involved.
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FIETS Criteria Sl. No.
Discussion Points
5.
Training/capacity building of the local private sector are structurally embedded in order to ensure sustainability of the service/product.
Environmental Sustainability
1.
The project has base knowledge of the hydrological, ecological and socio-economic situation of the (smallest) relevant catchment level in which the intervention takes place.
2. The project involves the analysis of the impact of the interventions on the environment.
3. The project uses sustainable techniques.
4.
The project strengthens capacities and increase knowledge and awareness on linkage between WASH interventions and the natural environment.
5.
The project influences governmental key players in WASH to make informed decisions and ensure integration of environmental sustainability in policies and programs.
Technological Sustainability
1.
Sustainable availability of the hardware/ technology is based on a viable business model; that is, the activities of the actors in the chain of supply, installation and maintenance do have enough financial incentive to sustain the services
2.
Proposed technology is produced or procured, installed and maintained by the local private sector (or in specific cases by end user groups or cooperatives that could take over such a role).
3.
For new technologies, trainings are included to transfer all knowledge and expertise needed for the continued functioning to the local level.
4. For household level options, the technology can be acquired by the majority of the intended users free of subsidy.
Social Sustainability
1.
The project is demand driven and aimed at provision of basic services on the basis of rights based approaches and enhances empowerment (of women and marginalized groups).
2.
The project/program includes concrete actions to ensure that the interests of all groups in society, including women and especially the marginalized, are taken into account. The project/program guarantees the interests of the marginalized people are anchored in constitutions, bylaws, ownership agreements and consultation/coordination mechanisms.
3.
The project/program clearly guarantees good working conditions, appropriate environmental measures and attention to include female employees and female entrepreneurs.
4. The project/program takes into account socio-cultural and religious believes, habits, practices.
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FIETS Criteria Sl. No.
Discussion Points
5. The project/program includes actions to stimulate behavior change related to hygiene improvements.
Annex-2
Year Barisal (mm) Chittagong (mm) Khulna (mm)
1984 3,449 3,173 2,147
1985 2,445 2,630 2,295
1986 2,919 3,326 2,069
1987 3,665 3,405 2,542
1988 3,264 3,773 2,369
1989 2,794 2,647 2,338
1990 3,178 3,576 2,511
1991 3,192 3,481 2,383
1992 2,239 3,084 2,159
1993 3,366 3,679 2,354
1994 2,577 3,412 2,039
1995 3,058 3,859 2,810
1996 2,619 3,502 2,361
1997 2,558 3,317 2,181
1998 3,658 3,652 2,517
1999 2,755 3,617 2,614
2000 2,570 2,930 2,241
2001 3,028 3,715 2,769
2002 3,337 3,504 2,325
2003 2,595 3,657 2,255
2004 3,329 3,447 2,092
2005 2,743 3,503 2,648
2006 2,798 3,087 2,048
2007 3,128 3,657 2,531
2008 2,664 3,314 2,324
2009 2,620 3,109 2,389
2010 2,462 2,967 2,451
2011 2,709 3,214 2,492
2012 2,417 2,695 2,329
2013 3,121 3,458 2,440
2014 3,098 4,131 2,286
Average Annual Rainfall 2,987 3,369 2,365