research process notes ppt; by muthama, japheth mutinda

Research Process

(For ; Diploma, Undergraduate and Postgraduate students)

BY MUTHAMA, JAPHETH MUTINDA

19/08/15 Muthama 1

©Jae 2013

DESINED AND EDITED BY:

MUTHAMA, JAPHETH MUTINDA

PhD; Pursuing(JKUAT)

MBA (Finance)-Maseno

University.

BA; Hons (Economics) with

information Technology –Maseno

university.

CPA, COMPUTERISED

ACCOUNTING….

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Lecture outlinesObjectives of quantitative researchMain features in quantitative and qualitative researchData collectionLimitations in quantitative and qualitative researchConcept of using combined research

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I can define research as a scientific way of answering questions and testing hypothesis.

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What is Research?Research

Discover new knowledge Seek answers to questions

Basic researchGoal: Expand man’s knowledge (e.g., which genes control social

behavior of honey bees? )Often driven by curiosity (but not always)

Applied researchGoal: Improve human condition (i.e., improve the world) (e.g., how

to cure cancers?)Driven by practical needs

The boundary is vague; distinction isn’t important

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Research StudyA research study can be undertaken for two

different purposes:

1. To solve a currently existing problem (applied research)

2. To contribute to the general body of knowledge in a particular area of interest (basic/fundamental research)

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Overview to Research StudiesWhy Do Research Studies? To collect data on usual and unusual events,

conditions, & population groupsTo test hypotheses formulated from observations

and/or intuitionUltimately, to understand better one’s world and

make “sense of it”

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Research MethodsEmpirical research: evaluate and compare existing

solutions (e.g., “a comparative evaluation of treatment A vs. treatment B”)

The “E-C-E cycle” of research: exploratoryconstructiveempiricalexploratory…

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Research ProcessIdentification of the topic (e.g., Web search,

review of literature)Hypothesis formulation (e.g., treatment X is

better than Y=state-of-the-art)Experiment design (measures, methods, data,

etc)

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Research ProcessTest hypothesis (e.g., compare X and Y on the

data)Draw conclusions and repeat the cycle of

hypothesis formulation and testing if necessary (e.g., Y is better only for some patients, now what?)

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Typical Research ProcessLook for a high-impact topic (basic or applied)New problem: define/frame the problem Identify weakness of existing solutions if anyPropose new methods Choose study population/data sets (often a main

challenge)Design evaluation measures/study design

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Typical Research ProcessCollect data (need to have clear

research hypotheses)

Analyze results and repeat the steps above if necessary

Publish research results

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Types of Research Questions and Results

Exploratory (Framework): What’s out there?

Descriptive (Principles): What does it look like? How does it work?

Evaluative (Empirical results): How well does a method solve a problem?

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Types of Research Questions and Results

Explanatory (Causes): Why does something happen the way it happens?

Predictive (Models): What would happen if?

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Looking for Research Questions

1. Driven by new data: X is a new type of treatment (e.g., X= OT)How is X different from existing treatment

alternatives?What new issues/problems are raised by X? Are existing methods sufficient for solving old

problems on X? If not, what are the new challenges?

What new methods are needed? Are old evaluation measures adequate?

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2. Driven by new users: Y is a set of new users How are the new users different from old

ones? What new needs do they have? Can existing methods work well to satisfy their

needs? If not, what are the new challenges? What new functions are appropriate for Y?

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Driven by new tasks (not necessarily new users or new data): Z is a new task (e.g., a LLIN/itn use, condom use) What information management functions

are needed to better support Z?Can these new functions be reduced to old

ones? If not, what are the new challenges?

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Ways to select a research topicPersonal experienceCuriosity based on something in the

community/mediaInterest The state of knowledge in a fieldPersonal valuesPersonal circumstances?

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Design the study

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Various types of research study designs Many classified as “Epidemiological Study

Designs”

Epidemiology often is defined as:The study of the distribution and

determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations, and the

application of this study to the control of health problems.

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Classifications of Research Study Designs: Three Main Types

1. Observational Studies:1. Observational Studies:Groups are studied & contrasts made between groupsThe observed data collected are analyzed

2. Analytic Studies:2. Analytic Studies: Also called Experimental Study the impact of a certain therapy Ultimately the investigator controls factor being studied

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Classifications of Research Studies: Three Main Types

3. Clinical Trial:3. Clinical Trial:Considered the “true” experimental study

“Gold Standard” of clinical research

Often a prospective study that compares the effect and value of an intervention against a control in human subjects

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The Different Study DesignsCase-control • CohortCase Reports • Case SeriesOutcomes Based: • Survey Research:

- Questionnaires

-Quality of Life - Polls-Decision analysis - Surveys-Economic Analysis

Meta AnalysesSurvival AnalysisRandomized Clinical Trial

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Basic Research TerminologyRetrospective:Retrospective: Refers to time of data

collectionProspective:Prospective: Refers to time of data collectionCase Control Study:Case Control Study: Persons w/ disease &

those w/out are comparedCohort Study:Cohort Study: Persons w/ and/or w/out

disease are followed over time

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Terminology (Cont.)

Cross-sectional Study:Cross-sectional Study: Presence or absence of exposure to possible risk factor measured at one point in time. Prevalence obtained.

Prevalence:Prevalence: The # of new cases and existing cases during specified time period.

Incidence:Incidence: The # of NEW cases per unit of a population at risk for disease occurring during stated time period.

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Research MethodsExploratory research: Identify and frame a new

problem (e.g., “a survey”)Constructive research: Construct a (new) solution

to a problem (e.g., “a new method for laboratory diagnosis”)

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Collect the Data

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Study MethodsMeans of “harvesting” data

Qualitative Quantitative

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Quantitative vs. Qualitative Methodological Assumption (Cresswell 1994: 5)

QuantitativeQuantitative QualitativeQualitative

Deductive processDeductive process Inductive processInductive process

Cause and effectCause and effect Mutual simultaneous shaping of Mutual simultaneous shaping of factorsfactors

Static design – categories isolated Static design – categories isolated before studybefore study

Emerging design – categories Emerging design – categories identified during research processidentified during research process

Generalization leading to prediction, Generalization leading to prediction, explanation, and understandingexplanation, and understanding

Patterns, theories developed for Patterns, theories developed for understandingunderstanding

Accurate and reliable through Accurate and reliable through validity and reliabilityvalidity and reliability

Accurate and reliable through Accurate and reliable through verificationverification

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Six assumptions of qualitative designs (Merriam 1988: 19-20)

1. Qualitative researchers are concerned primarily with process, rather than outcomes or products.

2. Qualitative researchers are interested in meaning.

3. The qualitative researcher is the primary instrument for data collection and analysis. Data are mediated through this human instrument, rather than through inventories, questionnaires, or machines.

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Six assumptions of qualitative designs (Merriam 1988: 19-20)

4. Qualitative research involves fieldwork. The researcher physically goes to the people setting, site, or institution to observe or record behavior in its natural setting.

5. Qualitative research is descriptive in that the researcher in interested in process, meaning and understanding gained through words or pictures.

6. The process of qualitative research is inductive in that the researcher builds abstractions, concepts, hypotheses, and theories from details.

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Quantitative MethodsQuantitative Descriptive

Descriptive statistics: graphical and numerical techniques for summarizing data.

Quantitative AnalyticInferential statistics: procedures for making

generalizations about characteristics of a population based on information obtained from a sample taken from that population

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Quantitative research is similar to traditional scientific methodsStating in advance the hypothesis and research

question.Determine the methods of data collection and

analysis.The findings are presented in statistical

language.

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Quantitative research is similar to traditional scientific methods (cont.)

Quantitative approach to research involves data collection methods such as structured questionnaire, interviews and observations together with other tools.

On the other hand, in depth interviews and

unstructured observations are associated with qualitative research.

Researches have to choose methods which are appropriate for answering their questions.

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Quantitative research featuresquantitative research method deals with

quantities and numbers while qualitative research deals with quality and description which is too simple and unhelpful.

The purpose of quantitative research is to measure concepts or variables that are predetermined objectively and to examine the relationship between them numerically and statistically.

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Measurement in Quantitative Research

The following criteria should be fulfilled:

- Validity- Objectivity (reliability)- Accuracy- Precision

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Objective Measurement in Quantitative ResearchObjectivity means that the researchers stands

outside the phenomena they study. Data collected are free from bias.

Objectivity is ensured by many ways e.g. structured questions, representative sampling and randomization.

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Objective Measurement in Quantitative Research (cont.)

Sometimes, researchers may study concepts e.g. pain, attitudes and fatigue. In such cases, scales are constructed e.g. self-esteem scale as subjective measures are crude and not accurate.

Objective measures are more valid and reliable than subjective measures, the later depend on self reports.

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Types of Quantitative Data

Data are used to classify groups.Examples; numbers, amounts, prevalence,

incidence.Variables can be classified as physical (wt.&

Ht.), physiological (attitude, anxiety), social……etc.

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Quantitative research features (cont.)

Quantitative research studies the relationship between concepts and variables e.g. the relation between social support and quality of life.

Randomized control trials rely on quantitative measure to determine if the interventions have the desired effects. Although qualitative methods may be used to explore some issues related to intervention.

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Quantitative research features (cont.)It is clear that quantitative research can provide

data to describe the distribution of a characteristic or attributes in population, explore the relationships between them and determine cause and effect relationship.

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Quantitative Research Example

An evaluation of a teaching intervention to improve the practice of endotracheal suctioning in I.C.U.

This study measures concepts (Know.& Pract.), relation between them and tests the effectiveness of K.&P. in I.C.U.

Data collection was structured and standardized. K. is measured questionnaire and P. by “structured observation schedule”

Data are analyzed by statistical tests.

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Quantitative approach as deductiveAn approach which tests the researchers’

hypothesis in quantitative studies are termed deductive.

As such approach tests whether variables are correlated or one affects another e.g. nutritional status and pressure ulcers, or factors related to tobacco use.

Some quantitative studies are inductive as they lead to formation of new questions ( generate new hypothesis )

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Quantitative research Main feature

Quantitative research is described as producing generalisable findings through randomization and representative sampling.

However, the study is no less quantitative if a random representative sample is not used.

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Data Collection in Quantitative Research

QuestionnaireObservation schedulesScales to measure KAPInstruments to measure physiological and

biomedical indicators

All the above methods should be pre-determined, structured and standardized.

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Value of Quantitative Research to Nursing

Help nurses to grasp the reality as measurement is central to every thing that nurses do; symptoms, relief, improvement in patients i.e. physical, physiological and psychosocial phenomena.

Provide data for many questions that arise during practice.

Useful in identifying trends.

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Value of Quantitative Research to Nursing ( cont. )Needs assessment of patients and nurses.Evaluations of interventions.Measuring the competence and skills.Useful for providing decision makers with

required information.

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Limitations of Quantitative ApproachIt is difficult to understand human phenomena e.g.

when studying human behavior, it is possible only to study what is observable. So the phenomena is revealed partially.

Some researches claim that many influences affect people’s response to questions i.e. it is not purely objective.

Some standardized scales may be interpreted differently by participants.

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Qualitative Research

Not everything that can be counted counts and not everything that counts can be counted.

( Albert Einstein )

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What is qualitative research?To care for people and promote change

in behavior, it is required to understand in-depth concepts such as experience, believes, motivations and intentions.

So, listening and observing may give more information than sending questions.

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What is qualitative research? (cont.)

Qualitative research is an approach which seeks to understand , by means of exploration, human experience, perceptions, motivations, intentions and behavior.

It is interactive, inductive, flexible, holistic and reflexive method of data collection and analysis.

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Main features of Qualitative Research

1- Exploration2- Inductive approach3- Interactive and Reflective4- Holistic5- Flexible

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Main features of Qualitative Research( cont. )

1-Exploration is the essential feature of qualitative approach in order to understand the perceptions and actions of participants.

Exploration is to discover new people, customs, and to learn from them.

Exploration is a difficult task that requires training and experience.

It should be inductive, interactive, reflexive and holistic.

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2- Inductive approach: The purpose of qualitative approach is to

develop concepts and generates hypothesis. The researcher is open to ideas which emerge from listening or observing people.

The inductive approach is useful when little is known about the topics one wants to study.

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3- Interactive and Reflexive process To avoid bias in quantitative approach, the

researchers try to study phenomena in a detached way.

In qualitative studies, researchers use interaction between them and participants to get closer to the topic under study. The researcher becomes an instrument of data collection. The researchers probe, facilitate, and note tone, hesitations and repetition in participants responses.

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3- Interactive and Reflexive process (cont.) There should be trust between participants and

researchers. The qualitative research should be reflexive i.e.

examining not only what people say and do, but also why they say and do so.

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4- Holistic exploration In quantitative research, the researcher is

constrained by a number of variables to be studied.

In qualitative research, participants are allowed to put their responses in context.

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5- Flexible methods Qualitative research relies on personal, intimate

and private world of participants. So flexible, imaginative, creative and varied strategies are used to facilitate this process.

Data collection methods include; interviews, observations, group discussion, analysis of video recording, letters, diaries and other documents.

In quantitative research, data collection methods are constructed in advance.

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Common approaches in qualitative research

1- Ethnograghy

2- Phenomenology

3- Discourse analysis

4- Grounded theory

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1- Ethnography: is an approach relying on the collection of data in the natural environment. Ethnographers are interested in how the behavior of individuals is influenced or mediated by culture in which they live.

So, human behavior can only be understood if studied in the setting in which it occurs. As people can influence and be influenced by the groups they live in.

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2- Phenomenology: It focuses on individuals' interpretation of their experience and the ways in which they express them.

The researchers task is to describe phenomena as experienced and expressed by individuals.

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3- Discourse analysis: Discourse is a term used to describe the systems we use in communication with others. These include verbal, non-verbal and written material.

What we say, how we say it, our choice of words, tone, timing are full of values, meanings and intentions.

So, analysis of discourse increases our understanding of human behavior through language and interaction.

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4- Grounded theory: It is an inductive approach to research whereby hypotheses and theories emerge out or are grounded in data.

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Common approaches in qualitative research (conclusion)

The above 4 approaches are similar in that they place emphasis on interpretation rather than objective empirical observations. They are interactive.

They are different in that; ethnography focuses on culture, phenomenology on consciousness, discourse analysis on language and ground theory’s aim is the development of theory through induction.

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Qualitative Research in Nursing and health Research

1- explore patients’ experience and behavior.2- explore the experience and behavior of nurses

and other health professionals.3- evaluate intervention and services.4- explore core concepts relevant to nursing and

health.

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Limitations of Qualitative Research1- It is anecdotal (stories told for dramatic quality

without critical evaluation)2- Unscientific3- Producing findings that are not generalisable4- Impressionistic5- Subjective

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Combining Quantitative and Qualitative Methods

Humans are both rational calculating beings…and they also operate on a deeper level of feelings, drivers and irrationality.

H. Mariampolski

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Combining Quantitative and Qualitative Methods

An old debate between quantitative and qualitative methods can be traced back to the two opposed Greek philosophical visions of human science that emphasize number (Pythagoras) and meaning (Socrates) as the essence of mind.

Qualitative research has been described as; noble, good and empowering by some researchers.

By others it is; story telling, touchy – feely, biased, subjective, lacking reliability validity and generalisabilty.

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Types and purposes of combining methods1- To develop and enhance the validity of scales,

questionnaire and tools.2- To develop, implement and evaluate interventions.3- To further explore or test the findings of one

method.4- To study different aspects of the same topics.5- To explore complex phenomena from different

perspectives.6- To confirm or cross-validate data.

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Analyze the data

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successDesigned by:MUTHAMA, JAPHETH MUTINDA

PhD; Pursuing(JKUAT)

MBA (Finance)-Maseno University.

BA;Hons (Economics) with

information Technology –Maseno

university.

CPA, COMPUTERISED ACCOUNTING….

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THE END

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research process notes ppt; by muthama, japheth mutinda

Economy & Finance