research reports in english philology - university of web viewa word or expression which is to be...

The following information should be found on the title page:

the title (e.g. Relevance theoretic and other approaches to verbal humour; ‘This is not going to have a happy ending’: Searching for new representations of Hollywood in David Fincher’s Se7en),

the name of the writer, the name of the course or the type of paper (e.g. 682285A Candidate’s Seminar and Thesis or Pro

Gradu Thesis), and the date of presentation or submission (e.g. Autumn 2013 for Master’s Thesis and October 14,

2013 for a seminar paper).

House style of English Philology:Instructions for writers of research papers and theses

Name of writerName of course/Type of paper

English PhilologyFaculty of Humanities

University of OuluAutumn 2013

A table of contents lists the headings of the numbered sections of the paper and the number of the page on which these are found. The title page, the page(s) on which the table of contents appears or any pages on which possible appendices appear are not numbered.

Table of Contents1 Research reports in English Philology..............................................................................................1

1.1 Candidate’s thesis..................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Seminar paper...........................................................................................................................1

1.3 Master’s thesis.......................................................................................................................... 1

2 Structure of a research report.........................................................................................................3

2.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 3

2.2 Description of the research material.........................................................................................3

2.3 Theoretical and methodological framework.............................................................................3

2.4 Presentation of the analysis and findings..................................................................................4

2.5 Conclusion.................................................................................................................................5

2.6 List of references.......................................................................................................................5

2.7 Appendices................................................................................................................................5

3 Style and formatting of a research report........................................................................................6

3.1 Grammar and style....................................................................................................................6

3.2 General conventions................................................................................................................. 6

3.3 Spacing and margins..................................................................................................................7

3.4 Quotations and glosses.............................................................................................................7

3.5 Subheadings..............................................................................................................................8

3.6 Footnotes.................................................................................................................................. 8

3.7 Examples and extracts...............................................................................................................9

3.8 Illustrations................................................................................................................................9

4 Referencing....................................................................................................................................11

A table of contents lists the headings of the numbered sections of the paper and the number of the page on which these are found. The title page, the page(s) on which the table of contents appears or any pages on which possible appendices appear are not numbered.

4.1 In-text citations....................................................................................................................... 12

4.1.1 In-text citations in APA style............................................................................................12

4.1.2 In-text citations in CMS notes and bibliography style......................................................13

4.1.3 In-text citations in MLA style............................................................................................14

4.2 List of references.....................................................................................................................15

4.2.1 References in APA style....................................................................................................15

4.2.2 Bibliography in CMS style.................................................................................................15

4.2.3 Works cited in MLA style..................................................................................................16

List of references (N.B. This particular document does not contain a list of references but a research

report does. A reference to the list and the number of the page on which it begins should be provided

in the table of contents.)

Appendix

1 Research reports in English Philology

The studies in English Philology at the University of Oulu involve writing a number of research reports,

including a candidate’s thesis, a seminar paper and a master’s thesis. The following are some general

guidelines on how to write such a report. In addition to these, the teacher or thesis examiner may

have some special requirements that should be followed. Students should abide by the recommended

report length guidelines in terms of number of words, not necessarily number of pages.

1.1 Candidate’s thesis

The aims of the Candidate’s Seminar are (1) to provide an introduction, through group work on

relevant research topics, to the methodology, scholarly style and formal conventions of a thesis in the

discipline; and (2) to produce a thesis of around 20 pages (8,000 words) in the correct scholarly form

on a research topic that is agreed on with the supervisor.

1.2 Seminar paper

The aim of the Seminar is to foster the ability of students to define specific research questions and

goals, to find appropriate methods to deal with the questions raised, and—through both speech and

writing—to present the results of the research in a clear, consistent and scholarly form. This involves

the preparation of a research paper. Most seminar papers are around 20 pages (8,000 words) in

length.

1.3 Master’s thesis

1

Major students of English Philology will write a master’s thesis (pro gradu thesis) that demonstrates

their ability to carry out independent research and present the research findings in a systematic and

appropriate form on an approved topic in a field represented in English Philology. Students typically

aim at writing around 70–80 pages (28,000–32,000 words), including a list of references, but

excluding possible appendices.

2

2 Structure of a research report

A research report usually consists of the following types of sections.

2.1 Introduction

The introduction states briefly what has been studied and how, and why it was worth studying. Here

the writer sets down the thesis or hypothesis or poses the research questions that guided the study

(e.g. “The changes in Bob Dylan's lyrics reflect changes in American political thinking.” or “Is the movie

Se7en an example of changing representations of Hollywood masculinities?”).

2.2 Description of the research material

This section introduces the material used in the study, perhaps setting it in a wider context and

providing a clear link between the background information and the analysis. Depending on the

material, this may include a brief plot summary of the film or (the episode of a) television series under

investigation, a short description of the literary work (e.g. a novel or textbook) that is being examined

or information about possible questionnaires, interviews and audio or video recordings used in the

study and the informants involved in them. It is up to the author to decide whether it would be more

logical and coherent to have this section precede or follow the presentation of the methodological

framework of the study.

2.3 Theoretical and methodological framework

This section explains how the topic has been studied before and how it is examined in the present

study. The purpose of the section is to show the reader that the writer has done a thorough

investigation of previous research related to the study and draws on relevant writings of other

3

scholars. The writer introduces the overall analytical approach that is adopted in the study (e.g.

corpus linguistics, cultural studies), particular viewpoints and ideas that are taken on from previous

research as well as individual terms and concepts that are relevant for the study, to build an

understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. The theoretical and methodological

framework is introduced only to the extent that is actually relevant to the present study. It is useful to

give the section a heading that describes the contents of the section (e.g. Relevance theory and

humour; Theorizing masculinities) and divide it into subsections to discuss different aspects of the

theoretical and methodological framework (e.g. introduce the use of narration and characterization in

the analysis of a film or the syntactic and morphological theories in the study of the grammar of a

text).

2.4 Presentation of the analysis and findings

This section constitutes the longest part of the research paper. It makes visible what the writer makes

of the material using the selected theoretical and methodological framework. This is done by

presenting brief, representative extracts of the material and discussing them for the reader. For

instance, if one of the extracts reads It was a dark and stormy night. The door creaked open… , the

writer may begin by stating that this is a ”scary" passage and then go on to show what is scary about

it, perhaps by pointing out the darkness, the storm, and the fact that the second sentence is written

to make it appear as if the door opened of its own accord. The findings may consist of the author

making comparisons or pointing out similarities or differences between the extracts of materials and

introducing the logic of categorising them, supporting the research hypothesis of the author. It is

often good to divide this section into subsections and give each a heading that reflects the findings

presented in each (the main analytic section could be called, e.g. Movement, manner and plainness -

An analytic approach to Arnold’s epic style or Stance taking in direct reported speech).

4

2.5 Conclusion

This section summarizes the main ways in which the study addresses the thesis or hypothesis that was

set or answers the questions that were posed in the introduction, showing how the study adds to

previous knowledge. It discusses the validity of the findings, any practical applications that the study

may have, strengths and weaknesses of the study and directions for future study within the field. It

may sometimes be useful to include a separate section before the conclusion to summarize and

discuss the findings of the study in some detail (e.g. Discussion of the findings) and to devote the

conclusion for a more general examination of the implications and possible applications of the study.

2.6 List of references

A list of references must be provided and present all the sources that have been mentioned in the

running text, including previous research and research material with bibliographic information. Papers

prepared in English Philology follow the referencing conventions introduced below (section 4).

2.7 Appendices

It is sometimes convenient to present in one or more appendices material which cannot be discussed

in full in the running text. If, for example, several sentences from a newspaper article are discussed in

the body of the paper, the entire article may be included as an appendix, or, if a questionnaire was

used to conduct a study, it is useful to reproduce it in an appendix. Each appendix is given a

descriptive title and, if there is more than one appendix, a number as well. Each appendix must also

be referred to in the running text (see Appendix for an example of an appendix).

5

3 Style and formatting of a research report

The aim of a research report is to tell the reader about the study in a comprehensible, logical and

accurate way. It is also important to spell out a logical connection between the separate sections (see

section 2). Meta-communication plays an important role in underlining such a connection and helping

the reader understand the research carried out: a couple of lines of introduction at the beginning of

each section will tell the reader what is about to follow, and, at the end, a few summarizing sentences

will remind the reader what has just been shown.

3.1 Grammar and style

In writing a research report, attention should be paid to clear and precise English that is grammatically

correct and appropriate in style; for instance, contractions (e.g. didn’t and he’s) and informal and

colloquial expressions should be avoided, unless they are part of a quoted passage. One should

further aim at consistency in spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, etc. between chapters or sections.

It is a common practice to avoid breaking words at the ends of lines (especially with words having no

suffixes, prefixes or other suitable "cutting points"). When in doubt, it is useful to consult a dictionary

for the appropriate British English or American English spelling conventions.

In finalizing the report, layout, paragraphs, punctuation and quotations should be checked carefully.

Also, the writer should make sure that no pages, tables, etc. are missing or wrongly numbered; that

all notes to the text or tables have a number or symbol in the text or table; and that no notes are

missing.

3.2 General conventions

Use minimum hyphenation. Avoid hyphens with inter-, non-, post-, pre-, sub-, etc. 6

Capitalization should also be used sparingly.

Use lower-case for cross-references to figures and tables.

Use Times New Roman, Calibri, or another common, legible font in 12 point typeface size.

The words being emphasized are entered in the text in boldface. Note that these conventions

should also be used sparingly.

Abbreviations should be kept to a minimum. Omit full points after abbreviations that are

contractions (e.g. Mr or Ms).

Sets of initials should have no full point, e.g. OE, ME, USA.

For the abbreviations that are not contractions full points are used: e.g., i.e., f., ff. ('following')

c., etc. Take care to insert a comma before e.g., etc. and i.e. (as in these instructions).

3.3 Fonts, spacing and margins

This document has been drawn up by using the font Calibri (font size 12). Another recommended font

is Times New Roman (font size 12). The appropriate line spacing for the document is 1.5 and margins

2 cm for left and right, and 2,5 cm for top and bottom margins. Footnotes and entries in the list of

references may be single-spaced to save space. Extra space should be left between paragraphs, and

there should be no indentation at the beginning of paragraphs.

3.4 Quotations and glosses

Quotations are marked off from the text by double inverted commas (or double quotation marks),

e.g. in the American Psychological Association (APA) referencing style:

As Pomerantz & Fehr (1997) put it, conversation analysis aims “to explicate the shared methods

interactants use to produce and recognize their own and other people’s conduct” (p. 69).

7

Longer quotations are normally broken off from the text and indented (single-spaced; no quotation

marks needed), e.g. in the APA referencing style:

In Buttny’s (1998) words,

[t]he conversational practice of reported speech takes a prior utterance situated in a particular context and unearths it and gives it a life again in the new soil of the reporting context. To fit into its new context, the reported speech often needs to be contextually framed so recipients understand it in the desired way (p. 56).

A word or expression which is to be glossed is italicized and the gloss itself marked off with single

inverted commas (single quotation marks), e.g.:

The Finnish word kuningas 'king' is of Germanic origin.

3.5 Subheadings

For most purposes, two levels (e.g. 1.1.1) of subheading will be sufficient. They are typed on a

separate line. Only the first word and proper names are typed with a capital letter. On a related note,

one should avoid empty headings, i.e. headings which are followed immediately by a subheading with

no text in between, or writing paragraphs which are too short.

3.6 Footnotes

Notes are kept to a minimum and are no more than a few lines in length. They are placed at the

bottom of the page, as footnotes. Note indicators in the text come at a break in the text and follow

the punctuation.1 However, when using the CMS notes and bibliography style (see section 4.1.2),

relevant references appear in the footnotes.

1 Footnotes may be single-spaced and in a smaller font size to save space.8

3.7 Examples and extracts

Example sentences, etc. are indented and numbered with Arabic numerals in parentheses, e.g.:

(1) SBCSAE 0019 Doesn’t work in this household01 FRANK: it’s a ‘royal ^mess,

02 ‘isn’t it.

03 (0.5)

04 ^Yes it ^is.

(2) SBCSAE 0023 Howard’s End01 DIANE: But ^England didn’t really start ^losing her ‘colonies=,

02 (0.7)

03 ^did she,

04 until ‘more like ^Second ‘World War?

3.8 Illustrations

Figures and tables can be used to illustrate certain kinds of information, which are then discussed in

the flow of the text. Each illustration should be referred to in the running text (for examples of

illustrations, see figure 1 and table 1).

The number and title should be typed below each figure (e.g. a map or some other image) in bold and

above each table in italics.

Figure 1. Example of a figure.9

Table 1. Example of a table.

value A value B

Category X 1.3 2.7

Category Y 0.8 7.7

Explanations of symbols, abbreviations, etc. should be typed immediately below each figure or table

because they should be intelligible without the reader having to refer to the running text.

10

4 Referencing

A scholarly study necessarily relies and draws on previous research in terms of theoretical

approaches, methodological choices and analytical findings. Any connections to relevant existing

ideas, concepts and terms must therefore be acknowledged. This is done by referring to such sources

in the running text and providing bibliographic information about the sources at the end of the

research report.

Depending on their particular field of research and instructions provided by their teachers or thesis

supervisors, students of English Philology may choose from three commonly used referencing styles:

the American Psychological Association (APA) style,

the notes and bibliography style of the Chicago Manual of Style (CMS), and

the Modern Language Association (MLA) style.

The APA style is often used in linguistics, the CMS in studies concerning cultural and historical topics,

and the MLA style in research on literature. Whichever of the three styles is chosen, it is important

that it is followed consistently throughout the research report.

The following sections provide basic examples about the use of the APA, CMS and MLA styles and

offer only an overview of the general characteristics of each style. More information can be found in

style guides available in the university library and online (see Appendix for a list of relevant websites)

as well as on the Purdue Online Writing Lab website (https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/ ) . Students

of English Philology also have access to the RefWorks reference management tool

(https://www.refworks.com) that supports the preparation of a manuscript according to a particular

style and makes it possible to create a list of references automatically. Students who are preparing

their seminar papers and especially their master’s theses are encouraged to use RefWorks when

writing their research reports.

11

https://www.refworks.com/

https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/

4.1 In-text citations

When presenting an idea, concept or term developed by another researcher in the body of a research

report, it is important that the source is adequately acknowledged. In-text citations generally include

the name(s) of the author(s) of an earlier study, the year when it was published and, if possible, the

number of the page in the publication on which the cited information can be found. There are various

ways of citing previous research appropriately and even elegantly. Technically, in-text citations are

usually either 1) direct quotes from a specific page in the source, 2) paraphrases of a particular

passage on a specific page in the source or 3) a general paraphrase describing the entire source study.

The following examples, each a variation of the same text, show how the different types of in-text

citation are used in the APA, CMS and MLA referencing styles. Note, however, that in all styles the

reference has to occur within the sentence in which the citation occurs, not after.

4.1.1 In-text citations in APA style

The present study focuses on self-repetition that is employed as a resource in the

practice of recovery. To date, there are no full-scale analyses of this usage, but it has

been commented on in studies whose focus lies elsewhere. For example, Tannen

(1987) presents a case that resembles recovery through repetition and claims that

self-repetition is a way for the speaker to continue participation in the conversation

“even though he has nothing new to say” (p. 589). Others have been more precise

about the nature of participation that involves repetition. Norrick (1987) notes that

both self- and other-repetition are used to reintroduce a topic or point of view, but

he does not consider the sequential trajectories that may lead to such a

reintroduction (p. 259). In her study of repetition among children, Ochs (1983)

observes that a speaker may repeat an earlier utterance to solicit a verification from

a recipient, in other words, to pursue a receipt that was noticeably absent after the

source utterance (pp. 35–36). Ochs also points out that children may exploit the

12

practice multiple times if necessary, until they do receive a response. Moreover, the

occurrence of repetition has been remarked upon in studies that examine some

other aspect of returning to prior talk: it has been recognized as a part of the same

resource repertoire as prosodic marking (Local, 1992, 2004) and certain sequential

conjunctions (e.g. Duvallon & Routarinne, 2005; Mazeland & Huiskes, 2001).

4.1.2 In-text citations in CMS notes and bibliography style




presents a case that resembles recovery through repetition and claims that self-

repetition is a way for the speaker to continue participation in the conversation

“even though he has nothing new to say.”1 Others have been more precise about

the nature of participation that involves repetition. Norrick notes that both self- and

other-repetition are used to reintroduce a topic or point of view,2 but he does not

consider the sequential trajectories that may lead to such a reintroduction. In her

study of repetition among children, Ochs observes that a speaker may repeat an

earlier utterance to solicit a verification from a recipient,3 in other words, to pursue

a receipt that was noticeably absent after the source utterance. Ochs also points out

that children may exploit the practice multiple times if necessary, until they do

receive a response.4 Moreover, the occurrence of repetition has been remarked

upon in studies that examine some other aspect of returning to prior talk: it has

been recognized as a part of the same resource repertoire as prosodic marking 5 and

certain sequential conjunctions6.

------------------------------ (N.B. The following appear as footnotes.)1 Deborah Tannen, "Repetition in Conversation: Towards a Poetics of Talk," Language 63, no. 3 (1987): 589.

13

2 Neal R. Norrick, "Functions of Repetition in Conversation," Text 7, no. 3 (1987): 259.3 Elinor K. Ochs, "Making it Last: Repetition in Children's Discourse," in Acquiring Conversational Competence, ed. Elinor K. Ochs and Bambi B. Schieffelin (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1983), 35–36.4 Ibid.5 John Local, "Continuing and Restarting," in The Contextualization of Language, ed. Peter Auer and Aldo Di Luzio (Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1992).----------, "Getting Back to Prior Talk: And-Uh(m) as a Back-Connecting Device in British and American English," in Sound Patterns in Interaction: Cross-Linguistic Studies from Conversation, ed. Elizabeth Couper-Kuhlen and Cecilia E. Ford (Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2004).6 Outi Duvallon and Sara Routarinne, "Parenthesis as a Resource in the Grammar of Conversation," in Syntax and Lexis in Conversation: Studies on the Use of Linguistic Resources in Talk-in-Interaction, ed. Auli Hakulinen and Margret Selting (Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2005).

4.1.3 In-text citations in MLA style




presents a case that resembles recovery through repetition and claims that self-

repetition is a way for the speaker to continue participation in the conversation

“even though he has nothing new to say” (589). Others have been more precise

about the nature of participation that involves repetition. Norrick notes that both

self- and other-repetition are used to reintroduce a topic or point of view, but he

does not consider the sequential trajectories that may lead to such a reintroduction

(259). In her study of repetition among children, Ochs observes that a speaker may

repeat an earlier utterance to solicit a verification from a recipient, in other words,

to pursue a receipt that was noticeably absent after the source utterance (35–36).

Ochs also points out that children may exploit the practice multiple times if

necessary, until they do receive a response. Moreover, the occurrence of repetition

has been remarked upon in studies that examine some other aspect of returning to

prior talk: it has been recognized as a part of the same resource repertoire as

prosodic marking (Local, “Continuing and Restarting”, “Getting Back to Prior Talk”)

14

and certain sequential conjunctions (e.g. Duvallon and Routarinne, Mazeland and

Huiskes).

4.2 List of references

For each reference provided in the running text of a research report, bibliographic information must

be provided at the end of the report. Bibliographic entries usually inlude at least the name(s) of the

author(s), the year of publication, the title of the publication and information about the publisher. The

following examples, each a variation of the same list of references, show how bibliographic entries are

made in the APA, CMS and MLA referencing styles.

4.2.1 References in APA style

References

Duvallon, O., & Routarinne, S. (2005). Parenthesis as a resource in the grammar of conversation. In A. Hakulinen, & M. Selting (Eds.), Syntax and lexis in conversation: Studies on the use of linguistic resources in talk-in-interaction (pp. 45–74). Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Local, J. (1992). Continuing and restarting. In P. Auer, & A. Di Luzio (Eds.), The contextualization of language (pp. 273–296). Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Local, J. (2004). Getting back to prior talk: And-uh(m) as a back-connecting device in British and American English. In E. Couper-Kuhlen, & C. E. Ford (Eds.), Sound patterns in interaction: Cross-linguistic studies from conversation (pp. 377–400). Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Mazeland, H., & Huiskes, M. (2001). Dutch ‘but’ as a sequential conjunction: Its use as a resumption marker. In M. Selting, & E. Couper-Kuhlen (Eds.), Studies in interactional linguistics (pp. 141–169). Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Norrick, N. R. (1987). Functions of repetition in conversation. Text, 7(3), 245–264.Ochs, E. K. (1983). Making it last: Repetition in children's discourse. In E. Ochs, & B. B. Schieffelin

(Eds.), Acquiring conversational competence (pp. 26–39). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.Tannen, D. (1987). Repetition in conversation: Towards a poetics of talk. Language, 63(3), 574–605.

4.2.2 Bibliography in CMS style

15

Bibliography

Duvallon, Outi and Sara Routarinne. "Parenthesis as a Resource in the Grammar of Conversation." In Syntax and Lexis in Conversation: Studies on the use of Linguistic Resources in Talk-in-Interaction , edited by Hakulinen, Auli and Margret Selting, 45–74. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2005.

Local, John. "Continuing and Restarting." In The Contextualization of Language, edited by Auer, Peter and Aldo Di Luzio, 273–296. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1992.

---. "Getting Back to Prior Talk: and-Uh(m) as a Back-Connecting Device in British and American English." In Sound Patterns in Interaction: Cross-Linguistic Studies from Conversation, edited by Couper-Kuhlen, Elizabeth and Cecilia E. Ford, 377–400. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2004.

Mazeland, Harrie and Mike Huiskes. "Dutch ‘but’ as a Sequential Conjunction: Its use as a Resumption Marker." In Studies in Interactional Linguistics, edited by Selting, Margret and Elizabeth Couper-Kuhlen, 141–169. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2001.

Norrick, Neal R. "Functions of Repetition in Conversation." Text 7, no. 3 (1987): 245–264.Ochs, Elinor K. "Making it Last: Repetition in Children's Discourse." In Acquiring Conversational

Competence, edited by Ochs, Elinor and Bambi B. Schieffelin, 26–39. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1983.

Tannen, Deborah. "Repetition in Conversation: Towards a Poetics of Talk." Language 63, no. 3 (1987): 574–605.

4.2.3 Works cited in MLA style

Works Cited

Duvallon, Outi and Sara Routarinne. "Parenthesis as a Resource in the Grammar of Conversation." Ed. Hakulinen, Auli and Margret Selting. Syntax and Lexis in Conversation: Studies on the Use of Linguistic Resources in Talk-in-Interaction. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2005. 45–74. Print.

Local, John. "Continuing and Restarting." Ed. Auer, Peter and Aldo Di Luzio. The Contextualization of Language. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1992. 273–296. Print.

--- "Getting Back to Prior Talk: And-uh(m) as a Back-Connecting Device in British and American English." Ed. Couper-Kuhlen, Elizabeth and Cecilia E. Ford. Sound Patterns in Interaction: Cross-Linguistic Studies from Conversation. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2004. 377–400. Print.

Mazeland, Harrie and Mike Huiskes. "Dutch ‘but’ as a Sequential Conjunction: Its use as a Resumption Marker." Ed. Selting, Margret and Elizabeth Couper-Kuhlen. Studies in Interactional Linguistics. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2001. 141–169. Print.

Norrick, Neal R. "Functions of Repetition in Conversation." Text 7.3 (1987): 245–264. Print.Ochs, Elinor K. "Making it Last: Repetition in Children's Discourse." Ed. Ochs, Elinor and Bambi B.

Schieffelin. Acquiring Conversational Competence. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1983. 26–39. Print.

16

Tannen, Deborah. "Repetition in Conversation: Towards a Poetics of Talk." Language 63.3 (1987): 574–605. Print.

17

Appendix. Links to websites introducing different referencing styles

American Psychological Association (APA)

http://www.apastyle.org/

https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/

Chicago Manual of Style (CMS)

http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org


Modern Language Association (MLA)

http://www.mla.org


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