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RETHINKING CULTURE HISTORY IN FLORIDA; AN ANALYSIS OF CERAMICS FROM THE HARRIS CREEK SITE (8VO24)

ON TICK ISLAND IN VOLUSIA COUNTY, FLORIDA

By

CLIFFORD JOSEPH JENKS

A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS

UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA

2006

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Copyright © 2006

By

Clifford Joseph Jenks

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TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES………...…………………………………………………………………..…5 LIST OF FIGURES………..……………………………………………………………….........6 ABSTRACT………...…………………………………………………………………………...8 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION………..…………………………………………….…………......10 2 ORANGE AND ST. JOHNS POTTERY, THE LATE ARCHAIC, AND TICK ISLAND………...………………………………………………………..12 The Ceramic Types of Harris Creek (8VO24) and Related Sites…...……...…………12 The Late Archaic and its Contextual Relationship to Tick Island and the Harris Creek Site (8VO24)………...……………………………………20 The Archaeology of Harris Creek (8VO24) on Tick Island…………………………..21 The Geography and Environmental Setting of the Harris Creek Site (8VO24)………..……………………………………………..23 . 3 ANALYTICAL METHODS………..………………………………………………...26 Physical Attributes of Harris Creek (8VO24) Vessels………..………………………27 Stylistic Attributes of Harris Creek (8VO24) Vessels……….......................................31 AMS Dates from the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) on Tick Island………...…………...33 4 ANALYTICAL RESULTS.………..………………………………………………..37 AMS Dating from the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) on TickIsland………..………….37 Stylistic Results from the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) on Tick Island………...……..39 Techno-Functional Results from the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) on Tick Island………..………………………………………………………….41 Summary of Results………...………………………………………………………...44 5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUDING STATEMENTS………...……………………60 Discussion of Results………...…………………………………………………..…...61 Social Implications of Ceramic Analytical Results from Tick Island………..………63 Conclusion………..………………………………………………………………… 64

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APPENDIX A FIBER-TEMPERED AND DUAL-TEMPERED INCISED VESSEL MOTIFS………..………………………………………………………...67 B SPONGE-TEMPERED INCISED VESSEL MOTIFS………..…………………….69 C VESSEL PROFILE FORMS FROM TICK ISLAND………...…………………….71 D PHOTOGRAPHS OF INCISED VESSELS FROM TICK ISLAND………………72 REFERENCES………..……………………………………………………………...………...74 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH………....………………………………………………………...76

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LIST OF TABLES Table page 2-1. Data on AMS Assays of Soot Samples from Orange Fiber-Tempered Sherds from Middle St. Johns Valley Sites……………………………………………………25 4-2. AMS Dates of St. Johns Ceramics from The Harris Creek

Site (8VO24) on Tick Island............................................................................................48 4-3. Vessel Type and the Care Taken in Design Application…...…………………………..48 4-4. Vessel Type and the Complexity of Elements Applied to Vessel……………………...49 4-5. Location of Rim Bands on Different Vessel Types…………………………………….49 4-6. Type and Function as Evident by Soot Deposits……………………………………….50 4-7. Form and Vessel Temper……………………………………………………..………...50 4-8. Form and Temper of Vessel as it Related to Function…………………………….…...51

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure page 3-1. Examples of (a) bowl form; (b) flat wall form; (c) jar form..……………………………35 3-2. Photographs of (a) boat shaped vessels form; (b) tray vessel forms..……………………35 3-3. Examples of designs with complex elements from Tick Island..………………………...35

3-4. Examples of designs with simple elements from Tick Island…..………………………..36

3-5. Example of designs with banded prologues to decorative motifs.……………………… 36 3-6. Example of designs with banded epilogues to decorative motifs.……………………… 36 4-7. Profile Form and Pattern Design for Vessel #A349.007…..…………………………… 51 4-8. Profile of Vessel A348.030 From Tick Island.…………………………………………..51 4-9. Profile of Vessel A348.003 From Tick Island..………………………………………… 52 4-10. Pattern design found on AMS dated vessel # 103272.016…..………………………..52 4-11. Incised Surface Design on Vessel #99921.020..………………………………………...52 4-12. Frequency of occurrence of preceding band counts on fiber-tempered pottery. Min: 3, Max: 10, Av: 4.8 lines, STD: +/- 2.7…………………………………………52 . 4-13. Frequency of occurrence of preceding band counts on sponge-tempered Pottery. Min: 1, Max: 2, Av: 1.8 lines, STD: +/- .4………………………...53 4-14. Frequency of occurrence of preceding band counts on dual-tempered pottery. Min: 1, Max: 8, Av: 2.35 lines, STD: +/- 1.5…………………………53 4-15. Wall thickness of Harris Creek (8VO24) vessel sherds. Max: 19 mm, Min: 2.5 mm, Avg: 9.37 mm, STD: +/- 2.87 mm………………………………54

4-16. Wall thickness frequency for fiber-tempered vessel sherds at the Harris Creek Site (8VO24). Max: 14 mm, Min: 7 mm,Avg: 10.28 mm, STD: +/- 1.97 mm………………………………..54

4-17. Wall thickness frequency for dual-tempered vessel sherds at the Harris Creek Site (8VO24). Max: 19 mm, Min: 5.25 mm, Avg: 11.73 mm, STD: +/- 2.65mm…….………………………55

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4-18. Wall thickness frequency for sponge-tempered vessels at the Harris Creek Site (8VO24). Max: 16 mm, Min: 2.5 mm, Avg: 8.22 mm, STD: +/- 2.4 mm……………….. 55

4-19. Wall thickness frequency of cooking vessels at the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) Max: 18 mm, Min: 2.5 mm, Avg: 8.95 mm STD: +/- 2.64 mm………………..56

4-20. Wall thickness frequency of unsooted vessels at the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) Max: 19 mm, Min: 4.25 mm, Avg: 9.84 mm STD: +/- 3.06 mm.........................56

4-21. Wall thickness frequency of sooted fiber-tempered vessel sherds at the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) Max: 12 mm, Min: 8 mm, Avg: 10.25 mm STD: +/- 1.79 mm…………..57

4-22. Wall thickness frequency of unsooted fiber-tempered vessel sherds at the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) Max: 14 mm, Min: 7 mm, Avg: 10.29 mm STD: +/- 2.1 mm…………...57

4-23. Wall thickness frequency of sooted dual-tempered vessel sherds at the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) Max: 18 mm, Min: 5.25 mm, Avg: 11.17 mm STD: +/- 2.7 mm………...58

4-24. Wall thickness frequency of unsooted dual-tempered vessel sherds at the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) Max: 19 mm, Min: 6.5 mm, Avg: 12.06 mm STD: +/- 2.62 mm………...58

4-25. Wall thickness frequency of sooted sponge-tempered vessel sherds at the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) Max: 16 mm, Min: 2.5 mm, Avg: 8.31 mm STD: +/- 2.35 mm………….59

4-26. Wall thickness frequency of unsooted sponge-tempered vessel sherds at the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) Max: 13.75 mm, Min: 4.25 mm, Avg: 8.08 mm STD: +/- 2.5 mm………59

A-1. Examples of fiber-tempered and dual-tempered incised vessel designs..………………...67

A-2. Additional examples of fiber-tempered and dual-tempered incised vessel design ……... 68 B-1. An example of an incised motif applied to a sponge-tempered vessel……….…………...69 B-2. Additional examples of motifs found on sponge-tempered vessels…………….………..70 C-1. Examples of vessel profiles from the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) on Tick Island...…...…71 D-1. Photographs of dual-tempered and fiber-tempered incised ceramics from the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) on Tick Island……………………………………………………..72 D-2. Photographs of sponge-tempered incised ceramics from the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) on Tick Island……………………………………………………..73

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Abstract of Thesis Presented to the Graduate School of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts

RETHINKING CULTURE HISTORY IN FLORIDA; AN ANALYSIS OF CERAMICS FROM THE HARRIS CREEK SITE (8VO24)

ON TICK ISLAND IN VOLUSIA COUNTY, FLORIDA By Clifford Joseph Jenks August 2006 Chair: Kenneth E. Sassaman Cochair: Michael Heckenberger Major Department: Anthropology

This study is an analysis of ceramic material found in northeast Florida at the Harris Creek

archaeological site on Tick Island, which is located on the St. Johns River in Volusia County

Florida. The primary purposes of this study were to better refine the current artifact-type

chronology currently used, and to type artifacts by examining aesthetic style rather than

intentional additives to pre-fired clay. Pottery from two chronological types were analyzed and

compared for the purposes of this study; namely, the Orange and St. Johns ceramic variations.

These pottery types are thought to be sequential in chronology, with Orange pottery being an

earlier variant than St. Johns, but recent studies suggest that they may be more contemporaneous

than originally thought.

In order to test the possible contemporaneousness of the two vessel types, more

radiocarbon dates were gathered from the St. Johns variant, and compared with dates from

Orange ceramics which are readily available in the current literature. When a contemporary

nature of the two ceramic types was confirmed, the study turned to account for stylistic variation

between two ceramic types existing together at the same time. This analysis focused on

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comparing the complexity and care of design application between the ceramic types, and found a

correlation between design application and vessel functionality. Ceramics with more complex

and careful design application were found to be less functional—probably reserved for more

ceremonial purposes and conversely, vessels with less complex and hastily applied designs were

found to exhibit traits of a functional usage.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Recently, the cultural-historic schemes of eastern and central Florida (Milanich 1994:243-

274) have been called into question as a result of new AMS carbon dating of Orange fiber-

tempered ceramics from the middle St. Johns valley (Sassaman 2003). The schemes, first

established in the 1950s then further refined in 1972 by Ripley Bullen (Bullen 1972), have

sustained a wide utilization and long adherence by archaeologists practicing in northeastern

Florida. The results of new dating efforts may force Florida archaeologists to rethink ways in

which sites and artifacts are analyzed, interpreted, and reported.

The strict adherence to the stratigraphic contexts provided is problematic because they are

highly unilineal in sequence. There have been positive steps to alleviate stratigraphic dependency

through the use of radiometric dating and seriation, but the superimposition of archaeological

assemblages into envisioned stratified deposits is still the primary method used to infer sequence.

Often, these sequences are used to create regional chronologies where separate assemblages are

arranged in an order of early to late culture-periods, with little consideration given to possible

overlap. Through the rules of problematic normative culture-history, distinct assemblages are

equated to units of distinct culture.

Presently archaeology has been involved in the deconstruction of cultural-historic

sequences formulated under the precepts of unilinearity and normative culture. This thesis is a

contribution to refining the culture-history of northeast Florida. Formulated by Goggin (1952) and

Bullen (1972), the cultural-historical sequence of the Late Archaic period (ca. 5000-3000

radiocarbon years before present [B.P.]) in the region is problematic. This era of early pottery

development in the greater southeast is known in northeastern Florida for the traditions of Orange

and St. Johns pottery as the key diagnostic features of ceramic development. Based on composite

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stratigraphic data and limited radiometric assays, Bullen (1972) developed a cultural-historical

sequence with four phases of the Orange Period, a transitional phase, followed by a St. Johns

phase. However, recent radiometric dating, petrographic analysis, and intersite comparisons

(Cordell 2004; Sassaman 2003) suggest that phases of the Orange period are contemporaneous

rather than sequential, and a growing body of evidence suggests that the St. Johns tradition pottery

is as old as ceramics of the Orange period.

This paper has as its primary objectives to provide dates to further refine the cultural-

historic sequence of northeastern Florida; to better understand the more complex paste variation

identified by Cordell (2004); and to provide alternative means for identifying cultural and temporal

variation other than paste—as it has been demonstrated that many of the petrographic features

thought to be mutually exclusive to either Orange or St. Johns pottery types are not necessarily

true. Many of the paste inclusions thought to belong only to St. Johns wares are now being found

in the pastes of Orange pottery alongside the palmetto fiber (Cordell 2004).

Style offers an excellent opportunity to understand culture and its change over time and space, for

it is style that is a direct expression of culture. Using a stylistic analysis in conjunction with

different temper types (rather than overall paste), newly acquired dates, form, thickness, and

function (cooking/non-cooking), it is the hope here to offer a better picture of the culture-history at

Tick Island’s Harris Creek Site (8VO24) during the Late Archaic. This is a site-specific study, but

used with the available literature and hopefully future studies of northeastern Florida’s Late

Archaic sites archaeologists will be able to make some well-founded generalizations concerning

the regions culture history.

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CHAPTER 2 ORANGE AND ST. JOHNS POTTERY,

THE LATE ARCHAIC, AND TICK ISLAND

As a preface to this analysis, it is important to provide some background perspective on

the Orange and St. Johns ceramic types found at the Harris Creek site (8VO24). This will be

followed by a historical look at previous work conducted at Tick Island, including its initial

identification by archaeologists, and the archaeological activity on and off the site up to the

present day. A generous amount of the information gathered concerning the sites archaeological

history comes from research conducted by Lawrence Aten (1999). Also significant is the site’s

context in relation to geographic location, its relationship to the greater Southeast, and the time

periods in which it was inhabited and utilized.

The Ceramic Types of Harris Creek (8VO24) and Related Sites

Orange ceramics: Orange pottery was first identified by Jeffries Wyman, who, in 1875,

noted the use of palmetto fibers in the tempering of the vessels. It was through C.B. Moore’s

expeditions and detailed notes that clued archaeologists into the general context of fiber-

tempered pottery in Florida. Moore’s excavations in Florida demonstrated that the fiber-

tempered pottery overlay a preceramic deposit and was, in turn, overlain by a more fine-grained

check-stamped deposit of ceramic artifacts. James B. Griffin is credited with first noting the

significance of the Orange period in Florida in 1945, defining what has been considered its most

important type, which was the incised variety. He also noted it as similar to later St. Johns

incised pottery, which have many of the same incised design elements and motifs (Bullen 1972).

From the early 1950s to the early 1970s, Ripley Bullen began expanding the knowledge of this

pottery type by dividing it into a chronological sequence based on form and style. The changes

of these forms and style marked different sub-periods of Orange pottery and were used as

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chronological markers. In his work, Bullen discusses Orange period sites as they relate to Orange

chronology and not the time frame of fieldwork conducted at these sites.

Bullen’s chronology begins with what he dubbed Orange 1, ranging in age from

approximately 4000 B.P. to about 3650 B.P. These wares were described as hand-molded pottery

with thin walls ranging from 6-7 mm in thickness. They exhibited simple rounded lips and had

the form of shallow, flat-based, and straight-sided bowls alongside some rectangular-shaped

vessels. Some of these ceramics had lug like appendages, and all were untreated with surface

decoration. Ceramics of this type were discovered at the Bluffton Site on the St. Johns River in

the 1951 work of John W. Griffin in conjunction with Bullen and the Florida Park Service, where

they conducted a large scale stratigraphic test. Here is where they found their first evidence of a

plain fiber-tempered midden on top of 30 feet of pre-ceramic freshwater shell midden (Bullen

1972). Bullen interprets these vessels as being pseudomorphs of previously used wood trays, and

baskets, a form which would be useful in the collection of Viviparous shells, a dominants species

of St. Johns River middens. Orange 2 vessels were said to appear at 3650 B.P, and lasted until

about 3450 B.P. The forms of these vessels were identical to that of the Orange 1 phase,

however, these vessels exhibited incised surface treatment with motifs of concentric vertical

diamonds with horizontal lines. Vessels from Tick Island are an exception to this phase’s motifs,

with renditions of spirals with background punctations, though this motif is rare, even on Tick

Island itself (Milanich 1994). These vessels were also found at Bluffton and found with

undecorated material, but not in any manner of stratigraphic superposition. Bullen mentions,

though, that there is no noticeable temporal break, but a distinct difference in surface treatment

and an increase in circular vessels as opposed to rectangular vessels (Bullen 1972). The surface

treatment of the Orange 2 vessels at Bluffton includes incised concentric diamond motifs and a

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Tick Island incised variant. St. Johns plain and check-stamped vessels were found in a disturbed

overlaying context which also included some fiber-tempered pottery.

At the Palmer site in Osprey was the second instance where Bullen found a plain fiber-

tempered zone in the upper portions of a Late Archaic shell midden. The midden is described by

Bullen as two parallel middens each 400 feet in length which are fused into an apex at the

southern ends. Here, however, the majority of shells found at the midden belonged to marine

species as opposed to freshwater shells. The maximum height of this midden site was

approximately 5.3 m at maximum elevation. Many tests were placed in between the parallel

middens and at its northern ends, and they were found to be sterile of material culture besides the

shell refuse (Bullen 1972). Bullen attributes the sterility of these areas to the fact that the

inhabitants would have been careful not to block the outlet. One major test and three minor ones

were placed in the midden by Bullen and company, three being placed in the western part (Tests

A-C), and one being placed in the eastern line of shell (Test D). Test A was, by far, the largest

test, reaching a depth of approximately 4 m. The highest portion of this excavation block

consisted of sand-tempered plain sherds, and those of the Norwood Plain variety.

The next level of the block consisted of both Orange incised pottery and a sherd of St.

Johns plain ceramic. In the next level between, approximately 50-60 cm, the only ceramic

content was Orange incised, and in the last arbitrary level at about 2 m below surface the only

ceramic type to be found was Orange Plain. In the level where only incised Orange vessels were

found, there was no curvature in the sherds, which indicated to Bullen that these vessels were

flat-bottomed, straight-sided, rectangular containers. Incised motifs were difficult to identify on

these vessels due to the fact that many of the sherds were very fragmented. However, it was

ascertained to a certain degree that the incised designs on the vessels contained lines that were

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straight and close together. One sherd did suggest a concentric diamond motif. The other tests

conducted at Palmer yielded comparatively fewer sherds than were found in Test A. Test B,

which was placed in the highest portion of the midden and dug to a depth of approximately 2 m,

produced one Orange incised sherd at about 1 m below surface. Test C on the on the other side

was dug to a little over 2 meters, and produced only one sand-tempered plain sherd in the higher

levels of the test. In the eastern portion of the site, Test D was excavated to a little less than 2 m,

and produced an Orange plain sherd as well as a sand tempered plain piece in the upper portion

of the unit. At about 1 m below the surface there were four Orange plain sherds and two Orange

incised sherds. Of importance concerning Palmer and its significance to the present study is that

Bullen mentions that there does not appear to be any sort of break at the times of the introduction

of, or changes in, ceramics at the site (Bullen 1972).

To Bullen, the Orange 3 phase is typified best by the Summer Haven, Cotton, and South

Indian Field sites (Bullen 1972). Summer Haven was considered important because it was one of

the few Orange period sites located to the east of the inland waterway, making the environmental

situation different from much of the St. Johns River where most Orange period sites are found

(Bullen and Bullen 1961). Summer Haven is said to be largely destroyed by the mining of its

shell for the construction of road beds. Bullen and associates worked on the eastern, undisturbed

portion of the site which was being threatened by the widening of Route A1A. The midden in

this portion was a little over 1 m in thickness. The excavations conducted at Summer Haven

consisted of two adjoining 3x3 m excavation blocks (Bullen and Bullen 1961). This midden

contained mostly Orange Plain and Orange Incised wares, though a Norwood Plain and a St.

Johns Plain sherd were also found within their excavations (Bullen 1972). Aside from the

ceramic assemblage recovered, the deposit was found to consist of shells with which were mixed

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fluctuating degrees of charcoal, food bones, and occasional shell, bone, and stone tools (Bullen

and Bullen 1961). The forms of Orange Plain and Incised vessels were a mix of straight-sided,

round-mouthed, vessels with flat bottoms, and those that were not curved but had flat walls along

with flat bottoms. Walls of these vessels ranged from 4-13 mm in thickness, and the bases were

mostly 13 mm in thickness. The junction between the bases and walls were considered to be very

thick, averaging 25 mm, and many of the walls were described to be wedge-shaped (Bullen

1972). Rims and lips of the Orange vessels from Summer Haven were described as simple and

slightly rounded or wide and flat. Of the 354 rims examined by Bullen from Summer Haven, a

little over half were decorated. The Summer Haven Orange incised vessels had a very wide

variety of decorative motifs, according to Bullen. They were made up of different combinations

of straight lines, ticks, and punctations. There were no curved lines, punctuated backgrounds, or

concentric geometric figures found in examining these sherds. Designs described by Bullen

include vessels with 6 to 9 parallel slanting lines, sometimes bordered by ticks, crosshatching,

pendant hatched triangles, narrow hatched bands, and running frets (Bullen 1972). Rim

decoration largely coincided with the overall surface treatment of the walls. These attributes

differed enough from those listed by Bluffton and Palmer to warrant the designation of a new

Bullen sequence.

Summer Haven was also considered by the Bullens to offer a new view of the way of life

of peoples of the Late Orange period in east Florida. The pottery is considered here to vary little

when compared to the ceramics at Cotton and South Indian Field. Variations that do occur are

considered to be minute decorative differences of little significance (Bullen and Bullen 1961),

further justifying the designation of a third sub-period in his Orange phase sequence. The Cotton

Site and South Indian field sites were said to be extremely similar in their ceramic composition

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as well as other forms of artifact assemblages. Bullen identified the Orange 4 phase at the

Sunday Bluff site, which he described as containing the first, “pure” Orange 4 deposits (Bullen

1972). Sunday Bluff is described as series of small shell middens located along a small tributary

of the St. Johns River.

In Bullen’s test, the midden proper was a little under a meter in thickness and underlaid

by soft sand containing pre-ceramic bifaces. The midden was overlaid as well by soft sand, and it

contained Formative period artifacts such as St. Johns, and Deptford ceramics and more recent

pottery and biface types. The midden itself contained Orange Plain and Orange Incised sherds

exclusively, “except for some St. Johns Plain sherds, usually in higher levels” (Bullen 1972).

Both Orange Plain and Orange Incised sherds from Sunday Bluff almost exclusively take the

form of flat bottomed containers with thin walls, which are described to be approximately 6-9

mm in thickness. Traits of the Orange 3 phase are described as being absent from this site. Style

at the Sunday Bluff site is described as being simplistic incised designs when the ceramics were

decorated at all. Sunday Bluff, according to Bullen’s descriptions, represented a terminal fiber-

tempered phase of the Florida northeast culture region because of similarities between shapes

and decorations of the, “succeeding St. Johns Plain and Incised vessels. This situation—plain

chalky ware in otherwise fiber-tempered levels—has been reported for both the South Indian

Field and Cotton Sites” (Bullen 1972). At a nearby site called the Colby Site Bullen states that

Dr. Thomas Couchmore of Jacksonville had also found St. Johns sherds in fiber-tempered levels

of his tests. Also found at the Colby site were, “St. Johns Plain Sherds containing a little fiber-

tempering” (Bullen 1972).

Bullen discusses a period which was dubbed Transitional, and believed that the Orange

period ended by about 3,000 B.P. He further discusses a site which he believes to represent this

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“transitional” period which he had identified. The Zabski site is described as originally being a

one-period midden, and there was not a single fiber tempered sherd to be found. There were,

however, St. Johns Plain, Incised, Pinched, Triangular Punctated, indented, and side lugged;

Pasco and Perico Plain, Perico Linear Punctated; and sand-tempered plain sherds (Bullen 1972).

The St. Johns vessels here are considered to be similar in form and decorative treatment to many

of the Orange vessels, but the site lacked any fiber-tempered vessels, signifying to Bullen the

close of the Orange period and the transition to a new phase of Florida ceramic assemblages.

St. Johns phase ceramics: The St. Johns cultural sequence is described as, “The

Formative Stage,” denoting a beginning of formal, settled communities, with the gradual

development of more complex forms of political and religious community organization, is

marked by a great deal more regional diversity than the earlier stages as (Milanich and Fairbanks

1980).” It is believed that this diversity resulted from local adaptations to varied ecological

conditions within the state (Janus Research 1996). The same seasonal pattern involving

movement between the coast and river, said to be established during the Orange phase, is said to

have continued during the early St. Johns period. This seasonal patterning, however, can be

challenged, since there may have been more than one culture occupying differing environmental

niches, one being on the coast and the other on the riverine interior. This may have earlier roots

in a sedentary lifestyle that began in the Orange and continued through to the early St. Johns

period. These can be marked in differences in ceramic assemblages and other artifacts between

the interior and coastal settlements. Further work is warranted to determine whether or not

coastal and interior sites represent a seasonal movement of a single people, or the habitation of

differing environmental niches by two groups of people similar in some regards, but different in

many others.

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The St. Johns culture is said to be probably developed out of the fiber-tempered Orange

culture found in the same region during the Late Archaic period, with great continuity in relation

to the Timucuan speaking groups who lived in the region during the colonial period (Milanich

1994). The basic life-ways of St. Johns I culture are described as not too different from its

Orange Late Archaic predecessor, who are said to have had a hunter-gatherer economy, while

occupying villages and camps adjacent to many coastal and freshwater resources (Milanich

1994). Numerous archaeological surveys and excavations have significantly demonstrated that

many Orange and St. Johns I period artifacts are often found at the same locales, and often at the

same sites (Milanich 1994)! This is attributed to continuity of a cultural- chronological sequence,

but may, in fact, represent a contemporaneous rather than a sequential relationship between the

two ceramic types.

The first recognized St. Johns Ceramic type is that of the St. Johns I (2500-1900 B.P.)

variety, and is described as a village ware with both plain surfaces and incised surface treatment

(Milanich 1994). Forming techniques attributed to this ware describe a ceramic type that is

coiled for all known wares. Some of the pottery is punctated or pinched, and the vessels, in a

very few instances, exhibit the appearance of side-lug appendages. St. Johns Ia (1900-1500 B.P.)

describes village pottery that consists, for the most part, of undecorated wares found in

association with Late Deptford and Swift Creek Pottery.

St. Johns Ib (1500-1350 B.P.) is described similarly as undecorated village pottery, often

found with other ceramic types such as Weeden Island and Dunns Creek Red. These phases of

St. Johns I pottery both are defined as a type by a surrounding context, and not by any traits

inherent within the ceramics themselves. St. Johns IIa (1350-950 B.P.) is where the first check-

stamped St. Johns wares were identified. This pottery is said to be found often in association

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with Weeden Island variety ceramics. St. Johns IIb (950-487 B.P.) is once again defined by its

context, and not by any traits inherent within the ceramics themselves. This type is check-

stamped pottery like its predecessor but found in association with Fort Walton and Safety Harbor

pottery along with Southeastern ceremonial complex objects. Also noted of this ceramic type is a

Mississippian influence at the sites in which they are found. St. Johns IIc is also described as

check-stamped pottery, but in this case, in association with European artifacts in some middens

and mounds. This pottery is said to belong to the various Timucuan-speaking groups described in

European documentation (Milanich: 1994)

The Late Archaic and its Contextual Relationship to Tick Island and the Harris Creek Site (8VO24)

The Late Archaic (5500-3000 B.P.): The most important development during the Late

Archaic, as far as the subject of this paper is concerned, is the selective regional development of

fiber-tempered ceramics throughout the Southeast. The word “selective” is used here because,

although there was widespread population growth and a profusion of sites in the region, ceramics

only seemed to be innovated and utilized in certain core areas. These core areas were along the

St. Johns River with Orange Phase ceramics, in South Carolina with the Stallings Island variety

of fiber-tempered pottery, and Thoms Creek a little north of the Stallings Island area (Sassaman

1993). With the widespread occupation and interregional interaction of the time, people would

most certainly be aware of this innovation in cooking and serving technology, but for some

reason its spread was being hindered. This once again suggests the possibility that some vested

interests were at work to stifle this innovation. It also lends additional support to a main theme of

this paper; that is, that not all traits and innovations will automatically be adopted within a

culture, regardless of their functionality or expedience.

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The Archaeology of Harris Creek (8VO24) on Tick Island

Tick Island, bordered by Lake Dexter, Lake Woodruff, and Mud Lake on the 440 km

stretch of the St. Johns River (Jahn and Bullen 1978), was initially identified during the 19th

century expeditions of Clarence B. Moore on the middle portion of the river. The Harris Creek

Site (8VO24) is a ceremonial shell midden with materials ranging from the Middle Archaic

period (7000-5000 BP), up to the St. Johns IIb (1950-487 BP) period of Florida cultural

chronology (Jahn and Bullen 1978). It was described by its initial investigator as having “a wild

appearance, covered as it is with gnarled live oak and towering palmetto with trailing vine and

tangled undergrowth.” (Moore 1892a in Aten 1999). Moore reported his fieldwork conducted in

February, March, and April of 1891 at the island and its northernmost site (8VO25), but it wasn’t

until 1893 that he discussed the main southern site, the Harris Creek Site (8VO24), which is the

subject of this current study.

Moore’s initial description of the Harris Creek site (8VO24) referred to “a circular heap

of shell converging to an apex at the center.” (Jahn and Bullen 1978). The excavation conducted

at the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) was a 2.1x1.2 m test block, which was excavated to a depth of

2.7 m. In his excavation block, Moore encountered a layer of humus in the first .4 m, and in the

remaining 2.3 m, was a thick layer of shell deposit with a heavy concentration of plain and

decorated fiber-tempered pottery (Moore 1892 in Aten 1999). A review of further documentation

by Moore revealed that there were additional excavations that he conducted at the Harris Creek

Site (8VO24). In these excavations, Moore uncovered bone tools, and projectile points alongside

the ornamented pottery, at a depth of 2.4-3 m. Another pit excavated by Moore revealed four

burials, one of which is described as “flexed and directly over a fireplace, but gave no evidence

of contact with flames” (Moore 1892 in Aten 1999).

22

Francis Bushnell did additional work at Tick Island in 1959, and furthered the

archaeological knowledge base concerning it by mapping the island in relation to its cultural and

natural features (Aten 1999). During his work there, he conducted controlled surface collections,

and divided the site into four separate areas differentiated by the letters A-D, which are still

referred to today when discussing the site. Of particular significance was Area D, which

consisted of 18-20 burials beneath shell at a depth of approximately 1.5 m below the surface.

One of these skeletons was found to have several projectile points embedded in it. Several of the

skulls have been interpreted to have been crushed in a violent manner. It is possible, however,

that they were crushed by the weight and pressure of the overlying sediment over a long period

of time. Area A was where the greatest diversity of ceramic types were found, ranging from

Orange period ceramics to the St. Johns II period. Area C of Bushnell’s observations was a

mortuary segment of the site with three small inland shell mounds, each containing a single

burial. The only area that was not as substantially destroyed as the other areas was Area D, and

Bushnell conducted controlled excavations of this area. He described it as follows: “A striking

‘hill’ or rise which might at first be mistaken for a temple mound structure. In this rise, sherds of

the St. Johns Period are almost absent, being found only on the direct surface. Orange plain

appears only at a shallow depth, with a possible preceramic region showing up at about two

feet.”

Later work at Tick Island includes controlled surface collections and observations made

by Otto Jahn between 1964 and 1969 at the Harris Creek Site (8VO24). In the 1980s, there were

also core samples taken from archaeological deposits and well-preserved organic materials (Aten

1999). The site’s integrity has been highly compromised as of today, since the island was heavily

damaged by shell mining conducted throughout the 19th

century up to the 1970s. Tick Island is

23

heavily inundated and just a little shell is exposed over the water’s surface. Luckily, salvage

excavations have preserved a great many of the artifacts from the site, and they are available for

study at the Florida Museum of Natural History in Gainesville, Florida. New AMS dating

techniques make it possible to determine accurate dates from just a small amount of soot deposits

from ceramics used over an open flame. This valuable technology now makes it easier to get an

idea of context concerning these ceramics since the sherds can be more precisely dated. This

advance has allowed archaeologists to make new interpretations concerning sites like Tick Island

in which a stratigraphic context is no longer available. Recent work done concerning Tick Island,

was the dating of northeastern Florida’s Orange ceramics to obtain a more refined and accurate

chronology regarding these types. The majority of these sherds came from Tick Island and

Mouth of Silver Glen Run (Sassaman 2003). These new dates have inspired further research,

included here, into the nature of Orange-period ceramics as they relate to surrounding St. Johns

ceramics, as well as currently held cultural-historic beliefs concerning Archaic and formative

Florida ceramics.

The Geography and Environmental Setting of the Harris Creek Site (8VO24)

The Harris Creek site (8VO24) is located on Tick Island in the St. Johns valley between

Lake Dexter and Lake Woodruff. The valley at this location is broad compared to the areas to the

north and south (Jahn and Bullen 1978). Tick Island was described at the time of Jahn and

Bullen’s report as being forested, except for marsh on the western end, with a wooded swamp

along the edges and a pine and palmetto forest in the central higher elevations. A wooded swamp

to the north of the island runs across to the mainland. This geographic description was made in

1978 by Otto Jahn and Ripley Bullen, but land alterations over the years since then could have

changed the site’s present physiographic and geographic appearance.

24

More current descriptions of the site’s geography include references to a 16-Km expanse

of streams, shallow lakes, vast marshes, and tree hammocks (Aten 1999). The Harris Creek Site

(8VO24) itself is located on the southeast portion of the island. It is described as having very

little current flow, and a good habitat for the Viviparus georgianus freshwater snail, the dominant

species of shell found at Tick Island. The predominant soil type found across the floodplain at

Tick Island is a Terra Ceia Muck, which is a highly organic and hydrated deposit. Elevations in

the floodplain surrounding Tick Island and its associated sites are estimated to be below 1.5 m

(Aten 1999). This floodplain soil type plays host to a wide range of vegetation including; saw

grass marshes, cordgrass marshes, and hammocks containing a variety of hardwood tree species.

The center of the island has the area’s highest elevation of 3.3 m and is defined in county soil

surveys as nearly level with poorly drained, Farmton fine sand. This type of sand is described as

being developed on top of clayey and silty marine sands that underlie the floodplain deposits

around the island’s borders. Between the aforementioned soils found in Tick Island’s

environmental setting is a third type that transitions between the two as the island slopes into the

flood plain. This soil type is defined by county soil surveys as Tuscawilla fine sand which,

logically, is a mixture of the soil types on the island and in the floodplain. Lowland hardwood

hammock vegetation is considered more typical on this transitory soil type (Aten 1999).

The surrounding middle and upper reaches of the St. Johns River valley are well-known

for a series of shell midden sites. Tick Island is probably the largest and best-known. A post-

glacial rise in sea level during the Middle Holocene backed up the St. Johns River to leave a

series of shallow lakes, oxbows, and dead rivers. This was an ideal environment for freshwater

shellfish such as the Viviparus georgianus, mentioned previously, as well as large apple snails

(Pomacea paludosa), and an array of mussels and freshwater clams (Jahn and Bullen 1978). This

25

change in environment opened up a cornucopia for aboriginal peoples of the region to exploit,

and is most likely responsible for the utilization of Tick Island as well as the various other

midden sites found in the St. Johns River valley (Jahn and Bullen 1978).

Table 2-1 Data on AMS Assays of Soot Samples from Orange Fiber-Tempered Sherds

from Middle St. Johns Valley Sites

*8LA-1 Mouth of Silver Glen Run; 8LA28-Mosquito Hammock; 8VO24-Tick Island Sassaman 2003: New AMS Dates on Orange Fiber-Tempered Pottery from the Middle St. Johns Valley and Their Implications for Culture History in Northeast Florida. The Florida Anthropologist 56(1):6-13

Calibration

Measured C13/C12 Conventional Intercept Intercept 2-Sigma

2-Sigma

Lab Number

Site Sample*

Material

C14 Age (BP)

Ratio (0/00)

C14 Age (BP)

(Cal BC) (Cal BP) (Cal BC)

(Cal BP)

Beta- 166671

8LA1-12

soot

3690+/- 60

-25.8

3680 +/- 60

2040

3990

2210- 1900

4160-3850

Beta- 166672

8LA1-6

soot

4020 +/- 60

-25.2

4020 +/- 60

2560

4510

2850- 2820

4800- 4770

2520

4480

2860- 2430

4630- 4380

2500 4440 Beta- 166673

8LA1- 27

soot

4060 +/- 40

-24.4

4070 +/- 40

2580

4540

2860- 2810

4810- 4760

2690- 2480

4640- 4430

Beta- 166674

8LA28- 2

soot

3600+/- 40

-24.6

3610 +/- 40

1950

3900

2120- 2100

4060- 4050

2040- 1880

3990- 3830

Beta- 166675

8LA24- 21

soot

3600+/- 40

-23.3

3630 +/- 40

1970

3920

2130- 2180

4080- 4030

Beta- 166676

8LA24- 1

soot

3730+/- 40

-24.4

3740 +/- 40

2140

4090

2280- 2030

4230- 3980

Beta- 166677

8LA24- 252-1

soot

3920+/- 40

-24.1

3930 +/- 40

2460

4410

2550- 2540

4500- 4480

2490-2300

4440- 4250

26

CHAPTER 3 ANALYTICAL METHODS

All of the ceramics studied for this analysis were cleaned, processed, and curated at the

Florida Museum of Natural History long before this analysis was undertaken. These ceramics

were collected over many years during several expeditions made to Tick Island and the Harris

Creeks site (8VO24), and have long since resided at the museum. Since this analysis was focused

on a vessel unit of study, the sample chosen for examination was confined to rim sherds. Vessels

chosen to be studied included Orange and St. Johns Incised vessel sherds, typed as such based on

macroscopic and tactile properties of the paste. Although one of the primary concerns of this

study was style, the St. Johns plain vessels were chosen in order to have something to compare

vessels with both decorative and non-decorative surface treatments as they relate to issues of

form and function. There were no Orange vessels that were undecorated in order to make a

similar selection.

Analyzed vessels were coded according to several physical and stylistic attributes to be

used to compare and contrast the different ceramics. Physical attributes included temper, body

thickness, form and function. Stylistic attributes were coded for presence or absence of

decoration, and stylistic elements -- both simple and complex. Simple elements are considered

those that take one stroke of a stylus such as a horizontal line, vertical line, diagonal line, or tick

mark. Complex elements were those combining simple elements to provide different shapes and

figures. Certain vessel sherds of the St. Johns type that had soot deposits present on the exterior

were chosen in order to get direct dates associated with that pottery to help further refine the

cultural-chronological sequence. Orange vessels were not included in the AMS dating, since

dates have already been acquired from several Orange sherds within the region (Sassaman 2003).

The reason for studying physical attributes in conjunction with stylistic ones is that the

27

present study believes style and function are not mutually exclusive categories. Stylistic traits

applied to vessel surfaces may in fact be related to the type of function for which the ceramic

may have been intended. Differing vessel forms, although more conducive to different functions

(Hally 1986), can be considered a stylistic and functional trait. Style has long been used as a

descriptor of exterior decorative surface treatment, but may not be so easily separated from

function. It is hoped that the following evidence provided by this analysis will demonstrate that.

Physical Attributes of Harris Creek (8VO24) Vessels Temper: This attribute refers to the inclusion of extra materials in the clay before firing a

vessel in order to alter the performance characteristics or other physical properties of the vessel.

As a noun, it refers to the components within the paste of a vessel assumed to have been added

intentionally, and as a verb, it refers to the action of adding components not naturally occurring

in the clay (Rice 1987: 406). These tempering agents were used to change the properties of the

clay during the various stages of its production throughout and after its firing. Tempers used over

various times and locations, have varied greatly according to the intentions of the potter. Agents

used to temper vessels have included plant: grass, or plant fibers, chaff or straw, cattail fuzz, and

plant silica. Tempering materials derived from animals have included shell, sponge spicules, and

dung. Mineral tempering has been used as well, and has included various types of crushed rock,

such as limestone, sandstone, andesite, trachyte, basalt, sand (as it is composed of quartz), and

volcanic ash. Material of human origin, such as former potsherds and brick remnants, have also

been cited as examples of tempering elements used by some potters (Rice 1987:407). Of key

significance is the clear evidence that tempering agents were deliberately chosen by potters for

specific purposes. This leads to the obvious question of what those purposes might have been

(Rye 1976). What technological advantages did one tempering material provide over another?

28

In order to determine the tempering agents used in the ceramics examined for this study,

all specimens were viewed microscopically. Before viewing, a sample was taken from the least

intrusive portion of the sherd in order to avoid damaging the surface treatment of such

specimens. It was important to collect as much information as possible while incurring the least

possible damage. It is often necessary to make a break in the ceramic before viewing it

microscopically because when they are taken out of their original archaeological context, many

of the surrounding minerals and debris end up mixing with the exposed core. In order to

minimize the risk of including material from the surrounding environment in which the sherd

was found, a break was needed to view the core as it was at the time of its original deposition

into the archaeological record.

Tempering agents seen in the sherds studied at Harris Creek (8VO24) include sponge

spicules, and plant fibers (presumably from Spanish moss and palmetto plants). Both agents have

been noted as creating different qualities within a vessel intended for a particular type of use.

Experiments conducted on organic tempered ceramics have revealed some of the advantageous

qualities of using plant fibers as an additive to clay (Skibo, Schiffer, and Reid 1989). The main

advantage that fiber-tempered vessels appear to have provided was an ease of portability because

of their light weight, which would have made them an ideal pottery type for mobile or semi-

mobile hunter-gatherer groups. Fiber-tempered pottery, as opposed to those vessels tempered by

sand, has been shown to be up to 34% lighter in overall weight. This reduction in weight is also

credited with making the vessels less likely to break when accidentally dropped. Another

advantage of porous vessels is that the pores – particularly larger pores – work to inhibit the

propagation of cracks as a reaction to temperature change. If a crack begins, it is halted by the

pore (Rye 1976). Disadvantages of fiber-tempered pottery are that they are more susceptible to

29

abrasion than mineral or un-tempered vessels due to the porous nature of their pastes. Organic-

tempered vessels also did not have efficient heating effectiveness. Because they were thick and

porous, it was difficult for heat to transfer from the exterior to the interior. It is of interest to

note, however, that these vessels were still used over an open flame to a lesser extent in spite of

this inefficiency (Sassaman 2003). Although experimental studies have not been done on

sponge-tempered vessels to the extent that they have on those of organic-tempering, one can

infer that these would have similar properties to either the untempered or mineral-tempered

vessels. (Skibo et al. 1989). These vessels would have been more effective for heating, less

susceptible to abrasion, and heavier.

Wall thickness: The attribute of wall thickness is related to a containers size, and

intended use (Rice 1987:227), as well as the strength of the clay being used to craft a particular

vessel. Wall thickness for this analysis was measured three centimeters below the lip with a pair

of calipers. The thickness of a wall is said to affect three main aspects of mechanical

performance; namely, thermal conductivity, flexural strength (breakage load), and resistance to

thermal shock (Braun 1983). It has generally been thought that thicker vessels are more

appropriate for storage purposes since a thicker base is said to increase stability as well as keep

moisture in or out of the vessel (Rice 1987:227). Thicker walls are also said to be stronger and

more resistant to sharp blows during pounding, stirring, or mixing. They serve as a disadvantage

during cooking due to the fact that it takes much longer for them to conduct heat, as opposed to

their thinner counterparts. Thin walls are quicker conductors of heat, and they benefit their users

by increasing the vessel’s potential for resistance to thermal shock (Braun 1983). The

disadvantage of these thin walls is their decreased flexural strength, but this weakness can be

counteracted by the curvature of the vessel (Braun 1983). It is thought that the smaller the radius

30

of curvature of any given wall, the higher its resistance will be to mechanically induced fracture.

Thick walls are said to be useful in transfer functions because the walls are slow to conduct heat

from the inside out, making the vessel easier to grasp, but their disadvantage is their heavier

weight which makes the vessel difficult to handle despite being cool to the touch (Rice 1987:

228). This disadvantage could, however, be counteracted by thick-walled, fiber-tempered vessels

in which the porosity would make them about a third lighter than most vessels tempered with

other agents (Skibo et al. 1989). Wall thickness from the Harris Creek (8VO24) vessels, was

measured with calipers. All thickness measurements of the ceramics studied here were taken at 3

cm below the lip of each sherd.

Rim form: Form was recorded for each sherd using a contour gauge, a tool made up of

wire bristles in which an object’s form is duplicated when pressed into the bristles, leaving a

replica of the object’s shape within the gauge. After the contour gauge was utilized, the shape

was traced onto graph paper from the shape formed in the bristles. The resulting profiles of each

vessel were examined and then coded as a particular form based on the attributes of each profile.

Different forms are seen as being conducive to particular functions.

Certain physical and morphological features determine the limits of a vessel’s mechanical

performance characteristics, and can therefore be used with a good degree of confidence in

making certain inferences about their use (Hally 1986). Five vessel forms were identified and

recorded from the profiles studied here. These included (Figure 3-1) bowls, trays, boat-shaped

vessels, and flat-walled vessels. It was difficult to draw an accurate vessel profile for trays and

boat-shaped vessels due to the inconsistencies on the surface of their rims. These two categories

were, therefore, identified directly from the sherds themselves (Figure 3-2), and not from the

drawn profiles. These categories were subjectively categorized based on sherds that exhibited

31

characteristics in a consistent manner, but were not readily identifiable from previously

identified forms (Hally 1986). Boat-shaped vessels were so named, because their walls

resembled the sidewall of a canoe, curving upward and inward to an end point, or presumed

convergence point, with the other wall. A trait not recorded for these boat-shaped vessels, but

observed during this analysis, was that on the wall near the convergence points there was almost

always a purposely drilled hole, which is interpreted here as a suspension hole to place the

vessels over an open flame. Some vessel sherds were placed in the category of trays because of

the sharp angle they made when placed against a flat surface to interpret profile form. Any other

sherds, except the boat-shaped variety, would measure closer to a 90-degree angle where the rim

intersected with a flat surface. Flat-walled vessel sherds were so classified because they lacked

any curvature down the wall when their rim was placed on a flat surface. These types of walls

may have met with other walls of the same vessel to form rectangular containers. Such

containers have been recorded among undecorated vessels of the first designated Orange phase,

but appear as decorated vessels, since all of the Orange vessels studied at Tick Island had incised

decorative motifs. Undecorated Orange vessels were absent from this mortuary site, but there

was a large group of St. Johns vessels that were undecorated and selected as units of study.

Stylistic Attributes of Harris Creek (8VO24) Vessels

After the physical attributes were identified and recorded, the focus of the analysis

turned to the stylistic tendencies of the ceramics. Style, in this context, has been defined as

variation in image design, as distinct from designs that are considered to be representational,

nature-based, and realistic, which constitute renditions of subjects seen by the potter (Rice 1987:

247). Other vessels can take on designs that are considered abstract, iconic, or geometric, in

which the style has been reduced to a selection of particular features considered in some way as

32

essential or basic (Rice 1987: 246-248). Stylistic designs on incised vessels at the Harris Creek

site (8VO24) were all geometric in nature and applied by the potters to achieve various stylistic

motifs. All aspects of pottery creation can be construed as style, since the potters make a set of

decisions related to such characteristics as form, temper, wall thickness, and surface treatment,

all of which are expressions of the activities and symbolism important to the culture at large. The

term culture will be used here to refer to the active use of shared symbols among a given people.

These symbols can be manipulated and changed over time in the course of rebellions and

assimilation in the ever-present process of culture negotiation that takes place among sentient

beings that utilize symbols

When doing the stylistic analysis, sherds were first coded for the presence or absence of

decoration. Vessels sherds were then analyzed for the type of design that was applied upon their

surfaces. Pottery design at Tick Island have been categorized as either incised or check-stamped,

however, check-stamped sherds have been excluded from this study because there were too few

specimens available (only two) to draw any significant conclusions about stylistic or

technological tendencies among these vessel types.

In analyzing the quality of design application on the vessels, a subjective category was

coded for. It was noted in the initial examination of these sherds, that several vessels had their

design applied with great care and detail (Figure 3-3), while others were seen to have designs

applied in a haphazard fashion with little concern for quality (Figure 3-4). Obviously, these

categorizations are based on subjective value judgments. However, when the two categories are

compared, the distinct differences become apparent and would certainly seem to support these

inferences. Upon this initial observation it was apparent that new questions would have to be

raised to account for these differences in the degree of care taken in the application.

33

This study coded for simple and complex design elements. A simple element is defined

as involving a one-directional stroke of a stylus creating a horizontal, vertical, or diagonal line,

or punctation. A complex element is defined as a series of these simple elements to form a

patterned design or a shape.

It was also found during the analysis that many of the designs had either a prologue of

horizontal bands that preceded the main design motif (Figure 3-5), or an epilogue that was drawn

underneath the design motif (Figure 3-6). Incised sherds were coded for lines preceding the

design and lines concluding the design, and a count was taken of the number of these bands and

recorded for each sherd. It was of interest here whether these preceding or concluding lines had

any impact on the overall motif of the vessel in terms of any possible grammatical rules

concerning design application below or above the band or bands. As it progressed, this analysis

focused more specifically on a study of incised treatments found at the Harris Creek Site

(8VO24), since this was the predominant type of stylistic expression occurring on all of the

vessels regardless of paste differences.

AMS Dates From the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) on Tick Island Many sponge-tempered incised sherds, as well as some in the fiber-tempered and dual-

tempered categories, exhibited soot deposits on the exterior surface indicating use over an open

flame. Sherds were first coded for the presence or absence of this soot, which had two

advantages. The first being the strong evidence it provided for cooking function, since it can be

reasonably inferred that vessels placed over an open flame were used to heat food. The second

advantage is that the presence of soot – thanks to recent advances in radiometry – makes it

possible to ascribe direct dates to ceramics even when found out of their original archaeological

context and cultural deposit. Direct radiometric dates can now be taken from sherds with only a

34

minimal amount of soot present. This is because improvements in accelerated mass spectrometry

(AMS) technology have made it possible to achieve very accurate dating from even a pin-point

sized sample of carbon (Sassaman 2003) This type of dating has proven to be very successful in

its utilization throughout the Southeast and other areas. In the course of this study, samplings of

soot deposit taken from five St. Johns cooking vessels from the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) on

Tick Island were sent to AMS labs for dating. These dates were to be used to refine established

cultural historic chronology at Tick Island specifically, with possible implications for the broader

region. These dates, however, should not be over-extrapolated to represent a whole Florida

sequence. In fact, one of the objectives in acquiring these dates was to support this paper’s

contention that the Florida cultural-chronological sequence may be a case of over-extrapolation

of dates from highly separated sites and regions, and that pottery forms and types may have

changed in different ways over time at these sites.

35

(a) (b) (c) Figure 3-1. Examples of (a) bowl form; (b) flat wall form(c) jar form.

(a)

(b) Figure 3-2. Photographs of (a) boat-shaped vessel form; (b) tray vessel forms.

Figure 3-3. Examples of designs with complex elements from Tick Island.

36

Figure 3-4. Examples of designs with simple elements from Tick Island.

Figure 3-5. Example of designs with banded prologues to decorative motifs.

Figure 3-6. Example of designs with banded epilogues to decorative motifs.

37

CHAPTER 4 ANALYTICAL RESULTS

Results from this analysis will be discussed beginning with the new AMS dates obtained

from the selected sherds at Tick Island in order to provide a chronological context in which to

better position the sherds in culture history. Following this discussion of the new AMS dates,

will be a description of the results of the analysis of the stylistic characteristics of the specimens.

Concluding the discussion will be an analysis of the techno-functional aspects of the ceramics.

AMS Dating from the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) on Tick Island

The AMS dating from vessel sherds tempered only with sponge spicules at Tick Island

yielded dates as recent as 2700 +/- 40 B.P., and also yielded a much earlier date of 4110 +/- 40

B.P. (Table 4-2). As far as the cultural-chronological schemes in current use are concerned, this

places these sponge-tempered vessels in alignment with Bullen’s Orange I sub-period of the Late

Archaic at Tick Island. The most recent dates that came from spicule-tempered vessels at the

Tick Island site placed them in the Orange 5 phase of the Late Archaic. This new data makes it

necessary to look at Orange and St. Johns vessels in a new light.

Vessel # A349.007 (2700 +/- 40 B.P.): This sherd was a sponge-tempered incised vessel

containing only sponge spicules in the paste. The wall thickness of this vessel sherd was

approximately 13 mm. The vessel was incised in a hasty fashion, and contained only simple

elements. The simple elements incised into the vessel sherd’s surface were horizontal and

vertical lines, and the overall patterning was concluded with one horizontal band. (Figure 4-7).

Vessel # A348.030 (2700 +/- 40 B.P): The assay of soot from this vessel sherd matched

the same AMS date of the previous one, and was a bowl form. It was a sponge-tempered incised

vessel, and the wall thickness of this vessel was approximately 8 mm. The design incised on the

38

exterior of the sherd was interpreted to be hastily applied, but contained both simple and

complex elements. Simple design elements included horizontal lines, diagonal lines moving from

the bottom right side to the top left side, and diagonal lines moving from the bottom left side to

the top right side. These simple elements came together to form one complex element on the

vessel, which was a triangle. The vessel design was preceded by one horizontal band concluding

the decorative motif (Figure 4-8).

Vessel # A348.003 (2940 +/- 40 B.P.): This vessel sherd was an undecorated sponge-

tempered ware that took on the form of a bowl. It was purely tempered with sponge spicules

since microscopic analysis did not indicate the present of burnt out plant fibers. The vessel had a

wall thickness of about 10.75 mm. (Figure 4-9).

Vessel # 103272.016 (3370 +/- 40 B.P.): This was a boat-shaped vessel sherd with a wall

thickness of approximately 9 mm. This particular vessel, like the previous two, was only

tempered with sponge-spicules. This vessel however, unlike the more recent ones, had a careful

design application, although the design included only simple elements. These were horizontal

lines as well as diagonal ones that went from bottom left to top right. This vessel, unlike the

previous ones, had lines preceding the overall design rather than concluding it. There were two

horizontal bands running parallel to the rim (Figure 4-10).

Vessel # 99921.020 (4110 +/- 40 B.P.): This oldest of the vessels studied was boat-

shaped in form, and was tempered only with sponge spicules. It had a wall thickness of

approximately 8.25 mm, but the condition and form of this specimen also precluded a

measurement of orifice diameter or the creation of a profile drawing. The design on this sponge-

tempered vessel was carefully applied and included both simple and complex elements

contributing to the overall motif. Simple elements included diagonal lines running in both

39

directions, as well as horizontal lines. Complex elements for this vessel included what have been

defined here as closed chevrons, as well as triangles, and a reverse Y shape. This vessel had two

bands running parallel to the rim and preceding the overall design motif (Figure 4-11).

Stylistic Results from the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) on Tick Island Vessel type and design application: There was definitely a significant difference as to

the manner in which designs were applied to vessels according to type. (Table 4-3). Of the 19

purely fiber-tempered vessel sherds observed, none had a hasty application of the design while

all 19 had what was considered to be a carefully applied motif. When looking at the 50 vessel

sherds tempered with, both plant fibers and sponge spicules, three (6%) had a hasty design

application, and 47 (94%) had designs implemented with care and precision. Among the 76

vessel sherds purely tempered with sponge spicules, 71 (93.42 %) were considered to have a

hasty application, while only 5 (6.58%) were considered to have designs that were applied with

care.

Design element complexity and type: Fiber-tempered and dual-tempered vessel sherds

had a much lower number of stand-alone simple elements than those with simple elements

coming together to form more complex designs. (Table 4-4). Out of the 19 fiber-tempered vessel

sherds examined 6 (31.58%) had simple elements alone, while 13 (68.42%) had simple elements

which combined to make a more complex design motif. The dual tempered vessels were similar

in their percentage with 15 (30%) of the total 50 vessel sherds having only simple elements, and

35 (70%) having complex elements. Out of the 76 sponge-tempered vessel sherds, 37 (48.68%)

had stand-alone simple incised elements, while 39 (51.32%) had simple elements worked

together to form more complex elements for the overall vessel motif.

There was absolutely no presence of bands on the epilogue of either dual-tempered or

40

fiber-tempered vessel sherds, and epilogue bands never exceeded one. This was a trait reserved

totally for sponge-tempered vessel sherds, since all 47 that exhibited a design epilogue had a

pure sponge-spicule tempering. (Table 4-5). Sponge-tempered vessel sherds did have minor

representation in those vessels with a banded prologue, with five (14.71%) of the total 34 vessels

with prologues being St. Johns. The fiber-tempered and dual-tempered vessel sherds made up the

rest of these motif prologues with a representation of six fiber-tempered vessel sherds (17.65%),

and 23 dual-tempered vessel sherds (67.64%). Out of the total 52 incised sponge spicule vessel

sherds with banding, 47 (90.38%) had banding below the motif and 5 (9.52%) had it above the

motif. Out of the total sample of 81 incised vessels with some sort of banding, 47 (58.02%) had

banding below the design and 34 (41.98%) had banding above the design.

It is apparent from reviewing the data that bands preceding a design were a trait

designated mainly for fiber-tempered (Figure 4-12) and dual-tempered (Figure 4-14) vessel

sherds. There was a far greater range in the number of bands applied as well as the frequency of

these bands occurring on these types of ceramics. They were found to a far lesser degree on some

of the sponge-tempered vessel sherds, and their range of band numbers greatly decreased to one

to two bands (Figure 4-13), as opposed to the fiber-tempered prologue bands whose numbers

ranged from one to ten bands and the dual-tempered vessel sherds whose bands ranged from one

to eight. As far as concluding design bands are concerned, this was a trait reserved specifically

for sponge-tempered vessel sherds, and there was no variation in band numbers. All of these

sherds were concluded with just one band running horizontally below the main design motif.

There were a total of 47 sponge-tempered vessels with a horizontal band running below the rim's

design.

41

Techno-Functional Results From the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) At Tick Island

Temper: Of the total 145 vessel sherds (Table 4-6) from the Harris Creek Site that were

examined, there were 19 (13.1%) specimens that were tempered only with fiber, and 76

(52.42%) that were tempered only with sponge spicules. Dual tempering was represented with 50

(34.48%) vessel sherds. There was a very substantial use of two tempers in vessel sherds that

would normally be classified as Orange ceramics according to currently utilized macroscopic

properties.

Function: On looking at function in relation to temper (Table 4-6), it was observed that a

large proportion of specimens of fiber-tempered and dual-tempered vessels showed no indication

of soot deposits. Out of 19 fiber-tempered vessels examined only five (26.32%) showed evidence

of use over an open-flame, while 14 (65.22%) showed no such evidence. On the other hand, a

much greater proportion of the sponge-tempered specimens contained soot as evidence of use

over an open flame. When looking at the 50 dual-tempered vessels 19 (38%) showed clear

evidence of soot deposits while the other 31 (62%) showed no signs of such deposits. Of the 118

sponge-tempered vessel sherds examined, 75 (63.56%) showed evidence of use over an open

flame, while 43 (48.87%) did not.

Form: The majority of fiber-tempered and dual tempered sherds took on the form of

either bowls or flat-walled vessels (Table 4-7).There was a very small minority of these vessels

that had taken the form of a jar. Jars were not included in the analysis of form since their

presence was so small that they were unable to relay any significant information. Of the total 19

fiber-tempered vessel sherds under analysis or the 48 dual-tempered vessels, there was no

presence of the boat-shaped form. This was found only among the sponge-tempered vessels.

There were 6 (31.58%) bowl shapes, and 13 (68.42%) flat-walled vessel sherds making this latter

42

form the majority of fiber-tempered vessels. The 48 dual-tempered vessels consisted of only

bowls and flat walls. The boat-shaped vessels, as stated earlier, were only found among sponge-

tempered vessels. Of the 48 dual-tempered vessels, 14 (29.2%) were found to take on a bowl

form, and 34 (70.8%) were flat-walled vessel sherds. The great majority of dual- tempered

vessels were those consisting of flat walls as shown by the statistics. These percentages are very

similar to the forms making up purely fiber-tempered vessels. When viewing the 111 sponge-

tempered vessel sherds, 15 (13.51%) of them were the newly identified boat-shaped vessels, 57

(51.35%) were bowls, and 39 (35.14%) were flat-walled vessels. The emphasis shifts from flat-

walled vessels in the fiber-tempered type, to bowl forms in the sponge-tempered type. However,

flat-walled vessels still make up a significant number of the sponge-tempered type vessel sherds.

Boat-shaped vessels were unique to the sponge-spicule paste.

Form and function: There were a total of five fiber-tempered vessel sherds that had

soot deposits present on the exterior (Table 4-8). There were three (60%) sooted bowls and 2

(40%) sooted flat-walled vessels. There were a total of 14 unsooted, fiber-tempered vessel sherds

under study, and of these, 3 (21.43%) were bowl-shaped, and 11 (78.57%) were flat-walled.

There was a significantly larger number of unsooted flat-walled vessels as far as this sampling is

concerned. When looking at dual-tempered vessel sherds, there was once again a lack of boat-

shaped vessels as stated previously. Of the 18 sooted, dual tempered vessels there were seven

(38.89%) bowl shaped vessel sherds, and 11 (61.11%) flat-walled pieces. When looking at non-

sooted, dual-tempered vessel sherds there were seven (23.33%) bowl profile forms, and 23

(76.67%) flat-walled forms out of a total of 30 vessel sherds in this category. As far as form and

function are concerned, sponge-tempered boat-shaped vessels were fairly evenly divided

between those that were used over an open flame, and those that were not. Of the total 15 boat-

43

shaped vessel sherds that were analyzed, eight were found to have soot deposits present on the

exterior, while seven of the sherds lacked this feature. Of all 71 sponge-tempered, sooted vessel

sherds, eight (11.27%), as stated previously, were boat-shaped, 36 (50.7%) were bowls, 27

(38.03%) were flat-walled. Sponge-tempered vessel sherds that lacked soot deposits totaled 40,

and seven (17.5%) of these were considered to be boat-shaped vessels, 21 (52.5%) considered to

be bowl shapes, and 12 (30%) considered to be flat-walled.

Wall thickness: Overall, the average wall thickness of vessels from the Harris Creek

site (8VO24) on Tick Island was 9.37 +/- 2.87 mm. (Figure 4-15). When isolating fiber-tempered

vessels by themselves (Figure 4-16), this average for wall thickness increases to10.28 +/-

1.97mm, and when looking at sponge-tempered vessels, the average wall thickness decreases to

8.22 mm, not substantially less than the overall average of vessels from the Harris Creek site

(8VO24) but a good deal less than the fiber-tempered vessel sherds. When looking at vessel

sherds with both tempers present (Figure 4-17), the average wall thickness was 11.73 +/- 2.65

mm — greater than both ceramic types with only one temper (Figure 4-18). The average wall-

thickness for cooking vessels (Figure 4-19) at the Harris Creek site (8VO24), regardless of

temper, was a little below the total sample with an average wall thickness of 8.95 +/- 2.64 mm.

Measurements of non-cooking vessels at the site (Figure 4-20) showed averages that compared

closely to the overall average of Tick Island vessels at about 9.84 +/- 3.06 mm. Fiber-tempered

cooking vessels (Figure 4-21) showed measurements that were above averages for the overall

cooking vessels at Tick Island as well as for the overall sample, with an average of 10.25 +/-

1.79 mm. Unsooted fiber-tempered sherds (Figure 4-22) averaged 10.29 mm +/- 2.1 mm, which

was not significantly above that of fiber-tempered cooking vessels at Tick Island. It was above

the average overall thickness of non-cooking vessels at the site as well as the overall wall-

44

thickness for the entire sample. Dual-tempered cooking sherds (Figure 4-23) had an overall wall-

thickness average of 11.17 +/- 2.7 mm, and unsooted dual-tempered vessel sherds (Figure 4-24)

averaged 12.06 +/- 2.62 mm. Vessel sherds of this temper type seemed the thickest of all

regardless of function. Within the type, dual-tempered sherds were thinner if used for cooking.

Sponge-tempered cooking vessels (Figure 4-25) had an average wall thickness of 8.31 +/- 2.35

mm, which was thinner than the fiber-tempered and dual-tempered cooking vessels, well within

the average of overall cooking vessels at the site, and narrower than the overall average thickness

of the entire sample of vessel sherds. The average wall thickness of unsooted sponge-tempered

vessel sherds (Figure 4-26) was 8.08 +/- 2.5 mm, which was, surprisingly, slightly below the

average thickness of sponge-tempered cooking vessel sherds. This average was well below the

average for fiber-tempered and dual-tempered non-cooking vessels, and below the average of the

entire sample of non-cooking vessels from the site. It was also a little below the overall average

of vessel wall thickness from the entire site.

Summary of Results

New assays derived from soot deposits in this analysis yielded dates for sponge-tempered

pottery that ranged from as early as 4110 +/- 40 B.P. to as late as 2700 +/- 40 B.P. This places

purely sponge-tempered ceramics, also known as St. Johns pottery, into a much earlier

chronological location when compared with current models of culture history. This is significant

because the earlier dates obtained, place purely sponge-tempered pottery into the Late Archaic

— a period once thought to have only fiber-tempered ceramics, and sponge tempering as a newly

acquired unilineal development.

Stylistic tendencies among the vessel sherds analyzed co-varied very well with attributes

associated with overall paste — this being temper. As far as application of designs was

45

concerned, purely fiber-tempered vessel sherds had no examples of designs interpreted to be

hastily applied. Dual tempered vessels were similar in their design application in that an

overwhelming majority of them were also carefully applied. On the other hand, vessels purely

tempered with sponge spicules had a majority of haphazardly applied designs. The co-variance

continues to a lesser extent with complex and simple elements. There was far more usage of

complex elements with fiber-tempered and dual-tempered pottery than there was with sponge

tempered. Sponge-tempered vessels were fairly evenly divided between those with complex

elements and those with only simple ones, while the other two paste types had mostly complex

design elements incised onto their exterior. Of particular significance is the application of a

concluding epilogue band below the motif of many vessel sherds. This trait only occurred with

sponge-tempered vessels — it was nowhere to be found on either fiber-tempered or dual-

tempered vessel sherds. Conversely, a very small percentage of the sponge-tempered vessels had

banding that preceded the overall vessel motif, and they ranged from only one to two bands.

There was a good deal of prologue banding on fiber-tempered vessel sherds ranging from 3-5

bands and an outlying sherd with ten bands on it. Similarly, the dual-tempered vessels exhibited

a good deal of preceding bands and ranged from one to four bands, with one outlying sherd

having eight bands preceding the design motif.

When looking at attributes that would be considered functional, it was found that there

was a much smaller proportion of purely fiber-tempered vessel sherds than was originally

thought from microscopic inspection. There were only 19 vessels found without sponge spicules

in the paste alongside fiber when viewed microscopically. There was a greater representation of

dual-tempered vessels, and a slight majority of vessel sherds tempered only with sponge.

As far as cooking function is concerned, the vast majority of fiber-tempered vessels were

46

unsooted, as was the same with the dual-tempered vessels. Exhibiting opposite tendencies were

the sponge-tempered vessels with the great majority of vessel sherds having soot deposits on the

exterior surface.

The form of these vessels varied according to paste and temper as well. Vessels described

earlier as boat-shaped vessels were exclusive to sponge-tempered sherds. The majority of fiber-

tempered and dual-tempered vessels were flat walled in form with the minority being bowls.

Sponge-tempered vessel sherds, on the other hand, were by and large bowl shaped in form with a

minority of flat-walled vessels, and a small representation of the aforementioned boat shape. As

far as form and function is concerned among the fiber-tempered vessels, the majority of sherds

used over an open flame were bowls with a minor representation of flat-walled vessels. It is

important to note, though, that there were only five fiber-tempered vessels with soot deposit, so

this set of statistics can not make a significant statement concerning this particular form and

temper as far as function is concerned. Dual-tempered sherds had more sooted flat-walled

specimens than bowls, as well as more unsooted flat-walled sherds than bowls, and they were

exactly divided between sooted and unsooted bowls. There were a greater number of unsooted

flat-walled sherds than there was sooted among the dual-tempered vessel sherds. Vessel sherds

tempered with sponge had the majority of bowl forms being sooted, and the majority of flat-wall

forms unsooted.

When looking at wall thickness, the fiber-tempered vessels were found to be thicker than

average, and the dual-tempered vessels thicker than that. Sponge-tempered vessels, on the other

hand, were thinner than the entire sample's average. All vessel sherds found to be associated with

cooking were also thinner than the overall average, while those that were not were thicker. The

small number of fiber-tempered cooking vessels were thicker than the average, as well as the

47

substantially larger population of unsooted ones. The dual-tempered cooking vessel sherds were

also thicker than the overall average, as well as being thicker than the population of fiber-

tempered cooking vessels. This statement also holds true with the unsooted dual-tempered vessel

sherds — they were thicker than the overall average and the average of unsooted fiber-tempered

vessels. Contrasting this were the sponge-tempered cooking vessel sherds which were thinner

than the overall average of vessels, but, surprisingly, the non-cooking sponge-tempered sherds

were slightly thinner on average than those with soot deposits.

The trends of this analysis point to overall similarities between vessels with dual temper

and fiber temper, but contrast starkly with vessels tempered only with sponge spicules. Stylistic

and functional traits all co-vary rather nicely between those with fiber and dual tempering, and

those that are tempered with sponge. This leads one to believe that style and techno-function are

not mutually exclusive categories, as there are some many interrelated traits that co-vary

depending on temper, including stylistic application, vessel form, and cooking function (included

in this category are soot-deposits and wall thickness). Style could very well be synonymous with

function.

48

Table 4-2. AMS Dates of St. Johns Ceramics from the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) on Tick Island

Lab Number & Site Sample

2 Sigma Calibration

Measured Radio

Carbon Age (BP)

13C/12C Ratio

Conventional Radiocarbon Age

(BP)

(Cal BC)

(Cal BP)

Beta -178484 Sample: 8VO24-A348.3

1270- 1000

3220-2950

2940 +/- 40

-25.8 0/00

2930 +/- 40

Beta -178485 Sample: 8VO24-A348.30

920- 800

2870-2750

2700 +/- 40

-24.8 0/00

2700 +/- 40

Beta -178486 Sample: 8VO24-A349.7

920- 800

2870-2750

2940 +/- 40

-24.8 0/00

2700 +/- 40

Beta -178487 Sample: 8VO24-99921.20

2870- 2570 and 2520- 2500

4820-4520 and 4470-4450

4140 +/- 40

-27.1 0/00

4110 +/- 40

Beta -178484 Sample: 8VO24-A348.3

1270- 1000

3220-2950

2940 +/- 40

-25.8 0/00

2930 +/- 40

Analysis:AMS-Standard delivery. Material: soot. Pretreatment: acid/alkali/acid Table 4-3.

Vessel Type and the Care Taken in Design Application Vessel

Frequency Fiber Tempered Sponge Tempered Dual Tempered Total Hasty Application 0 71 3 74Careful Application 19 5 47 71Total 19 76 50 145 Row Percentages Fiber Tempered Sponge Tempered Dual Tempered

Total

Hasty Application 0 95.95 4.05 100Careful Application 26.76 7.04 66.2 100Total 13.1 52.42 34.48 100 Column Percentages Fiber Tempered Sponge Tempered Dual Tempered Total Hasty Application 0 93.42 6 51.03Careful Application 100 6.58 94 48.97Total 100 100 100 100

49

Table 4-4. Vessel Type and the Complexity of Elements Applied to Vessel

Vessel Frequency Fiber Tempered Sponge Tempered Dual Tempered Total

Simple Elements Alone 6 37 15 58Complex Elements 13 39 35 87Total 19 76 50 145 Row Percentages Fiber Tempered Sponge Tempered Dual Tempered Total Simple Elements Alone 10.34 63.79 25.87 100Complex Elements 14.94 44.83 40.23 100Total 13.1 52.42 34.48 100 Column Percentages Fiber Tempered Sponge Tempered Dual Tempered Total Simple Elements Alone 31.58 48.68 30 40Complex Elements 68.42 51.32 70 60Total 100 100 100 10

Table 4-5. The Location of Rim Bands on Different Vessel Types

Vessel Frequency Fiber Tempered Sponge Tempered Dual Tempered Total

Prologue Lines 6 5 23 34Epilogue Lines 0 47 0 47Total 6 52 23 81 Row Percentages Fiber Tempered Sponge Tempered Dual Tempered Total Prologue Lines 17.65 14.71 67.64 100Epilogue Lines 0 100 0 100Total 7.4 64.2 28.4 100 Column Percentages Fiber Tempered Sponge Tempered Dual Tempered Total Prologue Lines 100 9.62 100 41.98Epilogue Lines 0 90.38 0 58.02Total 100 100 100 100

50

Table 4-6. Type and Function as Evident by Soot Deposits

Vessel Frequency Fiber Tempered Sponge Tempered Dual Tempered Total

Soot Present 5 75 19 99Soot Absent 14 43 31 88Total 19 118 50 187 Row Percentages Fiber Tempered Sponge Tempered Dual Tempered TotalSoot Present 5.05 75.76 19.19 100Soot Absent 15.9 48.87 35.23 100Total 10.2 63.1 26.7 100 Column Percentages Fiber Tempered Sponge Tempered Dual Tempered TotalSoot Present 26.32 63.56 38 52.94Soot Absent 73.68 36.44 62 47.06Total 100 100 100 100

Table 4-7. Form and Vessel Temper

Vessel Frequency Fiber Tempered Sponge Tempered Dual Tempered Total

Boat Shaped 0 15 0 15Bowl Shaped 6 57 14 77Flat Walled 13 39 34 86Total 19 111 48 178 Row Percentages Fiber Tempered Sponge Tempered Dual Tempered Total Boat Shaped 0 100 0 100Bowl Shaped 7.79 74.03 18.18 100Flat Walled 15.12 45.35 39.53 100Total 10.67 62.36 26.97 100 Column Percentages Fiber Tempered Sponge Tempered Dual Tempered Total Boat Shaped 0 13.51 0 8.43Bowl Shaped 31.58 51.35 29.2 43.26Flat Walled 68.42 35.14 70.8 48.31Total 100 100 100 100

51

Table 4-8. Form and Temper of Vessel as it Related to Function

Vessel Frequency FTST FTnoST STST STnoST DTST DTnoST Total

Boat Shaped 0 0 8 7 0 0 15Bowl Shaped 3 3 36 21 7 7 77Flat Walled 2 11 27 12 11 23 86Total 5 14 71 40 18 30 178 Row Percentages FTST FTnoST STST STnoST DTST DTnoST Total Boat Shaped 0 0 53.33 46.67 0 0 100Bowl Shaped 3.9 3.9 46.8 27.4 9 9 100Flat Walled 2.33 12.79 31.4 13.95 12.79 26.74 100Total 2.8 7.9 39.8 22.5 10.1 16.9 100 Column Percentages FTST FTnoST STST STnoST DTST DTnoST Total Boat Shaped 0 0 11.27 17.5 0 0 8.43Bowl Shaped 60 21.43 50.7 52.5 38.89 23.33 43.26Flat Walled 40 78.57 38.03 30 61.11 76.67 48.31Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Figure 4-7. Profile Form and Pattern Design for Vessel #A349.007.

Figure 4-8. Vessel Profile of #A348.030 with Exterior Pattern Design

52

Figure 4-9. Profile of Vessel A348.003 From Tick Island.

Figure 4-10. Pattern design found on AMS dated vessel # 103272.016.

Figure 4-11. Incised Surface Design on Vessel #99921.020.

Occurences of Rim Bands Above Vessel Designon Fiber-tempered Pottery

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Number of Prologue Rims

Freq

uenc

yFr

eque

ncy

10Number of Prologue Rims

00.5

11.5

22.5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Figure 4-12. Frequency of occurrence of preceding band counts on fiber-tempered pottery. Min: 3, Max: 10, Av: 4.8 lines, STD: +/- 2.7.

53

Occurences of Rim Bands Above Vessel Designon Sponge-tempered Pottery

0

1

2

3

4

5

1 2

Number of Prologue Bands

Freq

uenc

y

Number of Prologue Bands

1 2

Freq

uenc

y

10

2345

Figure 4-13. Frequency of occurrence of preceding band counts on sponge-tempered pottery. Min: 1, Max: 2, Av: 1.8 lines, STD: +/- .4.

Number of Prologue Bands

Freq

uenc

y

20

46

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

810

Figure 4-14. Frequency of occurrence of preceding band counts on dual-tempered pottery. Min: 1, Max: 8, Av: 2.35 lines, STD: +/- 1.5.

54

Wall Thickness of Vessel Sherds From the HarrisCreek Site (8VO24)

0

5

10

15

20

2.5 4.5 5.25

6.25 7

8.25 9

9.75

10.5

11.25 12 13

.5 15 16

(mm)

Freq

uenc

y

05

10

2015

Freq

uenc

y

2.5 4.5 5.258.25

6.259.75

10.5 11.25 13.5 15 16127 9

(mm)

Figure 4-15. Wall thickness of Harris Creek (8VO24) vessel sherds. Max: 19 mm, Min: 2.5 mm, Avg: 9.37 mm, STD: +/- 2.87 mm.

Wall Thickness of Fiber-tempered Vessel Sherds

00.5

11.5

22.5

33.5

44.5

7 8 9.75 10 10.25 11 11.75 12 15.5 14

(mm)

Freq

uenc

yFr

eque

ncy

00.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

1

2

3

4

7 8 9.75 10 10.25 11 12 1415.511.75(mm)

Figure 4-16. Wall thickness frequency for fiber-tempered vessel sherds at the Harris Creek Site (8VO24). Max: 14 mm, Min: 7 mm, Avg: 10.28 mm, STD: +/- 1.97 mm.

55

Wall Thickness of Dual-tempered Vessel Sherds

0

12

3

45

6

5.25 8

9.25

9.75

10.25 11 11

.5 12 13 1415

.25 18

(mm)

Freq

uenc

yFr

eque

ncy

1

0

23

456

5.25 89.25

9.7510.2

5 11 11.5 12 13 1415.2

5 18

(mm)

Figure 4-17. Wall thickness frequency for dual-tempered vessel sherds at the Harris Creek Site (8VO24). Max: 19 mm, Min: 5.25 mm, Avg: 11.73 mm, STD: +/- 2.65 mm

Wall Thickness of Sponge-tempered VesselSherds

02468

101214

2.5

4.25

4.75

5.25 6

6.5 7 8

8.5 9

9.75

10.3

10.8

11.3 12

13.8

(mm)

Freq

uenc

yFr

eque

ncy

2.5

4.25

4.75

5.25 6

6.5 7 8

8.5 9

9.75 10.3

10.8

11.3 12

13.8

(mm)

02468

101214

Figure 4-18. Wall thickness frequency for sponge-tempered vessel sherds at the Harris Creek Site (8VO24). Max: 16 mm, Min: 2.5 mm, Avg: 8.22 mm, STD: +/- 2.4 mm.

56

Wall Thickness of Cooking Vessel Sherds

0

2

4

6

8

10

122.

5

4.75

5.25 6

6.75 7.5

8.25

8.75

9.25

9.75

10.3

10.8

11.3 12 13 15 18

(mm)

Freq

uenc

yFr

eque

ncy

0

24

6

8

10

122.

5

4.75

5.25 6

6.75 7.

5

8.25

8.75

9.75

9.25

10.3

10.8

11.3 12 13

15

18

(mm)

Figure 4-19. Wall thickness frequency of cooking vessel sherds at the Harris Creek Site(8VO24) Max: 18 mm, Min: 2.5 mm, Avg: 8.95 mm STD: +/- 2.64 mm.

Wall Thickness of Un-sooted Vessel Sherds

0123456789

4.25 5 5.5 6.2

5 7 88.7

59.2

59.7

510

.25 1111

.75 1313

.75 15 15.5

(mm)

Freq

uenc

y

(mm)

4.25 5 5.56.25 7 8

8.759.25

9.7510.2

511

.7513.7

515.513 1511

0123456789

Freq

uenc

y

Figure 4-20. Wall thickness frequency of unsooted vessel sherds at the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) Max: 19 mm, Min: 4.25 mm, Avg: 9.84 mm STD: +/- 3.06 mm.

57

Wall Thickness of Fiber-tempered Cooking VesselSherds

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

8 9 10.25 12

(mm)

Freq

uenc

yFr

eque

ncy

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

8 9 10.25 12

(mm)

Figure 4-21. Wall thickness frequency of sooted fiber-tempered vessel sherds at the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) Max: 12 mm, Min: 8 mm, Avg: 10.25 mm STD: +/- 1.79 mm.

Wall Thickness of Un-sooted Fiber-temperedVessel Sherds

00.5

11.5

22.5

33.5

7 8 9.75 10 10.25 11 11.75 12 13.5 14

(mm)

Freq

uenc

yFr

eque

ncy

00.5

11.5

2

10

2.53

3.5

(mm)

2 8 10 10.25 11 11.75 12 1413.59.75

Figure 4-22. Wall thickness frequency of unsooted fiber-tempered vessel sherds at the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) Max: 14 mm, Min: 7 mm, Avg: 10.29 mm STD: +/- 2.1 mm.

58

Wall Thickness of Dual-tempered Cooking VesselSherds

00.5

11.5

22.5

33.5

5.25 8 9 9.5 10 10

.5 1111

.2511

.75 12 12.5 13 13

.5 15 18

(mm)

Freq

uenc

yFr

eque

ncy

00.5

11.5

22.5

33.5

5.25 8 9 9.5 1010.5 11

11.25

11.75 12

12.5 13

13.5 15 18

(mm)

Figure 4-23. Wall thickness frequency of sooted dual-tempered vessel sherds at the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) Max: 18 mm, Min: 5.25 mm, Avg: 11.17 mm STD: +/- 2.7 mm.

Wall Thickness of Un-sooted Dual-temperedVessel Sherds

0

1

2

3

4

5

6.5 8 9

9.25

9.75 10

10.3 11

11.5

11.8 12 13

13.5 14 15

15.3

15.5 19

(mm)

Freq

uenc

yFr

eque

ncy

0

1

2

3

4

5

(mm)

6.5 8 9

9.25

9.75 10 10.3 11

11.5

11.8 12 13

13.5 14 15

15.3

15.5 19

Figure 4-24. Wall thickness frequency of unsooted dual-tempered vessel sherds at the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) Max: 19 mm, Min: 6.5 mm, Avg: 12.06 mm STD: +/- 2.62 mm.

59

Wall Thickness of Sponge-tempered CookingVessel Sherds

0

2

46

8

10

2.5 4.75

5.25 6

6.75 7.5 8.2

58.7

59.2

5 10 10.5 11

11.75 16

(mm)

Freq

uenc

yFr

eque

ncy

02468

10

(mm)

2.5 4.755.25 6

6.75 7.58.25

8.759.25 10

10.5 1111.75 16

Figure 4-25. Wall thickness frequency of sooted sponge-tempered vessel sherds at the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) Max: 16 mm, Min: 2.5 mm, Avg: 8.31 mm STD: +/- 2.35 mm.

Wall Thickness of Un-sooted Sponge TemperedVessel Sherds

0

1

23

4

5

4.25 5 5.5 6.2

5 7 88.7

59.7

510

.5 12

(mm)

Freq

uenc

yFr

eque

ncy

01

2

34

5

(mm)

4.25 5 5.56.25 7 8

8.759.75

10.5 12

Figure 4-26. Wall thickness frequency of unsooted sponge-tempered vessel sherds at the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) Max: 13.75 mm, Min: 4.25 mm, Avg: 8.08 mm STD: +/- 2.5 mm.

60

CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUDING STATEMENTS

It is obvious from recent radiocarbon dating of sponge-tempered pottery at the Harris

Creek Site (8VO24) on Tick Island that the relationship between different forms of tempering

needs to be reexamined in a different light. At Tick Island, the new AMS dates clearly show a

contemporaneous relationship between sponge-tempered, dual-tempered, and fiber-tempered

pottery of the Late Archaic. It is important to note that this is a site-specific study, and its

interpretations, therefore, should be applied only to analytical work done on the ceramic

specimens from Tick Island and tested with other nearby sites. To extrapolate these findings any

further would be inconsistent with one of the main premises of this paper; that is, that data from

too few sites have been used to make gross generalizations about the behaviors and materials of

southeastern peoples, particularly those residing in Florida. Only when more site specific

analyses are done and dates are retrieved from a wider variety of sites, can there be a more

detailed and relevant regional analysis, comparing sites throughout the St. Johns River Valley

and beyond, in order to provide a better basis for broader generalizations.

These new AMS dates for the sponge-tempered vessels at Tick Island clearly indicate

that some are contemporaneous with their counterparts of fiber and dual tempering. Questions,

therefore, must be answered concerning their relationship in this light. That was the focus of this

analysis; to chart similarities and differences between these vessels as to their form, function, and

design, and to propose answers to questions concerning why these two separate vessel types

were used by the same peoples. It is the intent of this discussion to frame an explanatory model

that takes into account the social and political context in which these vessels were being

produced and utilized by the inhabitants of Tick Island.

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Discussion of Results

Style: The results clearly show both distinct differences and similarities in the application

of incised surface designs to both vessel types. The similarities lie in the complex and simple

design elements used to produce vessel motifs. They were created using the same design

elements, but the differences were defined in the application of these designs. Fiber-tempered

and dual-tempered vessel sherds were shown to have a carefully applied design with a far greater

number of complex elements, while sponge-tempered vessel sherd designs were shown to have

been very haphazardly applied with less complex elements. Differences also lie in the banding of

vessels. Fiber-tempered and dual-tempered vessel sherds had a large range of possible band

numbers preceding the various vessel motifs ranging from 1-10, while most of the sponge-

tempered vessels had their design concluded at the bottom with one horizontal band. This band

usually occurred one-quarter to midway down the vessel with the rest of the surface left blank.

Very few sponge-tempered specimens had preceding rim bands, and in the rare instances that

they did occur, they were limited to one or two bands. Both vessel types were being made at the

same time incorporating the same values inherent in the design elements, yet the degree of care

used in application and grammatical approach to applying these designs were distinctly different.

It is believed here that this is due to a need to expediently produce certain vessels that were less

important in aspects of social/ritual functions. Pots tempered with fiber or both tempers would

have served a more ceremonial significance than those tempered with sponge. This is supported

by the technofunctional analysis conducted with this collection.

Techno-function: The tempering of what Bullen would consider St. Johns and Orange vessels

proved to be as expected, based on the premise of their original typology, that is, Orange

specimens being tempered with fiber inclusions, and St. Johns being tempered with sponge-

62

spicules. What was unexpected, however, was the number of what would be typed as Orange

vessels that were dual-tempered containing both a fiber and sponge-spicule paste enhancing

previous analysis done by Cordell (2004). There were more dual-tempered Orange vessels than

there were purely fibered temper vessels. Out of 69 Orange vessels, only 19 contained fiber

alone, while the remaining 50 had both sponge and fiber inclusions in the paste.

As far as function is concerned, it was shown that there were many more sponge-

tempered sherds used over an open flame then there were from the fiber-tempered and dual-

tempered sample. It can be reasonably inferred from this that sponge-tempered vessels were

more likely to be used in cooking since soot deposits are fairly clear evidence of a cooking

function. When form and function are considered in comparing specimens from the temper

categories, there was a much larger proportion of flat-walled vessels than there were bowl shapes

among the fiber-tempered and dual-tempered specimens, and conversely, there was a

preponderance of bowl shapes over flat-walled vessels among the sponge-tempered specimens.

When looking at these forms as a matter of function, fiber-tempered and dual-tempered bowls

were evenly divided between those with soot, and those without. Analysis of sponge-tempered

bowls, however, showed that there were a far greater number of these vessel types that were used

over an open flame than were not. When looking at the flat-walled vessels represented in this

study, fiber-tempered and dual-tempered vessels were shown to be used to a much greater extent

for non-cooking functions as evidenced by the lack of soot deposits on most of these vessels.

Conversely, specimens of sponge-tempered flat-walled vessel sherds included a much larger

proportion that were used over an open flame compared to a much smaller number that were not.

Sponge-tempered boat-shaped vessels were fairly evenly divided between those with exterior

soot deposits present and those lacking it.

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Measurements of wall-thickness as an attribute showed fiber-tempered and dual-

tempered unsooted vessels to be thicker than those that had exterior soot deposits, indicating that

cooking vessels were thinner than those not used for cooking. Fiber-tempered and dual-tempered

vessel sherds, on average, also tended to be considerably thicker than the sponge-tempered

vessels in the total sample.

Social Implications of Ceramic Analytical Results from Tick Island

It is inferred from the results of this analysis that the following picture was occurring at

the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) on Tick Island. The site was a place of ceremonial importance. Of

this there is little doubt. Also believed here is that mortuary feasts of a very ceremonial nature

were an important aspect of this site, and its location had a definite spiritual and social

significance to those that utilized it. This belief is based on the evidence that this site was a place

of burial utilized in the pre-ceramic archaic period (Aten 1999), and it is assumed that the

continued utilization of this site in conjunction with these burials would have given it great

spiritual importance. The period between the Middle and Late Archaic saw a sharp rise in

population, increasing the participants in these feasts. With that increase in population and ritual

participation developed an increase in the demands on labor among potters, which are assumed

here to be women.

It is further believed that the ceremonial and ritual serving aspects were reserved for the

fiber-tempered and dual-tempered ceramics, whose techno-functional characteristics make them

less conducive to cooking and more conducive to serving and storing food. There were some

sooted examples of both. However, the majority of these temper types were lacking in soot. The

sponge-tempered vessels were much thinner and more effective at heat transfer from the exterior,

making them more useful cooking tools. Also, there is a higher degree of soot present on the

64

sponge-tempered vessel sherds than on the others, lending further credence to the idea that they

were used over an open flame. Within the fiber-tempered and dual-tempered population there

was a much higher proportion of flat-walled vessels, a form also more likely to imply a serving

function as food can be served readily in flat-walled and flat-bottomed vessels (similar to

casserole dishes). The higher number of bowl-shaped pots within the St. Johns sample would

have been better for suspending and cooking food-stuffs over an open flame. A rounded vessel is

much better for stirring the contents within than a flat-walled and flat-bottomed vessel in which

the heated contents could have been transferred at the ceremonial feasts. It is theorized here from

the data that the sponge-tempered vessels served a more functional or secular purpose at Tick

Island mortuary feasts, while contemporary fiber-tempered and dual-tempered vessels served a

ceremonial or sacred function at these events. Fiber-tempered and dual-tempered vessel sherds

had much more complex and elaborate designs incised onto their exterior covering the entire

vessel, but most of the sponge-tempered samples had very poorly executed designs that did not

cover most of the vessel, being abruptly halted midway down the vessel by a concluding band. It

is posited here that the rapidly expanding population in the Late Archaic necessitated an increase

in production of the more functional vessels at the site to cook for a larger number of people.

This could explain the hastily applied designs on these vessels as they were being produced very

rapidly, but there was still an importance in having these design elements and motifs on the pots,

otherwise they would have been abandoned altogether.

Conclusion

It has been demonstrated through this study that broad generalizations cannot be made

about the St. Johns River valley and neighboring areas during the Late Archaic period given the

limited data and dates that are available concerning these periods. A minimal number of dates

65

have been used to make generalizations and form a cultural-chronological sequence based on

ceramic typology that has been shown through new AMS dates to need serious revision and

rethinking. There is a need for further qualitative studies of specific sites a for the collection of as

many dates as possible in order to address the many differences found in the nature and rate of

cultural development at various sites. Even the stylistic grammar and use of the same design

elements might differ at various locations along the river. Only when more qualitative studies are

done of individual sites that good, relevant regional analyses can be done, and more broad

generalizations made

As far as style is concerned, this paper has not attempted an in-depth analysis of the

grammatical rules inherent in design application on these pots. It does, however, offer an insight

into differences in application and complexity of designs between three different yet

contemporaneous temper-types of pottery existing at the same site, and used (most likely) by the

same people. It is the intent here to promote development of an effective approach to

understanding the grammatical rules of applying design elements and creating motifs at this site

and at others.

The important thing is to improve understanding of culture history as forms of social

process and ideology. People have always had the ability to utilize and manipulate symbols, and

this is an area of key interest to anthropologists. It devalues the heritage of the native population

of this continent to relegate their history to the natural sciences under the false dichotomy of

history versus prehistory. Prehistory has been defined as a period of literacy by the western

standards of written language. But literacy can also be defined as the ability to utilize and

manipulate symbols actively used within a given culture. Conventional history views the time

before the arrival of European influence as a history of people passively reacting to

66

environmental circumscription. There is compelling evidence, however, suggesting an alternative

perspective involving a wide range of human reactions to environmental change, all rooted in

culture and ideology. If there truly is a “prehistory,” it would be defined not by the subject’s

illiteracy, but by the illiteracy of the observers in understanding the symbols and their proper

grammatical use within that given culture.

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APPENDIX A FIBER-TEMPERED AND DUAL TEMPERED INCISED VESSEL MOTIFS

Figure A-1. Examples of fiber-tempered and dual-tempered incised vessel designs

68

Figure A-2. Additional examples of fiber-tempered and dual-tempered incised vessel designs

69

APPENDIX B SPONGE-TEMPERED INCISED VESSEL MOTIFS

Figure B-1. An example of an incised motif applied to a sponge-tempered vessel

70

Figure B-2. Additional examples of motifs found on sponge-tempered vessels

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APPENDIX C VESSEL PROFILE FORMS FROM TICK ISLAND

Figure C-1. Examples of vessel profiles from the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) on Tick Island

72

APPENDIX D PHOTOGRAPHS OF INCISED VESSELS FROM TICK ISLAND

Figure D-1. Photographs of dual-tempered and fiber-tempered incised ceramics from the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) on Tick Island.

73

Figure D-2. Photographs of sponge-tempered incised ceramics from the Harris Creek Site (8VO24) on Tick Island.

74

REFERENCES Aten, Lawrence E. 1999 Middle Archaic Ceremonialism at Tick Island, Florida: Ripley P. Bullen’s 1961

Excavation at the Harris Creek Site. The Florida Anthropologist 52:131-200 Braun, David P. 1983 Pots as Tools. In Archaeological Hammers and Theories, edited by J.A. Moore

and A.S. Keene, pp. 108-134. Academic Press, New York. Bullen, Ripley P. 1972 The Orange Period of Peninsular Florida. In Fiber-Tempered Pottery in

Southeastern United States and Northern Colombia: Its Origins, Context, and Significance, edited by R.P. Bullen and J.B. Stoltman, pp. 9-33 Florida Anthropological Society Publication 6. Gainesville.

Bullen, Ripley P., and Adelaide K. Bullen 1961 The Summer Haven Site, St. Johns County, Florida. The Florida Anthropologist

14 (1-2):1-15. Cordell, Ann 2004 Paste Variability and Possible Manufacturing Origins of Late Archaic Fiber-

Tempered Pottery from Selected Sites in Peninsular Florida. Early Pottery: Technology, Style, and Interaction in the Lower Southeast, edited by Rebecca Saunders and Christopher Hays. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.

Goggin, John M. 1952 Space and Time Perspectives in Northern St. Johns Archaeology, Florida. Yale

University Publications in Anthropology 47. Hally, David J. 1986 The Identification of Vessel Function: A Case Study from Northwest Georgia.

American Antiquity 51:267-295. Jahn, Otto L., and Ripley P. Bullen 1978 The Tick Island Site, St. Johns River, Florida. Florida Anthropological Society

Publication 10. Gainesville Janus Research 1996 Cobblestone Village South (8VO634): Archaeological Investigations of an

Orange Period and St. Johns Period Midden Site in Northeastern Volusia County, Florida. Environmental Management Office, Florida Department of Transportation, Tallahassee.

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Milanich, Jerald T. 1994 Archaeology of Precolombian Florida. Gainesville: University of Florida Press. Milanich, Jerald T., and Charles H. Fairbanks 1980 Florida Archaeology. New York: Academic Press Rice, Prudence M. 1987 Pottery Analysis: A Sourcebook. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Rye, O.S. 1976 Keeping Your Temper Under Control. Archaeology and Physical Anthropology in

Oceana 11(2):106-137. Sassaman, Kenneth E. 1993 Early Pottery in the Southeast: Tradition and Innovation in Cooking Technology.

Tuscaloosa and London: The University of Alabama Press. 2003 New AMS Dates on Orange Fiber-Tempered Pottery from the Middle St. Johns

Valley and Their Implications for Culture History in Northeast Florida. The Florida Anthropologist 56(1):6-13

Skibo, James M., Michael B. Schiffer, and Kenneth Reid. 1997 Organic-Tempered Pottery: An Experimental Study, American Antiquity 54:122-

146.

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Clifford Joseph Jenks was born on December 12, 1975 in Morristown, New Jersey. He

was the eldest of four children and grew up in many parts of the country throughout his

childhood. Upon his 1994 graduation from Watkins Mill High School in Gaithersburg,

Maryland, he attended college at Northern Illinois University in Dekalb, Illinois.

He developed a strong interest in anthropology among his general education courses, and

decided to pursue a career in one of its subfields -- archaeology. Through the Department of

Anthropology at Northern Illinois University, he was able to get his first valuable field

experience at an archaeological field school in Hawaii. Excavations were conducted at a

prehistoric community structure on the dry side of the Haleakala volcano located on Maui. He

graduated from Northern Illinois University in August, 1998 with a B.A. in anthropology.

Clifford moved to Sarasota, Florida after obtaining his degree and gained employment

with Janus Research, an archaeological survey firm in St. Petersburg, Florida. During his

employment with Janus Research, he received a great deal of experience and training in the

archaeological survey field, working in practically every corner of the state from the Florida

Panhandle to the Florida Keys.

He is currently employed in contract archaeology with Panamerican Consultants Inc. in

Tampa, Florida and makes his home in St. Petersburg, Florida.