return edited by xiang biao, brenda s. a. yeoh and mika toyota
TRANSCRIPT
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RetuRnNationalizing Transnational Mobility in Asia
Xiang Biao, Brenda S. A. Yeoh, and Mika oyota, eds.
Dk Ut P Dm L 2013
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2013 Dk Ut P
A t
Pt t Ut Stt Amc c-
Ht H. It t L Bk.
t P Imt Stm, Ic.
L t--Pct Dt
Rt : tz tt mt A /
B, B S. A. Y, k t, t.
cm
Ic c c x.
isbn 978-0-8223-5516-8 (ct : k. )
isbn 978-0-8223-5531-1 (k. : k. )
1. Rt mtA. 2. AEmt
mmt. I. , B. II. Y, B S. A.
III. t, k.jv8490.r48 2013
325.5c23
2013018964
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Contents
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Rt t R t t A1Xiang biao
Chapter One Rt Nt t Rt21
Te Changing Meaning o Mobility among Japanese Brazilians, 19082010
Koji sasaKi
Chapter Two
S Hm39War, Migration, and Delayed Return in Postwar Japan
MariKo asano aManoi
Chapter Three
Guiqiao Ptc Sct t k t
P Rc , 1949197963Wang Cangbai
Chapter Four
t Ect83Compulsory Return as a Labor-Migration Control in East Asia
Xiang biao
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Chapter Five
m G Hm100Forced Returns and Redisplacement Tirty Years
afer the American War in Indochina
sylvia r. CoWan
Chapter SixRc, Rt, Pc122Deportees, Victims, and the Regulation o Indonesian Migration
johan lindquis
Chapter Seven
Rt t G I141Sofware Proessionals and the Worlding o Bangalore
Carol upadhya
Chapter Eight
Etcz, tz, Ntz162South Korea and the Returning Korean Chinese
Melody Chia-Wen lu and shin hyunjoon
Contributors179 Reerences183 Index205
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ACknowledgments
Ti book i th rit o v yr o collbortio tht trtd with th
c Rt t A t t A Rc It-
tt, Nt Ut S, t mm 2008. tk
ari t cc t t t-
t t . t t ct t t
. T ct w m wtt t ct-
t tm t. V S., L , S A-k f cmmt t t t t. tk I
Sm, S Y, Pc t mtt t t.
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IntroduCtIon
Return and the Reorderingof Transnational Mobility in Asia
Xiang biao
When the Washington-based Migration Policy Institute asked a number o
mt xt t w wt tm mt 2006,
Hw Dc, t xct t - Itt -
t Pct, t t t mt t A
t mt tk. At t mt cmm m,
t m t, c t H , ct
than one would expect, he commented. Te signicance o the large-scalet mt m t t t H t
t ctxt t tc t H t t P Rc
o China (PRC). Between 1984, when the Chinese and British governments
t mt, t 1997, m t
m H t t t t
(Rittr 2007). By 2005, howvr, third o tho who hd migrtd to
t t tt ctt, m t-
tct t tct c t t m c.
At t 120,000 t 1999 . T t H t t
PR t t t H c w
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2 Xiang biao
mtt w tc . T
t t t x A. I, t t t-
bd proiol d trprr to Ai, pcilly to Chi d
I, c t t t t t
tc c. Rt ct tt t t.
T rvr ow o proiol cotitt oly mll prt o r-
tr migrtio i Ai. Mch lrgr mbr o irrglr migrt
c t t t t ct ctz, m
Ai cotry to othr. Ti bcm prticlrly vidt r th -
c c 1997. Fm J 1997, w t c k t, t J-
1998, t ck m t 10,000 B Pkt
workr, Soth Kor xplld btw 150,000 d 300,000 migrt, T tt 6,000 Bm (V 1998). It m-
gcy mr, orcd rtr w oo trd ito roti. Mlyi
t t, , t mt c t
z cckw c t t 1990. J x -
g o 54,000 migrt yr i th 1990 d rly 2000. T cop
t c t A tk w cm t t
prt o th world: i th 2000 Atrli rmovd d dportd bot
10,000 yr, th Uitd Kigdom mor th 60,000, d th UitdStt 400,000 2011 (cm t t 30,000 1990
t 200,000 2000). I, t Hm Af t
Azm c t O (Ot ) cm c
2005, wc x 600,000 t 800,000 mt, t
t tmt m t w (Ht 2009).
O v grtr cl r complory rtr o lgl lbor mi-
t. T wm mt t m wk w m-
t m A ct t t tct tm tmd hv to rtr hom oc thir cotrct r d (P. Mrti 2008).
t-c ct c t cmm t -
t, t c. Tt , t tm t m w
rom prticlr cotry ccordig to th rtr to tht cotry. Ti
c m tt t t m mt t t A
cotri rom th Gl lo vry yr. Aprt rom proiol d
lbor migrt, th rtr o rg d victim o hm trckig
m c cc t .
T t w t t c t tt t -
c, ctt, c tt. T t
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Itct 3
c m c tt m A t 1990. T
mode o governance seeks to regulate mobility through mobility. Te states
t mt t ck t ctt mmt. Rt
mt t t mt mt w
t mt m ck t t t m t mas new recruitments are constantly needed to replace the returned. But re-
t mt c k tt t tm mt. tt --
t cct mmt t mmt t t mwk
t-tt. Rt t tz tt mt.
Fw G Smm ct t mc t
z mmt tct (Smm 1997, 171), w m k
t m t t. Rt t ct ct t
movement o each vehicle, but they channel the trac into certain patternstt c mt t m tc. T mmt
t c t w mmtm, k
m tm t tm; t t mmt t w tt -
t t-tt. Nt-tt t tc -
t mwk zt c, t c tt
ct. Ntzt w tt mt -
t m tt x. I ctt t t cmm -
t tt tt mt c tt t (.., S1996, 6774) t c (.., t 2004), tt
cct A (t) mt mt t.
w w L L E Ox c
thogrphy o rtr migrtio tht py ll tttio to th di-
t, cmxt, tt t m xc (2004,
115), t k tt t m c ct, ,
trtgic momt wh th itrctio btw tio- tt d
tt mt tc . F t k, t t typ o migrtio migrtio bhvior with ditict ttribt d
tt k tt mt m mt. Emc, -
tr i tilly mbigo. T Philippi govrmt, or itc,
t tt cm tm t t
t wcm t t, t t t m tm t mt c-
t mt t t . w
b miig th poit by xtig o whthr th rtr hold b
t; wt mtt t ct tt t t mt t
mt t m mt mk t
k t. k: w c ct t c,
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4 Xiang biao
, ct? t mtm tt -
t m t, t mtm m tt
t c t? A wt t t t t c-
cmc mt A ? T tt t x-
c t t mt t m t ct t t; t c t t c t-
tc t.
Asia as a Method or Global Studies
E t t t t t ; A ct t
t t t t . T w wt w- mt t-
t t m w cm ft t. A ct t t c t mt t t. It m
cct tt k t mt A t.
Ti rct prticlr rticltio btw tt itrvtio d th
mkt, tw t t tt w
t . t A ct t t z t cm, t
t t m tm t ct t t t
tt w. T cmt t tt tt
wt -mkt cm w cc ct t Et A c-nomic miracle o the 1970s and 1980s (Evans 1995). Te postdevelopmental
tt tt m t 1990 m t m-
kt t, t t m cmm ttc (O 2000,
2004). T -c asean (Act Stt A Nt) w
zt t tw ct -w
economic integration and saeguarding member states political autonomy
d ovrigty. T asean tio corg itrtiol migrtio,
c t t mk t xct tt c mm- mt c t cc t w tm t
ow polici. T thr i o rpri tht rtr migrtio i com-
m c fct c t . , -
t mt f ct t xm w tt-
t x tt mt c wk tt t
o exclude each other. As such, examination o return migration helps shed
t t t A.
T tct t mt t A. O t
ct, xc A tc mtt c c
t ct m mt c t w. T t
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Itct 5
tck ctm cmm cc E
t t t w. I tm mt, t eu -
mt cc mt tw E -eu ct c
t t 2000. Rt t ct m-
t ( t 2006; mm E mmt 2007;t, A, tc 2006). T Bt Pmt mm Fk
F ct mt c m , m t,
m t w mt m A (2008). T N -
t cmt P m t mt t-
wk m t Ut Stt t t D (2006).
Jt w tk t cct , w tk A mt
t. I m wk, t, Yz z-
c (1989) t t ct c ttt tk t w t mt (c t) t m
t ct. Sc t c t t t, t
w m tc E xc ctc. I c-
tt, t mt c xm cc tc -
mt t t t, t tk t
w t ct mtt m t ct xc.
I t mwk, t w cm mc, tt
proc itd o ttic titi i ioltio. Wht Yzo rgd or iobvioly ot pcic to Chi tdi. Ch K- Hig rctly x-
tdd th propoitio ito dvoccy or Ai mthod. T p-
c A mt c c A ct t tk
c t c t, c tt
m t cm mm, tt t c
rooted and generalizable (Chen 2010). Return: Nationalizing Transnational
Mobility in Asia tk A mt t tct
Yz . Ft, ct mtt ct, t t t t cm A xctm. Sc-
, w c t xt A c
xm tct tw A ct. c t
c, tt, tt ctc t x-
mtt. A t m m c
c tt.
kig Ai mthod crtily do ot m tht th rt o
th world i bcomig lik Ai or tht ociti worldwid r dopt-
ig Ai mthod o dvlopmt. Ai mthod i lyticl
trtgy. By dvlopig w prpctiv bd o xpric i Ai,
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6 Xiang biao
w t c mtc t w tt tw -
m t. c c t t x-
tt ct t ctc E the mt. T m-
tm c tt mt, tc,
w t E xc t , c tHolocaust, and this explains why certain concerns and concepts (e.g., indi-
t m ctz) tz w t m-
z (.., cct ). It w t tk t m c-
t t c ; w m t ct t
w mt t m xct t t t t cc t-
cal context. Rather than jettisoning established theories or being Eurocen-
tm, t m m ct t mt, ct w
kw ct. A mt m t xct tt. tkA mt t c A c , t c t -
xtct mt c m t cc t
t m tm tt t.
A mt t c t c t t
A t t w t tt t t t w. A ct t-
ctig with th world rthr th imply rctig it. Mor importt,
A t c c t t t t
ctc tmc t m w w t t w. A c,geographical coverage per se is o secondary importance in selecting cases.
O ct t m t c ft k t t
ft tc tm t ft tm.
T k tt wt t ct t tc t m-
t t A. T w ct
rtr migrtio i th crrt globliztio r. Bor trig to th
specic cases, it is necessary to have an overview o returnees historical re-
t t t-tt , tc w t A tt m ftt, t, ct, t, c-
t t wt t. T ctc ftt ccm-
tc ccc. Tt , tt k ttt -
mt d itrtiol co i ordr to orc rtr, d th
-mc, tz t t c c c
prticlr ivrlitic mig to divr rtr ow. It i throgh
t ctc tw ftt ccc tt c
ctc cttt m c tt
mt.
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Itct 7
Te Returnee and the Nation
Rt m t t xct m mt.
Et Rt (1885) w mt tt tt m-
t tm ccm ct w, t mt-tmthory o th 1970 idtid rtr itgrl prt o ll migrtio
tm ( 1970; Nkm Vk 1996). It w
tc cmmc tt mt m ck t t
ct t . It w c w t cm m
ct tt t t t c w mc t-
c cc. tm t -c t
mc m tt c ct w. T xt-
cably tied to the politics o nation-states. Te word return itsel has now be-cm c t t: mt m t t t c
t (U, t m), wt t w return ct m
i th movmt rom ovr to y prt o o nation o origi. A
Wang Gungwu (1981) has established so clearly, overseas Chinese had been
t mk tt tt t t Q ct t t
nineteenth century ocially named them huaqiao (Chinese sojourners)
tm mt w wt t t. T c
t m t c t cm c t t t -c t Q mt w c t t
czt m tt c t t w, t -
rmt thror lt complld to d it rltio with it ovr
t xct tm w t t t t w.
T tzt t t t c t c
tt wt wc t tt cm t t m ct.
Rt t m tm A c t t
or grtio, thogh th mpiricl bodri btw thm rw . Ec tct t t t t- tt -
. T t t t t m cc mt,
m t , w , tm tc
m t m-tt ct, tk t t
t-tt k w tt mt cct
i th mid-twtith ctry. T cod grtio i rprtd by
c cc tm G, J Rz, Jw N,
L Yw, w t t cm t t t
t twtt ct. T t w mtt
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8 Xiang biao
tt 2003 t I mt t J 9, t t w
G t m St Ac twt- ( 1914),
P Bt D (O I D), ct wt
t . T t t t t tm; t
w tt A c t w mt m wtt mm w ct x t tc cttt
i vrio prt o th world, which md thm prticlrly cpbl o
wt c w tm tt t t m
t m tt. T t- ct w t
cm t (A
1991, 4; Chttrj 1986). Prjit Dr y, Ntio r cotrctd
c m ttt c cct
(2009, 6). I thi proc th cod grtio o rtr rvd mt mt m t -
t, w t tc t- ct t
t c mt t t cc c t.
T t t t tw t 1950 1990. T -
t w t t w t t tc
cct t c t ct c
( Ski, thi volm; Wg, thi volm), or both. T rtr
w mt; t tc ct f cc-t t. T t t t t t
ft t. Rt t ctxt ct zt c
cm t ck--t mmt t t t
(U, t m).
Ht m t cm cc: t t t t t
appear to have similar experiences o return. But, while the rst generation
m ck t tc c t xtc
t-tt, t t c m t-tt Ahave developed sophisticated mechanisms or engaging with transnational
mmt. tm t mt ttc tm t
th tio d prticipt i globl circltio. Tir tiol ttch-
mt o rv bi or thir prticiptio i globliztio, d
covrly thir globl poitio r lvrg i thir itrctio with
tiol itittio. I th cod grtio o rtr tiolizd
t m ct, t t t t t w tm-
tz cm - ctz t
t , mm t tt t m t-
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Itct 9
t ct t t mt tz t w
t mt t w t mt c c m.
Chptr 1, 2, d 3 i th book provid brod hitoricl ovrviw
w t ft t t t wt t
mid wr, rvoltio, thic coict, d idologicl bttl. KojiSki chptr trc th littl-kow dbt bot rtrwhthr
t wm J mt Bz t-
t t twtt ct, w tt w mtct
t cc. T mt, mt wm J t t
tt ct t twtt, t t t t
t twtt ct. Bt t tt tm J w cc wt
mtc x t mt t w c.
t J mt c t c c tmt t ct (Nkk) t mt t J t wk
t 1990, mt t t t tmt c m t m-
t c t w tz. T Nkk
p qi- rtr i Jp who joy mor bt th othr or-
t ct cm ctz. T -t tt cc
t J c tc mt, t cmc
c , t tt tt ct mt. I t wk t
2008 c c, t J mt f t t Nkk- t t Bz t ct t t t J
k wk t . t t Bz.
k A m ct c c t-
th ormr oldir o th Jp Impril Army who rtrd
m t tt w t t Sc . B -
lightig th wkwrd o th rtr, th chptr hd w light o
J tmt m mtt m t t tt t-
mt mct J A t. T t th 1950 w wkwrd bc thir prc rmidd th pblic o
J tct wc m J w
mct. T t t t mt t tt t J
t w ctm tt t t t ft t
t t cmct. A w w t t 1970 t
tt wkw cm t t t J c,
t t cm ct t. B tt tm t mm t
w w; t t w ct t xc
t c c mc. It w
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10 Xiang biao
w wkw t t tt c mc. A-
t t w ttc mc t t, t tt c c t w t t t w t t c
w t w t w . U t
wkw t t J tt t t t t,
wc m c t A t.
ct xm m mtc xc
t, cc w I t w t-
z t (1949 t 1979). T t, m wm w
eeing the anti-Chinese sentiment in postcolonial Indonesia, were initiallywm wcm t PR w . Bt t w -
ct t c m t m tm m c t t
t t t P w t t t ctz
m tc tt t c t. T tt t t c
ct guiqiao (t ) tt-
t c t ccmmt, mt, mt t
t. T c m tt c t c
t tt, t t m -
t m, t w w t t t , m
c c t mt t. Sc t t t
igure i. 1. N tc t t? A tc m t IttOzt (ioM) t tt mt E.
T tc m tt t ioM w t wt t cmt, t,
tt t t m ct. At t cm t mt
mtt ctt t ioM c t 1990.
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Itct 11
Rt, w, t tt t mt t c t-
tiol coctio, both old d w. T w pproch i primrily
tz t t mzt zt, w t
mphi o thic llgic d ocilit rhtoric rmi lit. A
t, t t tw t t-tt cm mcm cmx.
Te Victim, the Ambiguous, and the Desirable
A ct mtt, wt w t t w
ct . T ct -
t, wt k w t, t mt
d v hmilitio drig th Cltrl Rvoltio. I th potCold , wt mtt m wt k t . T t
t t c t w. T tt -
t t tk ct; t m ft
c c. T ftt t mt t ct
t xc; t t t m tt mt,
omtim cotrdictory, objctiv. For itc, tt imltoly
k cmc wt (U, t m), t ct (w,
thi volm), idtity llgic (L d Shi, thi volm), d politi-c tmc ( wc t tct ctm c m-
tt; Lt, t m). T ct t wt
t ctc. Dftt t-tt t m -
t ct t wt t t tm t mt tt
.
Accordig to how thy r trtd by tt polici d how thy r
t c m, t c t t ct:
t ctm ( c ctm m tck), t (m t k t), t m-
o (killd or irrglr migrt who r coomiclly dd bt
c ). Nt-tt m ftt t wt c
t t .
R w t t tt tt-tt t m
t t . Bc t
w tcz w ttt t mmt tt
m, t c ct ctt mcc w
to rdc th mbr o rg drmticlly. T un rg gcy
unhCr t t tt t tm t
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12 Xiang biao
m t t 1990 t c t-
tion (Koser and Black 1999). In Asia, the return o the ve million reugees
m Pkt I t At tw 2002 2009 w t
t t m t t unhCr. I t
tct t w ttc, t tcz, mtm, t t -
g w prdictd o th bli tht th tio- tt, ow ppodly
c t, w t t t ttt tt
t. T w w t m
tcz t t (kk 1995).
T tcz ct t t w t
t ctm m tck. T Rc, t, -
tt, tt cmm tt -zt w t mt t tm t t m
tck (Lt, t m). Rt c c
tcm tt tt zt tf mtm ctt t
identiy a person as a victim who may not have a place to return to, because
w t t t, t t.
Althogh th rtr o rg d victim i ppod to hlp r-
t mc, t t xc t c
tmtc. S R. w ct c t t twt mz tt t c tmtz xc
t. Sm m m t c w -
portd rom th Uitd Stt or committig mior crim, v r
t t tm. T tt w mmt
t mt tm w tt w t
military intervention to deal with international afairs, and was thus meant
t mt w c m. Bt t t -
tt w t t t t t m.Tey were typically repatriated suddenly, without warning, and many grew
t Ut Stt kw t m ct. T
c t w tc t t U.S. mt tt
tc Ic t ct cmt wt
t Amc t ct tt t tm t mm. T c-
c m t cmt t t xc t
tt t c t tt t tw-
tt ct.
T cod grop o rtrprimrily killd lbor migrt
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Itct 13
w t m t tt ck w z.
w ct c w cm t ct t t ct
k mt Et A. m t fct -
t t tw mt t t tt t m t
ctct. A m ct t t wm ckmt m ct tt c c t -
mtc t c t c-
mc ctct wt t t t. Rt c t tct
ct tw tt, m, ct, t ttt
c ct. Sc cct tw t mt ct cttt
an institutional basis or enorced return and making order rom migration.
T t t, t k t ct c, m-
m cmx c mk. T t t killd i ppod to brig th tio ito th globl circit o xibl
ct ccmt kw ct, c t
t -c -cct m t c tk t
1990 (G mm Itt t 2005). Bt
cmc tt w mt cc c ttt
tc . U ct t tc
B, I, t tt t t t t
ck ct, kw-w, tt cct t t- tm. Ntm t t t
t t mkt t c -cc,
t ct tm, c cmc -
tt tc tct mtt. I ctt t t
tm tt I c mmt, tm
tw k, ctt, tt.
Finally, Melody Chia-Wen Lu and Shin Hyunjoon, whose study is based
t m t St , mk tc tht it i policy difrtitio, rthr th xpritil difrc,
tht mttr. T Kor Chi wr i th 1980 rgrdd rpr-
tt t , ctm w w c t
t tc tc c J c-
zt. A c t t t w wcm c
m t t t tc. T t t ,
howvr, bcm mch mor mbigo i th lt 1990 wh Soth
ttmt t mz t t t t
its state-led globalizing agenda. Korean Chinese were privileged compared
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14 Xian g biao
t t t tc cct, t t w tt
vorbly comprd to th mor-rct migrt to th Wt. T gov-
mt c t c t tt m t
St 2004 c t c wt c-
t cct t ct ct ftt t -t mt. I ctc t t t mt
mor docmt to prov thir dctio lvl th thir cotrprt
t m ct. T, t t ftt,
t ct mt ftt m tm t tm.
T c o th Kor Chi how tht tio- tt rmi th
dig rmwork tht orgiz trtiol mobility. T cocr
t tc tt cmc cmtt t -
c t t t St . T St zt t t t t t w t
t tz cct, kw, , ct m t
dispersed Korean diaspora. And in order to maximize the benet o return
to the South Korean nation, potential returnees were diferentiated accord-
t t ct t c, c t t t
t c. O t t 2004 c c tt
vord th Kor Chi w th ri o Chi. T pprt tho-
tt tc t m t t tw mtt t c t, cc tm. T t-
t m tzt t t tc ccc,
wc mtt ct ftt m-
t t t.
Nationalizing and Naturalizing
Wht i rmrkbl bot th govrmtl difrtitio o rtri Ai i tht migrt-rcivig d -dig tt r icrigly i
mt wt c t w t t t ftt.
T k t ct tt t t t t
c t t ct c. Uk -
mt ttct t t t c t c-
t; t t ct tt t mt t tt
ct t tt ct w. m-
t tmt mt
mt Et A c t t 1970 (, t m). A
ctm m tck, t w t tmt -
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Itct 15
t t tt t ctm t mt t t. S
tt w t ct wt c tt c t
them to establish closer relations with their overseas citizens and to tap into
tmt t mt. Rc tt m
tt t mmt wt t tt, tc,by dlgtig powr to govrmt d privt gci i th dig
ct ct c w- mt ( , t
volm). Ti i bc, giv tht immigrtio cotrol i big tight-
c t w, t - tt t ttt
mt t fct t ctct c m
mmt tct (Rz 2010, xx). I-
t fct tt t tm
to enorce return (Lindquist, this volume). Instead o resisting the pressurem t c t, I t ct
ct t mmtm t tt t t tmt.
Sch itrtt itittiol colcc m tht rtr progrm
t-tt t c t w tt
mtlly. Both th dig d rcivig tt bcom mor powrl
t t mt. A c, t ct t tt m-
t t tw mt t c ct
tt tw t c tt, t t t -tw mt c tt. A k mt wk -
t t both t c ct
t t , wc c t ct. I
ctt, k cc t c mk m
m t t mt ct m ck t
tw tm. It mtt t t tt c ttt ccc
btw tt i lrgly itr-Ai phomo. T rptritio o
migrt rom Erop d North Amric to my Ai cotri r-m cmm ct t c t tt t
t ck c.
T t ccc t mt. T
ct tt t t t t t mt
t ft t t m mm. It
instead indicates the construction o a hegemonic ramework, a good com-
m , tt mt tc m. A J Lt
ct t, t t c mt, ngo,
c m ft t mt c c t c-
ct tz t m. Sc t
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16 Xiang biao
m tct t m, t m t mtc
mt. t w wt k m t ck t w
?
T o trl ld rtr polici trog lgitimcy. T
Chi word or dtiy,guisu, litrlly m th lodg to rtr to( lo Wg, thi volm, o th mig ogui). T ocil Jp-
tm tk J ctz kika (t
covrt). T word return tblih th dirctiolity o mobility
ctt tc tm t t c . -
t t c t.
Aprt rom th trlizig d ormlizig fct, rtr c b
z. T tt Stf (2001) w zz t
ctm f t c t . dot th Chi mk th god prmt ridt i thir ho?
Ti i bc, Stford rgd, ltrtig dprtig d rtrig
cc t t, mt, w c t.
Dt t mk t ct
t t t t, t ctt mc t -
t. I w w m cmmt c t
t ( A 1996), t m -
m c t t tt, -t -t or tribl popltio o rgizig tiolim. I th omb o th
Ukow Soldir i o o mot rrtig mblm o tiolim,
Bct A (1991, 5051) t t t, t tm -
liztio, th rtr i powrl mbodimt o tiolim. I th
m t Ukw S cm t t c t
tt t t m tm, t t cc
ttt xtttt, wc cc tm
t z .T tz fct t c t t t.
O ct w tt c fct tc cc. T t -
c t cttt tc tt mt,
t tct ngo, c m, ct,
privt gci tht pciliz i rcritmt d trport. It i th
ttt mt tt t ctc tw f-
tt ccc, tw t t t tt,
t ctt t t mt wtt t.
t t tzt tt mt m m-
t tc c? O t , mt c tm -
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Itct 17
stacles in challenging the system o tightly interrelated nation-states. State-
acilitated returns curtail the political agency o transnational connections.
c Ht At N t mtt mt
t tmtc (2000, 2004). O t t , t tzt -
t t mt t t mc c t kbck to tio-tt to dmd jtic d digity. A L d Shi
chptr how, th Kor Chi drw o th tt tho- tiolit
c t cm t t t, wc mt mt wt t,
odicrimitory polici. T tioliztio o migrtio my lo
t tzt mt tc; tt , mt t-
tt th ctrl cl i orgizig thir ctio, tk tiol di-
c t m tt ct w t m c -
tct t m, t c t c tprimry objctiv. For itc, th cotttio o th mig o r-
t m t m J Nkk ct-
cal reections o the hegemonic perceptions about the Japanese nation and
t t w. F t t k I w c-
ct t t c t c m
t, wk wt t c zt m t t
mt tc tt mk c t w .
Bt jt th tioliztio o mobility do ot imply ptil xig,t tzt mt tc ct t tt c.
T U.S.-t ngo ct m t t -
t, t I t mt wt t c c t
t xtt t t t mkt. T
mt wk J, m ct mtt, ctt tc-
t t t J tt t t t
. T w mt t tt t w t k
tc t t J t tm mt, t t m tm ct tt t mt
t m t . T tt m
tzt w t t xtt ct t w mt -
t w mt tc t t.
Notes
1. Migrtio Iormtio Sorc, Migrtio Exprt Siz p 2006, Dcmbr
2006, www.mtmt., cc Oct 10, 2009.
2. T xct m t t H ct t t. Acc
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18 Xiang biao
t H Btt Ut 2002, 3 ct H -
dents chose the category o returnee as their cultural identity (Hong Kong ransition
Pct 2002, 13).
3. T t ct t tt -t . . . []w
to th rthr itiv tr o th bjct (C d Sttitic Dprtmt o
HSAR 2000, 48; L 2005, 116).4. F tt txt t c c t t
A, 2008. T t A x w Pt D
(2010). t c ttt t A mt t t
hgmoy, rdx mphiz th rctivtd coctio btw difrt prt
A tt w wk t t t t c w t
.
5. Peoples Daily, tt m, t tt 186,200 t-
t t m tt 2011, c m t 38 ct cm-
prd to 135,000 ovr 2010. Peoples Daily(Eglih), 818,400 ovr tdt r-tr to Chi, Mrch 16, 2012, http://thpiw.com/w/mbr- o- rtrig
-c-tt--38/, t cc F 8, 2013.
6. t Jtc, J, Booklet on Immigration, k, 2005, 10.
7. F At, t Dtmt Immt tz A R-
t t 2000, tt://www.mm../t/t//, t
cc F 8, 2013. F t U, U Hm Oc, t Immt:
Stttc, Ut m 2008, 68, At 2009, tt://.mc..k/
/09/1409.. F t Ut Stt, U.S. Dtmt Hm Sc-
t, 2011 Yearbook o Immigration Statistics, 2011, 102, tt://www..//tttc/ct/k.tm.
8. Te campaign mobilized up to 500,000 ocials and volunteers, and sent 600,000
t 800,000 mt m, c 400,000 w t
pihmt d 200,000 to 400,000 who wr dportd. S Giv Op g
c, 2005. S 2008.
9. t R P t (2008) tt ctt mt
ttmt cc t ctz t tt ct, c t
cm t, w c t m mt. , ct tt
m t t mt w t mt w mt.10. Wh th Jp govrmt lly trtd dmittig orig lbor r
twt t, t w tc t tm 2004
t t t t mt (t Jtc, J, Booklet
on Immigration, k, 2005). G, t cm cc mt
t mt. T Itt Ozt t (ioM) mt
zt t mt: mc 70 ct t t -
cated to return programs, particularly the Assisted Voluntary Return Program; in 2005
t m m t t ct t t t
3.61 m mt c t m-1990 (Itt Ozt -t 2006, 409). T Gm mt ioM usd 10 m 2002
tt wt mt (Itt Ozt t 2002, 5).
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Itct 19
11. Michel-Rolph rouillot sees orced return as the moment when mobility encoun-
t t tt mt ct t (2001, 125).
12. Rc Sz P (2001) cmt w t cm m tm
F mt tt H , t t t mt
t F tt J wt t .
13. L (2001) t w eu mmt c c t -ct m mt tt c t t E, c w t.
S Skt t . 2007 m cm tw A E.
14. Act Stt A Nt, asean Dct t Ptct
d Promotio o th Right o Migrt Workr, http://www.c.org/19264
.tm, cc A 14, 2012. Gz Bttt . B. A (2003, 10)
cc tt t asean c [t mt mmt] m t
t ctt , wt mm mct c c c-mk
t ct.
15. T thr port o Xim, Shto, d Hog Kog i oth Chi, or x-m, c 14.7 m t tw 1869 1939, 11.6 m -
t tw 1873 1939. S S 2005. O t t t w, -
t t -t tttc mt t m Nt Amc t E
tw 1870 1940, mt t t m ( 2000, 29). F c -
c t t mt m t Ut Stt t E t t
t t twtt ct, m 1996. F ct w t -
tc m, L 2005, 112.
16. F c t w I m ck t
wtt t tt tt t U tm, Bc2012.
17. Othr tdi tht tblihd thi phomo icld Ugr 1986; d H
2006; L zz 2006.
18. A ct m ct t tc czz 2011.
19. F t c t t ctt t I t 1950, -
1997, 35358.
20. Itt R Imt Ntwk (irin), Lmt Sc t A
R, c 15, 2009, tt://www.w./Rt/83474/AFGHANI
SAN-Lmt-c-t--m-, t cc F 8, 2013.21. T t ctm m tct ctc c t t t
t mt mt. D (2005, 69) tc t c-
t m tck t t cc t mt E
w t t B . I A, t Bkk Dct I
t, t mt Pcc A 1999, m c k
btw irrglr migrtio d hm trckig: imly rtr o tho with-
ot right to tr d rmi i importt trtgy to rdc th ttrctiv
o trckig. (Articl 13 o th Dclrtio, http://www.iom.it/jhi/wbdv/it
/myjhiit/hrd/hrd/miit/policy_d_rrch/rcp/APC/BANGKOK_DELARAION., cc 23, 2013). mmt t - O
cm, t t t m mt , Dtk S N Rzk,
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20 Xiang biao
w tt ct mt w , c t wt
cmt unhCr (Star2005). Fc t w fc-
t m t c mt cc m k ww
( G 1998; 2000, 6970; Lkzc 2000).
22. A m c t w tt t t t
ttt t Ut Stt mmt t t c ct. S G 2002; N 2004; Ptz 2006.
23. Sc t t 1990, mtt mt mt, c t -
t k t Itt t ck (CoMMi), ct t
tct w t mt t c t t
ctm m tck.
24. T - A D D m tct L -
operation between Countries o Origin and Destination in Asia, attended by ministers
rom twty cotri i 2008, dord th o-clld li-cycl pproch i m-
gig lbor mobility. Ti pproch ggt tht migrtio h trl li cycltt ct t: ctmt, mmt , t t,
tt. S P. t 2009, 6061. Rt t t t
t wt t c cc.
25. O t mt mtt t (wc ct Vt-
m) t f t tc G (Z Z) t H t
twt-t t tw mt, t wcm t
t.