review - ap psychology historical approaches september 11, 2009 ms
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MIDYEAR REVIEW!
Narcotics
Stimulants
Hallucinogenics
6
Mind-Body Problem
1. Dualism: Dualists believe that mind (non-physical) and body (physical) are two distinct entities that interact. Hippocrates
2. Monism: Monists believe that mind and body are different aspects of the same thing. Aristotle
Near-death experiences raise the mind-body issue. Can the mind survive the dying body?
HISTORICAL ORIGINS-Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
-Origin of the Species introduces theories of natural selection and evolution
- his ideas will give rise to the evolutionary approach to psychology
WAVE ONE:Introspection
PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE IS BORNWilhelm Wundt’s –credited as the father
of scientific psychology-uses methods of introspection
to explore the human mind
Mind combines subjective emotions with objective sensations
Titchner- school of Structuralism
William James
• Rejects structuralism
• Functionalism- focuses on the evolved function of mental and behavioral processes
WAVE TWO:Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt Psychology• Max Wertheimer- examines total
experience
• The whole is different from the sum of the parts
• Consciousness can only be studied holistically
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WAVE THREE:Psychodynamic
Psychodynamic Approach•Sigmund Freud (1856- 1939) is the founder
•Unconscious thought isin conflict with conscious behavior
•Defense mechanisms- repress unconscious
Psychodynamic Approach
Psychoanalysis
Free Association
Dream Interpretation
WAVE Four:Behaviorism
Behavioral Approach• John B Watson (late 1800’s) founder
of Behaviorism• Believes any behavior can be shaped
and controlled• “Nurture”- we are born a blank slate• Rejects study of consciousness• Skinner and Pavlov- behaviorists
Contemporary Approachesand Methods
Biological Approach• Psychobiology- assumes mind and
body are interrelated
• Sociobiological/Evolutionary- Influenced by Darwin
• Influenced by Evolutionary Theory
Cognitive Approach• Receiving, storing, and processing
information• Serial and Paralleling Processing
Cognitive Approach
• Natural Science
• Serial Processing- step-by-step processing of information
• Parallel Processing- many stimuli processed simultaneously
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Humanist Approach• Emphasizes the potential for individual
growth and self-awareness
• Carl Rogers- focuses ones self-concept, or how a person defines their own reality
-Mazlow- Self-concept is a strive forself-actualization
Humanist Approach
Hindsight Bias
The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
Subfields of Psychology
Basic Psychology- research
Applied Psychology- research put into practice as therapist
Psychiatry- a medical field- deals with mental disorders- prescribe medication
There are three main types of research methods in psychology: Descriptive
Correlational
Experimental
Descriptive Study:
1) Case Study- psychologists study one individual in great depth in hopes of revealing universal principles
Case Study Pros
Detailed information
Unusual Cases
Inexpensive
Few ethical considerations
The Problem with the Case Study:
An individual may be atypical
Cannot generalize results
Difficult to Manipulate Variables
Difficult to quantify data
Naturalistic Observation
Observe subjects in natural habitats without interacting
Naturalistic Observation
Pros ConsRealistic No manipulat-Inexpensive Ion of
variablesFew ethicalconsideration
Observer Bias
Survey Method
Relies on questions answered by a group of people in interviews or questionnaires
Survey Method•Experimenter must identify the population to study
•Random sampling picking members from a population randomly to ensure a representative sample
Survey Method
Pros ConsCan gather lots of data
Honest answers?
Few ethical considerations
Need many participants
Inexpensive Wording Effects
Wording Effects
Poorly worded questions, order of choicesIn a study by AMNH, 88% of all respondents said that they were interested in plants and trees, but only 39% said they were interested in botany.
Correlational Studies
•Correlational studies assess the association between two or more characteristics of interest without ascribing causes
•Is a correlational study an experiment?
Correlation coefficient
Example: R= + .37
Correlational Studies
Correlational StudiesPros ConsInexpensive Confounding
variablesFew ethical considerations
Illusory correlation
Time Does notObjective I mply
causation
Illusory Correlation
When we believe there is a relationship between two things, we are likely to notice and recall instances that confirm our belief
Research MethodsDescriptive Correlational ExperimentalExplains behavior using natural observations
assess the association between two or more characteristics of interest
Researcher manipulates one variable and observes the effect on another variable
1) Case studies2) Naturalistic3) Surveys
1) Causation2) Illusory correlation3) Correlational Coefficient
Experimental DesignConfounding Variables, double-blind
Experimental Method
Researcher manipulates one variable (independent variable) and observes the effect on another variable (dependent variable)
Confounding variable:
external differences between the experimental group and the control group
Confounding Variables
1) Placebo Effect experimental results caused by expectations alone
Confounding Variables
Demand Characteristics- participants form an interpretation of the experiment's purpose and unconsciously change their behavior accordingly
How can we control for confounding variables?
How can we control for confounding variables? 1) Random Assignment method of assigning subjects to groups to minimize pre-existing differences between those groups This is an example of Between subjects design: Participants in the experimental and control group are different individuals
How can be control for confounding variables? 2) Within subjects design Technique where subjects serve as control and experimental group.
Confounding Variables
Experimenter bias- researcher’s expectations about the outcome of a study influence the results
Q: How can we eliminate experimenter bias?
What is the difference between double blind and single blind procedure?
Double blind procedure- research design in which neither the experimenter or the participants know who is in the experimental versus control group
Single-blind procedure- research design in the participants do not know who is in the experimental or control group
Operational definition- Operational definition- way of defining a variable objectively
Operational definition for intelligence- SAT score?Operational definition for fitness- heart rate
How do psychologists present data?
Frequency Distributions
StatisticsStatistical significance (p) is the likelihood that the observed difference between groups results from a real difference rather than chance alone
What’s a good p value?
When is data statistically significant?
1) Large difference between the two means
) Large difference between the two means
When is data statistically significant?
When is data statistically significant?
2) Small standard deviationsdegree by which a score varies from the mean
Mean, Median, Mode
6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 10, 10, 11, 11, 11, 11, 12, 12, 13
What’s the mode?
What’s the median?
Normal Distribution
Skewed Data