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Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng.: Traditional and Commercial Uses and Phytochemical and Pharmacological Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent Alfred Maroyi Department of Botany, University of Fort Hare, Private Bag X1314, Alice 5700, South Africa Correspondence should be addressed to Alfred Maroyi; [email protected] Received 5 September 2016; Revised 25 October 2016; Accepted 20 November 2016; Published 1 January 2017 Academic Editor: Rainer W. Bussmann Copyright © 2017 Alfred Maroyi. is is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Lippia javanica occurs naturally in central, eastern, and southern Africa and has also been recorded in the tropical Indian subcontinent. e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal medicine and its associated phytochemistry and biological properties are reviewed. e extensive literature survey revealed that L. javanica is used as herbal tea and has ethnomedicinal applications such as in colds, cough, fever, malaria, wounds, diarrhoea, chest pains, bronchitis, and asthma. Multiple classes of phytochemicals including volatile and nonvolatile secondary metabolites such as alkaloids, amino acids, flavonoids, iridoids, and triterpenes as well as several minerals have been identified from L. javanica. Scientific studies on L. javanica indicate that it has a wide range of pharmacological activities which include anticancer, antiamoebic, antidiabetic, antimalarial, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiplasmodial, and pesticidal effects. Although many of the traditional uses of L. javanica have been validated by phytochemical and pharmacological studies, there are still some gaps where current knowledge could be improved. Lippia javanica is popular as both herbal and recreational tea, but there is need for more precise studies to evaluate the safety and clinical value of its main active crude and pure compounds and to clarify their mechanisms of action. 1. Introduction Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng. (Verbenaceae) (Figure 1(a)) has a long history of traditional uses in tropical Africa as indigenous herbal tea or tisane (Figure 1(b)), refresh- ing beverage, or food additive based on its perceived health and medicinal properties. Lippia javanica is rich in volatile oil, particularly caryophyllene, carvone, ipsenone, ipsdienone, limonene, linalool, myrcene, myrcenone, oci- menone, p-cymene, piperitenone, sabinene, and tagetenone [1–5]. Research by Viljoen et al. [3] revealed that the essential oil profiles of L. javanica are characterized by inter- and intraspecies variations because they are produced by different metabolic pathways. Using cluster analysis, Viljoen et al. [3] identified five chemotypes of L. javanica in South Africa and Swaziland, myrcenone-rich type (36–62%), carvone-rich type (61–73%), piperitenone-rich type (32–48%), ipsdienone- rich type (42–61%), and linalool-rich type (>65%). e relative proportion of the chemical constituents of L. javanica essential oil is important as this determines the biological properties of the species chemotypes. Lippia javanica belongs to the Verbena or vervain family (Verbenaceae) comprising approximately 32 genera and 840 species [97]. e genus Lippia L. is named aſter Augustin Lippi (1678–1701), an Italian botanist and natural historian who was killed in Ethiopia at the age of 23 [98]. Phylogenetic relationships within family Verbenaceae demonstrated that genus Lippia and other closely related genera, namely, Aloysia Pal´ au, Lantana L., and Phyla Lour., are not monophyletic [97]. e boundaries separating these four genera are his- torically weak, with many taxonomic researchers including species belonging to Aloysia, Lantana, and Phyla in the genus Lippia [99]. Lippia and Lantana genera are the most difficult to separate, as species of these two genera show similarities in their inflorescences that are spicate, oſten subcapitate during anthesis and elongating in fruit and pedunculated Hindawi Publishing Corporation Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine Volume 2017, Article ID 6746071, 34 pages https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/6746071

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Page 1: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

Review ArticleLippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng Traditional andCommercial Uses and Phytochemical and PharmacologicalSignificance in the African and Indian Subcontinent

Alfred Maroyi

Department of Botany University of Fort Hare Private Bag X1314 Alice 5700 South Africa

Correspondence should be addressed to Alfred Maroyi amaroyiufhacza

Received 5 September 2016 Revised 25 October 2016 Accepted 20 November 2016 Published 1 January 2017

Academic Editor Rainer W Bussmann

Copyright copy 2017 Alfred MaroyiThis is an open access article distributed under theCreative CommonsAttribution License whichpermits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properly cited

Lippia javanica occurs naturally in central eastern and southern Africa and has also been recorded in the tropical Indiansubcontinent The potential of L javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal medicine and its associated phytochemistryand biological properties are reviewed The extensive literature survey revealed that L javanica is used as herbal tea and hasethnomedicinal applications such as in colds cough fevermalaria wounds diarrhoea chest pains bronchitis and asthmaMultipleclasses of phytochemicals including volatile and nonvolatile secondary metabolites such as alkaloids amino acids flavonoidsiridoids and triterpenes as well as several minerals have been identified from L javanica Scientific studies on L javanicaindicate that it has a wide range of pharmacological activities which include anticancer antiamoebic antidiabetic antimalarialantimicrobial antioxidant antiplasmodial and pesticidal effects Although many of the traditional uses of L javanica have beenvalidated by phytochemical and pharmacological studies there are still some gaps where current knowledge could be improvedLippia javanica is popular as both herbal and recreational tea but there is need for more precise studies to evaluate the safety andclinical value of its main active crude and pure compounds and to clarify their mechanisms of action

1 Introduction

Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng (Verbenaceae) (Figure 1(a))has a long history of traditional uses in tropical Africaas indigenous herbal tea or tisane (Figure 1(b)) refresh-ing beverage or food additive based on its perceivedhealth and medicinal properties Lippia javanica is rich involatile oil particularly caryophyllene carvone ipsenoneipsdienone limonene linalool myrcene myrcenone oci-menone p-cymene piperitenone sabinene and tagetenone[1ndash5] Research by Viljoen et al [3] revealed that the essentialoil profiles of L javanica are characterized by inter- andintraspecies variations because they are produced by differentmetabolic pathways Using cluster analysis Viljoen et al [3]identified five chemotypes of L javanica in South Africaand Swaziland myrcenone-rich type (36ndash62) carvone-richtype (61ndash73) piperitenone-rich type (32ndash48) ipsdienone-rich type (42ndash61) and linalool-rich type (gt65) The

relative proportion of the chemical constituents of L javanicaessential oil is important as this determines the biologicalproperties of the species chemotypes

Lippia javanica belongs to the Verbena or vervain family(Verbenaceae) comprising approximately 32 genera and 840species [97] The genus Lippia L is named after AugustinLippi (1678ndash1701) an Italian botanist and natural historianwho was killed in Ethiopia at the age of 23 [98] Phylogeneticrelationships within family Verbenaceae demonstrated thatgenus Lippia and other closely related genera namelyAloysiaPalau Lantana L and Phyla Lour are not monophyletic[97] The boundaries separating these four genera are his-torically weak with many taxonomic researchers includingspecies belonging toAloysia Lantana and Phyla in the genusLippia [99] Lippia and Lantana genera are the most difficultto separate as species of these two genera show similaritiesin their inflorescences that are spicate often subcapitateduring anthesis and elongating in fruit and pedunculated

Hindawi Publishing CorporationEvidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineVolume 2017 Article ID 6746071 34 pageshttpsdoiorg10115520176746071

2 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

(a) (b)

Figure 1 (a) Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng flowers and leaves (photo BT Wursten) and (b) L javanica herbal tea traded as Zumbani inZimbabwe (httpspecialityfoodscozwproductzumbani)

[98] According to de Campos et al [100] the genus Lippiacomprises about 200 species of herbs shrubs and smalltrees distributed throughout south and central America andtropical Africa Only 15 Lippia species have been recordedin tropical Africa [101] The specific name ldquojavanicardquo wasgiven by theDutch Botanist Nicolaas Laurens Burman (1734ndash1793) in 1768 whomistakenly thought that the type specimenwas collected in Java Indonesia [102] He placed the speciesin the genus Verbena and the German botanist Sprengel(1766ndash1833) transferred Burmanrsquos name to the genus Lippiain 1825 [103] Lippia javanica is morphologically similar to Lscaberrima Sond but is much taller and its bracts are shorterthan the flowers (Figure 1(a)) while L scaberrima has manystems arising from ground level and is usually less than 05metres high and its bracts are not longer than the flowers[104]

Lippia javanica is an erect woody perennial herb orshrub of up to 45m tall with strong aromatic leaves whichgive off a lemon-like fragrance when crushed [105] Stemsare brownish usually erect or spreading with short stifftubercle-based whitish hairs and small glands and branchedwith inflorescences in nearly all axils Leaves are oppositeor in whorls of 3 blades lanceolate to oblong and denselypubescent rounded and then cuneate at the base andcrenate-serrate or closely serrulate on themargins except nearthe leaf base [106] Flowers occur in conical or oblong spikespurple or dull-reddish in fruit dark brownish on drying [101106] The flowers are sessile or with short peduncles lowerbracts of spikes ovate and upper bracts smaller pubescentglandular and densely spreading [101] The calyx is 2-lobedhalf as long as the corolla pubescent and densely spreadingThe corolla is white yellowish-white to greenish (Figure 1(a))usually with a yellow throat glandular and pubescent outsidein the upper half tube narrowly funnel-shaped from a narrowbase [101 106] Anthers are sulphur-yellow and nutlets arebrown and half ovoid [101 106]

Lippia javanica occurs naturally in central eastern andsouthern Africa (Figure 2) and has also been recorded in thetropical Indian subcontinent [12 13 23 39 47 61] In sub-Saharan Africa the species is native to Angola BotswanaCentral African Republic Democratic Republic of CongoEthiopia Kenya Malawi Mozambique South Africa Swazi-land Tanzania Uganda Zambia Zanzibar and Zimbabwe

1000 km

Figure 2 Lippia javanica naturally occurs in central eastern andsouthern Africa

Lippia javanica has been recorded in low to high altitude(0ndash2350m above sea level) woodlands and wooded grass-lands scrub bushland and grassy rocky kopjes in riverinevegetation and on margins of dambos and swampy groundsometimes on termite mounds in montane grasslands andon evergreen forest margins also in disturbed ground besideroads forest clearings plantations and cultivated land andbecoming a weed in derived rangelands [101 106]This showsthat the plant is highly adaptable to a wide range of climaticsoil and vegetation conditions

2 Traditional Uses of Lippia javanica

Lippia javanica is used for a wide variety of traditional uses(Table 1) Based on literature the most important traditionalapplications include its uses as herbal tea and ethnomedicinalapplications for (in descending order of importance) coldscough fever or malaria wounds repelling mosquitos diar-rhoea chest pains bronchitis and asthma (Figure 3) Thesedifferent uses are discussed in the following seven sections

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 3

Table1Tradition

aluses

ofLippiajavanica

incentraleaste

rnand

southern

Africa

Use

Plantp

art(s

)used

Mod

eofu

seCou

ntry

practised

Reference(s)

Food

uses

Food

additiv

eLeavestwigs

Leaves

andtwigsb

oiledtogether

with

maizecassavagroun

dnutsandcommon

tea

(Cam

elliasin

ensis

(L)Ku

ntze)

Kenya

[6]

Herbaltea

Leaves

Leaves

canbe

sundriedforlater

use

Botsw

anaSouth

Africaand

Zimbabw

e[7ndash11]

Leafyvegetable

Leaves

Eatenas

vegetablew

ithmeato

rfish

India

[1213]

Respira

tory

problem

s

Asthma

Leavestwigs

Decoctio

ntakenorallyor

smokeinh

aled

SouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[14

ndash17]

Blockedno

seLeaves

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

mixed

with

anyof

theses

pecies

Brachylaenaun

ifloraHarv

Clau

sena

anisa

ta(W

illd)H

ookfex

BenthC

lematis

brachiataTh

unbC

ombretum

molleR

BrexGD

onE

ucalyptusgrand

isWH

ill

Helichrysum

krau

ssiiSchB

ipKrau

seolamosam

bicin

aPaxampHoff

mPlectra

nthu

sneochilusS

chltrSenecio

serratuloidesD

CorT

richilia

emetica

Vahl

takenorally

SouthAfrica

[18]

Bron

chitis

Leavesroo

tsandste

ms

Leafinfusio

nof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

appliedto

skin

asointmento

rleafand

stem

infusio

nof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofAr

temisiaafra

JacqexWilldtaken

orally

Botsw

anaSouth

Africa

[1519ndash22]

Chestp

ains

Leavesroo

ts

Leaves

androotso

fLjavanica

alon

echewe

dor

decoctiontakenorallyor

used

inwashes

andpo

ultic

esor

smokeinh

aled

orldquoim

bizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

and

Cyrtanthus

obliquu

s(Lf)

Aito

ntakenorallyor

leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofanyof

theses

peciesB

rachylaena

transvaalensis

HutchexE

Phillipsamp

Schw

eickC

brachiataE

grandisH

kraussiiorT

emetica

takenorallyor

leafjuice

takenorallywith

cloveso

fAllium

sativ

umL

Bang

ladesh

Ethiop

iaand

SouthAfrica

[141823ndash27]

Colds

Leavestwigs

Leafinfusio

nof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

inhaledor

appliedas

anointmento

rldquoim

bizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

stakenorally

Botsw

anaKe

nya

SouthAfricaand

Zimbabw

e

[1516192127ndash

32]

Cou

ghLeaves

stemsand

twigs

Leaves

ofLjavanica

alon

echewed

orinfusio

ninhaledor

takenorallyor

appliedas

anointmento

rleafand

stem

infusio

nof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofanyof

these

speciesAc

anthosperm

umgla

bratum

(DC)W

ildA

afraB

unifloraB

transvaalensis

BrideliacatharticaBe

rtolC

anisa

taC

brachiataC

molle

EgrandisHkraussiiK

mosam

bicin

aPneochilusPsidium

guajavaLSserratuloidesTerminaliaseric

eaBu

rch

exDCTetradeniarip

aria(H

ochst)

Cod

dor

Tem

etica

takenorally

Botsw

ana

Ethiop

iaSou

thAfricaand

Zimbabw

e

[151618ndash

21263032]

Influ

enza

Leavesroo

tsDecoctio

ntakenorally

Mozam

biqu

eSouthAfrica

[733ndash36]

Lung

infections

Leaves

Infusio

nstakenorally

SouthAfrica

[37]

4 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table1Con

tinued

Use

Plantp

art(s

)used

Mod

eofu

seCou

ntry

practised

Reference(s)

Measle

sLeavesstems

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

body

washedwith

infusio

nor

leafand

stem

infusio

nof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofA

afra

takenorally

KenyaSouth

Africaand

Zimbabw

e[14

2038]

Pneumon

iaLeaves

Ointm

entrub

bedon

chestand

abdo

men

Zimbabw

e[14

]Re

spira

tory

disorders

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorally

IndiaSouthAfrica

[39ndash

41]

Runn

yno

seLeavesroo

ts

Leafandroot

decoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofanyof

theses

peciesB

transvaalensisB

cathartica

CanisataC

brachiataE

grandisHypoxissppK

mosam

bicin

aPguajavaSserratuloidesP

neochilusor

Tem

etica

takenorally

SouthAfrica

[18]

Shortnesso

fbreath(dyspn

oea)

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorallyor

body

washedwith

decoction

Zimbabw

e[14

]

Sore

throat

Leaves

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofE

grandiso

rTripariatakenorally

SouthAfrica

[18]

Tonsillitis

Leaves

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofE

grandistaken

orally

SouthAfrica

[18]

Tuberculosis

Leaves

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

ldquoimbizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

stakenorally

SouthAfrica

Ugand

a[244243]

Gastro

intestina

ldise

ases

Amoebiasis

Leavestwigs

Decoctio

ntakenorally

Kenya

[6]

Anthelm

intic

sLeaf

Infusio

nstakenorally

SouthAfrica

[40]

Diarrho

eaLeavesroo

tsDecoctio

ntakenorally

Kenya

Mozam

biqu

eSouthAfrica

[1729343744]

Gangrenou

srectitis

Leaves

Infusio

nstakenorally

SouthAfrica

[45]

Prop

hylacticagainstd

iarrho

eaLeaves

Infusio

ntakenorally

SouthAfrica

[40]

Vomiting

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorally

ZanzibarTanzania

[46]

Fevermalariaand

asinsectrepellent

Fever

Leaves

stemsand

twigs

Leafandtwigdecoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

leafandste

minfusio

nof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofanyof

theses

peciesA

afra

BtransvaalensisC

anisataC

molle

EgrandisPgua

javaSserratuloidesTripariaorT

emetica

takenorally

SouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[14

161820]

Gettin

grid

ofliceinsectsandlicea

ndas

mosqu

itorepellent

Leavestwigs

andwho

leplant

Usedin

washesa

ndpo

ultic

esor

asste

amor

sprayedor

burnttochasea

way

mosqu

itoes

Ethiop

iaSou

thAfricaand

Zimbabw

e[4263447ndash51]

Malaria

Leavesroo

tsDecoctio

ntakenorally

Mozam

biqu

eSouthAfrica

[173352]

Prop

hylacticagainstm

alaria

Leaves

Infusio

ntakenorally

SouthAfrica

[40]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 5

Table1Con

tinued

Use

Plantp

art(s

)used

Mod

eofu

seCou

ntry

practised

Reference(s)

Wound

sinjurie

spainand

skin

infec

tions

Abdo

minalpains

Leaves

Leaves

chew

edandjuices

wallowed

Zimbabw

e[14

]Ac

neLeaves

Not

specified

Botsw

ana

[22]

Antidotes

Roots

Usedas

antid

otefor

food

poiso

ning

Botsw

ana

[22]

Backache

Roots

Infusio

ntakenorally

SouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[14

20]

Bleeding

from

then

ose(epistaxis)

Leaves

Freshleaves

inserted

into

nose

orpo

wderedleaves

sniffed

SouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[14

53]

Boils

Leaves

Infusio

ntakenorally

SouthAfrica

[54]

Chickenpo

xLeaves

Usedin

washesa

ndpo

ultices

oras

steam

SouthAfrica

[50]

Earache

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorallymixed

with

leaves

ofE

grandis

SouthAfrica

[18]

Febrile

rashes

Leaves

Infusio

nstakenorally

SouthAfrica

[40]

Headachemigraine

Leavesroo

tsLeafandroot

decoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofanyof

theses

peciesB

cathartica

CbrachiataE

grand

isTrip

aria

andTem

etica

takenorally

KenyaSouth

Africaand

Zimbabw

e[14

18333438]

Inflammation

Leaves

Not

specified

SouthAfrica

[41]

Pubics

ores

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorallymixed

with

leaves

ofAc

anthosperm

umau

strale(Lo

efl)Ku

ntze

Swaziland

[55]

Scabies

Leavesroo

tsInfusio

ntakenorallyor

used

inwashesa

ndpo

ultic

esor

asste

amSouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[14

5054]

Shingles

Leavestwigs

androots

Appliedas

anointment

SouthAfrica

[15]

Skin

disorderssuch

asheatrash

scratchessting

sandbites

Leavestwigs

Appliedas

anointmento

rldquoim

bizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

stakenorally

SouthAfrica

[2127]

Sores

Leaves

Decoctio

nof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

bark

ofAc

aciaburkeiBe

nthO

zoroaengle

riR

Fern

ampAFernScle

rocaryabirrea

(AR

ich)H

ochstSyzygium

cordatum

Hochstex

Krauss

andTabernaemontana

elegans

Stapftaken

orally

SouthAfrica

[56]

Sore

eyescataracts

Leavesroo

tsJuices

queezedinto

eyes

Botsw

ana

Zimbabw

e[14

22]

Sprained

joints

Roots

Root

powdera

ppliedto

scarificatio

nsarou

ndsprained

joints

SouthAfrica

[20]

Ulcers

Leaves

Juicetaken

orallywith

cloveso

fAsativum

Bang

ladesh

[23]

Wou

nds

Leaves

Freshleaves

wrapp

edarou

ndwou

ndto

enhanceh

ealin

gor

infusio

ntakenorally

KenyaSouth

Africa

[5457]

Ethn

oveterinaryu

ses

Disinfectin

gsuspectedanthrax-infeste

dmeat

Who

leplant

Who

leplantsused

todisin

fectsuspectedanthrax-infeste

dmeat

SouthAfrica

[20]

Gettin

grid

ofticks

andother

ectoparasites

Leavestwigs

andwho

leplant

Crushedleaves

mixed

with

water

andsprayedtwigsu

sedas

bedd

ingin

fowlrun

sSouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[58ndash60]

Lice

repellant

Who

leplant

Who

leplantu

sedto

repelliceinpo

ultry

India

[61]

Milk

preservativ

eStem

Stem

appliedto

milk

gourdbefore

milk

ferm

entatio

nKe

nya

[62]

6 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table1Con

tinued

Use

Plantp

art(s

)used

Mod

eofu

seCou

ntry

practised

Reference(s)

Otheruses

Anaem

iain

pregnancy

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorally

ZanzibarTanzania

[46]

Broo

mWho

leplant

Who

leplantscutand

tiedtogether

tomaker

ough

broo

ms

SouthAfrica

[53]

Cancer

Leaves

ldquoImbizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

stakenorally

SouthAfrica

[27]

Cerem

onial

Leavesw

hole

plant

Usedbefore

andaft

erfuneralsor

placed

onpatie

ntsrsquobedaft

ercircum

cisio

nKe

nyaSouth

Africa

[315863]

Con

vulsion

sLeaves

Leaves

rubb

edon

face

Zimbabw

e[14

64]

Diabetes

Leaves

ldquoImbizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

stakenorally

SouthAfrica

[27]

Fatig

ueor

tiredness

Leaves

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofA

glabratum

orE

grandiso

rTriparia

takenorally

SouthAfrica

[18]

Fence

Who

leplant

Plantedarou

ndho

mesteads

Ethiop

ia[26]

Fodd

erLeaves

Leaves

eatenby

goats

Kenya

[31]

Fuelw

ood

Who

leplant

Who

leplantu

sedas

fuelw

ood

ZanzibarTanzania

[46]

Hum

anim

mun

odeficiency

virus(HIV

)or

acqu

iredim

mun

odeficiency

synd

rome

(AID

S)symptom

sLeaves

ldquoImbizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

swhich

istakenorally

SouthAfrica

[6566

]

Kidn

eyprob

lems

Root

50groot

powd

erbo

iledin

2litreso

fwaterpatient

takesa

cupof

thismixture

once

per

dayfor3

days

Swaziland

[67]

Madness

Leavesw

hole

plant

Body

washedwith

leafinfusio

nMalaw

iZimbabw

e[14

68]

Marasmicinfants

Roots

Infusio

nsused

tobath

infants

SouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[14

20]

Night

blindn

ess

Leaves

Face

washedwith

infusio

nZimbabw

e[14

]Nightmares

Not

specified

Not

specified

Zimbabw

e[64]

Pre-intra-andpo

stpartum

complications

Stem

roo

tsSm

earp

owdero

froo

torstem

Kenya

[69]

Preventin

god

oursor

beingused

indo

ors

tofre

shen

air

Leavesw

hole

plant

Leaves

sprin

kled

intoiletsto

prevento

dourso

rwho

leplantp

lacedin

vase

orroom

KenyaSouth

Africa

[313558]

Protectio

nagainstd

ogsa

ndcrocod

iles

Leaves

Leaves

smearedon

body

SouthAfrica

[70]

Psycho

tropicb

ehaviour

Leaves

Infusio

ntakenorally

Swaziland

[71]

Removingbadluck

Leaves

Face

andhand

swashedwith

infusio

nof

Ljavanica

leaves

mixed

with

Cmolleleaves

Swaziland

[72]

Sleeplessn

ights

Leaves

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofE

grandisand

Trip

ariatakenorally

SouthAfrica

[18]

Todrivea

way

badspirits

Leaves

Body

washedwith

infusio

nZimbabw

e[14

]To

preventinfantsfro

mcontracting

illnesscaused

byfather

ormother

committingadultery

Leaves

Leaves

rubb

edon

foreheadelbow

sandkn

eesa

fterc

ommittingadultery

Zimbabw

e[14

]

Venerealdiseases

Roots

Decoctio

ntakenorally

Mozam

biqu

e[44]

Weakjoints

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorally

Zimbabw

e[14

]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Asthma

Bronchitis

Chest pains

Diarrhoea

Mosquito repellent

Wounds

Fevermalaria

Herbal tea

Cough

Colds

Times found in literature

Figure 3 Main ethnobotanical applications of Lippia javanica in central eastern and southern Africa An ethnobotanical use is countedonly once per publication

Food Uses Respiratory Problems Gastrointestinal DiseasesFever Malaria and Insect Repellent Wounds Injuries Painand Skin Infections Ethnoveterinary Uses and Other Uses

21 Food Uses Leaves and twigs of Lippia javanica are usedas food additives in Kenya [6] and leafy vegetable in India[12 13] Lippia javanica is popular as herbal tea particularlyin Botswana South Africa and Zimbabwe [7ndash11] Lippiajavanica herbal tea is prepared by steeping fresh or driedleaves stems or twigs in boiling water and letting them standfor two to five minutes to release flavour with or withoutmilk and sugar added according to taste A stronger brewknown as a decoction is prepared by boiling fresh or driedleaves stems or twigs for more than five minutes The herbaltea prepared from L javanica leaves stems or twigs has alemon or vanilla aroma and is often used as a common tea(ie C sinensis) substitute or a few leaves stems or twigsare added to C sinensis to provide a lemon or vanilla aromaAccording to Soukand and Kalle [87] herbal tea or tisaneis an English term used to denote a decoction or infusionmade of herbs for medicinal purposes When L javanica isused as medicinal herbal tea it is consumed for a limitednumber of days to treat a specific condition like asthma inZimbabwe [14] bronchitis in South Africa [19] chest painsin Zimbabwe and South Africa [14 24] colds in KenyaSouth Africa and Zimbabwe [19 20 28ndash30] cough in SouthAfrica and Zimbabwe [19 20 30 53] and other diseases(see Table 1) From literature it seems L javanica herbaltea evolved over the years from medicinal tea decoctionsor infusions to nonmedicinal uses where the herbal teais now drunk for recreation and enjoyment According toShikanga et al [7] L javanica tea is appreciated throughoutits distributional range as a general health tonic and alsobecause it is naturally caffeine-free and has a calming andrelaxing effect Research done by other workers for exampleManenzhe et al [2] Shikanga et al [7] Parrant [8] Olivieret al [81] Motlhanka and Makhabu [9] and Bhebhe et al[10 11] revealed that L javanica is a popular recreational teain southern Africa consumed on a daily basis within a food

context while medicinal infusions or tisanes of L javanicaare taken for a specific medical purpose During the past20 years the use of herbal teas has increased globally [107]because of their functional properties and consumer interestin the health promoting properties of such beverages [108]The other advantage associated with L javanica usage is thatthe leaves can be sun-dried and later boiled in water anddrunk as herbal tea [9]

Most of L javanica used as herbal tea in rural andperiurban communities in central eastern and southernAfrica is still collected from the wild although small-scale cultivation has become necessary as it is marketed asherbal tea in Botswana under the brand name ldquoMosukudurdquoor ldquoMosukujanerdquo [109] and in Zimbabwe as ldquoZumbanirdquo(Figure 1(b)) Although considerable quantities of L javanicaare sold in local markets in Botswana and Zimbabwe andalso traded on the Internet there is no data on presentproduction levels traded volumes values and export figuresin these two countries Research by Whiteside [110] showedthat sales of L javanica tea bags generated an income ofR2030000 (US$5718) during 19941995 in Botswana Thereis increased demand for L javanica herbal tea especiallyin the light of growing health consciousness worldwidewith the estimated potential demand for the species and itsproducts around 100 tonnes per year on the local marketand 1000 tonnes per year on the export market (httpbio-innovationorgworkfever-tea-tree) Considering the rapidgrowth of the herbal tea industry worldwide and the increas-ing demand for L javanica products there is need for theimprovement of L javanica products as well as developmentof new products Therefore L javanica has potential to makethe transition from limited local use to commercial andinternational product Lippia javanica has been identifiedas one of the few plant species that should be integratedin the domestication process in farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa to supportmedicinal nutritional and incomesecurity of local communities [107 111] According to VanWyk [111] L javanica is of commercial value as herbal tea andhealth drinks Therefore commercialization of L javanica is

8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

unlikely to be viable if the product is sorely harvested fromthe wild In the same line commercialization of L javanicamight be more worthy if other products other than tea arederived from the plant

22 Respiratory Problems The different parts of L javanicafor example the leaves and twigs are used for the treatmentof asthma coughs colds influenza pneumonia tuberculosisand bronchial problems in Bangladesh Botswana EthiopiaKenya South Africa and Zimbabwe [14ndash16 19 20 23 25 2628ndash32 53 112] In Bangladesh leaf infusion of L javanica istaken orally mixed with 3-4 pieces of cloves ofA sativum 2-3times daily as remedy for chest pains [23] In Ethiopia leavesof L javanica are chewed with butter as remedy for chestpains and cough [26] In India L javanica leaf decoctionis taken orally as remedy for respiratory disorders [39] InKenya leaves are sniffed [31] or half glass of hot leaf infusionis taken orally three times a day [28 29] as remedy for coldsand cough Research done by Davids et al [19] in SouthAfrica revealed that about 50 g of leaves is added to a cupof boiling water to produce an infusion which is taken orallyas remedy for coughs colds and bronchial problems or theinfusion is applied to the skin or mixed with Vaseline tomake an ointment In South Africa leaf or twig decoctionis taken orally for asthma colds and cough [16 53] leavesare used in washes and poultices for chest pains [25] andleaves are boiled for 5 minutes and one cup of extract is takenorally thrice a day for chest pains and tuberculosis [24 42]According to York [18] two handfuls of L javanica leaves areboiled in two litres of water and patient is steamed once ortwice a day to treat coughs chest pain headaches fever chillsa sore throat or a blocked nose This decoction can also betaken orally by drinking half a cup daily [18] Alternativelya handful of L javanica roots or leaves are mixed with ahandful leaves of A glabratum or B transvaalensis or Buniflora or B cathartica or C anisata or C brachiata orC molle or E grandis or H kraussii or Hypoxis spp or Kmosambicina or P neochilus or P guajava or S serratuloides orT sericea or T riparia or T emetica to treat blocked nosechest pain cough earache fatigue fever influenza headacherunny nose sleepless nights sore throat tiredness andtonsillitis [18] Leaf and stem infusion of L javanica are takenorally together with A afra by the Zulu people in SouthAfrica as remedy for bronchial ailments colds and cough[20] ldquoImbizardquo a popular herbal decoction prepared from Ljavanica and C obliquus is used by the Zulu people in SouthAfrica as herbal tonic and an immune booster and also forthe treatment of cancer chest pains colds diabetes HIV orAIDS symptoms skin infections and tuberculosis [27] Insome communities in South Africa L javanica leaf or rootinfusion is taken orally as remedy for influenza and malaria[33] and respiratory disorders [40 41] In Zimbabwe leafor root decoction is taken orally or smoke of burnt leavesand roots is inhaled as remedy for chest pains [14] and leafand twigs are boiled in water and infusion is taken orally asremedy for colds and cough [30] According to Gelfand etal [14] Shona people in Zimbabwe rub leaf ointment of Ljavanica on the chest and abdomen as remedy for pneumoniaand leaf decoction is taken orally and body washed with leaf

decoction as remedy for shortness of breath or dyspnoea InSouth Africa a leaf and stem infusion of L javanica are takenorally together with leaves of A afra as remedy for measles[20]

Based on literature inhalation of smoke from L javanicaappears to be a popular remedy for asthma chest painscolds and chronic coughs in Botswana South Africa andZimbabwe [14 15 20 32] In Botswana L javanica leafinfusion vapour is inhaled as remedy for colds and cough[32] In SouthAfrica for example leaves and twigs are burnedand smoke is inhaled as remedy for asthma and cough [15]or steam from leaf infusions is inhaled or hot leaf infusionsare taken orally against colds and cough [20] In Zimbabwesmoke of burnt leaves and roots is inhaled as remedy for chestpains [14]

23 Gastrointestinal Diseases The leaf and root decoction orinfusions of L javanica are used as remedies of the digestivesystem diseases such as cholera diarrhoea and dysenteryFor example in Mozambique root decoction is taken orallyas remedy for a type of diarrhoea commonly known asldquochinhamucacardquo which is characterized by milky diarrhoeaaccompanied by vomiting in children [44] Leaf decoctionis used as herbal medicine for diarrhoea in Kenya [113] InSouth Africa the leaves of L javanica are crushed and mixedwith cold or hot water and the mixture is then sieved and aquarter of a cup (75mL) is taken twice a day until diarrhoeasubsides [34] The Venda people in South Africa use leafinfusions as prophylactic against diarrhoea [40] Researchdone by Palgrave et al [37] in South Africa revealed that teainfusions of the L javanica leaves are used as remedies forHIVAIDS opportunistic infections such as lung infectionsand diarrhoea Previous research inMozambique [114] SouthAfrica [115] and Zimbabwe [116] showed that gastrointestinaldisorders particularly cholera diarrhoea and dysentery areamong human diseases often treated with herbal medicinesFor those patients diagnosed as having intestinal worms inVenda South Africa a leaf infusion of L javanica leavesis used as an anthelmintic [40] Therefore these findingsillustrate that herbal medicines including L javanica can playan important role in basic health care of local communitiesthrough treatment and management of cholera diarrhoeaand dysentery

24 Fever Malaria and Insect Repellent Traditionally Ljavanica is commonly used to treat fever and malaria andrepel insects throughout its distributional range [4 14 1617 33ndash35 40 48ndash50 58ndash60] In South Africa a decoctionof fresh or air dried leaves is used to wash or steam bodyparts infested with lice [50] In India the whole plant is usedto repel lice in poultry [61] In South Africa and Zimbabwewhole plant or leaves are burnt to repel mosquitoes [4 3435 48 49 58] In South Africa and Zimbabwe L javanicais widely used to get rid of ticks and other ectoparasites forexample ticks are sprayed with crushed leaves mixed withwater or twigs are used as bedding in fowl runs [58ndash60]Leaf and twig decoction of L javanica are taken orally asremedy for fever [16] The Venda people in South Africa useleaf infusions of L javanica as prophylactic against malaria

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9

[40] In Zimbabwe leaf decoction is taken orally as remedyfor fever [14]

Lippia javanica is also cultivated on a commercial scale bya rural community in Giyani the Limpopo province SouthAfrica for the production of mosquito-repellent candles[117] Clinical studies using human volunteers showed thatL javanica repels no less than 95 of mosquitos whereasmost mosquito repellents repel only 42 of them [118]Based on these findings the Council for Scientific andIndustrial Research (CSIR) South Africa signed a benefitsharing agreement with traditional healers allowing for thecommercial cultivation of L javanica aimed at establishingan indigenous oil industry for rural development and large-scale production of antimosquito candles and other insectrepellents The mosquito repellent is registered as a patentunder the Fertilisers Farm Feeds and Stock Remedies Act(Act 36 of 1947) as a pest repellent [119] These findings andthe establishment of a large-scale production of antimosquitocandles and other insect repellents strengthen the view thatL javanica is a potential source of antipesticidal agentsand to some extent validate the traditional use of the plantspecies for insect pest control Pesticidal plants such as Ljavanica are increasingly being used as alternatives wheresynthetic products are unaffordable or are not available or areineffective A number of studies have indicated that the use ofL javanica as a pesticide is a long-standing tradition passeddown from generation to generation [120]

25 Wounds Injuries Pain and Skin Infections Lippia javan-ica is used as remedy for a variety of skin infections andinjuries in Kenya South Africa Swaziland and ZimbabweIn SouthAfrica leaf infusions are used to treat skin disorderssuch as boils chicken pox febrile rashes heat rashesmeaslesscabies scratches and stings [20 21 40 50 54] In Kenyaabout 50 g of fresh leaves is wrapped around a fresh woundto enhance healing [57] and in South Africa leaf infusionsare taken orally as remedy for wounds [54] In SouthAfrica powder from burnt roots of L javanica is appliedto scarifications made around sprained joints to facilitatehealing [20] In Kenya and Zimbabwe leaf infusion is takenorally to treatmeasles or a patient is washedwith leaf infusion[14 38] The Zulu people in South Africa take a mixtureof chopped handful leaves of L javanica with the sameamount of bark of A burkeiO engleri S birrea S cordatumand T elegans boiled in two litres of water as an enemafor the treatment of sores [56] In Swaziland about 30 g ofL javanica leaves and similar amount of Acanthospermumaustrale Kuntze are boiled in 5 litres of water and decoctionis taken as remedy for sores [55] In Zimbabwe root ashesof L javanica mixed with fat are applied to the skin ofa patient with scabies [14] Wound healing is a processwhich involves distinct overlapping phases of coagulationinflammation proliferation and tissue remodelling [121]The same authors argued that a set of complex biochemicalevents takes place in a closely orchestrated cascade to repairthe wound and any errors in the wound healing processcan lead to delayed healing or formation of hypertrophicscars Abubakar [122] argued that colonization of woundsby opportunistic microorganisms usually delays the wound

healing process andor may lead to infectious conditionTherefore application of L javanica on wounds and skininfections leads to disinfection debridement and provisionof a suitable environment for aiding the wound healingprocess Lippia javanica has potential for therapeutic use inwound and skin diseases management but there is needfor research on the safety phytochemistry and biologicalproperties of the species

26 EthnoveterinaryUses The leaves stems twigs andwholeplants of L javanica are used as ethnoveterinary medicinein India Kenya South Africa and Zimbabwe The Xhosapeople in the Eastern Cape province South Africa use Ljavanica leaves for the disinfection of meat that has beeninfected with anthrax [20] In Kenya the stem of L javanicais used to preserve milk by applying it to the gourd beforemilk fermentation [62] In India whole plants are used aslice repellants while in South Africa and Zimbabwe crushedleaves mixed with water are used to get rid of ticks and twigsare used as bedding in fowl runs to get rid of ectoparasites[58ndash60]

27 Other Uses Lippia javanica is used as a good luck charmto treat persons experiencing bad dreams to ward off evilspirits to protect one from lightening and to protect thehome (Table 1) In Zimbabwe L javanica leaves are preparedas an infusion to treat persons experiencing nightmares [64]In both South Africa and Zimbabwe evil spirits are cleansedby washing the body of an affected person by leaf infusion ofL javanica [14 123] In Swaziland 50 g leaves of L javanicaand C molle are ground into a powder and 5 litres of wateris added and face and hands are washed to remove badluck when exposed to a corpse [71] In South Africa thewhole plant is placed on a patientrsquos bed after the circumcisionceremony [58] to prevent odours and freshen surroundingair A mixture of L javanica leaves and roots is used toclean tools and hands before and after funerals the stemsand leaves are used as brooms to sweep grave sites and theentire plant is also used when coming from the mortuaryto remove bad spirits [58 124] The corpse is washed withL javanica infusion after death to prevent odours formingor if the corpse has an odour women place pieces of Ljavanica in the nostrils of the corpse and sweep the roomwith twigs where the person was sleeping [58] In KwaZuluNatal South Africa if the meat started to smell it will beboiled with L javanica leaves to take away the smell [58]TheXhosa people in the Eastern Cape province South Africa useL javanica leaves for the disinfection of meat that has beeninfected with anthrax [20] In KwaZulu Natal South Africaleaves are sprinkled in toilets to prevent odours [58] Leavesof L javanica are sprinkled in houses for pleasant smell inthe Limpopo province South Africa [35] and Kenya [31] InKwaZulu Natal South Africa it is believed that a person canrepel snakes by placing a small stem with leaves on his orher head [58] In Malawi Swaziland and Zimbabwe peopleshowing sign of mental disorder madness or hystericaloutbursts are required towash their bodies with leaf infusions[14 67 68 71]

10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 2 Nutritional composition of Lippia javanica leaves

Caloric and nutritional composition Values ReferenceAsh 160 plusmn 0001 g [13]Calorific value 5064 plusmn 563 kcal [13]Crude fat 016 plusmn 0001 g [13]Crude fibre 263 plusmn 0002 g [13]Crude protein 122 plusmn 00004 g [13]Dry matter 1546 plusmn 140 g [13]Moisture 9044 plusmn 026 g [13]Total carbohydrate 655 plusmn 026 g [13]Vitamin C 2242 plusmn 0001mg [13]Ca 2856ndash9225 120583g gminus1 [27]Mg 1598ndash5619 120583g gminus1 [27]Fe 75ndash750 120583g gminus1 [27]Mn 401 plusmn 116 120583g gminus1 [27]Zn 156ndash273 120583g gminus1 [27]Cu 30ndash85 120583g gminus1 [27]Cr 0ndash27 120583g gminus1 [27]Se 257 plusmn 019 120583g gminus1 [27]Pb 038ndash119 120583g gminus1 [27]Cd 053 plusmn 005 120583g gminus1 [27]Co 019 plusmn 001 120583g gminus1 [27]

3 Phytochemical Constituents and NutritionalComposition of Lippia javanica

Multiple classes of phytochemicals including volatile andnonvolatile secondary metabolites such as alkaloids aminoacids flavonoids iridoids and triterpenes as well as severalminerals have been identified from L javanica [1ndash5 7 13 2773 78 81 83ndash86 88ndash94 120 123 125ndash127] Leaves flowersand twigs of L javanica have a wide variety of the so-calledclassic nutrients such as minerals carbohydrates proteinsfats and vitamins (Table 2) Lippia javanica leaves are a goodsource of minerals such as cadmium calcium chromiumcobalt copper iron magnesium manganese selenium andzinc [27] These authors assessed the levels of the elementsin L javanica leaves and found the elements to be in thedecreasing order of Ca gt Mg gt Fe gt Zn gt Mn gt Cu gt Se gtCr gt Pb gt Co gt Cd for total concentrations and Ca gt Mggt Fe gt Zn gt Cu gt Cr gt Pb for water extractable forms Theseresults corroborate an observation made by Sedaghathooret al [128] that Ca and Mg are among the most abundantelements in tea plants These mineral elements are importantin human nutrition since L javanica is used as herbaltea and food additive (Table 1) Calcium magnesium ironmanganese and zinc play a major role in activating someenzymes and regulating many responses of cells to stimuli[129] Some of the mineral elements identified from Ljavanica leaves are required by the human body for repair ofworn out cell tissues and strong bones and teeth and buildingof red blood cells and other related tissuesTherefore since Ljavanica has appreciable concentrations of mineral elementssuch as calcium magnesium iron manganese and zinc

(Table 2) which are essential for enzyme metabolism thesemineral elements could enhance the nutritional and curativeproperties of the species

Bhebhe et al [10] determined the total phenolic and tan-nin content and radical scavenging activities of L javanicacomparing it with Aspalathus linearis (Burmf) R Dahlgren(Rooibos) a commercial South African herbal tea andother popular herbal teas in Zimbabwe (Table 3) Adansoniadigitata L Fadogia ancylantha Schweinf Ficus sycomorus Land Myrothamnus flabellifolius Welw are indigenous herbalteas consumed in Zimbabwe The tannin content of Ljavanica is very low when compared to A linearis (Rooibos)(Table 3) Lippia javanica has higher radical scavenging activ-ity than A linearis (Table 3) which is probably due to highertotal phenolic content in comparison to A linearis which is apopular herbal tea consumed by 10 of the global herbal teamarket [10] In another study Bhebhe et al [11] determinedand compared the effect of several solvents namely hotwater 50 methanol ethanol 50 ethanol acetone 50acetone and ethyl acetate on phenolic composition and freeradical scavenging activity in common black tea C sinensisand five other well-known herbal teas including L javanicaIn all the seven solvents used L javanica had higher totalphenolic content than C sinensis implying that L javanicais competitive to the black tea in terms of phenolic contentShikanga et al [7] found leaf extracts of L javanica to havehigher phenolic content of 148 mgg gallic acid equivalentof dry weight than flowers (99mgg) and twigs (83mgg)Phenolic compounds found in plants are known to play animportant role as antioxidants in exhibiting the medicinalproperties such as antibiotic anti-inflammatory anticancerand antiallergic properties [10 66 130 131]

The compounds isolated from L javanica are docu-mented and listed in Appendix A and their structures arepresented in Appendix B Simple phenolic compounds andcaffeic acid and its derivatives are some of the compoundsthat have been identified in L javanica and examplesinclude coumarin 1 34-dihydroxy-120573-phenylethoxy-O-[410158401015840-120573-caffeoyl-120572-rhamnopyranosyl-(1101584010158401015840310158401015840)-O-120573-glucopyrano-side] commonly referred to as verbascoside 2 and 34-dihydroxy-120573-phenylethoxy-O-[610158401015840-120573-caffeoyl-120572-rhamnopy-ranosyl-(1101584010158401015840310158401015840)-O-120573-glucopyranoside] commonly referredto as isoverbascoside 3 isolated by Olivier et al [81] from theaerial parts of the species Nonvolatile diterpenes known asiridoid-glycosides have also been isolated from L javanicaby Rimpler and Sauerbier [82] represented by theveside-Na4 and theveridoside 5 Mujovo et al [83] isolated a longchain alkane ldquo4-ethylnonacosanerdquo 6 and four flavanonesapigenin 7 cirsimaritin 8 6-methoxyluteolin 41015840-methylether 9 and 6-methoxyluteolin 31015840410158407-trimethyl ether 10from ethanolic extracts of L javanica leaves Madzimureet al [120] identified an array of phenolic glycosides andflavonoids which include crassifolioside 11 luteolin 12diosmetin 13 chrysoeriol 14 tricin 15 isothymusin 16eupatorin 17 5-dimethyl noboletin 18 genkwanin 19salvigenin 20 and an alkaloid xanthine 22 Ludere et al[84] isolated lippialactone 21 from the ethyl acetate extractof aerial parts of L javanica Neidlein and Staehle [85] andDlamini [86] isolated 19 amino acids compounds 23 to

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11

Table 3 Total phenolic content (TPC) as gallic acid equivalents (GAE) and tannin content as leucocyanidin equivalents (LE) and free radicalscavenging activity (FRSA) of herbal tea extracts (after Bhebhe et al [10])

Plant species TPC g GAE100 g Tannin content of LE100 g Percentage FRSA IC50gmL

Lippia javanica 1246 plusmn 431 012 plusmn 001 8377 plusmn 08 0016Aspalathus linearis 669 plusmn 083 094 plusmn 004 6727 plusmn 025 0053Adansonia digitata 079 plusmn 028 169 plusmn 001 4307 plusmn 10 0132Fadogia ancylantha 288 plusmn 048 020 plusmn 012 700 plusmn 040 0051Ficus sycamores 1402 plusmn 001 198 plusmn 012 8613 plusmn 085 0009Myrothamnus flabellifolius 475 plusmn 033 104 plusmn 001 8093 plusmn 075 0019

41 in Appendix A from L javanica At least 131 differentclasses of essential oil compounds (compounds 42ndash172 inAppendices A and B) have been isolated from L javanica byseveral researchers [3ndash5 83 85 86 88ndash94 123] Hutchingsand van Staden [96] isolated a toxic triterpenoid saponinicterogenin 173 from L javanica leaves These differentclasses of essential oil compounds have been associatedwith various therapeutic activities such as anaestheticanalgesic anti-inflammatory antimicrobial cardiovasculardecongestant digestive expectorant hepatoprotective andsedative activities as well as stimulant of nervous systemand tonifying effects [132] Meanwhile flavonoids possessseveral pharmacological properties including antibacterialanticancer anti-inflammatory antioxidant antiviral andhepatoprotective effects [133] which play important rolesin human health Flavonoid such as apigenin 7 is reportedto possess antibacterial [134] and hepatoprotective [135]properties Apigenin 7 and luteolin 12 are reported to possessanti-inflammatory and analgesic effects [133] affecting thefunction of enzyme systems involved in the generation ofinflammatory processes especially tyrosine and serine-threonine protein kinases [136 137] It has also been reportedthat apigenin 7 prevents HIV-1 activation via a novelmechanism that involves inhibition of viral transcription[138] and luteolin 12 demonstrated synergistic effects withanother flavonoid kaempferol against herpes simplex virus[133] Kamiya [139] documented the importance of essentialamino acids such as lysine valine isoleucine and histidinein terms of the risks to health if they are deficientThe authoralso documented their biological effects which includemuscle protein maintenance potentiation of immunefunction tissue repair acceleration after burn or traumaprotecting liver from toxic agents lowering blood pressuremodulating cholesterol metabolism and stimulating insulinor growth hormone secretion Therefore L javanica leavesand other plant parts which have shown to be rich inflavonoid and polyphenolic compounds amino acids andessential oil could play an important role in the treatmentand management of diseases such as hypertension andinflammation listed in Table 1

4 Pharmacological Activities

Scientific studies on L javanica indicate that it has a widerange of pharmacological activities (Table 4) which include

anticancer [140] antidiabetic [141] antimalarial [4 49 142]antimicrobial [2 3 7 17 73ndash75 77 83 84 126 143]antioxidant [7 10 11 75 77 125] antiplasmodial [2 7980 84 144 145] and pesticidal effects [1 2 59 95 120146ndash150] and cytotoxicity [2 73 79 120] activities Table 4summarizes some of the pharmacological studies undertakenon L javanica extracts aimed at evaluating some of theethnomedicinal uses of the species documented throughoutits distributional range (see Table 1) Some of the listedpharmacological activities may not relate directly to thedocumented ethnomedicinal uses of the species but mayprovide some insight into the speciesrsquo potential therapeuticvalue and bioactive properties and application

41 Anticancer Activity Fouche et al [140] reported anti-cancer activity of dichloromethane root extract of L javanicaagainst three human cells exhibiting TGI value of 182120583gmLfor breast MDA-MB-435 186 120583gmL for breast MDA-N and209 120583gmL for melanoma MALME-3M Based on literaturea couple of terpenoid compounds that have been isolatedfrom L javanica are known to have antitumor propertiesFor example linalool 120 is known to have antitumoractivity which plays a protective role against hepatotoxicityand the compound has anti-inflammatory activities as well[151] Research by Yang et al [152] showed limonene 92 tohave inhibitory effect on pancreatic and mammary tumorsAnother terpenoid compound 120572-pinene 44 is known toinhibit translocation of NF-120581B or p65 protein into nuclei ofLPS-stimulated THP-1 cells [153] These findings serve as ascientific validation for the use of L javanica as a componentof a herbal concoction known in KwaZulu Natal province asldquoimbizardquo prepared by mixing L javanica with C obliquus asherbal medicine for cancer [27]

42 Antidiabetic Activity Arika et al [141] determined the invivo antidiabetic activity of aqueous leaf extracts of L javan-ica in white male alloxan-induced albino mice The aqueousleaf extracts of L javanica at all dose levels significantlylowered the blood glucose levels in both oral and intraperi-toneal routes The antidiabetic effect of L javanica couldhave been due to the observed presence of flavonoids Thepolyhydroxylated flavonol enhances lipogenesis and glucoseuptake in the adipocytes and flavanoids have demonstratedinsulinmimetic properties as the compound is known to beeffective at controlling blood sugar levels These findings

12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table4Summaryof

pharmacologicalactiv

ities

ofthee

xtractsisolated

from

different

partso

fLippiajavanica

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Antiamoebic

Piperitenon

e162

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f25120583

gmLagainstE

histolytica

[73]

Antibacteria

lPiperitenon

e162

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f50120583

gmLagainstA

calcoaceticu

sMkristin

ae(50120583

gmL)Styphi(25120583

gmL)and

Saureus

(12120583

gmL)

[73]

Antibacteria

l(Antiproteus)

Methano

lLeaves

Disc

diffu

sion

assay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f313120583gmLagainstPm

irabilis

and926120583

gmL

againstPvulgaris

[74]

Water

Leaves

Disc

diffu

sion

assay

Exhibitedweakactiv

ityagainstPm

irabilis

with

MIC

valueo

f1873120583gmLand1768120583gmLagainstPvulgaris

[74]

Antibacteria

l

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

coliwith

MIC

valueo

f064m

gmLE

faecalis(064)P

aeruginosa

(032

)andSaureus

(064)Totalactiv

ityMIC

values

werea

sfollo

wsE

coli(127

mgmL)E

faecalis

(127

mgmL)Paeruginosa

(253

mgmL)and

Saureus

(127

mgmL)

[75]

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

valueo

f3mgmLBa

cillusp

umilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(gt12mgmL)Saureus(12mgmL)E

faecalis

(6mgmL)E

cloacae

(6mgmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pantoea

agglo

meran

s(12mgmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Shigella

flexneri

(15mgmL)A

erom

onas

hydrophila(12m

gmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae(12mgmL)Salmonellacholeraesuis

(6mgmL)and

Serratiamarcescens(gt12mgmL)

[17]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

valueo

f12m

gmLB

pumilu

s(12m

gmL)B

subtilis(12m

gmL)Saureus(6m

gmL)E

faecalis

(12m

gmL)E

cloacae

(12m

gmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(12m

gmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(6

mgmL)A

hydrophila(12m

gmL)Pm

irabilis

(12m

gmL)K

pneum

oniae

(12m

gmL)Scholeraesuis(6

mgmL)and

antia

moebice

ffect

(12m

gmL)

[17]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

values

of15

mgmLB

pumilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(gt12mgmL)Saureus(12mgmL)E

faecalis

(3mgmL)E

cloacae

(6mgmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(12m

gmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(15mgmL)A

hydrophila(6

mgmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae

(12m

gmL)Scholeraesuis(6

mgmL)and

Smarcescens(12mgmL)

[17]

Essentialoil

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

values

of6m

gmLB

pumilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(3mgmL)Saureus(15

mgmL)E

faecalis

(3mgmL)E

cloacae

(12m

gmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(6

mgmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(3mgmL)A

hydrophila(3mgmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae

(3mgmL)Scholeraesuis(15mgmL)and

Smarcescens(gt12mgmL)

[17]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 13

Table4Con

tinued

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

faecaliswith

MIC

valueo

f014

mgmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

coliwith

MIC

valueo

f031

mgmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPaeruginosa

with

MIC

valueo

f042m

gmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstSaureus

with

MIC

valueo

f013

mgmL

[7]

Antifu

ngal

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

albicans

with

MIC

valueo

fgt75m

gmLC

krusei

(188m

gmL)and

Cneoforman

s(gt75

mgmL)

[7]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

albicans

with

MIC

valueo

fgt375

mgmLC

krusei

(375m

gmL)and

Cneoforman

s(gt75

mgmL)

[7]

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

kruseiwith

MFC

valueo

f75mgmL

[7]

Dichlorom

ethane

Aeria

lparts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFu

sariu

mproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f014

mgmLand

Fusariu

mverticillioides(019mgmL)

[76]

Hexane

Aeria

lparts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f023m

gmLandF

verticillioides(045

mgmL)

[76]

Methano

lAe

rialp

arts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f177m

gmLandF

verticillioides(043

mgmL)

[76]

Methano

lAe

rialp

arts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

fgt250

mgmLandF

verticillioides(gt250

mgmL)

[76]

Antim

ycob

acteria

l

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f047m

gmLandtotalactivity

of10mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Dichlorom

ethane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f125m

gmLandtotalactivity

of23

mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f062m

gmLandtotalactivity

of13mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f125m

gmLandtotalactivity

of7m

Lgagainst

Msmegmatis

[77]

14 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table4Con

tinued

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Antioxidant

Water

Leaves

DPP

Hassay

Exhibitedactiv

itywith

EC50valueo

f358120583gmL

[7]

Water

Leaves

mdashEx

hibitedactiv

itywith

209ascorbicacid

equivalent

(mggdryweight)

[7]

Water

Leaves

ABT

Sassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f15mmol10

0g[78]

Water

Leaves

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f146254

mmol10

0g[78]

Water

Leaves

FRAPassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f238m

mol10

0g[78]

Antiplasm

odial

Hexanechloroform

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f1225plusmn072120583gmL

[79]

Ethylacetate

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f1212plusmn079120583gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f135plusmn006120583gmL

[79]

Hexanechloroform

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f1859plusmn026120583gmL

[79]

Ethylacetate

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f1580plusmn026120583gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f175plusmn017120583gmL

[79]

Dichlorom

ethane

Roots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f38120583gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethanem

ethano

lRo

ots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f27120583

gmL

[80]

Methano

lRo

ots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f24120583

gmL

[80]

Water

Roots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

fgt100120583

gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethane

Stem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f45120583gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethanem

ethano

lStem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f218120583gmL

[80]

Methano

lStem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f298120583gmL

[80]

Water

Stem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

fgt100120583

gmL

[80]

Free

radicalscaveng

ing

activ

ity

Water

mdashDPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0059plusmn002

gmL

[11]

50methano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f004plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Ethano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0025plusmn0001gmL

[11]

50ethano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0027plusmn0005gmL

[11]

Aceton

emdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0057plusmn0004gmL

[11]

50aceton

emdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0022plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Ethylacetate

mdashDPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0066plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Toxicity

Methano

lLeaf

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

40mortalityrecorded

after

48hexpo

sure

towards

Artemianauplii

[74]

Methano

lRo

ots

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f8430120583

gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f6503120583

gmL

[79]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 15

strengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantidiabetic agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species mixed with C obliquus to form aherbal concoction known in KwaZulu Natal province SouthAfrica as ldquoimbizardquo used against diabetes [27]

43 Antimalarial Activity Govere et al [142] found thattopical application of L javanica alcohol extract leads to767 protection against Anopheles arabiensis for 4 hoursLippia javanica has been used as a mosquito repellent by therural communities in Zimbabwe for a long time and previousstudies have shown that essential oils from the species havevery strong and lasting repellent activity against female Aarabiensis [64] Research by Lukwa et al [4] revealed thattopical application of 5mgcm2 of L javanica leads to 100protection againstAnopheles aegypti for 8 hoursMavundza etal [154] screened dichloromethane and ethanol leaf extractsof L javanica for adulticidal activity againstA arabiensisTheauthors observed dichloromethane and ethanol activities of45 and 55mosquitomortality respectivelyThese findingsstrengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantimalarial agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species as mosquito repellent in India [47]South Africa [34 49 58] and Zimbabwe [4 48]

44 Antioxidant Activity Leaf infusions of L javanica exhib-ited antioxidant activity with EC

50value of 358120583gmL and

contained 148mgmL of dry weight gallic acid equivalentphenolic compounds [7] The EC

50value of 358 120583gmL

obtained for L javanica by Shikanga et al [7] compareswell to those of many commercial teas including antioxidantcapacity of Rooibos Fresh Pack herbal teas (A linearis)with the best antioxidant activity of 333 120583gmL The highantioxidant activities displayed by L javanica infusions canbe partially attributed to the high levels of verbascoside 2(15mgg dry weight) reported by Olivier et al [81] in theleaf extract of the species Earlier research by Muchuwetiet al [125] reported 744 inhibition of the DPPH radicalby an ethanolic leaf extract of L javanica Lekganyane etal [75] reported antioxidant activity in L javanica and theacetone extracts of the species displayed antioxidant activityon BEA chromatogram [77] Bhebhe et al [10] reported theantioxidant activities of L javanica based on the DPPHreducing power and inhibition of phospholipid peroxidationassays Free radical scavenging activity of L javanica isattributed to phenolic compounds since these compoundshave an ideal structural chemistry for free radical scavengingactivity [155] Bhebhe et al [11] determined the effect ofseveral solvents on the free radical scavenging activity ofL javanica using the DPPH assay Free radical scavengingactivity expressed as IC

50ranged from 0022 plusmn 0001 gmL to

0066 plusmn 0001 gmL see Table 4

45 Antiplasmodial Activity Prozesky et al [144] evaluatedL javanica leaf acetone extract for in vitro antiplasmodialactivity using PfUP1 a chloroquine resistant strain of themalaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum by means of theflow cytometric test The IC

50value for L javanica was

426 120583gmL Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil

piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica for antiplasmodialactivity using chloroquine diphosphate as positive controland found it active against a chloroquine sensitive strainof P falciparum in micromolar concentrations with IC

50of

8 120583gmL Clarkson et al [80] evaluated L javanica rootsand stems extracts for in vitro activity against P falciparumusing the parasite lactase dehydrogenase (pLDH) assay andchloroquine diphosphate (Sigma) as the positive controlThedichloromethane methane and water extracts showed IC

50

values ranging from 38 to gt100 120583gmL see Table 4 Omolo etal [145] screened the essential oil of L javanica for fumiganttoxicity to Anopheles gambiae which exhibited LD

50of 43 times

10minus3mg cmminus3 Ayuko et al [79] showed that L javanica rootextracts have antiplasmodial activity against P falciparumwith IC

50ranging from 135 to 1859 120583gmL see Table 4

Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity againstthe chloroquine sensitive D10 strain of P falciparum withan IC

50value of 91 120583gmL and is also mildly cytotoxic [84]

Compared to chloroquine the compound is approximately2000 times less active against the D10 strain of P falciparum[84]

46 Antimicrobial Activities Lippia javanica is widely usedin the treatment of a wide range of infectious diseasescaused by microorganisms Viljoen et al [3] determined theantimicrobial properties of L javanica by evaluating the timekill studies of the speciesrsquo essential oil using the disc diffusionassay on three respiratory pathogens Klebsiella pneumoniaeCryptococcus neoformans and Bacillus cereus This studyshowed that the killing rate was greatest for K pneumoniaefollowed by C neoformans and very little reduction of micro-bial populations was observed for B cereus The efficacy of Ljavanica oil for K pneumoniae showed a killing rate within30 minutes for the concentrations 025 05 075 and 1C neoformans showed a killing rate for concentrations 05075 and 1 within 1 hour and the lowest concentration of025 took 8 hours before a bactericidal effect was notedwhile B cereus showed some reduction in colonies [3] Thepositive antimicrobial activity of L javanica as revealed bythe time kill study could be attributed to linalool 120 whichaverages between 65 and 70 in yield [3 5 88 90] and hasknown antimicrobial properties [93 156ndash159]These findingssomehow corroborate the traditional use of L javanica asherbal medicine for a wide range of bacterial and fungalrespiratory ailments indicated in Table 1

Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil piperitenone162 isolated from L javanica for antibacterial activityon cultures of Bacillus subtilis Staphylococcus aureus andEscherichia coli using imipenem cefazolin and ampicillinas positive controls The authors found piperitenone 162to inhibit S aureus and E coli at 1 dilution Acetonehexane and methanol leaf extracts and essential oil isolatedfrom L javanica showed some activity against fifteen Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria with MIC values rang-ing from 15 to gt12mgmL [60] see Table 4 In a similarstudy Samie et al [73] demonstrated that a pure compoundpiperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica has antibacte-rial activities against Acinetobacter calcoaceticus Micrococcus

16 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

kristinae Salmonella typhi and S aureus using dimethylsulphoxide and kanamycin as controls with MIC valuesranging from 12 to 50 120583gmL see Table 4 Shikanga et al [7]evaluated the antibacterial activity of L javanica methanolicleaf extract against S aureus Enterococcus faecalis E coliand Pseudomonas aeruginosa using the serial microdilutionmethod with gentamycin (Virbac) and acetone as positiveand negative controls respectively Lippia javanica displayedantibacterial activities with MIC values ranging from 013to 042mgmL against all four pathogens see Table 4 Theobtained minimum inhibitory concentrations are promisingsince natural products with MIC values below 1mgmLare generally considered to be noteworthy findings [160]Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity against theE coli and S aureus at a concentration of 10mgmL [84]Lekganyane et al [75] reported antibacterial activity of Ljavanica acetone leaf extracts against E coli E faecalis Paeruginosa and S aureus with MIC values ranging from 032to 064mgmL and total activity of the same species rangingfrom 127 to 253mgmL see Table 4 Methanol and water leafextracts of L javanica exhibited some antiproteus activityagainstProteusmirabilis andProteus vulgariswithMICvalueslt2000120583gmL with standard discs of ampicillin (2120583g) andchloramphenicol (10 120583g) as positive controls [74] Some of theantibacterial properties of L javanica can be attributed to thephytochemical constituents of the species for example thephenolic compound apigenin 7 is a well-known antibacterialagent [7 134] Apigenin 7 was shown to be highly activeagainst Vibrio cholera and E faecalis [161] while Basile et al[162] reported the inhibition of S typhi P mirabilis and Paeruginosa by the compound Therefore results from theseantibacterial evaluations of L javanica give credence to theuse of the speciesrsquo infusions against bacterial infections andother related diseases

Shikanga et al [126] investigated the antifungal activ-ities of leaf extracts and essential oil compounds isolatedfrom L javanica leafy extracts against a Guazatine-resistantstrain of Penicillium digitatumThemethanolic leafy extractsisoverbascoside 3 and verbascoside 2 compounds isolatedfrom L javanica inhibited fungal growth at concentrationsabove 06mgsdotmLminus1 causing significant inhibition of mycelialgrowth Verbascoside 2 is well-known for its antimicrobialproperties and has been found to inhibit viruses bacteriaand fungi [163] Similarly Samie et al [143] investigatedantifungal effects of acetone and hexane leaf extracts of Ljavanica against Candida albicans Candida krusei and Cneoformans isolated from AIDS patients using the microdi-lution method with nystatin Roche and DMSO as positiveand negative controls respectively Noteworthy moderateantifungal activities were recorded from C krusei with MICvalue of 188mgmL and other recordedMFCandMICvaluesfor other species ranged from 188mgmL to gt75mgmLsee Table 4 Thembo et al [76] investigated the antifungalactivity of aqueous and organic extracts of L javanica usinga serial microdilution assay Generally extracts of L javanicaexhibited weak activity see Table 4

47 Antimycobacterial Activity Mujovo et al [83] evaluatedL javanica compounds against a drug-sensitive strain ofMycobacterium tuberculosis using the radiometric respira-tory techniques Of all the isolated compounds only onetriterpenoid carboxylic acid euscaphic acid 172 exhibitedantimycobacterial activity with MIC value of 50120583gmLminus1against this strain In a similar study the leaf extract ofL javanica exhibited antimycobacterial activity against Msmegmatis in an evaluation which used microdilution assayand rifampicin as control [77] Acetone extract was thebest extractant with MIC value of 047mgmL it extractedantibacterial agents which was indicated by the lowest MICvalue [77] Masoko and Nxumalo [77] also evaluated thetotal activity ofL javanicawhich averaged 13mLg suggestingthat the extract prepared from one gram of L javanicacould be diluted to a volume of 13mL and will still inhibitM smegmatis efficiently According to Semenya and Maroyi[115] tuberculosis caused by M tuberculosis is a seriousdisease requiring effective strategies and tools to controland manage it Therefore preliminary evaluations done byMujovo et al [83] and Masoko and Nxumalo [77] serve asa scientific validation for the use of L javanica in traditionalmedicine for treatment of tuberculosis and other respiratoryailments in South Africa [24 27 115] and Uganda [43] as wellas their efficiency in tuberculosis drug discovery

48 Antiviral Activity Mujovo et al [83] found that (E)-2(3)-tagetenone epoxide 42 and piperitenone 162 inhibitedthe HIV-1 reverse transcriptase enzyme by 91 and 53respectively at 100 120583gmLminus1 based on a nonradioactive HIVRT colorimetric ELISA kit Little is known about the HIV RTactivity of L javanica extracts or compounds but flavonoidsare known to be active against viral RT and also as potentinhibitors of the cellular alpha and beta DNA polymerase[83] while luteolin 12 is active against HIV RT [164 165]Lippia javanica is traditionally used to treat HIVAIDSsymptoms in South Africa [65 66] and several viral andHIVAIDS opportunistic diseases and infections such asbronchitis [15 19ndash22] chicken pox [50] diarrhoea [17 3437 44 113] measles [14 20 38] pneumonia [14] shingles[15] and venereal diseases [44] Despite significant advancesin the utilization of L javanica in southern Africa overthe years for numerous viral diseases (Table 1) very littleantiviral evaluations have been done on crude extracts andpurified compounds of the species There is need thereforefor more pharmacological research as L javanica could beharbouring potent (RT) inhibitors which could be useful forthe development of new pharmaceutical products importantfor use against viral diseases and infections

49 Pesticidal Effects Magano et al [95] evaluated the repel-lent effects of hexane extracts of L javanica essential oilusing the in vitro tick climbing repellency bioassay on adultsof Hyalomma marginatum rufipes Koch ticks The authorsfound that 107mgmL caused repellency index of 100 at onehour and 30 minutes In a similar study by Madzimure et al[120] L javanica aqueous leaf extracts at 10 and 20 wvwere effective at controlling cattle ticks (Amblyomma species

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 17

Boophilus species Hyalomma species Rhipicephalus appen-diculatus and Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi) and were as goodas the positive control amitraz-based acaricide TrickbusterThese authors found no parasites on microscopic exami-nation of the Giemsa-stained thin blood smear collectedfrom treated cattle implying that the animals did not sufferfrom clinical tick-borne diseases Similarly Nyahangare etal [59] tested the pesticidal activity of L javanica waterextracts against cattle ticks The authors found no significantdifference between cattle treated with a commercial syntheticacaricide and those under L javanica treatment Martinez-Velazquez et al [166] evaluated pesticidal effects of twoessential oils namely 120574-terpinene 82 and 120588-cymene 99isolated from Lippia graveolens Kunth against 10-day-oldRhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini) tick larvaeusing the larval packet test bioassay The two essential oilsproduced highmortality ranging from90 to 100 in all testedconcentrations of 20 to 125 (vv)Therefore L javanica canprovide an effective tick control option where synthetic prod-ucts are unavailable or unaffordable particularly in remoterural areas in sub-Saharan Africa Lippia javanica is popularfor tick control and management among resource-poorsmallholder farmers in South Africa [58 95] and Zimbabwe[59 60 120] While these preliminary evaluations may serveas confirmation that L javanica has some bioactivities againstticks a comprehensive method of tick control is requiredfor the resource-constrained smallholder farmers based onethnopharmacological properties of L javanica

McGaw et al [146] screened L javanica for the anthel-mintic test systems using the free living nematodeCaenorhabditis elegans The crude ethanol and hexaneextracts showed some activity at a concentration of 2mgmLwith the 7-day incubation assay appearing to be moresensitive than the shorter assay Earlier research by Mwangiet al [1] indicated that L javanica was active against Aedesaegypti larvae and Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (maizeweevil) Katsvanga and Chigwiza [147] reported that Ljavanica is an effective natural pesticide which can be used tocontrol aphid species (Brevicoryne brassicae) In their studyKatsvanga and Chigwiza [147] found that 1 1 powderedaqueous leaf extract of L javanica reduced B brassicae by532 against 783 and 967 of two synthetic pesticidesAphid kill and Bexadust ldquoLrdquo respectively Chikukura etal [149] found L javanica powdered leaf extracts to haveinsecticidal properties with potential to control graindamage by 21ndash33 Mashela et al [148] reported that theapplication of ground L javanica leaves to soil in nematode-infested (Meloidogyne incognita) pots reduced the nematodenumbers by 79ndash92 and significantly increased fresh fruityield dry shoot mass plant height and stem diameter ofthe tomato plants as well as levels of potassium nitrogenand manganese in leaf tissue Muzemu et al [150] evaluatedwater extracts of L javanica leaf powder for pesticidal effectsagainst rape (Brassica napus L) aphids B brassicae andtomato (Solanum lycopersicum Lam) red spider mites andTetranychus evansi as alternatives to conventional pesticidesLippia javanica reduced B brassicae and Tetranychus evansiby 125 and 63 respectively [150]The study demonstratedthat L javanica has pesticidal effects on B brassicae and T

evansi The reduced number of B brassicae and T evansicould be due to L javanicarsquos extracts having repellent toxicand antifeedant effects since the species has essential oilswith pesticidal properties [2] Therefore these findingsindicate that L javanica has both nematicidal and plantgrowth-promoting properties

410 Toxicity and Cytotoxicity Activity Lippia javanica isknown to cause liver damage and photosensitisation in live-stock resulting in stock losses [167] Triterpenoids isolatedfrom the genus Lippia are icterogenic and cause jaundice asa result of liver damage [167] The characteristic swellingyellowing and later peeling of unpigmented skin are due tothe presence of phylloerythrin a photodynamic porphyrinthat reacts with sunlight and causes severe cell damage [167]The compound is normally formed when chlorophyll isbroken down by microorganisms in the rumen but it nowaccumulates in the liver as a result of the damage caused bytriterpenoids [167] In view of the known toxicity of Lippiaspecies the prolonged use of high doses of L javanica ispotentially harmful [167] Lippia javanica showed low toxicityafter 48 h exposure with the percentage of mortality below50 [74]

Ayuko et al [79] evaluated the toxicity of L javanicausing a brine shrimp cytotoxicity assay with LC

50value of

1138 plusmn 133 120583gmL Ayuko et al [79] found the cytotoxicity toantiplasmodial activity ratios for the methanolic extracts ofthe two tested strains to be 8430 and 6503 and since theseare greater than 100 it may be concluded that the extractsare of low toxicity Samie et al [73] demonstrated that apure compound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanicaessential oil has low cytotoxicity activity against intestinaladenocarcinoma cells (ie the HCT-8 monolayers with IC

50

of 2656 plusmn 53 120583gmL) Lukwa [64] evaluated the toxicity of Ljavanica aqueous leaf extracts using sexually mature BALBcmice with the placebo as control Within 48 hours all micefed with the L javanica leaf aqueous extract at 125ndash375 vvwere lethargic and the overall mortality was 375 Previousresearch byManenzhe et al [2] showed that hydrodistillationof L javanica leaves flowers and stems produced oil thatwas poisonous against P falciparumwhen diluted to 1 (vv)These findings imply that despite its apparent safety waterextracts of L javanica leaves may have deleterious healthimplications on humans and animals if consumed at veryhigh doses

Many compounds that have been isolated from L javan-ica including phenolic glycosides flavonoids and essentialoils are not known to have acute toxic properties withthe exception of icterogenin 173 Icterogenin 173 has beenshown to inhibit biliary excretion in rabbits [168] Reports inliterature indicate that the consumption of xanthine 22 hasresulted in mammalian toxicity According to Madzimure etal [64] xanthine 22 is a demethylated derivative of caffeinewith pharmacological actions such as central nervous system(CNS) stimulation relaxation of smooth muscle (especiallybronchial muscle) myocardial stimulation peripheral vaso-constriction and diuresis Considering the widespread useof L javanica as herbal tea and medicine it is important

18 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

to determine if any toxicological effects can occur from itschronic or subchronic usage

411 Other Activities Mpofu et al [169] determined the effectof inclusion of L javanica leaf meal in broiler diets ongrowth performance carcass characteristics and fatty acidprofiles The authors found that the L javanica fed broilershad higher total polyunsaturated fatty acids and n-3 fattyacidsThe findings from the study showed that inclusion of Ljavanica in broiler diets at 5 gkg feed has positive influenceson growth performance carcass characteristics and fattyacid profiles of broiler meat and therefore L javanica haspotential as growth-promoting feed additive in broilersSamie et al [73] evaluated antiamoebic activity of a purecompound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica essen-tial oil against Entamoeba histolytica using microdilutionmethod with metronidazole as the positive control diluents(ie culture medium with an appropriate concentration ofdimethyl sulphoxide as the negative control) and a blank(ie culture medium without dimethyl sulphoxide) Samieet al [73] demonstrated that piperitenone 162 had markedantiamoebic activity with IC

50value of 25 120583gmL More

research is required as L javanica could be harbouring potentantiamoebic properties which could be useful for managingamoebiasis an infection that remains a significant cause ofmorbidity and mortality worldwide

5 Conclusion

Lippia javanica has been used in African and Asian countriesas herbal tea and medicine for many centuries Utilization ofL javanica because of its flavour and medicinal propertiesforms the basis of the current demand for the plant speciesin central eastern and southern Africa Research on Ljavanica over the past decade on health promoting propertieshas greatly contributed to the increased consumption ofthe species as herbal or recreational tea The focus of thisresearch has been on phytochemical compounds particularlyphenolic content and antioxidant and free radical scavengingactivities Phenolic compounds present in L javanica arelargely responsible for the antioxidant properties possessedby the species More research in this regard is required andfuture research should focus on more comprehensive chem-ical characterization of both crude and pure extracts andevaluate potential for commercialization and developmentof nutraceutical products based on traditional uses of Ljavanica Most of the pharmacological researches conductedon L javanica so far have focused on the phytochemistryand biological properties of leaves and little or no researchhas been done on roots and other plant parts Thereforefuture research on the species should focus on other plantparts for example flowers roots and stems as well asorgan-to-organ age and seasonal variation evaluations in thephytochemical content and pharmacological activities of thespecies

The recent increase in the demand for L javanica prod-ucts may partly be ascribed to growing body of scientific evi-dence indicating important health benefits Lippia javanica

is widely sold as herbal tea in Botswana South Africa andZimbabwe Leaves and stems of L javanica are also sold asherbal medicines in the medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquo marketsin South Africa [35 170] For local people who rely onherbal medicines as part of their primary healthcare aswell as cultural beliefs they prefer L javanica harvestedfrom the wild and unprocessed plant parts sold in informalmedicinal ldquomuthirdquo markets [170] In the past there were norecords of overexploitation of L javanica wild populationsin southern Africa resulting in Raimondo et al [171] listingthe species as Least Concern (LC) under the IUCN RedList Categories and Criteria version 31 of threatened species(httpwwwiucnredlistorg) Recently signs of overharvest-ing have been noted where local people or plant traders haveuprooted whole plants to supply medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquomarkets or use the plants as herbal medicines brooms orherbal tea Therefore large-scale commercial utilization of Ljavanica is not sustainable if the species is harvested fromthe wild Currently L javanica is cultivated on a commercialscale in Kenya [28] and South Africa [117] for essential oilproduction for the mosquito-repellent candles and perfumeindustry Cultivation of L javanica is therefore a solutionto the sustainability problems associated with harvesting ofthe species from the wild and this option is also necessaryfor establishing commercial scale medicinal production andprocessing and trade enterprises The success of commercialcultivation of L javanica will depend on how the species ismarketed as herbal tea and medicine and source of essentialoil and health care products and as a source of functionalfoods

Significant research has been made in the past 50 yearsinto the chemistry and pharmacology of L javanica Thesestudies have shown L javanica to display various chemicaland different biological activities some of which justify itsethnopharmacological utilization in variety of cultures Inthe light of the evidence that L javanica is combined withother plant species in traditional medicine it will be valuableto investigate the possibility of synergistic effects of thedifferent extracts Deep phytochemical studies of L javanicaand its phytochemical properties especially the mechanismsof action of its bioactive constituents to illustrate the cor-relation between ethnomedicinal uses and pharmacologicalactivities should be the focus of further research on thespecies There is need for extensive in vivo experiments tovalidate the existing pharmacological activities Howeverbecause L javanica contains potentially toxic compoundsits toxicological properties need to be properly establishedvia proper quality control of product development to ensurethat potentially toxic components are kept below tolerancelevels

Appendix

A Chemical Compounds Isolated andCharacterized from Lippia javanica

See Table 5

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 19

Table 5

Chemical compound Reference(s)Phenolic compoundsCoumarin 1 [4]Verbascoside 2 [81]Isoverbascoside 3 [81]Theveside-Na 4 [82]Theveridoside 5 [82]4-ethylnonacosane 6 [83]Apigenin 7 [64 83]Cirsimaritin 8 [64 83]6-Methoxy luteolin41015840-methyl ether 9 [83]

6-Methoxy luteolin31015840410158407-trimethyl ether 10 [83]

Crassifolioside 11 [64]Luteolin 12 [64]Diosmetin 13 [64]Chrysoeriol 14 [64]Tricin 15 [64]Isothymusin 16 [64]Eupatorin 17 [64]5-Dimethyl noboletin 18 [64]Genkwanin 19 [64]Salvigenin 20 [64]Lippialactone 21 [84]AlkaloidXanthine 22 [64]Amino acids120572-Aminobutyric acid 23 [85 86]Valine 24 [86]Isoleucine 25 [86]Asparagine 26 [86]Phenylalanine 27 [86]120572-Aminoadipic acid 28 [86]Lysine 29 [86]Histidine 30 [86]Tyrosine 31 [86]Tryptophan 32 [86]Alanine 33 [85]Glycine 34 [85]Proline 35 [85]Serine 36 [85]Glutamine acid 37 [85]120573-Alanine 38 [85]Glutamine 39 [85]120573-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [85]4-hydroxyproline 41 [85]Essential oil(E)-2(3)-tagetenoneepoxide 42 [83]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]120572-Pinene 44 [3ndash5 87ndash91]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4](+)-2-Carene 46 [4]3-Carene 47 [4]Eucalyptol 48 [4]18 myrcene 49 [87]Ipsdienone 50 [87]Caryophyllene 51 [85]Geranial 52 [5 92 93]26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [92]Geraniol 54 [92]Octen-3-one 55 [5]6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]120588-Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]Artemisia ketone 58 [5]Linalool oxide 59 [5]Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5](Z)-120573-Ocimenone 61 [5](E)-120573-Ocimenone 62 [5]Carvyl acetate 63 [5]120572-Cubebene 64 [5]Sesquithujene 65 [5]Acora-35-diene 66 [5]120573-Bergamotene 67 [5]Trans-calamenene 68 [5]120573-Alaskene 69 [5]120574-Cadinene 70 [5]120575-Cadinene 71 [3 88 89 91]Cis-calamenene 72 [5]Nerolidol 73 [5](E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 88 89]Spathulenol 75 [5]Epi-120572-muurolol 76 [5]120572-Longipinene 77 [90]Chrysanthenone 78 [90]120572-Terpineol 79 [3 5 90 91]120572-Amorphene 80 [90]120572-Thujene 81 [91]120574-Terpinene 82 [91]120572-Cubebene 83 [91]Linalool acetate 84 [91]Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [91]Camphene 86 [3 5 88ndash91]120573-Pinene 87 [3 5 91]Sabinene 88 [3 5 87 90 91]Myrcene 89 [3 5 87ndash89 91ndash95]120572-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 88 89]2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]Limonene 92 [3 5 88ndash94]18-Cineole 93 [3 5 90 91 95]120573-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 88 89 91]

20 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3](Z)-120573-Ocimene 96 [3 5 88 89 91](E)-120573-Ocimene 97 [3 5 88 89 91]Isomyrcenol 98 [3]p-Cymene 99 [3 5 85 88ndash91]2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]Terpinolene 101 [3]Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 88 89 91 95]Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 88 89](Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]Nonanal 106 [3]Perillene 107 [3 91]Ipsenone 108 [3 87ndash89 95]Trans-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 88ndash90]1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 88 89]Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]Ttrans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]cis-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 88ndash90]120572-Copaene 114 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetone 115 [3 88 89]Trans-tagetone 116 [3 88 89]Camphor 117 [3 5 88ndash90 93 94]120573-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 91]Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 85 88ndash90 92 93]

Trans-120572-bergamotene 121 [3]120572-Cedrene 122 [3 5]Myrcenone 123 [3 5 83 91]120573-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 87ndash91 93 94]2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 88 89](Z)-120573-Farnesene 129 [3](E)-120573-Farnesene 130 [3 5](EE)-120572-Farnesene 131 [3 88 89]Ipsdienol 132 [3](Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]Isovaleric acid 134 [3]120572-Humulene 135 [3 5 88 89 91]120572-Acoradiene 136 [3]120573-Acoradiene 137 [3]120574-Muurolene 138 [3 5 88 89]120572-Muurolene 139 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]Borneol 142 [3 5 88ndash90]Verbenone 143 [3 91]Germacrene-D 144 [3 87ndash89 93]120573-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]120574-Bisabolene 146 [3]Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]Carvone 148 [3 5 91]Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 88 89 91]120573-Curcumene 150 [3]Ar-curcumene 151 [3]Cis-piperitol 152 [3]2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol156 [3 88 89]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]Calamenene 158 [3]Carvone oxide 159 [3]Isopiperitenone 160 [3]Cis-carveol 161 [3]Piperitenone 162 [2 3 73 83]Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 88 89]Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3ndash5 88ndash90]Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 88 89]Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]Spathulenol 167 [3]Eugenol 168 [3 5]Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120573-ol(=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120572-ol(=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [83]Icterogenin 173 [96]

B Chemical Structures ofPhenolic Compounds Alkaloids AminoAcids and Essential Oils Isolated fromLippia javanica

See Figure 4

Competing Interests

The author declares that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 21

O

OO

OO O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

C CH CHO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

COOH

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

Me

OMe

OMe

OMe

MeO

Me

HOOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OMe

OMe

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

（2 （2

（2

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

（3CO

（3CO

Coumarin 1 [4]

Verbascoside 2 [89]

Isoverbascoside 3 [89]

Theveside-Na 4 [90]

Theveridoside 5 [90]

4-Ethylnonacosane 6 [91]

Apigenin 7 [120 91]

Cirsimaritin 8 [120 91]

Crassifolioside 11 [120]

Luteolin 12 [120]

Diosmetin 13 [120]

Chrysoeriol 14 [120]

Tricin 15 [120]

Isothymusin 16 [120]

Eupatorin 17 [120]

6-Methoxyluteolin 3 47-trimethyl ether 10 [91]

6-Methoxyluteolin 4-methyl ether 9 [91]

Figure 4 Continued

22 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

N

NH

HN

HO

NH

O

NH

O

O

O

O

HN

N N

N

H

H

OAc

OAcOAc

OO

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

（3CO

（2

（2

（2

（2 （2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3N

（2N

（2N

（2N

（2N

minus

+

+

5-Desmethylnoboletin 18 [120]

Genkwanin 19 [120]

Salvigenin 20 [120]

Lippialactone 21 [92]

Xanthine 22 [120]

Valine 24 [94]

Isoleucine 25 [94]

Asparagine 26 [94]

Phenylalanine 27 [94]

Lysine 29 [94]

Histidine 30 [94]

Tyrosine 31 [94]

Tryptophan 32 [94]

Alanine 33 [93]

Glycine 34 [93]

Proline 35 [93]

Serine 36 [93]

Glutamine acid 37 [93]

Glutamine 39 [93]

4-Hydroxyproline 41 [93]

(E)-2(3)-Tagetenone epoxide 42 [91]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]

-Alanine 38 [93]

-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [93]

-Aminoadipic acid 28 [94]

-Aminobutyric acid 23 [93 94]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 23

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

H

H

HH

H

O

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

HO

OH

O

O

O

O

OH（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4]

3-Carene 47 [4]

Eucalyptol 48 [4]

18 myrcene 49 [123]

Ipsdienone 50 [123]

Caryophyllene 51 [93]

Geranial 52 [5 100 101]

26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [100]

Geraniol 54 [100]

Octen-3-one 55 [5]

6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]

Artemisia ketone 58 [5]

Linalool oxide 59 [5]

Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5]

Carvyl acetate 63 [5]

Sesquithujene 65 [5]

Acora-35-diene 66 [5]

-Pinene 44 [3-5 123 96 97 98 99] -Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]

(+)-2-Carene 46 [4]

-Bergamotene 67 [5]

-Cubebene 64 [5]

(Z)--Ocimenone 61 [5]

(E)--Ocimenone 62 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

24 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OH

H

H

H

H

O

OHO

HO

H

HH H

H

H

HH

H

HO

HO

O

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

Trans-calamenene 68 [5]

Cis-calamenene 72 [5]

Nerolidol 73 [5]

(E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 96 97]

Spathulenol 75 [5]

Chrysanthenone 78 [98]

Linalool acetate 84 [99]

Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [99]

Camphene 86 [3 5 96 97 98 99]

Sabinene 88 [3 5 123 98 99]

Myrcene 89 [3 5 123 100 101 96 97 99 102 103]

-Alaskene 69 [5]

-Terpineol 79 [3 5 98 99]

-Amorphene 80 [98]

-Cadinene 70 [45]-Thujene 81 [99]

-Cadinene 71 [3 96 97 99] -Terpinene 82 [99]

-Cubebene 83 [99]

-Pinene 87 [3 5 99]

-Longipinene 77 [98]

-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 96 97]

Epi--muurolol 76 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 25

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O

OH

OH

H

H

H

H

H

HOO

OH

O

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（3(（2)3（2

（3(（2)6（2

2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]

Limonene 92 [3 5 100 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3]

Isomyrcenol 98 [3]

p-Cymene 99 [3 5 93 96 97 98 99]

2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]

Terpinolene 101 [3]

Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 96 97 99 103]

Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 96 97]

(Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]

67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]

Nonanal 106 [3]

Perillene 107 [3 99]

Ipsenone 108 [3 123 96 97 103]

Trans-linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 96 97 98]

1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 96 97]

Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]

Trans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]

Cis-linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 96 97 98]

Cis-tagetone 115 [3 96 97]

Trans-tagetone 116 [3 96 97]

-Copaene 114 [3 5 96 97 98]

18-Cineole (=eucalyptol) 93 [3 5 98 99 103]

-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 96 97 99]

(Z)--Ocimene 96 [3 5 96 97 99]

(E)--Ocimene 97 [3 5 96 97 99]

Camphor 117 [3 5 101 96 97 98 102]

Figure 4 Continued

26 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

HH

H

H

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 93 100 101 96 97 98]

Myrcenone 123 [3 5 91 99]

2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol 125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]

Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 96 97]

Ipsdienol 132 [3]

(Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]

Isovaleric acid 134 [3]

Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]

Borneol 142 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 99]

Trans--bergamotene 121 [3]

-Cedrene 122 [3 5]

-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 123 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)--Farnesene 129 [3]

(E)--Farnesene 130 [3 5]

-Muurolene 139 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Muurolene 138 [3 5 96 97]

-Acoradiene 136 [3]

-Acoradiene 137 [3]

-Humulene 135 [3 5 96 97 99]

(EE)--Farnesene 131 [3 96 97]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O O

HO

O

H

H

H

HO

HO

OH

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3CO（3

Verbenone 143 [3 99]

Germacrene-D 144 [3 123 101 96 97]

Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]

Carvone 148 [3 5 99]

Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 96 97 99]

Ar-curcumene 151 [3]

Cis-piperitol 152 [3]

2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]

26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol 156 [3 96 97]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]

Calamenene 158 [3]

Carvone oxide 159 [3]

Isopiperitenone 160 [3]

Cis-carveol 161 [3]

Piperitenone 162 [2 3 91 81]

Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 96 97]

-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]

-Bisabolene 146 [3]

-Curcumene 150 [3]

Figure 4 Continued

28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

OO

O

O

H

H

H

H

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

H

H

HCH

HH

HO

（3

（2

（2C

（3C（3C

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C O（3

Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3-5 96 97 98]

Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 96 97]

Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]

Spathulenol 167 [3]

Eugenol 168 [3 5]

Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [91]

Icterogenin 173 [104]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Figure 4

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to the NationalResearch Foundation (NRF) and GovanMbeki Research andDevelopment Centre (GMRDC) University of Fort Hare forfinancial support to conduct this research

References

[1] JWMwangi I Addae-Mensah RMMunavu andW LwandeldquoEssential oils of Kenyan Lippia species Part IIIrdquo Flavour andFragrance Journal vol 6 no 3 pp 221ndash224 1991

[2] N J Manenzhe N Potgieter and T Van Ree ldquoCompositionand antimicrobial activities of volatile components of Lippiajavanicardquo Phytochemistry vol 65 no 16 pp 2333ndash2336 2004

[3] A M Viljoen S Subramoney S F V Vuuren K H C Baserand B Demirci ldquoThe composition geographical variation andantimicrobial activity of Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae) leafessential oilsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 96 no 1-2 pp271ndash277 2005

[4] N Lukwa P Moslashlgaard P Furu and C Boslashgh ldquoLippia javanica(Burm f) Spreng its general constituents and bioactivity onmosquitoesrdquoTropical Biomedicine vol 26 no 1 pp 85ndash91 2009

[5] L S Chagonda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssential oil compositionof Lippia javanica (Burmf) spreng chemotype from WesternZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants vol 18 no 2pp 482ndash485 2015

[6] W Kipkore B Wanjohi H Rono and G Kigen ldquoA study of themedicinal plants used by the Marakwet Community in KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 242014

[7] E A Shikanga S Combrinck and T Regnier ldquoSouth AfricanLippia herbal infusions total phenolic content antioxidant andantibacterial activitiesrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76no 3 pp 567ndash571 2010

[8] N T Parrant ldquoThe potential of non-timber forest products ofBotswanardquo Botswana Notes Records vol 28 no 1 pp 203ndash2181996

[9] D M Motlhanka and S W Makhabu ldquoMedicinal and ediblewild fruit plants of Botswana as emerging new crop opportu-nitiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plants Research vol 5 no 10 pp1836ndash1842 2011

[10] M Bhebhe T N Fuller B Chipurura and M MuchuwetildquoEffect of solvent type on total phenolic content and free radicalscavenging activity of black tea and herbal infusionsrdquo FoodAnalytical Methods vol 9 no 4 pp 1060ndash1067 2016

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29

[11] M Bhebhe B Chipurura and M Muchuweti ldquoDeterminationand comparison of phenolic compound content and antioxidantactivity of selected local Zimbabwean herbal teas with exoticAspalathus linearisrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 100no 1 pp 213ndash218 2015

[12] B Patiri and A Borah Wild Edible Plants of Assam GeetakhiPrinters Guwahati India 2007

[13] H Narzary and A Basumatary ldquoProximate and vitamin Canalysis of wild edible plants consumed by Bodos of AssamIndiardquo Journal of Molecular Pathophysiology vol 4 no 4 pp128ndash133 2015

[14] M Gelfand S Mavi R B Drummond and B Ndemera TheTraditional Medical Practitioners in Zimbabwe His Principles ofPractice and Pharmacopoeia Mambo Press Gweru Zimbabwe1985

[15] D Davids Materia medica and care a study of the uses ofmedicinal herbs and remedies as a form of treatment andnegotiating social relationships in cape town and surroundings[MS dissertation] University of theWestern Cape Cape TownSouth Africa 2012

[16] A Maroyi and G K E Mosina ldquoMedicinal plants and tradi-tional practices in peri-urban domestic gardens of the Limpopoprovince South africardquo Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledgevol 13 no 4 pp 665ndash672 2014

[17] A Samie C L Obi P O Bessong and L Namrita ldquoActivityprofiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Vendacommunities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterialspeciesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 4 no 12 pp1443ndash1451 2005

[18] T York An ethnopharmacological study of plants used fortreating respiratory infections in rural Maputaland [MS disser-tation] University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa South Africa2012

[19] D Davids T Blouws O Aboyade et al ldquoTraditional healthpractitionersrsquo perceptions herbal treatment andmanagement ofHIV and related opportunistic infectionsrdquo Journal of Ethnobiol-ogy and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 77 2014

[20] A Hutchings A H Scott G Lewis and A CunninghamZulu Medicinal Plants An Inventory University of Natal PressPietermarizburg South Africa 1996

[21] RM Coopoosamy andK K Naidoo ldquoAn ethnobotanical studyofmedicinal plants used by traditional healers inDurban SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 6no 11 pp 818ndash823 2012

[22] I Hedberg and F Staugard Traditional Medicinal Plants inBotswana Ipeleng Gaborone Botswana 1989

[23] H Shahriar A S M H K Chowdhury S Rahman et al ldquoSci-entific validation of medicinal plants used by a folk medicinalpractitioner of Chuadanga District BangladeshrdquoWorld Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 11 pp 13ndash24 2014

[24] S S Semenya M J Potgieter and M P Tshisikhawe ldquoUseconservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinalplants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 12 no 18 pp2392ndash2405 2013

[25] M Roberts Indigenous Healing Plants Southern Book Publish-ers Halfway House Johannesburg South Africa 1990

[26] T Birhanu D Abera and E Ejeta ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas westernEthiopiardquo Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare vol 5no 1 pp 83ndash93 2015

[27] N T Mahlangeni R Moodley and S B Jonnalagadda ldquoEle-mental composition of Cyrtanthus obliquus and Lippia javanicaused in South African herbal tonic Imbizardquo Arabian Journal ofChemistry 2013

[28] W Musila D Kisangau and J Muema ldquoConservation statusand use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitionersin Machakos District Kenyardquo in Indigenous Knowledge Con-ference Proceedings Pennsylvania State University May 27ndash292004 2004

[29] G N Njoroge and R W Bussmann ldquoTraditional managementof ear nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 542006

[30] P Chigora R Masocha and F Mutenheri ldquoThe role of indige-nous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailmentsin rural Zimbabwe the case of Mutirikwi communal landsrdquoJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol 9 no 2 pp26ndash43 2007

[31] R W Bussmann G G Gilbreath J Solio et al ldquoPlant use ofthe Maasai of Sekenani Valley Maasai Mara Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 22 2006

[32] D Motlhanka and G P Nthoiwa ldquoEthnobotanical Survey ofmedicinal plants of Tswapong North in Eastern Botswana acase of plants from Mosweu and Seolwane Villagesrdquo EuropeanJournal of Medicinal Plants vol 3 no 1 pp 10ndash24 2013

[33] A Vhurumuku ldquoKnowledge use and attitudes towardsmedici-nal plants of pre-service teachers at a South African UniversityrdquoGlobal Advanced Research Journal in Environmental Science andToxicology vol 4 no 2 pp 15ndash24 2015

[34] M N Nkwanyana An ethnobotanical and antidiarrhoeal inves-tigation of plants used traditionally in the maputaland areahomesteads [MS dissertation] University of Zululand KwaD-langezwa South Africa 2013

[35] T E Moeng An investigation into the trade of medicinal plantsbymuthi shops and street vendors in the Limpopo Province SouthAfrica [MS thesis] University of Limpopo Gauteng SouthAfrica 2010

[36] S Bandeira A M Manjate and O Filipe ldquoAn EcologicalAssessment of the Health of the Chibuto-Missavene Wetlandin the Dry Season Mozambique Emphasis on ResourcesAssessment Utilization and Sustainability Analysisrdquo reportto Challenge Program for Water and Food InternationalWater Management Institute Pretoria South Africa 2006httpscgspacecgiarorgbitstreamhandle105682160421604pdfsequence=1

[37] M C Palgrave R B Drummond and E J Moll Trees ofSouthern Africa Struik Cape Town South Africa 2003

[38] M O Nanyingi J M Mbaria A L Lanyasunya et alldquoEthnopharmacological survey of Samburu district KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4 article 142008

[39] J G J P Sankar and K B Satapathy ldquoWeed diversity of Rabicrops and their ethnomedicinal uses in Kendrapara districtof Odisha Indiardquo International Research Journal of BiologicalSciences vol 4 no 3 pp 33ndash38 2015

[40] D E N Mabogo The ethnobotany of the vhavenda [MSdissertation] University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa1990

[41] B-E van Wyk B van Oudtshoorn and N Gericke MedicinalPlants of South Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2013

[42] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used forthe treatment of tuberculosis by Bapedi traditional healers

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

OphthalmologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Diabetes ResearchJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Research and TreatmentAIDS

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 2: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

2 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

(a) (b)

Figure 1 (a) Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng flowers and leaves (photo BT Wursten) and (b) L javanica herbal tea traded as Zumbani inZimbabwe (httpspecialityfoodscozwproductzumbani)

[98] According to de Campos et al [100] the genus Lippiacomprises about 200 species of herbs shrubs and smalltrees distributed throughout south and central America andtropical Africa Only 15 Lippia species have been recordedin tropical Africa [101] The specific name ldquojavanicardquo wasgiven by theDutch Botanist Nicolaas Laurens Burman (1734ndash1793) in 1768 whomistakenly thought that the type specimenwas collected in Java Indonesia [102] He placed the speciesin the genus Verbena and the German botanist Sprengel(1766ndash1833) transferred Burmanrsquos name to the genus Lippiain 1825 [103] Lippia javanica is morphologically similar to Lscaberrima Sond but is much taller and its bracts are shorterthan the flowers (Figure 1(a)) while L scaberrima has manystems arising from ground level and is usually less than 05metres high and its bracts are not longer than the flowers[104]

Lippia javanica is an erect woody perennial herb orshrub of up to 45m tall with strong aromatic leaves whichgive off a lemon-like fragrance when crushed [105] Stemsare brownish usually erect or spreading with short stifftubercle-based whitish hairs and small glands and branchedwith inflorescences in nearly all axils Leaves are oppositeor in whorls of 3 blades lanceolate to oblong and denselypubescent rounded and then cuneate at the base andcrenate-serrate or closely serrulate on themargins except nearthe leaf base [106] Flowers occur in conical or oblong spikespurple or dull-reddish in fruit dark brownish on drying [101106] The flowers are sessile or with short peduncles lowerbracts of spikes ovate and upper bracts smaller pubescentglandular and densely spreading [101] The calyx is 2-lobedhalf as long as the corolla pubescent and densely spreadingThe corolla is white yellowish-white to greenish (Figure 1(a))usually with a yellow throat glandular and pubescent outsidein the upper half tube narrowly funnel-shaped from a narrowbase [101 106] Anthers are sulphur-yellow and nutlets arebrown and half ovoid [101 106]

Lippia javanica occurs naturally in central eastern andsouthern Africa (Figure 2) and has also been recorded in thetropical Indian subcontinent [12 13 23 39 47 61] In sub-Saharan Africa the species is native to Angola BotswanaCentral African Republic Democratic Republic of CongoEthiopia Kenya Malawi Mozambique South Africa Swazi-land Tanzania Uganda Zambia Zanzibar and Zimbabwe

1000 km

Figure 2 Lippia javanica naturally occurs in central eastern andsouthern Africa

Lippia javanica has been recorded in low to high altitude(0ndash2350m above sea level) woodlands and wooded grass-lands scrub bushland and grassy rocky kopjes in riverinevegetation and on margins of dambos and swampy groundsometimes on termite mounds in montane grasslands andon evergreen forest margins also in disturbed ground besideroads forest clearings plantations and cultivated land andbecoming a weed in derived rangelands [101 106]This showsthat the plant is highly adaptable to a wide range of climaticsoil and vegetation conditions

2 Traditional Uses of Lippia javanica

Lippia javanica is used for a wide variety of traditional uses(Table 1) Based on literature the most important traditionalapplications include its uses as herbal tea and ethnomedicinalapplications for (in descending order of importance) coldscough fever or malaria wounds repelling mosquitos diar-rhoea chest pains bronchitis and asthma (Figure 3) Thesedifferent uses are discussed in the following seven sections

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 3

Table1Tradition

aluses

ofLippiajavanica

incentraleaste

rnand

southern

Africa

Use

Plantp

art(s

)used

Mod

eofu

seCou

ntry

practised

Reference(s)

Food

uses

Food

additiv

eLeavestwigs

Leaves

andtwigsb

oiledtogether

with

maizecassavagroun

dnutsandcommon

tea

(Cam

elliasin

ensis

(L)Ku

ntze)

Kenya

[6]

Herbaltea

Leaves

Leaves

canbe

sundriedforlater

use

Botsw

anaSouth

Africaand

Zimbabw

e[7ndash11]

Leafyvegetable

Leaves

Eatenas

vegetablew

ithmeato

rfish

India

[1213]

Respira

tory

problem

s

Asthma

Leavestwigs

Decoctio

ntakenorallyor

smokeinh

aled

SouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[14

ndash17]

Blockedno

seLeaves

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

mixed

with

anyof

theses

pecies

Brachylaenaun

ifloraHarv

Clau

sena

anisa

ta(W

illd)H

ookfex

BenthC

lematis

brachiataTh

unbC

ombretum

molleR

BrexGD

onE

ucalyptusgrand

isWH

ill

Helichrysum

krau

ssiiSchB

ipKrau

seolamosam

bicin

aPaxampHoff

mPlectra

nthu

sneochilusS

chltrSenecio

serratuloidesD

CorT

richilia

emetica

Vahl

takenorally

SouthAfrica

[18]

Bron

chitis

Leavesroo

tsandste

ms

Leafinfusio

nof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

appliedto

skin

asointmento

rleafand

stem

infusio

nof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofAr

temisiaafra

JacqexWilldtaken

orally

Botsw

anaSouth

Africa

[1519ndash22]

Chestp

ains

Leavesroo

ts

Leaves

androotso

fLjavanica

alon

echewe

dor

decoctiontakenorallyor

used

inwashes

andpo

ultic

esor

smokeinh

aled

orldquoim

bizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

and

Cyrtanthus

obliquu

s(Lf)

Aito

ntakenorallyor

leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofanyof

theses

peciesB

rachylaena

transvaalensis

HutchexE

Phillipsamp

Schw

eickC

brachiataE

grandisH

kraussiiorT

emetica

takenorallyor

leafjuice

takenorallywith

cloveso

fAllium

sativ

umL

Bang

ladesh

Ethiop

iaand

SouthAfrica

[141823ndash27]

Colds

Leavestwigs

Leafinfusio

nof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

inhaledor

appliedas

anointmento

rldquoim

bizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

stakenorally

Botsw

anaKe

nya

SouthAfricaand

Zimbabw

e

[1516192127ndash

32]

Cou

ghLeaves

stemsand

twigs

Leaves

ofLjavanica

alon

echewed

orinfusio

ninhaledor

takenorallyor

appliedas

anointmento

rleafand

stem

infusio

nof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofanyof

these

speciesAc

anthosperm

umgla

bratum

(DC)W

ildA

afraB

unifloraB

transvaalensis

BrideliacatharticaBe

rtolC

anisa

taC

brachiataC

molle

EgrandisHkraussiiK

mosam

bicin

aPneochilusPsidium

guajavaLSserratuloidesTerminaliaseric

eaBu

rch

exDCTetradeniarip

aria(H

ochst)

Cod

dor

Tem

etica

takenorally

Botsw

ana

Ethiop

iaSou

thAfricaand

Zimbabw

e

[151618ndash

21263032]

Influ

enza

Leavesroo

tsDecoctio

ntakenorally

Mozam

biqu

eSouthAfrica

[733ndash36]

Lung

infections

Leaves

Infusio

nstakenorally

SouthAfrica

[37]

4 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table1Con

tinued

Use

Plantp

art(s

)used

Mod

eofu

seCou

ntry

practised

Reference(s)

Measle

sLeavesstems

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

body

washedwith

infusio

nor

leafand

stem

infusio

nof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofA

afra

takenorally

KenyaSouth

Africaand

Zimbabw

e[14

2038]

Pneumon

iaLeaves

Ointm

entrub

bedon

chestand

abdo

men

Zimbabw

e[14

]Re

spira

tory

disorders

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorally

IndiaSouthAfrica

[39ndash

41]

Runn

yno

seLeavesroo

ts

Leafandroot

decoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofanyof

theses

peciesB

transvaalensisB

cathartica

CanisataC

brachiataE

grandisHypoxissppK

mosam

bicin

aPguajavaSserratuloidesP

neochilusor

Tem

etica

takenorally

SouthAfrica

[18]

Shortnesso

fbreath(dyspn

oea)

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorallyor

body

washedwith

decoction

Zimbabw

e[14

]

Sore

throat

Leaves

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofE

grandiso

rTripariatakenorally

SouthAfrica

[18]

Tonsillitis

Leaves

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofE

grandistaken

orally

SouthAfrica

[18]

Tuberculosis

Leaves

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

ldquoimbizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

stakenorally

SouthAfrica

Ugand

a[244243]

Gastro

intestina

ldise

ases

Amoebiasis

Leavestwigs

Decoctio

ntakenorally

Kenya

[6]

Anthelm

intic

sLeaf

Infusio

nstakenorally

SouthAfrica

[40]

Diarrho

eaLeavesroo

tsDecoctio

ntakenorally

Kenya

Mozam

biqu

eSouthAfrica

[1729343744]

Gangrenou

srectitis

Leaves

Infusio

nstakenorally

SouthAfrica

[45]

Prop

hylacticagainstd

iarrho

eaLeaves

Infusio

ntakenorally

SouthAfrica

[40]

Vomiting

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorally

ZanzibarTanzania

[46]

Fevermalariaand

asinsectrepellent

Fever

Leaves

stemsand

twigs

Leafandtwigdecoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

leafandste

minfusio

nof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofanyof

theses

peciesA

afra

BtransvaalensisC

anisataC

molle

EgrandisPgua

javaSserratuloidesTripariaorT

emetica

takenorally

SouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[14

161820]

Gettin

grid

ofliceinsectsandlicea

ndas

mosqu

itorepellent

Leavestwigs

andwho

leplant

Usedin

washesa

ndpo

ultic

esor

asste

amor

sprayedor

burnttochasea

way

mosqu

itoes

Ethiop

iaSou

thAfricaand

Zimbabw

e[4263447ndash51]

Malaria

Leavesroo

tsDecoctio

ntakenorally

Mozam

biqu

eSouthAfrica

[173352]

Prop

hylacticagainstm

alaria

Leaves

Infusio

ntakenorally

SouthAfrica

[40]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 5

Table1Con

tinued

Use

Plantp

art(s

)used

Mod

eofu

seCou

ntry

practised

Reference(s)

Wound

sinjurie

spainand

skin

infec

tions

Abdo

minalpains

Leaves

Leaves

chew

edandjuices

wallowed

Zimbabw

e[14

]Ac

neLeaves

Not

specified

Botsw

ana

[22]

Antidotes

Roots

Usedas

antid

otefor

food

poiso

ning

Botsw

ana

[22]

Backache

Roots

Infusio

ntakenorally

SouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[14

20]

Bleeding

from

then

ose(epistaxis)

Leaves

Freshleaves

inserted

into

nose

orpo

wderedleaves

sniffed

SouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[14

53]

Boils

Leaves

Infusio

ntakenorally

SouthAfrica

[54]

Chickenpo

xLeaves

Usedin

washesa

ndpo

ultices

oras

steam

SouthAfrica

[50]

Earache

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorallymixed

with

leaves

ofE

grandis

SouthAfrica

[18]

Febrile

rashes

Leaves

Infusio

nstakenorally

SouthAfrica

[40]

Headachemigraine

Leavesroo

tsLeafandroot

decoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofanyof

theses

peciesB

cathartica

CbrachiataE

grand

isTrip

aria

andTem

etica

takenorally

KenyaSouth

Africaand

Zimbabw

e[14

18333438]

Inflammation

Leaves

Not

specified

SouthAfrica

[41]

Pubics

ores

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorallymixed

with

leaves

ofAc

anthosperm

umau

strale(Lo

efl)Ku

ntze

Swaziland

[55]

Scabies

Leavesroo

tsInfusio

ntakenorallyor

used

inwashesa

ndpo

ultic

esor

asste

amSouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[14

5054]

Shingles

Leavestwigs

androots

Appliedas

anointment

SouthAfrica

[15]

Skin

disorderssuch

asheatrash

scratchessting

sandbites

Leavestwigs

Appliedas

anointmento

rldquoim

bizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

stakenorally

SouthAfrica

[2127]

Sores

Leaves

Decoctio

nof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

bark

ofAc

aciaburkeiBe

nthO

zoroaengle

riR

Fern

ampAFernScle

rocaryabirrea

(AR

ich)H

ochstSyzygium

cordatum

Hochstex

Krauss

andTabernaemontana

elegans

Stapftaken

orally

SouthAfrica

[56]

Sore

eyescataracts

Leavesroo

tsJuices

queezedinto

eyes

Botsw

ana

Zimbabw

e[14

22]

Sprained

joints

Roots

Root

powdera

ppliedto

scarificatio

nsarou

ndsprained

joints

SouthAfrica

[20]

Ulcers

Leaves

Juicetaken

orallywith

cloveso

fAsativum

Bang

ladesh

[23]

Wou

nds

Leaves

Freshleaves

wrapp

edarou

ndwou

ndto

enhanceh

ealin

gor

infusio

ntakenorally

KenyaSouth

Africa

[5457]

Ethn

oveterinaryu

ses

Disinfectin

gsuspectedanthrax-infeste

dmeat

Who

leplant

Who

leplantsused

todisin

fectsuspectedanthrax-infeste

dmeat

SouthAfrica

[20]

Gettin

grid

ofticks

andother

ectoparasites

Leavestwigs

andwho

leplant

Crushedleaves

mixed

with

water

andsprayedtwigsu

sedas

bedd

ingin

fowlrun

sSouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[58ndash60]

Lice

repellant

Who

leplant

Who

leplantu

sedto

repelliceinpo

ultry

India

[61]

Milk

preservativ

eStem

Stem

appliedto

milk

gourdbefore

milk

ferm

entatio

nKe

nya

[62]

6 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table1Con

tinued

Use

Plantp

art(s

)used

Mod

eofu

seCou

ntry

practised

Reference(s)

Otheruses

Anaem

iain

pregnancy

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorally

ZanzibarTanzania

[46]

Broo

mWho

leplant

Who

leplantscutand

tiedtogether

tomaker

ough

broo

ms

SouthAfrica

[53]

Cancer

Leaves

ldquoImbizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

stakenorally

SouthAfrica

[27]

Cerem

onial

Leavesw

hole

plant

Usedbefore

andaft

erfuneralsor

placed

onpatie

ntsrsquobedaft

ercircum

cisio

nKe

nyaSouth

Africa

[315863]

Con

vulsion

sLeaves

Leaves

rubb

edon

face

Zimbabw

e[14

64]

Diabetes

Leaves

ldquoImbizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

stakenorally

SouthAfrica

[27]

Fatig

ueor

tiredness

Leaves

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofA

glabratum

orE

grandiso

rTriparia

takenorally

SouthAfrica

[18]

Fence

Who

leplant

Plantedarou

ndho

mesteads

Ethiop

ia[26]

Fodd

erLeaves

Leaves

eatenby

goats

Kenya

[31]

Fuelw

ood

Who

leplant

Who

leplantu

sedas

fuelw

ood

ZanzibarTanzania

[46]

Hum

anim

mun

odeficiency

virus(HIV

)or

acqu

iredim

mun

odeficiency

synd

rome

(AID

S)symptom

sLeaves

ldquoImbizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

swhich

istakenorally

SouthAfrica

[6566

]

Kidn

eyprob

lems

Root

50groot

powd

erbo

iledin

2litreso

fwaterpatient

takesa

cupof

thismixture

once

per

dayfor3

days

Swaziland

[67]

Madness

Leavesw

hole

plant

Body

washedwith

leafinfusio

nMalaw

iZimbabw

e[14

68]

Marasmicinfants

Roots

Infusio

nsused

tobath

infants

SouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[14

20]

Night

blindn

ess

Leaves

Face

washedwith

infusio

nZimbabw

e[14

]Nightmares

Not

specified

Not

specified

Zimbabw

e[64]

Pre-intra-andpo

stpartum

complications

Stem

roo

tsSm

earp

owdero

froo

torstem

Kenya

[69]

Preventin

god

oursor

beingused

indo

ors

tofre

shen

air

Leavesw

hole

plant

Leaves

sprin

kled

intoiletsto

prevento

dourso

rwho

leplantp

lacedin

vase

orroom

KenyaSouth

Africa

[313558]

Protectio

nagainstd

ogsa

ndcrocod

iles

Leaves

Leaves

smearedon

body

SouthAfrica

[70]

Psycho

tropicb

ehaviour

Leaves

Infusio

ntakenorally

Swaziland

[71]

Removingbadluck

Leaves

Face

andhand

swashedwith

infusio

nof

Ljavanica

leaves

mixed

with

Cmolleleaves

Swaziland

[72]

Sleeplessn

ights

Leaves

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofE

grandisand

Trip

ariatakenorally

SouthAfrica

[18]

Todrivea

way

badspirits

Leaves

Body

washedwith

infusio

nZimbabw

e[14

]To

preventinfantsfro

mcontracting

illnesscaused

byfather

ormother

committingadultery

Leaves

Leaves

rubb

edon

foreheadelbow

sandkn

eesa

fterc

ommittingadultery

Zimbabw

e[14

]

Venerealdiseases

Roots

Decoctio

ntakenorally

Mozam

biqu

e[44]

Weakjoints

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorally

Zimbabw

e[14

]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Asthma

Bronchitis

Chest pains

Diarrhoea

Mosquito repellent

Wounds

Fevermalaria

Herbal tea

Cough

Colds

Times found in literature

Figure 3 Main ethnobotanical applications of Lippia javanica in central eastern and southern Africa An ethnobotanical use is countedonly once per publication

Food Uses Respiratory Problems Gastrointestinal DiseasesFever Malaria and Insect Repellent Wounds Injuries Painand Skin Infections Ethnoveterinary Uses and Other Uses

21 Food Uses Leaves and twigs of Lippia javanica are usedas food additives in Kenya [6] and leafy vegetable in India[12 13] Lippia javanica is popular as herbal tea particularlyin Botswana South Africa and Zimbabwe [7ndash11] Lippiajavanica herbal tea is prepared by steeping fresh or driedleaves stems or twigs in boiling water and letting them standfor two to five minutes to release flavour with or withoutmilk and sugar added according to taste A stronger brewknown as a decoction is prepared by boiling fresh or driedleaves stems or twigs for more than five minutes The herbaltea prepared from L javanica leaves stems or twigs has alemon or vanilla aroma and is often used as a common tea(ie C sinensis) substitute or a few leaves stems or twigsare added to C sinensis to provide a lemon or vanilla aromaAccording to Soukand and Kalle [87] herbal tea or tisaneis an English term used to denote a decoction or infusionmade of herbs for medicinal purposes When L javanica isused as medicinal herbal tea it is consumed for a limitednumber of days to treat a specific condition like asthma inZimbabwe [14] bronchitis in South Africa [19] chest painsin Zimbabwe and South Africa [14 24] colds in KenyaSouth Africa and Zimbabwe [19 20 28ndash30] cough in SouthAfrica and Zimbabwe [19 20 30 53] and other diseases(see Table 1) From literature it seems L javanica herbaltea evolved over the years from medicinal tea decoctionsor infusions to nonmedicinal uses where the herbal teais now drunk for recreation and enjoyment According toShikanga et al [7] L javanica tea is appreciated throughoutits distributional range as a general health tonic and alsobecause it is naturally caffeine-free and has a calming andrelaxing effect Research done by other workers for exampleManenzhe et al [2] Shikanga et al [7] Parrant [8] Olivieret al [81] Motlhanka and Makhabu [9] and Bhebhe et al[10 11] revealed that L javanica is a popular recreational teain southern Africa consumed on a daily basis within a food

context while medicinal infusions or tisanes of L javanicaare taken for a specific medical purpose During the past20 years the use of herbal teas has increased globally [107]because of their functional properties and consumer interestin the health promoting properties of such beverages [108]The other advantage associated with L javanica usage is thatthe leaves can be sun-dried and later boiled in water anddrunk as herbal tea [9]

Most of L javanica used as herbal tea in rural andperiurban communities in central eastern and southernAfrica is still collected from the wild although small-scale cultivation has become necessary as it is marketed asherbal tea in Botswana under the brand name ldquoMosukudurdquoor ldquoMosukujanerdquo [109] and in Zimbabwe as ldquoZumbanirdquo(Figure 1(b)) Although considerable quantities of L javanicaare sold in local markets in Botswana and Zimbabwe andalso traded on the Internet there is no data on presentproduction levels traded volumes values and export figuresin these two countries Research by Whiteside [110] showedthat sales of L javanica tea bags generated an income ofR2030000 (US$5718) during 19941995 in Botswana Thereis increased demand for L javanica herbal tea especiallyin the light of growing health consciousness worldwidewith the estimated potential demand for the species and itsproducts around 100 tonnes per year on the local marketand 1000 tonnes per year on the export market (httpbio-innovationorgworkfever-tea-tree) Considering the rapidgrowth of the herbal tea industry worldwide and the increas-ing demand for L javanica products there is need for theimprovement of L javanica products as well as developmentof new products Therefore L javanica has potential to makethe transition from limited local use to commercial andinternational product Lippia javanica has been identifiedas one of the few plant species that should be integratedin the domestication process in farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa to supportmedicinal nutritional and incomesecurity of local communities [107 111] According to VanWyk [111] L javanica is of commercial value as herbal tea andhealth drinks Therefore commercialization of L javanica is

8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

unlikely to be viable if the product is sorely harvested fromthe wild In the same line commercialization of L javanicamight be more worthy if other products other than tea arederived from the plant

22 Respiratory Problems The different parts of L javanicafor example the leaves and twigs are used for the treatmentof asthma coughs colds influenza pneumonia tuberculosisand bronchial problems in Bangladesh Botswana EthiopiaKenya South Africa and Zimbabwe [14ndash16 19 20 23 25 2628ndash32 53 112] In Bangladesh leaf infusion of L javanica istaken orally mixed with 3-4 pieces of cloves ofA sativum 2-3times daily as remedy for chest pains [23] In Ethiopia leavesof L javanica are chewed with butter as remedy for chestpains and cough [26] In India L javanica leaf decoctionis taken orally as remedy for respiratory disorders [39] InKenya leaves are sniffed [31] or half glass of hot leaf infusionis taken orally three times a day [28 29] as remedy for coldsand cough Research done by Davids et al [19] in SouthAfrica revealed that about 50 g of leaves is added to a cupof boiling water to produce an infusion which is taken orallyas remedy for coughs colds and bronchial problems or theinfusion is applied to the skin or mixed with Vaseline tomake an ointment In South Africa leaf or twig decoctionis taken orally for asthma colds and cough [16 53] leavesare used in washes and poultices for chest pains [25] andleaves are boiled for 5 minutes and one cup of extract is takenorally thrice a day for chest pains and tuberculosis [24 42]According to York [18] two handfuls of L javanica leaves areboiled in two litres of water and patient is steamed once ortwice a day to treat coughs chest pain headaches fever chillsa sore throat or a blocked nose This decoction can also betaken orally by drinking half a cup daily [18] Alternativelya handful of L javanica roots or leaves are mixed with ahandful leaves of A glabratum or B transvaalensis or Buniflora or B cathartica or C anisata or C brachiata orC molle or E grandis or H kraussii or Hypoxis spp or Kmosambicina or P neochilus or P guajava or S serratuloides orT sericea or T riparia or T emetica to treat blocked nosechest pain cough earache fatigue fever influenza headacherunny nose sleepless nights sore throat tiredness andtonsillitis [18] Leaf and stem infusion of L javanica are takenorally together with A afra by the Zulu people in SouthAfrica as remedy for bronchial ailments colds and cough[20] ldquoImbizardquo a popular herbal decoction prepared from Ljavanica and C obliquus is used by the Zulu people in SouthAfrica as herbal tonic and an immune booster and also forthe treatment of cancer chest pains colds diabetes HIV orAIDS symptoms skin infections and tuberculosis [27] Insome communities in South Africa L javanica leaf or rootinfusion is taken orally as remedy for influenza and malaria[33] and respiratory disorders [40 41] In Zimbabwe leafor root decoction is taken orally or smoke of burnt leavesand roots is inhaled as remedy for chest pains [14] and leafand twigs are boiled in water and infusion is taken orally asremedy for colds and cough [30] According to Gelfand etal [14] Shona people in Zimbabwe rub leaf ointment of Ljavanica on the chest and abdomen as remedy for pneumoniaand leaf decoction is taken orally and body washed with leaf

decoction as remedy for shortness of breath or dyspnoea InSouth Africa a leaf and stem infusion of L javanica are takenorally together with leaves of A afra as remedy for measles[20]

Based on literature inhalation of smoke from L javanicaappears to be a popular remedy for asthma chest painscolds and chronic coughs in Botswana South Africa andZimbabwe [14 15 20 32] In Botswana L javanica leafinfusion vapour is inhaled as remedy for colds and cough[32] In SouthAfrica for example leaves and twigs are burnedand smoke is inhaled as remedy for asthma and cough [15]or steam from leaf infusions is inhaled or hot leaf infusionsare taken orally against colds and cough [20] In Zimbabwesmoke of burnt leaves and roots is inhaled as remedy for chestpains [14]

23 Gastrointestinal Diseases The leaf and root decoction orinfusions of L javanica are used as remedies of the digestivesystem diseases such as cholera diarrhoea and dysenteryFor example in Mozambique root decoction is taken orallyas remedy for a type of diarrhoea commonly known asldquochinhamucacardquo which is characterized by milky diarrhoeaaccompanied by vomiting in children [44] Leaf decoctionis used as herbal medicine for diarrhoea in Kenya [113] InSouth Africa the leaves of L javanica are crushed and mixedwith cold or hot water and the mixture is then sieved and aquarter of a cup (75mL) is taken twice a day until diarrhoeasubsides [34] The Venda people in South Africa use leafinfusions as prophylactic against diarrhoea [40] Researchdone by Palgrave et al [37] in South Africa revealed that teainfusions of the L javanica leaves are used as remedies forHIVAIDS opportunistic infections such as lung infectionsand diarrhoea Previous research inMozambique [114] SouthAfrica [115] and Zimbabwe [116] showed that gastrointestinaldisorders particularly cholera diarrhoea and dysentery areamong human diseases often treated with herbal medicinesFor those patients diagnosed as having intestinal worms inVenda South Africa a leaf infusion of L javanica leavesis used as an anthelmintic [40] Therefore these findingsillustrate that herbal medicines including L javanica can playan important role in basic health care of local communitiesthrough treatment and management of cholera diarrhoeaand dysentery

24 Fever Malaria and Insect Repellent Traditionally Ljavanica is commonly used to treat fever and malaria andrepel insects throughout its distributional range [4 14 1617 33ndash35 40 48ndash50 58ndash60] In South Africa a decoctionof fresh or air dried leaves is used to wash or steam bodyparts infested with lice [50] In India the whole plant is usedto repel lice in poultry [61] In South Africa and Zimbabwewhole plant or leaves are burnt to repel mosquitoes [4 3435 48 49 58] In South Africa and Zimbabwe L javanicais widely used to get rid of ticks and other ectoparasites forexample ticks are sprayed with crushed leaves mixed withwater or twigs are used as bedding in fowl runs [58ndash60]Leaf and twig decoction of L javanica are taken orally asremedy for fever [16] The Venda people in South Africa useleaf infusions of L javanica as prophylactic against malaria

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9

[40] In Zimbabwe leaf decoction is taken orally as remedyfor fever [14]

Lippia javanica is also cultivated on a commercial scale bya rural community in Giyani the Limpopo province SouthAfrica for the production of mosquito-repellent candles[117] Clinical studies using human volunteers showed thatL javanica repels no less than 95 of mosquitos whereasmost mosquito repellents repel only 42 of them [118]Based on these findings the Council for Scientific andIndustrial Research (CSIR) South Africa signed a benefitsharing agreement with traditional healers allowing for thecommercial cultivation of L javanica aimed at establishingan indigenous oil industry for rural development and large-scale production of antimosquito candles and other insectrepellents The mosquito repellent is registered as a patentunder the Fertilisers Farm Feeds and Stock Remedies Act(Act 36 of 1947) as a pest repellent [119] These findings andthe establishment of a large-scale production of antimosquitocandles and other insect repellents strengthen the view thatL javanica is a potential source of antipesticidal agentsand to some extent validate the traditional use of the plantspecies for insect pest control Pesticidal plants such as Ljavanica are increasingly being used as alternatives wheresynthetic products are unaffordable or are not available or areineffective A number of studies have indicated that the use ofL javanica as a pesticide is a long-standing tradition passeddown from generation to generation [120]

25 Wounds Injuries Pain and Skin Infections Lippia javan-ica is used as remedy for a variety of skin infections andinjuries in Kenya South Africa Swaziland and ZimbabweIn SouthAfrica leaf infusions are used to treat skin disorderssuch as boils chicken pox febrile rashes heat rashesmeaslesscabies scratches and stings [20 21 40 50 54] In Kenyaabout 50 g of fresh leaves is wrapped around a fresh woundto enhance healing [57] and in South Africa leaf infusionsare taken orally as remedy for wounds [54] In SouthAfrica powder from burnt roots of L javanica is appliedto scarifications made around sprained joints to facilitatehealing [20] In Kenya and Zimbabwe leaf infusion is takenorally to treatmeasles or a patient is washedwith leaf infusion[14 38] The Zulu people in South Africa take a mixtureof chopped handful leaves of L javanica with the sameamount of bark of A burkeiO engleri S birrea S cordatumand T elegans boiled in two litres of water as an enemafor the treatment of sores [56] In Swaziland about 30 g ofL javanica leaves and similar amount of Acanthospermumaustrale Kuntze are boiled in 5 litres of water and decoctionis taken as remedy for sores [55] In Zimbabwe root ashesof L javanica mixed with fat are applied to the skin ofa patient with scabies [14] Wound healing is a processwhich involves distinct overlapping phases of coagulationinflammation proliferation and tissue remodelling [121]The same authors argued that a set of complex biochemicalevents takes place in a closely orchestrated cascade to repairthe wound and any errors in the wound healing processcan lead to delayed healing or formation of hypertrophicscars Abubakar [122] argued that colonization of woundsby opportunistic microorganisms usually delays the wound

healing process andor may lead to infectious conditionTherefore application of L javanica on wounds and skininfections leads to disinfection debridement and provisionof a suitable environment for aiding the wound healingprocess Lippia javanica has potential for therapeutic use inwound and skin diseases management but there is needfor research on the safety phytochemistry and biologicalproperties of the species

26 EthnoveterinaryUses The leaves stems twigs andwholeplants of L javanica are used as ethnoveterinary medicinein India Kenya South Africa and Zimbabwe The Xhosapeople in the Eastern Cape province South Africa use Ljavanica leaves for the disinfection of meat that has beeninfected with anthrax [20] In Kenya the stem of L javanicais used to preserve milk by applying it to the gourd beforemilk fermentation [62] In India whole plants are used aslice repellants while in South Africa and Zimbabwe crushedleaves mixed with water are used to get rid of ticks and twigsare used as bedding in fowl runs to get rid of ectoparasites[58ndash60]

27 Other Uses Lippia javanica is used as a good luck charmto treat persons experiencing bad dreams to ward off evilspirits to protect one from lightening and to protect thehome (Table 1) In Zimbabwe L javanica leaves are preparedas an infusion to treat persons experiencing nightmares [64]In both South Africa and Zimbabwe evil spirits are cleansedby washing the body of an affected person by leaf infusion ofL javanica [14 123] In Swaziland 50 g leaves of L javanicaand C molle are ground into a powder and 5 litres of wateris added and face and hands are washed to remove badluck when exposed to a corpse [71] In South Africa thewhole plant is placed on a patientrsquos bed after the circumcisionceremony [58] to prevent odours and freshen surroundingair A mixture of L javanica leaves and roots is used toclean tools and hands before and after funerals the stemsand leaves are used as brooms to sweep grave sites and theentire plant is also used when coming from the mortuaryto remove bad spirits [58 124] The corpse is washed withL javanica infusion after death to prevent odours formingor if the corpse has an odour women place pieces of Ljavanica in the nostrils of the corpse and sweep the roomwith twigs where the person was sleeping [58] In KwaZuluNatal South Africa if the meat started to smell it will beboiled with L javanica leaves to take away the smell [58]TheXhosa people in the Eastern Cape province South Africa useL javanica leaves for the disinfection of meat that has beeninfected with anthrax [20] In KwaZulu Natal South Africaleaves are sprinkled in toilets to prevent odours [58] Leavesof L javanica are sprinkled in houses for pleasant smell inthe Limpopo province South Africa [35] and Kenya [31] InKwaZulu Natal South Africa it is believed that a person canrepel snakes by placing a small stem with leaves on his orher head [58] In Malawi Swaziland and Zimbabwe peopleshowing sign of mental disorder madness or hystericaloutbursts are required towash their bodies with leaf infusions[14 67 68 71]

10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 2 Nutritional composition of Lippia javanica leaves

Caloric and nutritional composition Values ReferenceAsh 160 plusmn 0001 g [13]Calorific value 5064 plusmn 563 kcal [13]Crude fat 016 plusmn 0001 g [13]Crude fibre 263 plusmn 0002 g [13]Crude protein 122 plusmn 00004 g [13]Dry matter 1546 plusmn 140 g [13]Moisture 9044 plusmn 026 g [13]Total carbohydrate 655 plusmn 026 g [13]Vitamin C 2242 plusmn 0001mg [13]Ca 2856ndash9225 120583g gminus1 [27]Mg 1598ndash5619 120583g gminus1 [27]Fe 75ndash750 120583g gminus1 [27]Mn 401 plusmn 116 120583g gminus1 [27]Zn 156ndash273 120583g gminus1 [27]Cu 30ndash85 120583g gminus1 [27]Cr 0ndash27 120583g gminus1 [27]Se 257 plusmn 019 120583g gminus1 [27]Pb 038ndash119 120583g gminus1 [27]Cd 053 plusmn 005 120583g gminus1 [27]Co 019 plusmn 001 120583g gminus1 [27]

3 Phytochemical Constituents and NutritionalComposition of Lippia javanica

Multiple classes of phytochemicals including volatile andnonvolatile secondary metabolites such as alkaloids aminoacids flavonoids iridoids and triterpenes as well as severalminerals have been identified from L javanica [1ndash5 7 13 2773 78 81 83ndash86 88ndash94 120 123 125ndash127] Leaves flowersand twigs of L javanica have a wide variety of the so-calledclassic nutrients such as minerals carbohydrates proteinsfats and vitamins (Table 2) Lippia javanica leaves are a goodsource of minerals such as cadmium calcium chromiumcobalt copper iron magnesium manganese selenium andzinc [27] These authors assessed the levels of the elementsin L javanica leaves and found the elements to be in thedecreasing order of Ca gt Mg gt Fe gt Zn gt Mn gt Cu gt Se gtCr gt Pb gt Co gt Cd for total concentrations and Ca gt Mggt Fe gt Zn gt Cu gt Cr gt Pb for water extractable forms Theseresults corroborate an observation made by Sedaghathooret al [128] that Ca and Mg are among the most abundantelements in tea plants These mineral elements are importantin human nutrition since L javanica is used as herbaltea and food additive (Table 1) Calcium magnesium ironmanganese and zinc play a major role in activating someenzymes and regulating many responses of cells to stimuli[129] Some of the mineral elements identified from Ljavanica leaves are required by the human body for repair ofworn out cell tissues and strong bones and teeth and buildingof red blood cells and other related tissuesTherefore since Ljavanica has appreciable concentrations of mineral elementssuch as calcium magnesium iron manganese and zinc

(Table 2) which are essential for enzyme metabolism thesemineral elements could enhance the nutritional and curativeproperties of the species

Bhebhe et al [10] determined the total phenolic and tan-nin content and radical scavenging activities of L javanicacomparing it with Aspalathus linearis (Burmf) R Dahlgren(Rooibos) a commercial South African herbal tea andother popular herbal teas in Zimbabwe (Table 3) Adansoniadigitata L Fadogia ancylantha Schweinf Ficus sycomorus Land Myrothamnus flabellifolius Welw are indigenous herbalteas consumed in Zimbabwe The tannin content of Ljavanica is very low when compared to A linearis (Rooibos)(Table 3) Lippia javanica has higher radical scavenging activ-ity than A linearis (Table 3) which is probably due to highertotal phenolic content in comparison to A linearis which is apopular herbal tea consumed by 10 of the global herbal teamarket [10] In another study Bhebhe et al [11] determinedand compared the effect of several solvents namely hotwater 50 methanol ethanol 50 ethanol acetone 50acetone and ethyl acetate on phenolic composition and freeradical scavenging activity in common black tea C sinensisand five other well-known herbal teas including L javanicaIn all the seven solvents used L javanica had higher totalphenolic content than C sinensis implying that L javanicais competitive to the black tea in terms of phenolic contentShikanga et al [7] found leaf extracts of L javanica to havehigher phenolic content of 148 mgg gallic acid equivalentof dry weight than flowers (99mgg) and twigs (83mgg)Phenolic compounds found in plants are known to play animportant role as antioxidants in exhibiting the medicinalproperties such as antibiotic anti-inflammatory anticancerand antiallergic properties [10 66 130 131]

The compounds isolated from L javanica are docu-mented and listed in Appendix A and their structures arepresented in Appendix B Simple phenolic compounds andcaffeic acid and its derivatives are some of the compoundsthat have been identified in L javanica and examplesinclude coumarin 1 34-dihydroxy-120573-phenylethoxy-O-[410158401015840-120573-caffeoyl-120572-rhamnopyranosyl-(1101584010158401015840310158401015840)-O-120573-glucopyrano-side] commonly referred to as verbascoside 2 and 34-dihydroxy-120573-phenylethoxy-O-[610158401015840-120573-caffeoyl-120572-rhamnopy-ranosyl-(1101584010158401015840310158401015840)-O-120573-glucopyranoside] commonly referredto as isoverbascoside 3 isolated by Olivier et al [81] from theaerial parts of the species Nonvolatile diterpenes known asiridoid-glycosides have also been isolated from L javanicaby Rimpler and Sauerbier [82] represented by theveside-Na4 and theveridoside 5 Mujovo et al [83] isolated a longchain alkane ldquo4-ethylnonacosanerdquo 6 and four flavanonesapigenin 7 cirsimaritin 8 6-methoxyluteolin 41015840-methylether 9 and 6-methoxyluteolin 31015840410158407-trimethyl ether 10from ethanolic extracts of L javanica leaves Madzimureet al [120] identified an array of phenolic glycosides andflavonoids which include crassifolioside 11 luteolin 12diosmetin 13 chrysoeriol 14 tricin 15 isothymusin 16eupatorin 17 5-dimethyl noboletin 18 genkwanin 19salvigenin 20 and an alkaloid xanthine 22 Ludere et al[84] isolated lippialactone 21 from the ethyl acetate extractof aerial parts of L javanica Neidlein and Staehle [85] andDlamini [86] isolated 19 amino acids compounds 23 to

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11

Table 3 Total phenolic content (TPC) as gallic acid equivalents (GAE) and tannin content as leucocyanidin equivalents (LE) and free radicalscavenging activity (FRSA) of herbal tea extracts (after Bhebhe et al [10])

Plant species TPC g GAE100 g Tannin content of LE100 g Percentage FRSA IC50gmL

Lippia javanica 1246 plusmn 431 012 plusmn 001 8377 plusmn 08 0016Aspalathus linearis 669 plusmn 083 094 plusmn 004 6727 plusmn 025 0053Adansonia digitata 079 plusmn 028 169 plusmn 001 4307 plusmn 10 0132Fadogia ancylantha 288 plusmn 048 020 plusmn 012 700 plusmn 040 0051Ficus sycamores 1402 plusmn 001 198 plusmn 012 8613 plusmn 085 0009Myrothamnus flabellifolius 475 plusmn 033 104 plusmn 001 8093 plusmn 075 0019

41 in Appendix A from L javanica At least 131 differentclasses of essential oil compounds (compounds 42ndash172 inAppendices A and B) have been isolated from L javanica byseveral researchers [3ndash5 83 85 86 88ndash94 123] Hutchingsand van Staden [96] isolated a toxic triterpenoid saponinicterogenin 173 from L javanica leaves These differentclasses of essential oil compounds have been associatedwith various therapeutic activities such as anaestheticanalgesic anti-inflammatory antimicrobial cardiovasculardecongestant digestive expectorant hepatoprotective andsedative activities as well as stimulant of nervous systemand tonifying effects [132] Meanwhile flavonoids possessseveral pharmacological properties including antibacterialanticancer anti-inflammatory antioxidant antiviral andhepatoprotective effects [133] which play important rolesin human health Flavonoid such as apigenin 7 is reportedto possess antibacterial [134] and hepatoprotective [135]properties Apigenin 7 and luteolin 12 are reported to possessanti-inflammatory and analgesic effects [133] affecting thefunction of enzyme systems involved in the generation ofinflammatory processes especially tyrosine and serine-threonine protein kinases [136 137] It has also been reportedthat apigenin 7 prevents HIV-1 activation via a novelmechanism that involves inhibition of viral transcription[138] and luteolin 12 demonstrated synergistic effects withanother flavonoid kaempferol against herpes simplex virus[133] Kamiya [139] documented the importance of essentialamino acids such as lysine valine isoleucine and histidinein terms of the risks to health if they are deficientThe authoralso documented their biological effects which includemuscle protein maintenance potentiation of immunefunction tissue repair acceleration after burn or traumaprotecting liver from toxic agents lowering blood pressuremodulating cholesterol metabolism and stimulating insulinor growth hormone secretion Therefore L javanica leavesand other plant parts which have shown to be rich inflavonoid and polyphenolic compounds amino acids andessential oil could play an important role in the treatmentand management of diseases such as hypertension andinflammation listed in Table 1

4 Pharmacological Activities

Scientific studies on L javanica indicate that it has a widerange of pharmacological activities (Table 4) which include

anticancer [140] antidiabetic [141] antimalarial [4 49 142]antimicrobial [2 3 7 17 73ndash75 77 83 84 126 143]antioxidant [7 10 11 75 77 125] antiplasmodial [2 7980 84 144 145] and pesticidal effects [1 2 59 95 120146ndash150] and cytotoxicity [2 73 79 120] activities Table 4summarizes some of the pharmacological studies undertakenon L javanica extracts aimed at evaluating some of theethnomedicinal uses of the species documented throughoutits distributional range (see Table 1) Some of the listedpharmacological activities may not relate directly to thedocumented ethnomedicinal uses of the species but mayprovide some insight into the speciesrsquo potential therapeuticvalue and bioactive properties and application

41 Anticancer Activity Fouche et al [140] reported anti-cancer activity of dichloromethane root extract of L javanicaagainst three human cells exhibiting TGI value of 182120583gmLfor breast MDA-MB-435 186 120583gmL for breast MDA-N and209 120583gmL for melanoma MALME-3M Based on literaturea couple of terpenoid compounds that have been isolatedfrom L javanica are known to have antitumor propertiesFor example linalool 120 is known to have antitumoractivity which plays a protective role against hepatotoxicityand the compound has anti-inflammatory activities as well[151] Research by Yang et al [152] showed limonene 92 tohave inhibitory effect on pancreatic and mammary tumorsAnother terpenoid compound 120572-pinene 44 is known toinhibit translocation of NF-120581B or p65 protein into nuclei ofLPS-stimulated THP-1 cells [153] These findings serve as ascientific validation for the use of L javanica as a componentof a herbal concoction known in KwaZulu Natal province asldquoimbizardquo prepared by mixing L javanica with C obliquus asherbal medicine for cancer [27]

42 Antidiabetic Activity Arika et al [141] determined the invivo antidiabetic activity of aqueous leaf extracts of L javan-ica in white male alloxan-induced albino mice The aqueousleaf extracts of L javanica at all dose levels significantlylowered the blood glucose levels in both oral and intraperi-toneal routes The antidiabetic effect of L javanica couldhave been due to the observed presence of flavonoids Thepolyhydroxylated flavonol enhances lipogenesis and glucoseuptake in the adipocytes and flavanoids have demonstratedinsulinmimetic properties as the compound is known to beeffective at controlling blood sugar levels These findings

12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table4Summaryof

pharmacologicalactiv

ities

ofthee

xtractsisolated

from

different

partso

fLippiajavanica

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Antiamoebic

Piperitenon

e162

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f25120583

gmLagainstE

histolytica

[73]

Antibacteria

lPiperitenon

e162

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f50120583

gmLagainstA

calcoaceticu

sMkristin

ae(50120583

gmL)Styphi(25120583

gmL)and

Saureus

(12120583

gmL)

[73]

Antibacteria

l(Antiproteus)

Methano

lLeaves

Disc

diffu

sion

assay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f313120583gmLagainstPm

irabilis

and926120583

gmL

againstPvulgaris

[74]

Water

Leaves

Disc

diffu

sion

assay

Exhibitedweakactiv

ityagainstPm

irabilis

with

MIC

valueo

f1873120583gmLand1768120583gmLagainstPvulgaris

[74]

Antibacteria

l

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

coliwith

MIC

valueo

f064m

gmLE

faecalis(064)P

aeruginosa

(032

)andSaureus

(064)Totalactiv

ityMIC

values

werea

sfollo

wsE

coli(127

mgmL)E

faecalis

(127

mgmL)Paeruginosa

(253

mgmL)and

Saureus

(127

mgmL)

[75]

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

valueo

f3mgmLBa

cillusp

umilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(gt12mgmL)Saureus(12mgmL)E

faecalis

(6mgmL)E

cloacae

(6mgmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pantoea

agglo

meran

s(12mgmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Shigella

flexneri

(15mgmL)A

erom

onas

hydrophila(12m

gmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae(12mgmL)Salmonellacholeraesuis

(6mgmL)and

Serratiamarcescens(gt12mgmL)

[17]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

valueo

f12m

gmLB

pumilu

s(12m

gmL)B

subtilis(12m

gmL)Saureus(6m

gmL)E

faecalis

(12m

gmL)E

cloacae

(12m

gmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(12m

gmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(6

mgmL)A

hydrophila(12m

gmL)Pm

irabilis

(12m

gmL)K

pneum

oniae

(12m

gmL)Scholeraesuis(6

mgmL)and

antia

moebice

ffect

(12m

gmL)

[17]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

values

of15

mgmLB

pumilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(gt12mgmL)Saureus(12mgmL)E

faecalis

(3mgmL)E

cloacae

(6mgmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(12m

gmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(15mgmL)A

hydrophila(6

mgmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae

(12m

gmL)Scholeraesuis(6

mgmL)and

Smarcescens(12mgmL)

[17]

Essentialoil

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

values

of6m

gmLB

pumilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(3mgmL)Saureus(15

mgmL)E

faecalis

(3mgmL)E

cloacae

(12m

gmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(6

mgmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(3mgmL)A

hydrophila(3mgmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae

(3mgmL)Scholeraesuis(15mgmL)and

Smarcescens(gt12mgmL)

[17]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 13

Table4Con

tinued

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

faecaliswith

MIC

valueo

f014

mgmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

coliwith

MIC

valueo

f031

mgmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPaeruginosa

with

MIC

valueo

f042m

gmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstSaureus

with

MIC

valueo

f013

mgmL

[7]

Antifu

ngal

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

albicans

with

MIC

valueo

fgt75m

gmLC

krusei

(188m

gmL)and

Cneoforman

s(gt75

mgmL)

[7]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

albicans

with

MIC

valueo

fgt375

mgmLC

krusei

(375m

gmL)and

Cneoforman

s(gt75

mgmL)

[7]

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

kruseiwith

MFC

valueo

f75mgmL

[7]

Dichlorom

ethane

Aeria

lparts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFu

sariu

mproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f014

mgmLand

Fusariu

mverticillioides(019mgmL)

[76]

Hexane

Aeria

lparts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f023m

gmLandF

verticillioides(045

mgmL)

[76]

Methano

lAe

rialp

arts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f177m

gmLandF

verticillioides(043

mgmL)

[76]

Methano

lAe

rialp

arts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

fgt250

mgmLandF

verticillioides(gt250

mgmL)

[76]

Antim

ycob

acteria

l

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f047m

gmLandtotalactivity

of10mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Dichlorom

ethane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f125m

gmLandtotalactivity

of23

mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f062m

gmLandtotalactivity

of13mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f125m

gmLandtotalactivity

of7m

Lgagainst

Msmegmatis

[77]

14 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table4Con

tinued

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Antioxidant

Water

Leaves

DPP

Hassay

Exhibitedactiv

itywith

EC50valueo

f358120583gmL

[7]

Water

Leaves

mdashEx

hibitedactiv

itywith

209ascorbicacid

equivalent

(mggdryweight)

[7]

Water

Leaves

ABT

Sassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f15mmol10

0g[78]

Water

Leaves

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f146254

mmol10

0g[78]

Water

Leaves

FRAPassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f238m

mol10

0g[78]

Antiplasm

odial

Hexanechloroform

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f1225plusmn072120583gmL

[79]

Ethylacetate

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f1212plusmn079120583gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f135plusmn006120583gmL

[79]

Hexanechloroform

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f1859plusmn026120583gmL

[79]

Ethylacetate

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f1580plusmn026120583gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f175plusmn017120583gmL

[79]

Dichlorom

ethane

Roots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f38120583gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethanem

ethano

lRo

ots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f27120583

gmL

[80]

Methano

lRo

ots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f24120583

gmL

[80]

Water

Roots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

fgt100120583

gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethane

Stem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f45120583gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethanem

ethano

lStem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f218120583gmL

[80]

Methano

lStem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f298120583gmL

[80]

Water

Stem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

fgt100120583

gmL

[80]

Free

radicalscaveng

ing

activ

ity

Water

mdashDPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0059plusmn002

gmL

[11]

50methano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f004plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Ethano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0025plusmn0001gmL

[11]

50ethano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0027plusmn0005gmL

[11]

Aceton

emdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0057plusmn0004gmL

[11]

50aceton

emdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0022plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Ethylacetate

mdashDPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0066plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Toxicity

Methano

lLeaf

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

40mortalityrecorded

after

48hexpo

sure

towards

Artemianauplii

[74]

Methano

lRo

ots

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f8430120583

gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f6503120583

gmL

[79]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 15

strengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantidiabetic agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species mixed with C obliquus to form aherbal concoction known in KwaZulu Natal province SouthAfrica as ldquoimbizardquo used against diabetes [27]

43 Antimalarial Activity Govere et al [142] found thattopical application of L javanica alcohol extract leads to767 protection against Anopheles arabiensis for 4 hoursLippia javanica has been used as a mosquito repellent by therural communities in Zimbabwe for a long time and previousstudies have shown that essential oils from the species havevery strong and lasting repellent activity against female Aarabiensis [64] Research by Lukwa et al [4] revealed thattopical application of 5mgcm2 of L javanica leads to 100protection againstAnopheles aegypti for 8 hoursMavundza etal [154] screened dichloromethane and ethanol leaf extractsof L javanica for adulticidal activity againstA arabiensisTheauthors observed dichloromethane and ethanol activities of45 and 55mosquitomortality respectivelyThese findingsstrengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantimalarial agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species as mosquito repellent in India [47]South Africa [34 49 58] and Zimbabwe [4 48]

44 Antioxidant Activity Leaf infusions of L javanica exhib-ited antioxidant activity with EC

50value of 358120583gmL and

contained 148mgmL of dry weight gallic acid equivalentphenolic compounds [7] The EC

50value of 358 120583gmL

obtained for L javanica by Shikanga et al [7] compareswell to those of many commercial teas including antioxidantcapacity of Rooibos Fresh Pack herbal teas (A linearis)with the best antioxidant activity of 333 120583gmL The highantioxidant activities displayed by L javanica infusions canbe partially attributed to the high levels of verbascoside 2(15mgg dry weight) reported by Olivier et al [81] in theleaf extract of the species Earlier research by Muchuwetiet al [125] reported 744 inhibition of the DPPH radicalby an ethanolic leaf extract of L javanica Lekganyane etal [75] reported antioxidant activity in L javanica and theacetone extracts of the species displayed antioxidant activityon BEA chromatogram [77] Bhebhe et al [10] reported theantioxidant activities of L javanica based on the DPPHreducing power and inhibition of phospholipid peroxidationassays Free radical scavenging activity of L javanica isattributed to phenolic compounds since these compoundshave an ideal structural chemistry for free radical scavengingactivity [155] Bhebhe et al [11] determined the effect ofseveral solvents on the free radical scavenging activity ofL javanica using the DPPH assay Free radical scavengingactivity expressed as IC

50ranged from 0022 plusmn 0001 gmL to

0066 plusmn 0001 gmL see Table 4

45 Antiplasmodial Activity Prozesky et al [144] evaluatedL javanica leaf acetone extract for in vitro antiplasmodialactivity using PfUP1 a chloroquine resistant strain of themalaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum by means of theflow cytometric test The IC

50value for L javanica was

426 120583gmL Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil

piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica for antiplasmodialactivity using chloroquine diphosphate as positive controland found it active against a chloroquine sensitive strainof P falciparum in micromolar concentrations with IC

50of

8 120583gmL Clarkson et al [80] evaluated L javanica rootsand stems extracts for in vitro activity against P falciparumusing the parasite lactase dehydrogenase (pLDH) assay andchloroquine diphosphate (Sigma) as the positive controlThedichloromethane methane and water extracts showed IC

50

values ranging from 38 to gt100 120583gmL see Table 4 Omolo etal [145] screened the essential oil of L javanica for fumiganttoxicity to Anopheles gambiae which exhibited LD

50of 43 times

10minus3mg cmminus3 Ayuko et al [79] showed that L javanica rootextracts have antiplasmodial activity against P falciparumwith IC

50ranging from 135 to 1859 120583gmL see Table 4

Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity againstthe chloroquine sensitive D10 strain of P falciparum withan IC

50value of 91 120583gmL and is also mildly cytotoxic [84]

Compared to chloroquine the compound is approximately2000 times less active against the D10 strain of P falciparum[84]

46 Antimicrobial Activities Lippia javanica is widely usedin the treatment of a wide range of infectious diseasescaused by microorganisms Viljoen et al [3] determined theantimicrobial properties of L javanica by evaluating the timekill studies of the speciesrsquo essential oil using the disc diffusionassay on three respiratory pathogens Klebsiella pneumoniaeCryptococcus neoformans and Bacillus cereus This studyshowed that the killing rate was greatest for K pneumoniaefollowed by C neoformans and very little reduction of micro-bial populations was observed for B cereus The efficacy of Ljavanica oil for K pneumoniae showed a killing rate within30 minutes for the concentrations 025 05 075 and 1C neoformans showed a killing rate for concentrations 05075 and 1 within 1 hour and the lowest concentration of025 took 8 hours before a bactericidal effect was notedwhile B cereus showed some reduction in colonies [3] Thepositive antimicrobial activity of L javanica as revealed bythe time kill study could be attributed to linalool 120 whichaverages between 65 and 70 in yield [3 5 88 90] and hasknown antimicrobial properties [93 156ndash159]These findingssomehow corroborate the traditional use of L javanica asherbal medicine for a wide range of bacterial and fungalrespiratory ailments indicated in Table 1

Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil piperitenone162 isolated from L javanica for antibacterial activityon cultures of Bacillus subtilis Staphylococcus aureus andEscherichia coli using imipenem cefazolin and ampicillinas positive controls The authors found piperitenone 162to inhibit S aureus and E coli at 1 dilution Acetonehexane and methanol leaf extracts and essential oil isolatedfrom L javanica showed some activity against fifteen Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria with MIC values rang-ing from 15 to gt12mgmL [60] see Table 4 In a similarstudy Samie et al [73] demonstrated that a pure compoundpiperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica has antibacte-rial activities against Acinetobacter calcoaceticus Micrococcus

16 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

kristinae Salmonella typhi and S aureus using dimethylsulphoxide and kanamycin as controls with MIC valuesranging from 12 to 50 120583gmL see Table 4 Shikanga et al [7]evaluated the antibacterial activity of L javanica methanolicleaf extract against S aureus Enterococcus faecalis E coliand Pseudomonas aeruginosa using the serial microdilutionmethod with gentamycin (Virbac) and acetone as positiveand negative controls respectively Lippia javanica displayedantibacterial activities with MIC values ranging from 013to 042mgmL against all four pathogens see Table 4 Theobtained minimum inhibitory concentrations are promisingsince natural products with MIC values below 1mgmLare generally considered to be noteworthy findings [160]Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity against theE coli and S aureus at a concentration of 10mgmL [84]Lekganyane et al [75] reported antibacterial activity of Ljavanica acetone leaf extracts against E coli E faecalis Paeruginosa and S aureus with MIC values ranging from 032to 064mgmL and total activity of the same species rangingfrom 127 to 253mgmL see Table 4 Methanol and water leafextracts of L javanica exhibited some antiproteus activityagainstProteusmirabilis andProteus vulgariswithMICvalueslt2000120583gmL with standard discs of ampicillin (2120583g) andchloramphenicol (10 120583g) as positive controls [74] Some of theantibacterial properties of L javanica can be attributed to thephytochemical constituents of the species for example thephenolic compound apigenin 7 is a well-known antibacterialagent [7 134] Apigenin 7 was shown to be highly activeagainst Vibrio cholera and E faecalis [161] while Basile et al[162] reported the inhibition of S typhi P mirabilis and Paeruginosa by the compound Therefore results from theseantibacterial evaluations of L javanica give credence to theuse of the speciesrsquo infusions against bacterial infections andother related diseases

Shikanga et al [126] investigated the antifungal activ-ities of leaf extracts and essential oil compounds isolatedfrom L javanica leafy extracts against a Guazatine-resistantstrain of Penicillium digitatumThemethanolic leafy extractsisoverbascoside 3 and verbascoside 2 compounds isolatedfrom L javanica inhibited fungal growth at concentrationsabove 06mgsdotmLminus1 causing significant inhibition of mycelialgrowth Verbascoside 2 is well-known for its antimicrobialproperties and has been found to inhibit viruses bacteriaand fungi [163] Similarly Samie et al [143] investigatedantifungal effects of acetone and hexane leaf extracts of Ljavanica against Candida albicans Candida krusei and Cneoformans isolated from AIDS patients using the microdi-lution method with nystatin Roche and DMSO as positiveand negative controls respectively Noteworthy moderateantifungal activities were recorded from C krusei with MICvalue of 188mgmL and other recordedMFCandMICvaluesfor other species ranged from 188mgmL to gt75mgmLsee Table 4 Thembo et al [76] investigated the antifungalactivity of aqueous and organic extracts of L javanica usinga serial microdilution assay Generally extracts of L javanicaexhibited weak activity see Table 4

47 Antimycobacterial Activity Mujovo et al [83] evaluatedL javanica compounds against a drug-sensitive strain ofMycobacterium tuberculosis using the radiometric respira-tory techniques Of all the isolated compounds only onetriterpenoid carboxylic acid euscaphic acid 172 exhibitedantimycobacterial activity with MIC value of 50120583gmLminus1against this strain In a similar study the leaf extract ofL javanica exhibited antimycobacterial activity against Msmegmatis in an evaluation which used microdilution assayand rifampicin as control [77] Acetone extract was thebest extractant with MIC value of 047mgmL it extractedantibacterial agents which was indicated by the lowest MICvalue [77] Masoko and Nxumalo [77] also evaluated thetotal activity ofL javanicawhich averaged 13mLg suggestingthat the extract prepared from one gram of L javanicacould be diluted to a volume of 13mL and will still inhibitM smegmatis efficiently According to Semenya and Maroyi[115] tuberculosis caused by M tuberculosis is a seriousdisease requiring effective strategies and tools to controland manage it Therefore preliminary evaluations done byMujovo et al [83] and Masoko and Nxumalo [77] serve asa scientific validation for the use of L javanica in traditionalmedicine for treatment of tuberculosis and other respiratoryailments in South Africa [24 27 115] and Uganda [43] as wellas their efficiency in tuberculosis drug discovery

48 Antiviral Activity Mujovo et al [83] found that (E)-2(3)-tagetenone epoxide 42 and piperitenone 162 inhibitedthe HIV-1 reverse transcriptase enzyme by 91 and 53respectively at 100 120583gmLminus1 based on a nonradioactive HIVRT colorimetric ELISA kit Little is known about the HIV RTactivity of L javanica extracts or compounds but flavonoidsare known to be active against viral RT and also as potentinhibitors of the cellular alpha and beta DNA polymerase[83] while luteolin 12 is active against HIV RT [164 165]Lippia javanica is traditionally used to treat HIVAIDSsymptoms in South Africa [65 66] and several viral andHIVAIDS opportunistic diseases and infections such asbronchitis [15 19ndash22] chicken pox [50] diarrhoea [17 3437 44 113] measles [14 20 38] pneumonia [14] shingles[15] and venereal diseases [44] Despite significant advancesin the utilization of L javanica in southern Africa overthe years for numerous viral diseases (Table 1) very littleantiviral evaluations have been done on crude extracts andpurified compounds of the species There is need thereforefor more pharmacological research as L javanica could beharbouring potent (RT) inhibitors which could be useful forthe development of new pharmaceutical products importantfor use against viral diseases and infections

49 Pesticidal Effects Magano et al [95] evaluated the repel-lent effects of hexane extracts of L javanica essential oilusing the in vitro tick climbing repellency bioassay on adultsof Hyalomma marginatum rufipes Koch ticks The authorsfound that 107mgmL caused repellency index of 100 at onehour and 30 minutes In a similar study by Madzimure et al[120] L javanica aqueous leaf extracts at 10 and 20 wvwere effective at controlling cattle ticks (Amblyomma species

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 17

Boophilus species Hyalomma species Rhipicephalus appen-diculatus and Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi) and were as goodas the positive control amitraz-based acaricide TrickbusterThese authors found no parasites on microscopic exami-nation of the Giemsa-stained thin blood smear collectedfrom treated cattle implying that the animals did not sufferfrom clinical tick-borne diseases Similarly Nyahangare etal [59] tested the pesticidal activity of L javanica waterextracts against cattle ticks The authors found no significantdifference between cattle treated with a commercial syntheticacaricide and those under L javanica treatment Martinez-Velazquez et al [166] evaluated pesticidal effects of twoessential oils namely 120574-terpinene 82 and 120588-cymene 99isolated from Lippia graveolens Kunth against 10-day-oldRhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini) tick larvaeusing the larval packet test bioassay The two essential oilsproduced highmortality ranging from90 to 100 in all testedconcentrations of 20 to 125 (vv)Therefore L javanica canprovide an effective tick control option where synthetic prod-ucts are unavailable or unaffordable particularly in remoterural areas in sub-Saharan Africa Lippia javanica is popularfor tick control and management among resource-poorsmallholder farmers in South Africa [58 95] and Zimbabwe[59 60 120] While these preliminary evaluations may serveas confirmation that L javanica has some bioactivities againstticks a comprehensive method of tick control is requiredfor the resource-constrained smallholder farmers based onethnopharmacological properties of L javanica

McGaw et al [146] screened L javanica for the anthel-mintic test systems using the free living nematodeCaenorhabditis elegans The crude ethanol and hexaneextracts showed some activity at a concentration of 2mgmLwith the 7-day incubation assay appearing to be moresensitive than the shorter assay Earlier research by Mwangiet al [1] indicated that L javanica was active against Aedesaegypti larvae and Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (maizeweevil) Katsvanga and Chigwiza [147] reported that Ljavanica is an effective natural pesticide which can be used tocontrol aphid species (Brevicoryne brassicae) In their studyKatsvanga and Chigwiza [147] found that 1 1 powderedaqueous leaf extract of L javanica reduced B brassicae by532 against 783 and 967 of two synthetic pesticidesAphid kill and Bexadust ldquoLrdquo respectively Chikukura etal [149] found L javanica powdered leaf extracts to haveinsecticidal properties with potential to control graindamage by 21ndash33 Mashela et al [148] reported that theapplication of ground L javanica leaves to soil in nematode-infested (Meloidogyne incognita) pots reduced the nematodenumbers by 79ndash92 and significantly increased fresh fruityield dry shoot mass plant height and stem diameter ofthe tomato plants as well as levels of potassium nitrogenand manganese in leaf tissue Muzemu et al [150] evaluatedwater extracts of L javanica leaf powder for pesticidal effectsagainst rape (Brassica napus L) aphids B brassicae andtomato (Solanum lycopersicum Lam) red spider mites andTetranychus evansi as alternatives to conventional pesticidesLippia javanica reduced B brassicae and Tetranychus evansiby 125 and 63 respectively [150]The study demonstratedthat L javanica has pesticidal effects on B brassicae and T

evansi The reduced number of B brassicae and T evansicould be due to L javanicarsquos extracts having repellent toxicand antifeedant effects since the species has essential oilswith pesticidal properties [2] Therefore these findingsindicate that L javanica has both nematicidal and plantgrowth-promoting properties

410 Toxicity and Cytotoxicity Activity Lippia javanica isknown to cause liver damage and photosensitisation in live-stock resulting in stock losses [167] Triterpenoids isolatedfrom the genus Lippia are icterogenic and cause jaundice asa result of liver damage [167] The characteristic swellingyellowing and later peeling of unpigmented skin are due tothe presence of phylloerythrin a photodynamic porphyrinthat reacts with sunlight and causes severe cell damage [167]The compound is normally formed when chlorophyll isbroken down by microorganisms in the rumen but it nowaccumulates in the liver as a result of the damage caused bytriterpenoids [167] In view of the known toxicity of Lippiaspecies the prolonged use of high doses of L javanica ispotentially harmful [167] Lippia javanica showed low toxicityafter 48 h exposure with the percentage of mortality below50 [74]

Ayuko et al [79] evaluated the toxicity of L javanicausing a brine shrimp cytotoxicity assay with LC

50value of

1138 plusmn 133 120583gmL Ayuko et al [79] found the cytotoxicity toantiplasmodial activity ratios for the methanolic extracts ofthe two tested strains to be 8430 and 6503 and since theseare greater than 100 it may be concluded that the extractsare of low toxicity Samie et al [73] demonstrated that apure compound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanicaessential oil has low cytotoxicity activity against intestinaladenocarcinoma cells (ie the HCT-8 monolayers with IC

50

of 2656 plusmn 53 120583gmL) Lukwa [64] evaluated the toxicity of Ljavanica aqueous leaf extracts using sexually mature BALBcmice with the placebo as control Within 48 hours all micefed with the L javanica leaf aqueous extract at 125ndash375 vvwere lethargic and the overall mortality was 375 Previousresearch byManenzhe et al [2] showed that hydrodistillationof L javanica leaves flowers and stems produced oil thatwas poisonous against P falciparumwhen diluted to 1 (vv)These findings imply that despite its apparent safety waterextracts of L javanica leaves may have deleterious healthimplications on humans and animals if consumed at veryhigh doses

Many compounds that have been isolated from L javan-ica including phenolic glycosides flavonoids and essentialoils are not known to have acute toxic properties withthe exception of icterogenin 173 Icterogenin 173 has beenshown to inhibit biliary excretion in rabbits [168] Reports inliterature indicate that the consumption of xanthine 22 hasresulted in mammalian toxicity According to Madzimure etal [64] xanthine 22 is a demethylated derivative of caffeinewith pharmacological actions such as central nervous system(CNS) stimulation relaxation of smooth muscle (especiallybronchial muscle) myocardial stimulation peripheral vaso-constriction and diuresis Considering the widespread useof L javanica as herbal tea and medicine it is important

18 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

to determine if any toxicological effects can occur from itschronic or subchronic usage

411 Other Activities Mpofu et al [169] determined the effectof inclusion of L javanica leaf meal in broiler diets ongrowth performance carcass characteristics and fatty acidprofiles The authors found that the L javanica fed broilershad higher total polyunsaturated fatty acids and n-3 fattyacidsThe findings from the study showed that inclusion of Ljavanica in broiler diets at 5 gkg feed has positive influenceson growth performance carcass characteristics and fattyacid profiles of broiler meat and therefore L javanica haspotential as growth-promoting feed additive in broilersSamie et al [73] evaluated antiamoebic activity of a purecompound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica essen-tial oil against Entamoeba histolytica using microdilutionmethod with metronidazole as the positive control diluents(ie culture medium with an appropriate concentration ofdimethyl sulphoxide as the negative control) and a blank(ie culture medium without dimethyl sulphoxide) Samieet al [73] demonstrated that piperitenone 162 had markedantiamoebic activity with IC

50value of 25 120583gmL More

research is required as L javanica could be harbouring potentantiamoebic properties which could be useful for managingamoebiasis an infection that remains a significant cause ofmorbidity and mortality worldwide

5 Conclusion

Lippia javanica has been used in African and Asian countriesas herbal tea and medicine for many centuries Utilization ofL javanica because of its flavour and medicinal propertiesforms the basis of the current demand for the plant speciesin central eastern and southern Africa Research on Ljavanica over the past decade on health promoting propertieshas greatly contributed to the increased consumption ofthe species as herbal or recreational tea The focus of thisresearch has been on phytochemical compounds particularlyphenolic content and antioxidant and free radical scavengingactivities Phenolic compounds present in L javanica arelargely responsible for the antioxidant properties possessedby the species More research in this regard is required andfuture research should focus on more comprehensive chem-ical characterization of both crude and pure extracts andevaluate potential for commercialization and developmentof nutraceutical products based on traditional uses of Ljavanica Most of the pharmacological researches conductedon L javanica so far have focused on the phytochemistryand biological properties of leaves and little or no researchhas been done on roots and other plant parts Thereforefuture research on the species should focus on other plantparts for example flowers roots and stems as well asorgan-to-organ age and seasonal variation evaluations in thephytochemical content and pharmacological activities of thespecies

The recent increase in the demand for L javanica prod-ucts may partly be ascribed to growing body of scientific evi-dence indicating important health benefits Lippia javanica

is widely sold as herbal tea in Botswana South Africa andZimbabwe Leaves and stems of L javanica are also sold asherbal medicines in the medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquo marketsin South Africa [35 170] For local people who rely onherbal medicines as part of their primary healthcare aswell as cultural beliefs they prefer L javanica harvestedfrom the wild and unprocessed plant parts sold in informalmedicinal ldquomuthirdquo markets [170] In the past there were norecords of overexploitation of L javanica wild populationsin southern Africa resulting in Raimondo et al [171] listingthe species as Least Concern (LC) under the IUCN RedList Categories and Criteria version 31 of threatened species(httpwwwiucnredlistorg) Recently signs of overharvest-ing have been noted where local people or plant traders haveuprooted whole plants to supply medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquomarkets or use the plants as herbal medicines brooms orherbal tea Therefore large-scale commercial utilization of Ljavanica is not sustainable if the species is harvested fromthe wild Currently L javanica is cultivated on a commercialscale in Kenya [28] and South Africa [117] for essential oilproduction for the mosquito-repellent candles and perfumeindustry Cultivation of L javanica is therefore a solutionto the sustainability problems associated with harvesting ofthe species from the wild and this option is also necessaryfor establishing commercial scale medicinal production andprocessing and trade enterprises The success of commercialcultivation of L javanica will depend on how the species ismarketed as herbal tea and medicine and source of essentialoil and health care products and as a source of functionalfoods

Significant research has been made in the past 50 yearsinto the chemistry and pharmacology of L javanica Thesestudies have shown L javanica to display various chemicaland different biological activities some of which justify itsethnopharmacological utilization in variety of cultures Inthe light of the evidence that L javanica is combined withother plant species in traditional medicine it will be valuableto investigate the possibility of synergistic effects of thedifferent extracts Deep phytochemical studies of L javanicaand its phytochemical properties especially the mechanismsof action of its bioactive constituents to illustrate the cor-relation between ethnomedicinal uses and pharmacologicalactivities should be the focus of further research on thespecies There is need for extensive in vivo experiments tovalidate the existing pharmacological activities Howeverbecause L javanica contains potentially toxic compoundsits toxicological properties need to be properly establishedvia proper quality control of product development to ensurethat potentially toxic components are kept below tolerancelevels

Appendix

A Chemical Compounds Isolated andCharacterized from Lippia javanica

See Table 5

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 19

Table 5

Chemical compound Reference(s)Phenolic compoundsCoumarin 1 [4]Verbascoside 2 [81]Isoverbascoside 3 [81]Theveside-Na 4 [82]Theveridoside 5 [82]4-ethylnonacosane 6 [83]Apigenin 7 [64 83]Cirsimaritin 8 [64 83]6-Methoxy luteolin41015840-methyl ether 9 [83]

6-Methoxy luteolin31015840410158407-trimethyl ether 10 [83]

Crassifolioside 11 [64]Luteolin 12 [64]Diosmetin 13 [64]Chrysoeriol 14 [64]Tricin 15 [64]Isothymusin 16 [64]Eupatorin 17 [64]5-Dimethyl noboletin 18 [64]Genkwanin 19 [64]Salvigenin 20 [64]Lippialactone 21 [84]AlkaloidXanthine 22 [64]Amino acids120572-Aminobutyric acid 23 [85 86]Valine 24 [86]Isoleucine 25 [86]Asparagine 26 [86]Phenylalanine 27 [86]120572-Aminoadipic acid 28 [86]Lysine 29 [86]Histidine 30 [86]Tyrosine 31 [86]Tryptophan 32 [86]Alanine 33 [85]Glycine 34 [85]Proline 35 [85]Serine 36 [85]Glutamine acid 37 [85]120573-Alanine 38 [85]Glutamine 39 [85]120573-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [85]4-hydroxyproline 41 [85]Essential oil(E)-2(3)-tagetenoneepoxide 42 [83]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]120572-Pinene 44 [3ndash5 87ndash91]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4](+)-2-Carene 46 [4]3-Carene 47 [4]Eucalyptol 48 [4]18 myrcene 49 [87]Ipsdienone 50 [87]Caryophyllene 51 [85]Geranial 52 [5 92 93]26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [92]Geraniol 54 [92]Octen-3-one 55 [5]6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]120588-Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]Artemisia ketone 58 [5]Linalool oxide 59 [5]Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5](Z)-120573-Ocimenone 61 [5](E)-120573-Ocimenone 62 [5]Carvyl acetate 63 [5]120572-Cubebene 64 [5]Sesquithujene 65 [5]Acora-35-diene 66 [5]120573-Bergamotene 67 [5]Trans-calamenene 68 [5]120573-Alaskene 69 [5]120574-Cadinene 70 [5]120575-Cadinene 71 [3 88 89 91]Cis-calamenene 72 [5]Nerolidol 73 [5](E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 88 89]Spathulenol 75 [5]Epi-120572-muurolol 76 [5]120572-Longipinene 77 [90]Chrysanthenone 78 [90]120572-Terpineol 79 [3 5 90 91]120572-Amorphene 80 [90]120572-Thujene 81 [91]120574-Terpinene 82 [91]120572-Cubebene 83 [91]Linalool acetate 84 [91]Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [91]Camphene 86 [3 5 88ndash91]120573-Pinene 87 [3 5 91]Sabinene 88 [3 5 87 90 91]Myrcene 89 [3 5 87ndash89 91ndash95]120572-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 88 89]2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]Limonene 92 [3 5 88ndash94]18-Cineole 93 [3 5 90 91 95]120573-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 88 89 91]

20 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3](Z)-120573-Ocimene 96 [3 5 88 89 91](E)-120573-Ocimene 97 [3 5 88 89 91]Isomyrcenol 98 [3]p-Cymene 99 [3 5 85 88ndash91]2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]Terpinolene 101 [3]Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 88 89 91 95]Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 88 89](Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]Nonanal 106 [3]Perillene 107 [3 91]Ipsenone 108 [3 87ndash89 95]Trans-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 88ndash90]1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 88 89]Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]Ttrans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]cis-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 88ndash90]120572-Copaene 114 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetone 115 [3 88 89]Trans-tagetone 116 [3 88 89]Camphor 117 [3 5 88ndash90 93 94]120573-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 91]Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 85 88ndash90 92 93]

Trans-120572-bergamotene 121 [3]120572-Cedrene 122 [3 5]Myrcenone 123 [3 5 83 91]120573-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 87ndash91 93 94]2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 88 89](Z)-120573-Farnesene 129 [3](E)-120573-Farnesene 130 [3 5](EE)-120572-Farnesene 131 [3 88 89]Ipsdienol 132 [3](Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]Isovaleric acid 134 [3]120572-Humulene 135 [3 5 88 89 91]120572-Acoradiene 136 [3]120573-Acoradiene 137 [3]120574-Muurolene 138 [3 5 88 89]120572-Muurolene 139 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]Borneol 142 [3 5 88ndash90]Verbenone 143 [3 91]Germacrene-D 144 [3 87ndash89 93]120573-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]120574-Bisabolene 146 [3]Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]Carvone 148 [3 5 91]Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 88 89 91]120573-Curcumene 150 [3]Ar-curcumene 151 [3]Cis-piperitol 152 [3]2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol156 [3 88 89]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]Calamenene 158 [3]Carvone oxide 159 [3]Isopiperitenone 160 [3]Cis-carveol 161 [3]Piperitenone 162 [2 3 73 83]Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 88 89]Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3ndash5 88ndash90]Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 88 89]Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]Spathulenol 167 [3]Eugenol 168 [3 5]Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120573-ol(=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120572-ol(=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [83]Icterogenin 173 [96]

B Chemical Structures ofPhenolic Compounds Alkaloids AminoAcids and Essential Oils Isolated fromLippia javanica

See Figure 4

Competing Interests

The author declares that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 21

O

OO

OO O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

C CH CHO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

COOH

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

Me

OMe

OMe

OMe

MeO

Me

HOOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OMe

OMe

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

（2 （2

（2

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

（3CO

（3CO

Coumarin 1 [4]

Verbascoside 2 [89]

Isoverbascoside 3 [89]

Theveside-Na 4 [90]

Theveridoside 5 [90]

4-Ethylnonacosane 6 [91]

Apigenin 7 [120 91]

Cirsimaritin 8 [120 91]

Crassifolioside 11 [120]

Luteolin 12 [120]

Diosmetin 13 [120]

Chrysoeriol 14 [120]

Tricin 15 [120]

Isothymusin 16 [120]

Eupatorin 17 [120]

6-Methoxyluteolin 3 47-trimethyl ether 10 [91]

6-Methoxyluteolin 4-methyl ether 9 [91]

Figure 4 Continued

22 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

N

NH

HN

HO

NH

O

NH

O

O

O

O

HN

N N

N

H

H

OAc

OAcOAc

OO

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

（3CO

（2

（2

（2

（2 （2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3N

（2N

（2N

（2N

（2N

minus

+

+

5-Desmethylnoboletin 18 [120]

Genkwanin 19 [120]

Salvigenin 20 [120]

Lippialactone 21 [92]

Xanthine 22 [120]

Valine 24 [94]

Isoleucine 25 [94]

Asparagine 26 [94]

Phenylalanine 27 [94]

Lysine 29 [94]

Histidine 30 [94]

Tyrosine 31 [94]

Tryptophan 32 [94]

Alanine 33 [93]

Glycine 34 [93]

Proline 35 [93]

Serine 36 [93]

Glutamine acid 37 [93]

Glutamine 39 [93]

4-Hydroxyproline 41 [93]

(E)-2(3)-Tagetenone epoxide 42 [91]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]

-Alanine 38 [93]

-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [93]

-Aminoadipic acid 28 [94]

-Aminobutyric acid 23 [93 94]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 23

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

H

H

HH

H

O

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

HO

OH

O

O

O

O

OH（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4]

3-Carene 47 [4]

Eucalyptol 48 [4]

18 myrcene 49 [123]

Ipsdienone 50 [123]

Caryophyllene 51 [93]

Geranial 52 [5 100 101]

26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [100]

Geraniol 54 [100]

Octen-3-one 55 [5]

6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]

Artemisia ketone 58 [5]

Linalool oxide 59 [5]

Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5]

Carvyl acetate 63 [5]

Sesquithujene 65 [5]

Acora-35-diene 66 [5]

-Pinene 44 [3-5 123 96 97 98 99] -Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]

(+)-2-Carene 46 [4]

-Bergamotene 67 [5]

-Cubebene 64 [5]

(Z)--Ocimenone 61 [5]

(E)--Ocimenone 62 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

24 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OH

H

H

H

H

O

OHO

HO

H

HH H

H

H

HH

H

HO

HO

O

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

Trans-calamenene 68 [5]

Cis-calamenene 72 [5]

Nerolidol 73 [5]

(E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 96 97]

Spathulenol 75 [5]

Chrysanthenone 78 [98]

Linalool acetate 84 [99]

Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [99]

Camphene 86 [3 5 96 97 98 99]

Sabinene 88 [3 5 123 98 99]

Myrcene 89 [3 5 123 100 101 96 97 99 102 103]

-Alaskene 69 [5]

-Terpineol 79 [3 5 98 99]

-Amorphene 80 [98]

-Cadinene 70 [45]-Thujene 81 [99]

-Cadinene 71 [3 96 97 99] -Terpinene 82 [99]

-Cubebene 83 [99]

-Pinene 87 [3 5 99]

-Longipinene 77 [98]

-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 96 97]

Epi--muurolol 76 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 25

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O

OH

OH

H

H

H

H

H

HOO

OH

O

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（3(（2)3（2

（3(（2)6（2

2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]

Limonene 92 [3 5 100 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3]

Isomyrcenol 98 [3]

p-Cymene 99 [3 5 93 96 97 98 99]

2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]

Terpinolene 101 [3]

Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 96 97 99 103]

Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 96 97]

(Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]

67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]

Nonanal 106 [3]

Perillene 107 [3 99]

Ipsenone 108 [3 123 96 97 103]

Trans-linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 96 97 98]

1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 96 97]

Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]

Trans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]

Cis-linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 96 97 98]

Cis-tagetone 115 [3 96 97]

Trans-tagetone 116 [3 96 97]

-Copaene 114 [3 5 96 97 98]

18-Cineole (=eucalyptol) 93 [3 5 98 99 103]

-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 96 97 99]

(Z)--Ocimene 96 [3 5 96 97 99]

(E)--Ocimene 97 [3 5 96 97 99]

Camphor 117 [3 5 101 96 97 98 102]

Figure 4 Continued

26 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

HH

H

H

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 93 100 101 96 97 98]

Myrcenone 123 [3 5 91 99]

2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol 125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]

Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 96 97]

Ipsdienol 132 [3]

(Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]

Isovaleric acid 134 [3]

Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]

Borneol 142 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 99]

Trans--bergamotene 121 [3]

-Cedrene 122 [3 5]

-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 123 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)--Farnesene 129 [3]

(E)--Farnesene 130 [3 5]

-Muurolene 139 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Muurolene 138 [3 5 96 97]

-Acoradiene 136 [3]

-Acoradiene 137 [3]

-Humulene 135 [3 5 96 97 99]

(EE)--Farnesene 131 [3 96 97]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O O

HO

O

H

H

H

HO

HO

OH

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3CO（3

Verbenone 143 [3 99]

Germacrene-D 144 [3 123 101 96 97]

Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]

Carvone 148 [3 5 99]

Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 96 97 99]

Ar-curcumene 151 [3]

Cis-piperitol 152 [3]

2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]

26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol 156 [3 96 97]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]

Calamenene 158 [3]

Carvone oxide 159 [3]

Isopiperitenone 160 [3]

Cis-carveol 161 [3]

Piperitenone 162 [2 3 91 81]

Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 96 97]

-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]

-Bisabolene 146 [3]

-Curcumene 150 [3]

Figure 4 Continued

28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

OO

O

O

H

H

H

H

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

H

H

HCH

HH

HO

（3

（2

（2C

（3C（3C

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C O（3

Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3-5 96 97 98]

Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 96 97]

Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]

Spathulenol 167 [3]

Eugenol 168 [3 5]

Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [91]

Icterogenin 173 [104]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Figure 4

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to the NationalResearch Foundation (NRF) and GovanMbeki Research andDevelopment Centre (GMRDC) University of Fort Hare forfinancial support to conduct this research

References

[1] JWMwangi I Addae-Mensah RMMunavu andW LwandeldquoEssential oils of Kenyan Lippia species Part IIIrdquo Flavour andFragrance Journal vol 6 no 3 pp 221ndash224 1991

[2] N J Manenzhe N Potgieter and T Van Ree ldquoCompositionand antimicrobial activities of volatile components of Lippiajavanicardquo Phytochemistry vol 65 no 16 pp 2333ndash2336 2004

[3] A M Viljoen S Subramoney S F V Vuuren K H C Baserand B Demirci ldquoThe composition geographical variation andantimicrobial activity of Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae) leafessential oilsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 96 no 1-2 pp271ndash277 2005

[4] N Lukwa P Moslashlgaard P Furu and C Boslashgh ldquoLippia javanica(Burm f) Spreng its general constituents and bioactivity onmosquitoesrdquoTropical Biomedicine vol 26 no 1 pp 85ndash91 2009

[5] L S Chagonda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssential oil compositionof Lippia javanica (Burmf) spreng chemotype from WesternZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants vol 18 no 2pp 482ndash485 2015

[6] W Kipkore B Wanjohi H Rono and G Kigen ldquoA study of themedicinal plants used by the Marakwet Community in KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 242014

[7] E A Shikanga S Combrinck and T Regnier ldquoSouth AfricanLippia herbal infusions total phenolic content antioxidant andantibacterial activitiesrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76no 3 pp 567ndash571 2010

[8] N T Parrant ldquoThe potential of non-timber forest products ofBotswanardquo Botswana Notes Records vol 28 no 1 pp 203ndash2181996

[9] D M Motlhanka and S W Makhabu ldquoMedicinal and ediblewild fruit plants of Botswana as emerging new crop opportu-nitiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plants Research vol 5 no 10 pp1836ndash1842 2011

[10] M Bhebhe T N Fuller B Chipurura and M MuchuwetildquoEffect of solvent type on total phenolic content and free radicalscavenging activity of black tea and herbal infusionsrdquo FoodAnalytical Methods vol 9 no 4 pp 1060ndash1067 2016

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29

[11] M Bhebhe B Chipurura and M Muchuweti ldquoDeterminationand comparison of phenolic compound content and antioxidantactivity of selected local Zimbabwean herbal teas with exoticAspalathus linearisrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 100no 1 pp 213ndash218 2015

[12] B Patiri and A Borah Wild Edible Plants of Assam GeetakhiPrinters Guwahati India 2007

[13] H Narzary and A Basumatary ldquoProximate and vitamin Canalysis of wild edible plants consumed by Bodos of AssamIndiardquo Journal of Molecular Pathophysiology vol 4 no 4 pp128ndash133 2015

[14] M Gelfand S Mavi R B Drummond and B Ndemera TheTraditional Medical Practitioners in Zimbabwe His Principles ofPractice and Pharmacopoeia Mambo Press Gweru Zimbabwe1985

[15] D Davids Materia medica and care a study of the uses ofmedicinal herbs and remedies as a form of treatment andnegotiating social relationships in cape town and surroundings[MS dissertation] University of theWestern Cape Cape TownSouth Africa 2012

[16] A Maroyi and G K E Mosina ldquoMedicinal plants and tradi-tional practices in peri-urban domestic gardens of the Limpopoprovince South africardquo Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledgevol 13 no 4 pp 665ndash672 2014

[17] A Samie C L Obi P O Bessong and L Namrita ldquoActivityprofiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Vendacommunities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterialspeciesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 4 no 12 pp1443ndash1451 2005

[18] T York An ethnopharmacological study of plants used fortreating respiratory infections in rural Maputaland [MS disser-tation] University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa South Africa2012

[19] D Davids T Blouws O Aboyade et al ldquoTraditional healthpractitionersrsquo perceptions herbal treatment andmanagement ofHIV and related opportunistic infectionsrdquo Journal of Ethnobiol-ogy and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 77 2014

[20] A Hutchings A H Scott G Lewis and A CunninghamZulu Medicinal Plants An Inventory University of Natal PressPietermarizburg South Africa 1996

[21] RM Coopoosamy andK K Naidoo ldquoAn ethnobotanical studyofmedicinal plants used by traditional healers inDurban SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 6no 11 pp 818ndash823 2012

[22] I Hedberg and F Staugard Traditional Medicinal Plants inBotswana Ipeleng Gaborone Botswana 1989

[23] H Shahriar A S M H K Chowdhury S Rahman et al ldquoSci-entific validation of medicinal plants used by a folk medicinalpractitioner of Chuadanga District BangladeshrdquoWorld Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 11 pp 13ndash24 2014

[24] S S Semenya M J Potgieter and M P Tshisikhawe ldquoUseconservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinalplants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 12 no 18 pp2392ndash2405 2013

[25] M Roberts Indigenous Healing Plants Southern Book Publish-ers Halfway House Johannesburg South Africa 1990

[26] T Birhanu D Abera and E Ejeta ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas westernEthiopiardquo Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare vol 5no 1 pp 83ndash93 2015

[27] N T Mahlangeni R Moodley and S B Jonnalagadda ldquoEle-mental composition of Cyrtanthus obliquus and Lippia javanicaused in South African herbal tonic Imbizardquo Arabian Journal ofChemistry 2013

[28] W Musila D Kisangau and J Muema ldquoConservation statusand use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitionersin Machakos District Kenyardquo in Indigenous Knowledge Con-ference Proceedings Pennsylvania State University May 27ndash292004 2004

[29] G N Njoroge and R W Bussmann ldquoTraditional managementof ear nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 542006

[30] P Chigora R Masocha and F Mutenheri ldquoThe role of indige-nous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailmentsin rural Zimbabwe the case of Mutirikwi communal landsrdquoJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol 9 no 2 pp26ndash43 2007

[31] R W Bussmann G G Gilbreath J Solio et al ldquoPlant use ofthe Maasai of Sekenani Valley Maasai Mara Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 22 2006

[32] D Motlhanka and G P Nthoiwa ldquoEthnobotanical Survey ofmedicinal plants of Tswapong North in Eastern Botswana acase of plants from Mosweu and Seolwane Villagesrdquo EuropeanJournal of Medicinal Plants vol 3 no 1 pp 10ndash24 2013

[33] A Vhurumuku ldquoKnowledge use and attitudes towardsmedici-nal plants of pre-service teachers at a South African UniversityrdquoGlobal Advanced Research Journal in Environmental Science andToxicology vol 4 no 2 pp 15ndash24 2015

[34] M N Nkwanyana An ethnobotanical and antidiarrhoeal inves-tigation of plants used traditionally in the maputaland areahomesteads [MS dissertation] University of Zululand KwaD-langezwa South Africa 2013

[35] T E Moeng An investigation into the trade of medicinal plantsbymuthi shops and street vendors in the Limpopo Province SouthAfrica [MS thesis] University of Limpopo Gauteng SouthAfrica 2010

[36] S Bandeira A M Manjate and O Filipe ldquoAn EcologicalAssessment of the Health of the Chibuto-Missavene Wetlandin the Dry Season Mozambique Emphasis on ResourcesAssessment Utilization and Sustainability Analysisrdquo reportto Challenge Program for Water and Food InternationalWater Management Institute Pretoria South Africa 2006httpscgspacecgiarorgbitstreamhandle105682160421604pdfsequence=1

[37] M C Palgrave R B Drummond and E J Moll Trees ofSouthern Africa Struik Cape Town South Africa 2003

[38] M O Nanyingi J M Mbaria A L Lanyasunya et alldquoEthnopharmacological survey of Samburu district KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4 article 142008

[39] J G J P Sankar and K B Satapathy ldquoWeed diversity of Rabicrops and their ethnomedicinal uses in Kendrapara districtof Odisha Indiardquo International Research Journal of BiologicalSciences vol 4 no 3 pp 33ndash38 2015

[40] D E N Mabogo The ethnobotany of the vhavenda [MSdissertation] University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa1990

[41] B-E van Wyk B van Oudtshoorn and N Gericke MedicinalPlants of South Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2013

[42] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used forthe treatment of tuberculosis by Bapedi traditional healers

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

OphthalmologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Diabetes ResearchJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Research and TreatmentAIDS

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 3: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 3

Table1Tradition

aluses

ofLippiajavanica

incentraleaste

rnand

southern

Africa

Use

Plantp

art(s

)used

Mod

eofu

seCou

ntry

practised

Reference(s)

Food

uses

Food

additiv

eLeavestwigs

Leaves

andtwigsb

oiledtogether

with

maizecassavagroun

dnutsandcommon

tea

(Cam

elliasin

ensis

(L)Ku

ntze)

Kenya

[6]

Herbaltea

Leaves

Leaves

canbe

sundriedforlater

use

Botsw

anaSouth

Africaand

Zimbabw

e[7ndash11]

Leafyvegetable

Leaves

Eatenas

vegetablew

ithmeato

rfish

India

[1213]

Respira

tory

problem

s

Asthma

Leavestwigs

Decoctio

ntakenorallyor

smokeinh

aled

SouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[14

ndash17]

Blockedno

seLeaves

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

mixed

with

anyof

theses

pecies

Brachylaenaun

ifloraHarv

Clau

sena

anisa

ta(W

illd)H

ookfex

BenthC

lematis

brachiataTh

unbC

ombretum

molleR

BrexGD

onE

ucalyptusgrand

isWH

ill

Helichrysum

krau

ssiiSchB

ipKrau

seolamosam

bicin

aPaxampHoff

mPlectra

nthu

sneochilusS

chltrSenecio

serratuloidesD

CorT

richilia

emetica

Vahl

takenorally

SouthAfrica

[18]

Bron

chitis

Leavesroo

tsandste

ms

Leafinfusio

nof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

appliedto

skin

asointmento

rleafand

stem

infusio

nof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofAr

temisiaafra

JacqexWilldtaken

orally

Botsw

anaSouth

Africa

[1519ndash22]

Chestp

ains

Leavesroo

ts

Leaves

androotso

fLjavanica

alon

echewe

dor

decoctiontakenorallyor

used

inwashes

andpo

ultic

esor

smokeinh

aled

orldquoim

bizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

and

Cyrtanthus

obliquu

s(Lf)

Aito

ntakenorallyor

leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofanyof

theses

peciesB

rachylaena

transvaalensis

HutchexE

Phillipsamp

Schw

eickC

brachiataE

grandisH

kraussiiorT

emetica

takenorallyor

leafjuice

takenorallywith

cloveso

fAllium

sativ

umL

Bang

ladesh

Ethiop

iaand

SouthAfrica

[141823ndash27]

Colds

Leavestwigs

Leafinfusio

nof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

inhaledor

appliedas

anointmento

rldquoim

bizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

stakenorally

Botsw

anaKe

nya

SouthAfricaand

Zimbabw

e

[1516192127ndash

32]

Cou

ghLeaves

stemsand

twigs

Leaves

ofLjavanica

alon

echewed

orinfusio

ninhaledor

takenorallyor

appliedas

anointmento

rleafand

stem

infusio

nof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofanyof

these

speciesAc

anthosperm

umgla

bratum

(DC)W

ildA

afraB

unifloraB

transvaalensis

BrideliacatharticaBe

rtolC

anisa

taC

brachiataC

molle

EgrandisHkraussiiK

mosam

bicin

aPneochilusPsidium

guajavaLSserratuloidesTerminaliaseric

eaBu

rch

exDCTetradeniarip

aria(H

ochst)

Cod

dor

Tem

etica

takenorally

Botsw

ana

Ethiop

iaSou

thAfricaand

Zimbabw

e

[151618ndash

21263032]

Influ

enza

Leavesroo

tsDecoctio

ntakenorally

Mozam

biqu

eSouthAfrica

[733ndash36]

Lung

infections

Leaves

Infusio

nstakenorally

SouthAfrica

[37]

4 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table1Con

tinued

Use

Plantp

art(s

)used

Mod

eofu

seCou

ntry

practised

Reference(s)

Measle

sLeavesstems

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

body

washedwith

infusio

nor

leafand

stem

infusio

nof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofA

afra

takenorally

KenyaSouth

Africaand

Zimbabw

e[14

2038]

Pneumon

iaLeaves

Ointm

entrub

bedon

chestand

abdo

men

Zimbabw

e[14

]Re

spira

tory

disorders

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorally

IndiaSouthAfrica

[39ndash

41]

Runn

yno

seLeavesroo

ts

Leafandroot

decoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofanyof

theses

peciesB

transvaalensisB

cathartica

CanisataC

brachiataE

grandisHypoxissppK

mosam

bicin

aPguajavaSserratuloidesP

neochilusor

Tem

etica

takenorally

SouthAfrica

[18]

Shortnesso

fbreath(dyspn

oea)

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorallyor

body

washedwith

decoction

Zimbabw

e[14

]

Sore

throat

Leaves

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofE

grandiso

rTripariatakenorally

SouthAfrica

[18]

Tonsillitis

Leaves

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofE

grandistaken

orally

SouthAfrica

[18]

Tuberculosis

Leaves

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

ldquoimbizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

stakenorally

SouthAfrica

Ugand

a[244243]

Gastro

intestina

ldise

ases

Amoebiasis

Leavestwigs

Decoctio

ntakenorally

Kenya

[6]

Anthelm

intic

sLeaf

Infusio

nstakenorally

SouthAfrica

[40]

Diarrho

eaLeavesroo

tsDecoctio

ntakenorally

Kenya

Mozam

biqu

eSouthAfrica

[1729343744]

Gangrenou

srectitis

Leaves

Infusio

nstakenorally

SouthAfrica

[45]

Prop

hylacticagainstd

iarrho

eaLeaves

Infusio

ntakenorally

SouthAfrica

[40]

Vomiting

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorally

ZanzibarTanzania

[46]

Fevermalariaand

asinsectrepellent

Fever

Leaves

stemsand

twigs

Leafandtwigdecoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

leafandste

minfusio

nof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofanyof

theses

peciesA

afra

BtransvaalensisC

anisataC

molle

EgrandisPgua

javaSserratuloidesTripariaorT

emetica

takenorally

SouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[14

161820]

Gettin

grid

ofliceinsectsandlicea

ndas

mosqu

itorepellent

Leavestwigs

andwho

leplant

Usedin

washesa

ndpo

ultic

esor

asste

amor

sprayedor

burnttochasea

way

mosqu

itoes

Ethiop

iaSou

thAfricaand

Zimbabw

e[4263447ndash51]

Malaria

Leavesroo

tsDecoctio

ntakenorally

Mozam

biqu

eSouthAfrica

[173352]

Prop

hylacticagainstm

alaria

Leaves

Infusio

ntakenorally

SouthAfrica

[40]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 5

Table1Con

tinued

Use

Plantp

art(s

)used

Mod

eofu

seCou

ntry

practised

Reference(s)

Wound

sinjurie

spainand

skin

infec

tions

Abdo

minalpains

Leaves

Leaves

chew

edandjuices

wallowed

Zimbabw

e[14

]Ac

neLeaves

Not

specified

Botsw

ana

[22]

Antidotes

Roots

Usedas

antid

otefor

food

poiso

ning

Botsw

ana

[22]

Backache

Roots

Infusio

ntakenorally

SouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[14

20]

Bleeding

from

then

ose(epistaxis)

Leaves

Freshleaves

inserted

into

nose

orpo

wderedleaves

sniffed

SouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[14

53]

Boils

Leaves

Infusio

ntakenorally

SouthAfrica

[54]

Chickenpo

xLeaves

Usedin

washesa

ndpo

ultices

oras

steam

SouthAfrica

[50]

Earache

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorallymixed

with

leaves

ofE

grandis

SouthAfrica

[18]

Febrile

rashes

Leaves

Infusio

nstakenorally

SouthAfrica

[40]

Headachemigraine

Leavesroo

tsLeafandroot

decoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofanyof

theses

peciesB

cathartica

CbrachiataE

grand

isTrip

aria

andTem

etica

takenorally

KenyaSouth

Africaand

Zimbabw

e[14

18333438]

Inflammation

Leaves

Not

specified

SouthAfrica

[41]

Pubics

ores

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorallymixed

with

leaves

ofAc

anthosperm

umau

strale(Lo

efl)Ku

ntze

Swaziland

[55]

Scabies

Leavesroo

tsInfusio

ntakenorallyor

used

inwashesa

ndpo

ultic

esor

asste

amSouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[14

5054]

Shingles

Leavestwigs

androots

Appliedas

anointment

SouthAfrica

[15]

Skin

disorderssuch

asheatrash

scratchessting

sandbites

Leavestwigs

Appliedas

anointmento

rldquoim

bizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

stakenorally

SouthAfrica

[2127]

Sores

Leaves

Decoctio

nof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

bark

ofAc

aciaburkeiBe

nthO

zoroaengle

riR

Fern

ampAFernScle

rocaryabirrea

(AR

ich)H

ochstSyzygium

cordatum

Hochstex

Krauss

andTabernaemontana

elegans

Stapftaken

orally

SouthAfrica

[56]

Sore

eyescataracts

Leavesroo

tsJuices

queezedinto

eyes

Botsw

ana

Zimbabw

e[14

22]

Sprained

joints

Roots

Root

powdera

ppliedto

scarificatio

nsarou

ndsprained

joints

SouthAfrica

[20]

Ulcers

Leaves

Juicetaken

orallywith

cloveso

fAsativum

Bang

ladesh

[23]

Wou

nds

Leaves

Freshleaves

wrapp

edarou

ndwou

ndto

enhanceh

ealin

gor

infusio

ntakenorally

KenyaSouth

Africa

[5457]

Ethn

oveterinaryu

ses

Disinfectin

gsuspectedanthrax-infeste

dmeat

Who

leplant

Who

leplantsused

todisin

fectsuspectedanthrax-infeste

dmeat

SouthAfrica

[20]

Gettin

grid

ofticks

andother

ectoparasites

Leavestwigs

andwho

leplant

Crushedleaves

mixed

with

water

andsprayedtwigsu

sedas

bedd

ingin

fowlrun

sSouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[58ndash60]

Lice

repellant

Who

leplant

Who

leplantu

sedto

repelliceinpo

ultry

India

[61]

Milk

preservativ

eStem

Stem

appliedto

milk

gourdbefore

milk

ferm

entatio

nKe

nya

[62]

6 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table1Con

tinued

Use

Plantp

art(s

)used

Mod

eofu

seCou

ntry

practised

Reference(s)

Otheruses

Anaem

iain

pregnancy

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorally

ZanzibarTanzania

[46]

Broo

mWho

leplant

Who

leplantscutand

tiedtogether

tomaker

ough

broo

ms

SouthAfrica

[53]

Cancer

Leaves

ldquoImbizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

stakenorally

SouthAfrica

[27]

Cerem

onial

Leavesw

hole

plant

Usedbefore

andaft

erfuneralsor

placed

onpatie

ntsrsquobedaft

ercircum

cisio

nKe

nyaSouth

Africa

[315863]

Con

vulsion

sLeaves

Leaves

rubb

edon

face

Zimbabw

e[14

64]

Diabetes

Leaves

ldquoImbizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

stakenorally

SouthAfrica

[27]

Fatig

ueor

tiredness

Leaves

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofA

glabratum

orE

grandiso

rTriparia

takenorally

SouthAfrica

[18]

Fence

Who

leplant

Plantedarou

ndho

mesteads

Ethiop

ia[26]

Fodd

erLeaves

Leaves

eatenby

goats

Kenya

[31]

Fuelw

ood

Who

leplant

Who

leplantu

sedas

fuelw

ood

ZanzibarTanzania

[46]

Hum

anim

mun

odeficiency

virus(HIV

)or

acqu

iredim

mun

odeficiency

synd

rome

(AID

S)symptom

sLeaves

ldquoImbizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

swhich

istakenorally

SouthAfrica

[6566

]

Kidn

eyprob

lems

Root

50groot

powd

erbo

iledin

2litreso

fwaterpatient

takesa

cupof

thismixture

once

per

dayfor3

days

Swaziland

[67]

Madness

Leavesw

hole

plant

Body

washedwith

leafinfusio

nMalaw

iZimbabw

e[14

68]

Marasmicinfants

Roots

Infusio

nsused

tobath

infants

SouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[14

20]

Night

blindn

ess

Leaves

Face

washedwith

infusio

nZimbabw

e[14

]Nightmares

Not

specified

Not

specified

Zimbabw

e[64]

Pre-intra-andpo

stpartum

complications

Stem

roo

tsSm

earp

owdero

froo

torstem

Kenya

[69]

Preventin

god

oursor

beingused

indo

ors

tofre

shen

air

Leavesw

hole

plant

Leaves

sprin

kled

intoiletsto

prevento

dourso

rwho

leplantp

lacedin

vase

orroom

KenyaSouth

Africa

[313558]

Protectio

nagainstd

ogsa

ndcrocod

iles

Leaves

Leaves

smearedon

body

SouthAfrica

[70]

Psycho

tropicb

ehaviour

Leaves

Infusio

ntakenorally

Swaziland

[71]

Removingbadluck

Leaves

Face

andhand

swashedwith

infusio

nof

Ljavanica

leaves

mixed

with

Cmolleleaves

Swaziland

[72]

Sleeplessn

ights

Leaves

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofE

grandisand

Trip

ariatakenorally

SouthAfrica

[18]

Todrivea

way

badspirits

Leaves

Body

washedwith

infusio

nZimbabw

e[14

]To

preventinfantsfro

mcontracting

illnesscaused

byfather

ormother

committingadultery

Leaves

Leaves

rubb

edon

foreheadelbow

sandkn

eesa

fterc

ommittingadultery

Zimbabw

e[14

]

Venerealdiseases

Roots

Decoctio

ntakenorally

Mozam

biqu

e[44]

Weakjoints

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorally

Zimbabw

e[14

]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Asthma

Bronchitis

Chest pains

Diarrhoea

Mosquito repellent

Wounds

Fevermalaria

Herbal tea

Cough

Colds

Times found in literature

Figure 3 Main ethnobotanical applications of Lippia javanica in central eastern and southern Africa An ethnobotanical use is countedonly once per publication

Food Uses Respiratory Problems Gastrointestinal DiseasesFever Malaria and Insect Repellent Wounds Injuries Painand Skin Infections Ethnoveterinary Uses and Other Uses

21 Food Uses Leaves and twigs of Lippia javanica are usedas food additives in Kenya [6] and leafy vegetable in India[12 13] Lippia javanica is popular as herbal tea particularlyin Botswana South Africa and Zimbabwe [7ndash11] Lippiajavanica herbal tea is prepared by steeping fresh or driedleaves stems or twigs in boiling water and letting them standfor two to five minutes to release flavour with or withoutmilk and sugar added according to taste A stronger brewknown as a decoction is prepared by boiling fresh or driedleaves stems or twigs for more than five minutes The herbaltea prepared from L javanica leaves stems or twigs has alemon or vanilla aroma and is often used as a common tea(ie C sinensis) substitute or a few leaves stems or twigsare added to C sinensis to provide a lemon or vanilla aromaAccording to Soukand and Kalle [87] herbal tea or tisaneis an English term used to denote a decoction or infusionmade of herbs for medicinal purposes When L javanica isused as medicinal herbal tea it is consumed for a limitednumber of days to treat a specific condition like asthma inZimbabwe [14] bronchitis in South Africa [19] chest painsin Zimbabwe and South Africa [14 24] colds in KenyaSouth Africa and Zimbabwe [19 20 28ndash30] cough in SouthAfrica and Zimbabwe [19 20 30 53] and other diseases(see Table 1) From literature it seems L javanica herbaltea evolved over the years from medicinal tea decoctionsor infusions to nonmedicinal uses where the herbal teais now drunk for recreation and enjoyment According toShikanga et al [7] L javanica tea is appreciated throughoutits distributional range as a general health tonic and alsobecause it is naturally caffeine-free and has a calming andrelaxing effect Research done by other workers for exampleManenzhe et al [2] Shikanga et al [7] Parrant [8] Olivieret al [81] Motlhanka and Makhabu [9] and Bhebhe et al[10 11] revealed that L javanica is a popular recreational teain southern Africa consumed on a daily basis within a food

context while medicinal infusions or tisanes of L javanicaare taken for a specific medical purpose During the past20 years the use of herbal teas has increased globally [107]because of their functional properties and consumer interestin the health promoting properties of such beverages [108]The other advantage associated with L javanica usage is thatthe leaves can be sun-dried and later boiled in water anddrunk as herbal tea [9]

Most of L javanica used as herbal tea in rural andperiurban communities in central eastern and southernAfrica is still collected from the wild although small-scale cultivation has become necessary as it is marketed asherbal tea in Botswana under the brand name ldquoMosukudurdquoor ldquoMosukujanerdquo [109] and in Zimbabwe as ldquoZumbanirdquo(Figure 1(b)) Although considerable quantities of L javanicaare sold in local markets in Botswana and Zimbabwe andalso traded on the Internet there is no data on presentproduction levels traded volumes values and export figuresin these two countries Research by Whiteside [110] showedthat sales of L javanica tea bags generated an income ofR2030000 (US$5718) during 19941995 in Botswana Thereis increased demand for L javanica herbal tea especiallyin the light of growing health consciousness worldwidewith the estimated potential demand for the species and itsproducts around 100 tonnes per year on the local marketand 1000 tonnes per year on the export market (httpbio-innovationorgworkfever-tea-tree) Considering the rapidgrowth of the herbal tea industry worldwide and the increas-ing demand for L javanica products there is need for theimprovement of L javanica products as well as developmentof new products Therefore L javanica has potential to makethe transition from limited local use to commercial andinternational product Lippia javanica has been identifiedas one of the few plant species that should be integratedin the domestication process in farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa to supportmedicinal nutritional and incomesecurity of local communities [107 111] According to VanWyk [111] L javanica is of commercial value as herbal tea andhealth drinks Therefore commercialization of L javanica is

8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

unlikely to be viable if the product is sorely harvested fromthe wild In the same line commercialization of L javanicamight be more worthy if other products other than tea arederived from the plant

22 Respiratory Problems The different parts of L javanicafor example the leaves and twigs are used for the treatmentof asthma coughs colds influenza pneumonia tuberculosisand bronchial problems in Bangladesh Botswana EthiopiaKenya South Africa and Zimbabwe [14ndash16 19 20 23 25 2628ndash32 53 112] In Bangladesh leaf infusion of L javanica istaken orally mixed with 3-4 pieces of cloves ofA sativum 2-3times daily as remedy for chest pains [23] In Ethiopia leavesof L javanica are chewed with butter as remedy for chestpains and cough [26] In India L javanica leaf decoctionis taken orally as remedy for respiratory disorders [39] InKenya leaves are sniffed [31] or half glass of hot leaf infusionis taken orally three times a day [28 29] as remedy for coldsand cough Research done by Davids et al [19] in SouthAfrica revealed that about 50 g of leaves is added to a cupof boiling water to produce an infusion which is taken orallyas remedy for coughs colds and bronchial problems or theinfusion is applied to the skin or mixed with Vaseline tomake an ointment In South Africa leaf or twig decoctionis taken orally for asthma colds and cough [16 53] leavesare used in washes and poultices for chest pains [25] andleaves are boiled for 5 minutes and one cup of extract is takenorally thrice a day for chest pains and tuberculosis [24 42]According to York [18] two handfuls of L javanica leaves areboiled in two litres of water and patient is steamed once ortwice a day to treat coughs chest pain headaches fever chillsa sore throat or a blocked nose This decoction can also betaken orally by drinking half a cup daily [18] Alternativelya handful of L javanica roots or leaves are mixed with ahandful leaves of A glabratum or B transvaalensis or Buniflora or B cathartica or C anisata or C brachiata orC molle or E grandis or H kraussii or Hypoxis spp or Kmosambicina or P neochilus or P guajava or S serratuloides orT sericea or T riparia or T emetica to treat blocked nosechest pain cough earache fatigue fever influenza headacherunny nose sleepless nights sore throat tiredness andtonsillitis [18] Leaf and stem infusion of L javanica are takenorally together with A afra by the Zulu people in SouthAfrica as remedy for bronchial ailments colds and cough[20] ldquoImbizardquo a popular herbal decoction prepared from Ljavanica and C obliquus is used by the Zulu people in SouthAfrica as herbal tonic and an immune booster and also forthe treatment of cancer chest pains colds diabetes HIV orAIDS symptoms skin infections and tuberculosis [27] Insome communities in South Africa L javanica leaf or rootinfusion is taken orally as remedy for influenza and malaria[33] and respiratory disorders [40 41] In Zimbabwe leafor root decoction is taken orally or smoke of burnt leavesand roots is inhaled as remedy for chest pains [14] and leafand twigs are boiled in water and infusion is taken orally asremedy for colds and cough [30] According to Gelfand etal [14] Shona people in Zimbabwe rub leaf ointment of Ljavanica on the chest and abdomen as remedy for pneumoniaand leaf decoction is taken orally and body washed with leaf

decoction as remedy for shortness of breath or dyspnoea InSouth Africa a leaf and stem infusion of L javanica are takenorally together with leaves of A afra as remedy for measles[20]

Based on literature inhalation of smoke from L javanicaappears to be a popular remedy for asthma chest painscolds and chronic coughs in Botswana South Africa andZimbabwe [14 15 20 32] In Botswana L javanica leafinfusion vapour is inhaled as remedy for colds and cough[32] In SouthAfrica for example leaves and twigs are burnedand smoke is inhaled as remedy for asthma and cough [15]or steam from leaf infusions is inhaled or hot leaf infusionsare taken orally against colds and cough [20] In Zimbabwesmoke of burnt leaves and roots is inhaled as remedy for chestpains [14]

23 Gastrointestinal Diseases The leaf and root decoction orinfusions of L javanica are used as remedies of the digestivesystem diseases such as cholera diarrhoea and dysenteryFor example in Mozambique root decoction is taken orallyas remedy for a type of diarrhoea commonly known asldquochinhamucacardquo which is characterized by milky diarrhoeaaccompanied by vomiting in children [44] Leaf decoctionis used as herbal medicine for diarrhoea in Kenya [113] InSouth Africa the leaves of L javanica are crushed and mixedwith cold or hot water and the mixture is then sieved and aquarter of a cup (75mL) is taken twice a day until diarrhoeasubsides [34] The Venda people in South Africa use leafinfusions as prophylactic against diarrhoea [40] Researchdone by Palgrave et al [37] in South Africa revealed that teainfusions of the L javanica leaves are used as remedies forHIVAIDS opportunistic infections such as lung infectionsand diarrhoea Previous research inMozambique [114] SouthAfrica [115] and Zimbabwe [116] showed that gastrointestinaldisorders particularly cholera diarrhoea and dysentery areamong human diseases often treated with herbal medicinesFor those patients diagnosed as having intestinal worms inVenda South Africa a leaf infusion of L javanica leavesis used as an anthelmintic [40] Therefore these findingsillustrate that herbal medicines including L javanica can playan important role in basic health care of local communitiesthrough treatment and management of cholera diarrhoeaand dysentery

24 Fever Malaria and Insect Repellent Traditionally Ljavanica is commonly used to treat fever and malaria andrepel insects throughout its distributional range [4 14 1617 33ndash35 40 48ndash50 58ndash60] In South Africa a decoctionof fresh or air dried leaves is used to wash or steam bodyparts infested with lice [50] In India the whole plant is usedto repel lice in poultry [61] In South Africa and Zimbabwewhole plant or leaves are burnt to repel mosquitoes [4 3435 48 49 58] In South Africa and Zimbabwe L javanicais widely used to get rid of ticks and other ectoparasites forexample ticks are sprayed with crushed leaves mixed withwater or twigs are used as bedding in fowl runs [58ndash60]Leaf and twig decoction of L javanica are taken orally asremedy for fever [16] The Venda people in South Africa useleaf infusions of L javanica as prophylactic against malaria

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9

[40] In Zimbabwe leaf decoction is taken orally as remedyfor fever [14]

Lippia javanica is also cultivated on a commercial scale bya rural community in Giyani the Limpopo province SouthAfrica for the production of mosquito-repellent candles[117] Clinical studies using human volunteers showed thatL javanica repels no less than 95 of mosquitos whereasmost mosquito repellents repel only 42 of them [118]Based on these findings the Council for Scientific andIndustrial Research (CSIR) South Africa signed a benefitsharing agreement with traditional healers allowing for thecommercial cultivation of L javanica aimed at establishingan indigenous oil industry for rural development and large-scale production of antimosquito candles and other insectrepellents The mosquito repellent is registered as a patentunder the Fertilisers Farm Feeds and Stock Remedies Act(Act 36 of 1947) as a pest repellent [119] These findings andthe establishment of a large-scale production of antimosquitocandles and other insect repellents strengthen the view thatL javanica is a potential source of antipesticidal agentsand to some extent validate the traditional use of the plantspecies for insect pest control Pesticidal plants such as Ljavanica are increasingly being used as alternatives wheresynthetic products are unaffordable or are not available or areineffective A number of studies have indicated that the use ofL javanica as a pesticide is a long-standing tradition passeddown from generation to generation [120]

25 Wounds Injuries Pain and Skin Infections Lippia javan-ica is used as remedy for a variety of skin infections andinjuries in Kenya South Africa Swaziland and ZimbabweIn SouthAfrica leaf infusions are used to treat skin disorderssuch as boils chicken pox febrile rashes heat rashesmeaslesscabies scratches and stings [20 21 40 50 54] In Kenyaabout 50 g of fresh leaves is wrapped around a fresh woundto enhance healing [57] and in South Africa leaf infusionsare taken orally as remedy for wounds [54] In SouthAfrica powder from burnt roots of L javanica is appliedto scarifications made around sprained joints to facilitatehealing [20] In Kenya and Zimbabwe leaf infusion is takenorally to treatmeasles or a patient is washedwith leaf infusion[14 38] The Zulu people in South Africa take a mixtureof chopped handful leaves of L javanica with the sameamount of bark of A burkeiO engleri S birrea S cordatumand T elegans boiled in two litres of water as an enemafor the treatment of sores [56] In Swaziland about 30 g ofL javanica leaves and similar amount of Acanthospermumaustrale Kuntze are boiled in 5 litres of water and decoctionis taken as remedy for sores [55] In Zimbabwe root ashesof L javanica mixed with fat are applied to the skin ofa patient with scabies [14] Wound healing is a processwhich involves distinct overlapping phases of coagulationinflammation proliferation and tissue remodelling [121]The same authors argued that a set of complex biochemicalevents takes place in a closely orchestrated cascade to repairthe wound and any errors in the wound healing processcan lead to delayed healing or formation of hypertrophicscars Abubakar [122] argued that colonization of woundsby opportunistic microorganisms usually delays the wound

healing process andor may lead to infectious conditionTherefore application of L javanica on wounds and skininfections leads to disinfection debridement and provisionof a suitable environment for aiding the wound healingprocess Lippia javanica has potential for therapeutic use inwound and skin diseases management but there is needfor research on the safety phytochemistry and biologicalproperties of the species

26 EthnoveterinaryUses The leaves stems twigs andwholeplants of L javanica are used as ethnoveterinary medicinein India Kenya South Africa and Zimbabwe The Xhosapeople in the Eastern Cape province South Africa use Ljavanica leaves for the disinfection of meat that has beeninfected with anthrax [20] In Kenya the stem of L javanicais used to preserve milk by applying it to the gourd beforemilk fermentation [62] In India whole plants are used aslice repellants while in South Africa and Zimbabwe crushedleaves mixed with water are used to get rid of ticks and twigsare used as bedding in fowl runs to get rid of ectoparasites[58ndash60]

27 Other Uses Lippia javanica is used as a good luck charmto treat persons experiencing bad dreams to ward off evilspirits to protect one from lightening and to protect thehome (Table 1) In Zimbabwe L javanica leaves are preparedas an infusion to treat persons experiencing nightmares [64]In both South Africa and Zimbabwe evil spirits are cleansedby washing the body of an affected person by leaf infusion ofL javanica [14 123] In Swaziland 50 g leaves of L javanicaand C molle are ground into a powder and 5 litres of wateris added and face and hands are washed to remove badluck when exposed to a corpse [71] In South Africa thewhole plant is placed on a patientrsquos bed after the circumcisionceremony [58] to prevent odours and freshen surroundingair A mixture of L javanica leaves and roots is used toclean tools and hands before and after funerals the stemsand leaves are used as brooms to sweep grave sites and theentire plant is also used when coming from the mortuaryto remove bad spirits [58 124] The corpse is washed withL javanica infusion after death to prevent odours formingor if the corpse has an odour women place pieces of Ljavanica in the nostrils of the corpse and sweep the roomwith twigs where the person was sleeping [58] In KwaZuluNatal South Africa if the meat started to smell it will beboiled with L javanica leaves to take away the smell [58]TheXhosa people in the Eastern Cape province South Africa useL javanica leaves for the disinfection of meat that has beeninfected with anthrax [20] In KwaZulu Natal South Africaleaves are sprinkled in toilets to prevent odours [58] Leavesof L javanica are sprinkled in houses for pleasant smell inthe Limpopo province South Africa [35] and Kenya [31] InKwaZulu Natal South Africa it is believed that a person canrepel snakes by placing a small stem with leaves on his orher head [58] In Malawi Swaziland and Zimbabwe peopleshowing sign of mental disorder madness or hystericaloutbursts are required towash their bodies with leaf infusions[14 67 68 71]

10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 2 Nutritional composition of Lippia javanica leaves

Caloric and nutritional composition Values ReferenceAsh 160 plusmn 0001 g [13]Calorific value 5064 plusmn 563 kcal [13]Crude fat 016 plusmn 0001 g [13]Crude fibre 263 plusmn 0002 g [13]Crude protein 122 plusmn 00004 g [13]Dry matter 1546 plusmn 140 g [13]Moisture 9044 plusmn 026 g [13]Total carbohydrate 655 plusmn 026 g [13]Vitamin C 2242 plusmn 0001mg [13]Ca 2856ndash9225 120583g gminus1 [27]Mg 1598ndash5619 120583g gminus1 [27]Fe 75ndash750 120583g gminus1 [27]Mn 401 plusmn 116 120583g gminus1 [27]Zn 156ndash273 120583g gminus1 [27]Cu 30ndash85 120583g gminus1 [27]Cr 0ndash27 120583g gminus1 [27]Se 257 plusmn 019 120583g gminus1 [27]Pb 038ndash119 120583g gminus1 [27]Cd 053 plusmn 005 120583g gminus1 [27]Co 019 plusmn 001 120583g gminus1 [27]

3 Phytochemical Constituents and NutritionalComposition of Lippia javanica

Multiple classes of phytochemicals including volatile andnonvolatile secondary metabolites such as alkaloids aminoacids flavonoids iridoids and triterpenes as well as severalminerals have been identified from L javanica [1ndash5 7 13 2773 78 81 83ndash86 88ndash94 120 123 125ndash127] Leaves flowersand twigs of L javanica have a wide variety of the so-calledclassic nutrients such as minerals carbohydrates proteinsfats and vitamins (Table 2) Lippia javanica leaves are a goodsource of minerals such as cadmium calcium chromiumcobalt copper iron magnesium manganese selenium andzinc [27] These authors assessed the levels of the elementsin L javanica leaves and found the elements to be in thedecreasing order of Ca gt Mg gt Fe gt Zn gt Mn gt Cu gt Se gtCr gt Pb gt Co gt Cd for total concentrations and Ca gt Mggt Fe gt Zn gt Cu gt Cr gt Pb for water extractable forms Theseresults corroborate an observation made by Sedaghathooret al [128] that Ca and Mg are among the most abundantelements in tea plants These mineral elements are importantin human nutrition since L javanica is used as herbaltea and food additive (Table 1) Calcium magnesium ironmanganese and zinc play a major role in activating someenzymes and regulating many responses of cells to stimuli[129] Some of the mineral elements identified from Ljavanica leaves are required by the human body for repair ofworn out cell tissues and strong bones and teeth and buildingof red blood cells and other related tissuesTherefore since Ljavanica has appreciable concentrations of mineral elementssuch as calcium magnesium iron manganese and zinc

(Table 2) which are essential for enzyme metabolism thesemineral elements could enhance the nutritional and curativeproperties of the species

Bhebhe et al [10] determined the total phenolic and tan-nin content and radical scavenging activities of L javanicacomparing it with Aspalathus linearis (Burmf) R Dahlgren(Rooibos) a commercial South African herbal tea andother popular herbal teas in Zimbabwe (Table 3) Adansoniadigitata L Fadogia ancylantha Schweinf Ficus sycomorus Land Myrothamnus flabellifolius Welw are indigenous herbalteas consumed in Zimbabwe The tannin content of Ljavanica is very low when compared to A linearis (Rooibos)(Table 3) Lippia javanica has higher radical scavenging activ-ity than A linearis (Table 3) which is probably due to highertotal phenolic content in comparison to A linearis which is apopular herbal tea consumed by 10 of the global herbal teamarket [10] In another study Bhebhe et al [11] determinedand compared the effect of several solvents namely hotwater 50 methanol ethanol 50 ethanol acetone 50acetone and ethyl acetate on phenolic composition and freeradical scavenging activity in common black tea C sinensisand five other well-known herbal teas including L javanicaIn all the seven solvents used L javanica had higher totalphenolic content than C sinensis implying that L javanicais competitive to the black tea in terms of phenolic contentShikanga et al [7] found leaf extracts of L javanica to havehigher phenolic content of 148 mgg gallic acid equivalentof dry weight than flowers (99mgg) and twigs (83mgg)Phenolic compounds found in plants are known to play animportant role as antioxidants in exhibiting the medicinalproperties such as antibiotic anti-inflammatory anticancerand antiallergic properties [10 66 130 131]

The compounds isolated from L javanica are docu-mented and listed in Appendix A and their structures arepresented in Appendix B Simple phenolic compounds andcaffeic acid and its derivatives are some of the compoundsthat have been identified in L javanica and examplesinclude coumarin 1 34-dihydroxy-120573-phenylethoxy-O-[410158401015840-120573-caffeoyl-120572-rhamnopyranosyl-(1101584010158401015840310158401015840)-O-120573-glucopyrano-side] commonly referred to as verbascoside 2 and 34-dihydroxy-120573-phenylethoxy-O-[610158401015840-120573-caffeoyl-120572-rhamnopy-ranosyl-(1101584010158401015840310158401015840)-O-120573-glucopyranoside] commonly referredto as isoverbascoside 3 isolated by Olivier et al [81] from theaerial parts of the species Nonvolatile diterpenes known asiridoid-glycosides have also been isolated from L javanicaby Rimpler and Sauerbier [82] represented by theveside-Na4 and theveridoside 5 Mujovo et al [83] isolated a longchain alkane ldquo4-ethylnonacosanerdquo 6 and four flavanonesapigenin 7 cirsimaritin 8 6-methoxyluteolin 41015840-methylether 9 and 6-methoxyluteolin 31015840410158407-trimethyl ether 10from ethanolic extracts of L javanica leaves Madzimureet al [120] identified an array of phenolic glycosides andflavonoids which include crassifolioside 11 luteolin 12diosmetin 13 chrysoeriol 14 tricin 15 isothymusin 16eupatorin 17 5-dimethyl noboletin 18 genkwanin 19salvigenin 20 and an alkaloid xanthine 22 Ludere et al[84] isolated lippialactone 21 from the ethyl acetate extractof aerial parts of L javanica Neidlein and Staehle [85] andDlamini [86] isolated 19 amino acids compounds 23 to

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11

Table 3 Total phenolic content (TPC) as gallic acid equivalents (GAE) and tannin content as leucocyanidin equivalents (LE) and free radicalscavenging activity (FRSA) of herbal tea extracts (after Bhebhe et al [10])

Plant species TPC g GAE100 g Tannin content of LE100 g Percentage FRSA IC50gmL

Lippia javanica 1246 plusmn 431 012 plusmn 001 8377 plusmn 08 0016Aspalathus linearis 669 plusmn 083 094 plusmn 004 6727 plusmn 025 0053Adansonia digitata 079 plusmn 028 169 plusmn 001 4307 plusmn 10 0132Fadogia ancylantha 288 plusmn 048 020 plusmn 012 700 plusmn 040 0051Ficus sycamores 1402 plusmn 001 198 plusmn 012 8613 plusmn 085 0009Myrothamnus flabellifolius 475 plusmn 033 104 plusmn 001 8093 plusmn 075 0019

41 in Appendix A from L javanica At least 131 differentclasses of essential oil compounds (compounds 42ndash172 inAppendices A and B) have been isolated from L javanica byseveral researchers [3ndash5 83 85 86 88ndash94 123] Hutchingsand van Staden [96] isolated a toxic triterpenoid saponinicterogenin 173 from L javanica leaves These differentclasses of essential oil compounds have been associatedwith various therapeutic activities such as anaestheticanalgesic anti-inflammatory antimicrobial cardiovasculardecongestant digestive expectorant hepatoprotective andsedative activities as well as stimulant of nervous systemand tonifying effects [132] Meanwhile flavonoids possessseveral pharmacological properties including antibacterialanticancer anti-inflammatory antioxidant antiviral andhepatoprotective effects [133] which play important rolesin human health Flavonoid such as apigenin 7 is reportedto possess antibacterial [134] and hepatoprotective [135]properties Apigenin 7 and luteolin 12 are reported to possessanti-inflammatory and analgesic effects [133] affecting thefunction of enzyme systems involved in the generation ofinflammatory processes especially tyrosine and serine-threonine protein kinases [136 137] It has also been reportedthat apigenin 7 prevents HIV-1 activation via a novelmechanism that involves inhibition of viral transcription[138] and luteolin 12 demonstrated synergistic effects withanother flavonoid kaempferol against herpes simplex virus[133] Kamiya [139] documented the importance of essentialamino acids such as lysine valine isoleucine and histidinein terms of the risks to health if they are deficientThe authoralso documented their biological effects which includemuscle protein maintenance potentiation of immunefunction tissue repair acceleration after burn or traumaprotecting liver from toxic agents lowering blood pressuremodulating cholesterol metabolism and stimulating insulinor growth hormone secretion Therefore L javanica leavesand other plant parts which have shown to be rich inflavonoid and polyphenolic compounds amino acids andessential oil could play an important role in the treatmentand management of diseases such as hypertension andinflammation listed in Table 1

4 Pharmacological Activities

Scientific studies on L javanica indicate that it has a widerange of pharmacological activities (Table 4) which include

anticancer [140] antidiabetic [141] antimalarial [4 49 142]antimicrobial [2 3 7 17 73ndash75 77 83 84 126 143]antioxidant [7 10 11 75 77 125] antiplasmodial [2 7980 84 144 145] and pesticidal effects [1 2 59 95 120146ndash150] and cytotoxicity [2 73 79 120] activities Table 4summarizes some of the pharmacological studies undertakenon L javanica extracts aimed at evaluating some of theethnomedicinal uses of the species documented throughoutits distributional range (see Table 1) Some of the listedpharmacological activities may not relate directly to thedocumented ethnomedicinal uses of the species but mayprovide some insight into the speciesrsquo potential therapeuticvalue and bioactive properties and application

41 Anticancer Activity Fouche et al [140] reported anti-cancer activity of dichloromethane root extract of L javanicaagainst three human cells exhibiting TGI value of 182120583gmLfor breast MDA-MB-435 186 120583gmL for breast MDA-N and209 120583gmL for melanoma MALME-3M Based on literaturea couple of terpenoid compounds that have been isolatedfrom L javanica are known to have antitumor propertiesFor example linalool 120 is known to have antitumoractivity which plays a protective role against hepatotoxicityand the compound has anti-inflammatory activities as well[151] Research by Yang et al [152] showed limonene 92 tohave inhibitory effect on pancreatic and mammary tumorsAnother terpenoid compound 120572-pinene 44 is known toinhibit translocation of NF-120581B or p65 protein into nuclei ofLPS-stimulated THP-1 cells [153] These findings serve as ascientific validation for the use of L javanica as a componentof a herbal concoction known in KwaZulu Natal province asldquoimbizardquo prepared by mixing L javanica with C obliquus asherbal medicine for cancer [27]

42 Antidiabetic Activity Arika et al [141] determined the invivo antidiabetic activity of aqueous leaf extracts of L javan-ica in white male alloxan-induced albino mice The aqueousleaf extracts of L javanica at all dose levels significantlylowered the blood glucose levels in both oral and intraperi-toneal routes The antidiabetic effect of L javanica couldhave been due to the observed presence of flavonoids Thepolyhydroxylated flavonol enhances lipogenesis and glucoseuptake in the adipocytes and flavanoids have demonstratedinsulinmimetic properties as the compound is known to beeffective at controlling blood sugar levels These findings

12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table4Summaryof

pharmacologicalactiv

ities

ofthee

xtractsisolated

from

different

partso

fLippiajavanica

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Antiamoebic

Piperitenon

e162

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f25120583

gmLagainstE

histolytica

[73]

Antibacteria

lPiperitenon

e162

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f50120583

gmLagainstA

calcoaceticu

sMkristin

ae(50120583

gmL)Styphi(25120583

gmL)and

Saureus

(12120583

gmL)

[73]

Antibacteria

l(Antiproteus)

Methano

lLeaves

Disc

diffu

sion

assay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f313120583gmLagainstPm

irabilis

and926120583

gmL

againstPvulgaris

[74]

Water

Leaves

Disc

diffu

sion

assay

Exhibitedweakactiv

ityagainstPm

irabilis

with

MIC

valueo

f1873120583gmLand1768120583gmLagainstPvulgaris

[74]

Antibacteria

l

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

coliwith

MIC

valueo

f064m

gmLE

faecalis(064)P

aeruginosa

(032

)andSaureus

(064)Totalactiv

ityMIC

values

werea

sfollo

wsE

coli(127

mgmL)E

faecalis

(127

mgmL)Paeruginosa

(253

mgmL)and

Saureus

(127

mgmL)

[75]

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

valueo

f3mgmLBa

cillusp

umilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(gt12mgmL)Saureus(12mgmL)E

faecalis

(6mgmL)E

cloacae

(6mgmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pantoea

agglo

meran

s(12mgmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Shigella

flexneri

(15mgmL)A

erom

onas

hydrophila(12m

gmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae(12mgmL)Salmonellacholeraesuis

(6mgmL)and

Serratiamarcescens(gt12mgmL)

[17]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

valueo

f12m

gmLB

pumilu

s(12m

gmL)B

subtilis(12m

gmL)Saureus(6m

gmL)E

faecalis

(12m

gmL)E

cloacae

(12m

gmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(12m

gmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(6

mgmL)A

hydrophila(12m

gmL)Pm

irabilis

(12m

gmL)K

pneum

oniae

(12m

gmL)Scholeraesuis(6

mgmL)and

antia

moebice

ffect

(12m

gmL)

[17]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

values

of15

mgmLB

pumilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(gt12mgmL)Saureus(12mgmL)E

faecalis

(3mgmL)E

cloacae

(6mgmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(12m

gmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(15mgmL)A

hydrophila(6

mgmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae

(12m

gmL)Scholeraesuis(6

mgmL)and

Smarcescens(12mgmL)

[17]

Essentialoil

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

values

of6m

gmLB

pumilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(3mgmL)Saureus(15

mgmL)E

faecalis

(3mgmL)E

cloacae

(12m

gmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(6

mgmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(3mgmL)A

hydrophila(3mgmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae

(3mgmL)Scholeraesuis(15mgmL)and

Smarcescens(gt12mgmL)

[17]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 13

Table4Con

tinued

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

faecaliswith

MIC

valueo

f014

mgmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

coliwith

MIC

valueo

f031

mgmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPaeruginosa

with

MIC

valueo

f042m

gmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstSaureus

with

MIC

valueo

f013

mgmL

[7]

Antifu

ngal

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

albicans

with

MIC

valueo

fgt75m

gmLC

krusei

(188m

gmL)and

Cneoforman

s(gt75

mgmL)

[7]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

albicans

with

MIC

valueo

fgt375

mgmLC

krusei

(375m

gmL)and

Cneoforman

s(gt75

mgmL)

[7]

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

kruseiwith

MFC

valueo

f75mgmL

[7]

Dichlorom

ethane

Aeria

lparts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFu

sariu

mproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f014

mgmLand

Fusariu

mverticillioides(019mgmL)

[76]

Hexane

Aeria

lparts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f023m

gmLandF

verticillioides(045

mgmL)

[76]

Methano

lAe

rialp

arts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f177m

gmLandF

verticillioides(043

mgmL)

[76]

Methano

lAe

rialp

arts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

fgt250

mgmLandF

verticillioides(gt250

mgmL)

[76]

Antim

ycob

acteria

l

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f047m

gmLandtotalactivity

of10mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Dichlorom

ethane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f125m

gmLandtotalactivity

of23

mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f062m

gmLandtotalactivity

of13mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f125m

gmLandtotalactivity

of7m

Lgagainst

Msmegmatis

[77]

14 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table4Con

tinued

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Antioxidant

Water

Leaves

DPP

Hassay

Exhibitedactiv

itywith

EC50valueo

f358120583gmL

[7]

Water

Leaves

mdashEx

hibitedactiv

itywith

209ascorbicacid

equivalent

(mggdryweight)

[7]

Water

Leaves

ABT

Sassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f15mmol10

0g[78]

Water

Leaves

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f146254

mmol10

0g[78]

Water

Leaves

FRAPassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f238m

mol10

0g[78]

Antiplasm

odial

Hexanechloroform

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f1225plusmn072120583gmL

[79]

Ethylacetate

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f1212plusmn079120583gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f135plusmn006120583gmL

[79]

Hexanechloroform

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f1859plusmn026120583gmL

[79]

Ethylacetate

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f1580plusmn026120583gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f175plusmn017120583gmL

[79]

Dichlorom

ethane

Roots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f38120583gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethanem

ethano

lRo

ots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f27120583

gmL

[80]

Methano

lRo

ots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f24120583

gmL

[80]

Water

Roots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

fgt100120583

gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethane

Stem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f45120583gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethanem

ethano

lStem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f218120583gmL

[80]

Methano

lStem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f298120583gmL

[80]

Water

Stem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

fgt100120583

gmL

[80]

Free

radicalscaveng

ing

activ

ity

Water

mdashDPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0059plusmn002

gmL

[11]

50methano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f004plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Ethano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0025plusmn0001gmL

[11]

50ethano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0027plusmn0005gmL

[11]

Aceton

emdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0057plusmn0004gmL

[11]

50aceton

emdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0022plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Ethylacetate

mdashDPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0066plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Toxicity

Methano

lLeaf

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

40mortalityrecorded

after

48hexpo

sure

towards

Artemianauplii

[74]

Methano

lRo

ots

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f8430120583

gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f6503120583

gmL

[79]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 15

strengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantidiabetic agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species mixed with C obliquus to form aherbal concoction known in KwaZulu Natal province SouthAfrica as ldquoimbizardquo used against diabetes [27]

43 Antimalarial Activity Govere et al [142] found thattopical application of L javanica alcohol extract leads to767 protection against Anopheles arabiensis for 4 hoursLippia javanica has been used as a mosquito repellent by therural communities in Zimbabwe for a long time and previousstudies have shown that essential oils from the species havevery strong and lasting repellent activity against female Aarabiensis [64] Research by Lukwa et al [4] revealed thattopical application of 5mgcm2 of L javanica leads to 100protection againstAnopheles aegypti for 8 hoursMavundza etal [154] screened dichloromethane and ethanol leaf extractsof L javanica for adulticidal activity againstA arabiensisTheauthors observed dichloromethane and ethanol activities of45 and 55mosquitomortality respectivelyThese findingsstrengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantimalarial agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species as mosquito repellent in India [47]South Africa [34 49 58] and Zimbabwe [4 48]

44 Antioxidant Activity Leaf infusions of L javanica exhib-ited antioxidant activity with EC

50value of 358120583gmL and

contained 148mgmL of dry weight gallic acid equivalentphenolic compounds [7] The EC

50value of 358 120583gmL

obtained for L javanica by Shikanga et al [7] compareswell to those of many commercial teas including antioxidantcapacity of Rooibos Fresh Pack herbal teas (A linearis)with the best antioxidant activity of 333 120583gmL The highantioxidant activities displayed by L javanica infusions canbe partially attributed to the high levels of verbascoside 2(15mgg dry weight) reported by Olivier et al [81] in theleaf extract of the species Earlier research by Muchuwetiet al [125] reported 744 inhibition of the DPPH radicalby an ethanolic leaf extract of L javanica Lekganyane etal [75] reported antioxidant activity in L javanica and theacetone extracts of the species displayed antioxidant activityon BEA chromatogram [77] Bhebhe et al [10] reported theantioxidant activities of L javanica based on the DPPHreducing power and inhibition of phospholipid peroxidationassays Free radical scavenging activity of L javanica isattributed to phenolic compounds since these compoundshave an ideal structural chemistry for free radical scavengingactivity [155] Bhebhe et al [11] determined the effect ofseveral solvents on the free radical scavenging activity ofL javanica using the DPPH assay Free radical scavengingactivity expressed as IC

50ranged from 0022 plusmn 0001 gmL to

0066 plusmn 0001 gmL see Table 4

45 Antiplasmodial Activity Prozesky et al [144] evaluatedL javanica leaf acetone extract for in vitro antiplasmodialactivity using PfUP1 a chloroquine resistant strain of themalaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum by means of theflow cytometric test The IC

50value for L javanica was

426 120583gmL Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil

piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica for antiplasmodialactivity using chloroquine diphosphate as positive controland found it active against a chloroquine sensitive strainof P falciparum in micromolar concentrations with IC

50of

8 120583gmL Clarkson et al [80] evaluated L javanica rootsand stems extracts for in vitro activity against P falciparumusing the parasite lactase dehydrogenase (pLDH) assay andchloroquine diphosphate (Sigma) as the positive controlThedichloromethane methane and water extracts showed IC

50

values ranging from 38 to gt100 120583gmL see Table 4 Omolo etal [145] screened the essential oil of L javanica for fumiganttoxicity to Anopheles gambiae which exhibited LD

50of 43 times

10minus3mg cmminus3 Ayuko et al [79] showed that L javanica rootextracts have antiplasmodial activity against P falciparumwith IC

50ranging from 135 to 1859 120583gmL see Table 4

Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity againstthe chloroquine sensitive D10 strain of P falciparum withan IC

50value of 91 120583gmL and is also mildly cytotoxic [84]

Compared to chloroquine the compound is approximately2000 times less active against the D10 strain of P falciparum[84]

46 Antimicrobial Activities Lippia javanica is widely usedin the treatment of a wide range of infectious diseasescaused by microorganisms Viljoen et al [3] determined theantimicrobial properties of L javanica by evaluating the timekill studies of the speciesrsquo essential oil using the disc diffusionassay on three respiratory pathogens Klebsiella pneumoniaeCryptococcus neoformans and Bacillus cereus This studyshowed that the killing rate was greatest for K pneumoniaefollowed by C neoformans and very little reduction of micro-bial populations was observed for B cereus The efficacy of Ljavanica oil for K pneumoniae showed a killing rate within30 minutes for the concentrations 025 05 075 and 1C neoformans showed a killing rate for concentrations 05075 and 1 within 1 hour and the lowest concentration of025 took 8 hours before a bactericidal effect was notedwhile B cereus showed some reduction in colonies [3] Thepositive antimicrobial activity of L javanica as revealed bythe time kill study could be attributed to linalool 120 whichaverages between 65 and 70 in yield [3 5 88 90] and hasknown antimicrobial properties [93 156ndash159]These findingssomehow corroborate the traditional use of L javanica asherbal medicine for a wide range of bacterial and fungalrespiratory ailments indicated in Table 1

Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil piperitenone162 isolated from L javanica for antibacterial activityon cultures of Bacillus subtilis Staphylococcus aureus andEscherichia coli using imipenem cefazolin and ampicillinas positive controls The authors found piperitenone 162to inhibit S aureus and E coli at 1 dilution Acetonehexane and methanol leaf extracts and essential oil isolatedfrom L javanica showed some activity against fifteen Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria with MIC values rang-ing from 15 to gt12mgmL [60] see Table 4 In a similarstudy Samie et al [73] demonstrated that a pure compoundpiperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica has antibacte-rial activities against Acinetobacter calcoaceticus Micrococcus

16 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

kristinae Salmonella typhi and S aureus using dimethylsulphoxide and kanamycin as controls with MIC valuesranging from 12 to 50 120583gmL see Table 4 Shikanga et al [7]evaluated the antibacterial activity of L javanica methanolicleaf extract against S aureus Enterococcus faecalis E coliand Pseudomonas aeruginosa using the serial microdilutionmethod with gentamycin (Virbac) and acetone as positiveand negative controls respectively Lippia javanica displayedantibacterial activities with MIC values ranging from 013to 042mgmL against all four pathogens see Table 4 Theobtained minimum inhibitory concentrations are promisingsince natural products with MIC values below 1mgmLare generally considered to be noteworthy findings [160]Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity against theE coli and S aureus at a concentration of 10mgmL [84]Lekganyane et al [75] reported antibacterial activity of Ljavanica acetone leaf extracts against E coli E faecalis Paeruginosa and S aureus with MIC values ranging from 032to 064mgmL and total activity of the same species rangingfrom 127 to 253mgmL see Table 4 Methanol and water leafextracts of L javanica exhibited some antiproteus activityagainstProteusmirabilis andProteus vulgariswithMICvalueslt2000120583gmL with standard discs of ampicillin (2120583g) andchloramphenicol (10 120583g) as positive controls [74] Some of theantibacterial properties of L javanica can be attributed to thephytochemical constituents of the species for example thephenolic compound apigenin 7 is a well-known antibacterialagent [7 134] Apigenin 7 was shown to be highly activeagainst Vibrio cholera and E faecalis [161] while Basile et al[162] reported the inhibition of S typhi P mirabilis and Paeruginosa by the compound Therefore results from theseantibacterial evaluations of L javanica give credence to theuse of the speciesrsquo infusions against bacterial infections andother related diseases

Shikanga et al [126] investigated the antifungal activ-ities of leaf extracts and essential oil compounds isolatedfrom L javanica leafy extracts against a Guazatine-resistantstrain of Penicillium digitatumThemethanolic leafy extractsisoverbascoside 3 and verbascoside 2 compounds isolatedfrom L javanica inhibited fungal growth at concentrationsabove 06mgsdotmLminus1 causing significant inhibition of mycelialgrowth Verbascoside 2 is well-known for its antimicrobialproperties and has been found to inhibit viruses bacteriaand fungi [163] Similarly Samie et al [143] investigatedantifungal effects of acetone and hexane leaf extracts of Ljavanica against Candida albicans Candida krusei and Cneoformans isolated from AIDS patients using the microdi-lution method with nystatin Roche and DMSO as positiveand negative controls respectively Noteworthy moderateantifungal activities were recorded from C krusei with MICvalue of 188mgmL and other recordedMFCandMICvaluesfor other species ranged from 188mgmL to gt75mgmLsee Table 4 Thembo et al [76] investigated the antifungalactivity of aqueous and organic extracts of L javanica usinga serial microdilution assay Generally extracts of L javanicaexhibited weak activity see Table 4

47 Antimycobacterial Activity Mujovo et al [83] evaluatedL javanica compounds against a drug-sensitive strain ofMycobacterium tuberculosis using the radiometric respira-tory techniques Of all the isolated compounds only onetriterpenoid carboxylic acid euscaphic acid 172 exhibitedantimycobacterial activity with MIC value of 50120583gmLminus1against this strain In a similar study the leaf extract ofL javanica exhibited antimycobacterial activity against Msmegmatis in an evaluation which used microdilution assayand rifampicin as control [77] Acetone extract was thebest extractant with MIC value of 047mgmL it extractedantibacterial agents which was indicated by the lowest MICvalue [77] Masoko and Nxumalo [77] also evaluated thetotal activity ofL javanicawhich averaged 13mLg suggestingthat the extract prepared from one gram of L javanicacould be diluted to a volume of 13mL and will still inhibitM smegmatis efficiently According to Semenya and Maroyi[115] tuberculosis caused by M tuberculosis is a seriousdisease requiring effective strategies and tools to controland manage it Therefore preliminary evaluations done byMujovo et al [83] and Masoko and Nxumalo [77] serve asa scientific validation for the use of L javanica in traditionalmedicine for treatment of tuberculosis and other respiratoryailments in South Africa [24 27 115] and Uganda [43] as wellas their efficiency in tuberculosis drug discovery

48 Antiviral Activity Mujovo et al [83] found that (E)-2(3)-tagetenone epoxide 42 and piperitenone 162 inhibitedthe HIV-1 reverse transcriptase enzyme by 91 and 53respectively at 100 120583gmLminus1 based on a nonradioactive HIVRT colorimetric ELISA kit Little is known about the HIV RTactivity of L javanica extracts or compounds but flavonoidsare known to be active against viral RT and also as potentinhibitors of the cellular alpha and beta DNA polymerase[83] while luteolin 12 is active against HIV RT [164 165]Lippia javanica is traditionally used to treat HIVAIDSsymptoms in South Africa [65 66] and several viral andHIVAIDS opportunistic diseases and infections such asbronchitis [15 19ndash22] chicken pox [50] diarrhoea [17 3437 44 113] measles [14 20 38] pneumonia [14] shingles[15] and venereal diseases [44] Despite significant advancesin the utilization of L javanica in southern Africa overthe years for numerous viral diseases (Table 1) very littleantiviral evaluations have been done on crude extracts andpurified compounds of the species There is need thereforefor more pharmacological research as L javanica could beharbouring potent (RT) inhibitors which could be useful forthe development of new pharmaceutical products importantfor use against viral diseases and infections

49 Pesticidal Effects Magano et al [95] evaluated the repel-lent effects of hexane extracts of L javanica essential oilusing the in vitro tick climbing repellency bioassay on adultsof Hyalomma marginatum rufipes Koch ticks The authorsfound that 107mgmL caused repellency index of 100 at onehour and 30 minutes In a similar study by Madzimure et al[120] L javanica aqueous leaf extracts at 10 and 20 wvwere effective at controlling cattle ticks (Amblyomma species

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 17

Boophilus species Hyalomma species Rhipicephalus appen-diculatus and Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi) and were as goodas the positive control amitraz-based acaricide TrickbusterThese authors found no parasites on microscopic exami-nation of the Giemsa-stained thin blood smear collectedfrom treated cattle implying that the animals did not sufferfrom clinical tick-borne diseases Similarly Nyahangare etal [59] tested the pesticidal activity of L javanica waterextracts against cattle ticks The authors found no significantdifference between cattle treated with a commercial syntheticacaricide and those under L javanica treatment Martinez-Velazquez et al [166] evaluated pesticidal effects of twoessential oils namely 120574-terpinene 82 and 120588-cymene 99isolated from Lippia graveolens Kunth against 10-day-oldRhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini) tick larvaeusing the larval packet test bioassay The two essential oilsproduced highmortality ranging from90 to 100 in all testedconcentrations of 20 to 125 (vv)Therefore L javanica canprovide an effective tick control option where synthetic prod-ucts are unavailable or unaffordable particularly in remoterural areas in sub-Saharan Africa Lippia javanica is popularfor tick control and management among resource-poorsmallholder farmers in South Africa [58 95] and Zimbabwe[59 60 120] While these preliminary evaluations may serveas confirmation that L javanica has some bioactivities againstticks a comprehensive method of tick control is requiredfor the resource-constrained smallholder farmers based onethnopharmacological properties of L javanica

McGaw et al [146] screened L javanica for the anthel-mintic test systems using the free living nematodeCaenorhabditis elegans The crude ethanol and hexaneextracts showed some activity at a concentration of 2mgmLwith the 7-day incubation assay appearing to be moresensitive than the shorter assay Earlier research by Mwangiet al [1] indicated that L javanica was active against Aedesaegypti larvae and Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (maizeweevil) Katsvanga and Chigwiza [147] reported that Ljavanica is an effective natural pesticide which can be used tocontrol aphid species (Brevicoryne brassicae) In their studyKatsvanga and Chigwiza [147] found that 1 1 powderedaqueous leaf extract of L javanica reduced B brassicae by532 against 783 and 967 of two synthetic pesticidesAphid kill and Bexadust ldquoLrdquo respectively Chikukura etal [149] found L javanica powdered leaf extracts to haveinsecticidal properties with potential to control graindamage by 21ndash33 Mashela et al [148] reported that theapplication of ground L javanica leaves to soil in nematode-infested (Meloidogyne incognita) pots reduced the nematodenumbers by 79ndash92 and significantly increased fresh fruityield dry shoot mass plant height and stem diameter ofthe tomato plants as well as levels of potassium nitrogenand manganese in leaf tissue Muzemu et al [150] evaluatedwater extracts of L javanica leaf powder for pesticidal effectsagainst rape (Brassica napus L) aphids B brassicae andtomato (Solanum lycopersicum Lam) red spider mites andTetranychus evansi as alternatives to conventional pesticidesLippia javanica reduced B brassicae and Tetranychus evansiby 125 and 63 respectively [150]The study demonstratedthat L javanica has pesticidal effects on B brassicae and T

evansi The reduced number of B brassicae and T evansicould be due to L javanicarsquos extracts having repellent toxicand antifeedant effects since the species has essential oilswith pesticidal properties [2] Therefore these findingsindicate that L javanica has both nematicidal and plantgrowth-promoting properties

410 Toxicity and Cytotoxicity Activity Lippia javanica isknown to cause liver damage and photosensitisation in live-stock resulting in stock losses [167] Triterpenoids isolatedfrom the genus Lippia are icterogenic and cause jaundice asa result of liver damage [167] The characteristic swellingyellowing and later peeling of unpigmented skin are due tothe presence of phylloerythrin a photodynamic porphyrinthat reacts with sunlight and causes severe cell damage [167]The compound is normally formed when chlorophyll isbroken down by microorganisms in the rumen but it nowaccumulates in the liver as a result of the damage caused bytriterpenoids [167] In view of the known toxicity of Lippiaspecies the prolonged use of high doses of L javanica ispotentially harmful [167] Lippia javanica showed low toxicityafter 48 h exposure with the percentage of mortality below50 [74]

Ayuko et al [79] evaluated the toxicity of L javanicausing a brine shrimp cytotoxicity assay with LC

50value of

1138 plusmn 133 120583gmL Ayuko et al [79] found the cytotoxicity toantiplasmodial activity ratios for the methanolic extracts ofthe two tested strains to be 8430 and 6503 and since theseare greater than 100 it may be concluded that the extractsare of low toxicity Samie et al [73] demonstrated that apure compound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanicaessential oil has low cytotoxicity activity against intestinaladenocarcinoma cells (ie the HCT-8 monolayers with IC

50

of 2656 plusmn 53 120583gmL) Lukwa [64] evaluated the toxicity of Ljavanica aqueous leaf extracts using sexually mature BALBcmice with the placebo as control Within 48 hours all micefed with the L javanica leaf aqueous extract at 125ndash375 vvwere lethargic and the overall mortality was 375 Previousresearch byManenzhe et al [2] showed that hydrodistillationof L javanica leaves flowers and stems produced oil thatwas poisonous against P falciparumwhen diluted to 1 (vv)These findings imply that despite its apparent safety waterextracts of L javanica leaves may have deleterious healthimplications on humans and animals if consumed at veryhigh doses

Many compounds that have been isolated from L javan-ica including phenolic glycosides flavonoids and essentialoils are not known to have acute toxic properties withthe exception of icterogenin 173 Icterogenin 173 has beenshown to inhibit biliary excretion in rabbits [168] Reports inliterature indicate that the consumption of xanthine 22 hasresulted in mammalian toxicity According to Madzimure etal [64] xanthine 22 is a demethylated derivative of caffeinewith pharmacological actions such as central nervous system(CNS) stimulation relaxation of smooth muscle (especiallybronchial muscle) myocardial stimulation peripheral vaso-constriction and diuresis Considering the widespread useof L javanica as herbal tea and medicine it is important

18 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

to determine if any toxicological effects can occur from itschronic or subchronic usage

411 Other Activities Mpofu et al [169] determined the effectof inclusion of L javanica leaf meal in broiler diets ongrowth performance carcass characteristics and fatty acidprofiles The authors found that the L javanica fed broilershad higher total polyunsaturated fatty acids and n-3 fattyacidsThe findings from the study showed that inclusion of Ljavanica in broiler diets at 5 gkg feed has positive influenceson growth performance carcass characteristics and fattyacid profiles of broiler meat and therefore L javanica haspotential as growth-promoting feed additive in broilersSamie et al [73] evaluated antiamoebic activity of a purecompound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica essen-tial oil against Entamoeba histolytica using microdilutionmethod with metronidazole as the positive control diluents(ie culture medium with an appropriate concentration ofdimethyl sulphoxide as the negative control) and a blank(ie culture medium without dimethyl sulphoxide) Samieet al [73] demonstrated that piperitenone 162 had markedantiamoebic activity with IC

50value of 25 120583gmL More

research is required as L javanica could be harbouring potentantiamoebic properties which could be useful for managingamoebiasis an infection that remains a significant cause ofmorbidity and mortality worldwide

5 Conclusion

Lippia javanica has been used in African and Asian countriesas herbal tea and medicine for many centuries Utilization ofL javanica because of its flavour and medicinal propertiesforms the basis of the current demand for the plant speciesin central eastern and southern Africa Research on Ljavanica over the past decade on health promoting propertieshas greatly contributed to the increased consumption ofthe species as herbal or recreational tea The focus of thisresearch has been on phytochemical compounds particularlyphenolic content and antioxidant and free radical scavengingactivities Phenolic compounds present in L javanica arelargely responsible for the antioxidant properties possessedby the species More research in this regard is required andfuture research should focus on more comprehensive chem-ical characterization of both crude and pure extracts andevaluate potential for commercialization and developmentof nutraceutical products based on traditional uses of Ljavanica Most of the pharmacological researches conductedon L javanica so far have focused on the phytochemistryand biological properties of leaves and little or no researchhas been done on roots and other plant parts Thereforefuture research on the species should focus on other plantparts for example flowers roots and stems as well asorgan-to-organ age and seasonal variation evaluations in thephytochemical content and pharmacological activities of thespecies

The recent increase in the demand for L javanica prod-ucts may partly be ascribed to growing body of scientific evi-dence indicating important health benefits Lippia javanica

is widely sold as herbal tea in Botswana South Africa andZimbabwe Leaves and stems of L javanica are also sold asherbal medicines in the medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquo marketsin South Africa [35 170] For local people who rely onherbal medicines as part of their primary healthcare aswell as cultural beliefs they prefer L javanica harvestedfrom the wild and unprocessed plant parts sold in informalmedicinal ldquomuthirdquo markets [170] In the past there were norecords of overexploitation of L javanica wild populationsin southern Africa resulting in Raimondo et al [171] listingthe species as Least Concern (LC) under the IUCN RedList Categories and Criteria version 31 of threatened species(httpwwwiucnredlistorg) Recently signs of overharvest-ing have been noted where local people or plant traders haveuprooted whole plants to supply medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquomarkets or use the plants as herbal medicines brooms orherbal tea Therefore large-scale commercial utilization of Ljavanica is not sustainable if the species is harvested fromthe wild Currently L javanica is cultivated on a commercialscale in Kenya [28] and South Africa [117] for essential oilproduction for the mosquito-repellent candles and perfumeindustry Cultivation of L javanica is therefore a solutionto the sustainability problems associated with harvesting ofthe species from the wild and this option is also necessaryfor establishing commercial scale medicinal production andprocessing and trade enterprises The success of commercialcultivation of L javanica will depend on how the species ismarketed as herbal tea and medicine and source of essentialoil and health care products and as a source of functionalfoods

Significant research has been made in the past 50 yearsinto the chemistry and pharmacology of L javanica Thesestudies have shown L javanica to display various chemicaland different biological activities some of which justify itsethnopharmacological utilization in variety of cultures Inthe light of the evidence that L javanica is combined withother plant species in traditional medicine it will be valuableto investigate the possibility of synergistic effects of thedifferent extracts Deep phytochemical studies of L javanicaand its phytochemical properties especially the mechanismsof action of its bioactive constituents to illustrate the cor-relation between ethnomedicinal uses and pharmacologicalactivities should be the focus of further research on thespecies There is need for extensive in vivo experiments tovalidate the existing pharmacological activities Howeverbecause L javanica contains potentially toxic compoundsits toxicological properties need to be properly establishedvia proper quality control of product development to ensurethat potentially toxic components are kept below tolerancelevels

Appendix

A Chemical Compounds Isolated andCharacterized from Lippia javanica

See Table 5

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 19

Table 5

Chemical compound Reference(s)Phenolic compoundsCoumarin 1 [4]Verbascoside 2 [81]Isoverbascoside 3 [81]Theveside-Na 4 [82]Theveridoside 5 [82]4-ethylnonacosane 6 [83]Apigenin 7 [64 83]Cirsimaritin 8 [64 83]6-Methoxy luteolin41015840-methyl ether 9 [83]

6-Methoxy luteolin31015840410158407-trimethyl ether 10 [83]

Crassifolioside 11 [64]Luteolin 12 [64]Diosmetin 13 [64]Chrysoeriol 14 [64]Tricin 15 [64]Isothymusin 16 [64]Eupatorin 17 [64]5-Dimethyl noboletin 18 [64]Genkwanin 19 [64]Salvigenin 20 [64]Lippialactone 21 [84]AlkaloidXanthine 22 [64]Amino acids120572-Aminobutyric acid 23 [85 86]Valine 24 [86]Isoleucine 25 [86]Asparagine 26 [86]Phenylalanine 27 [86]120572-Aminoadipic acid 28 [86]Lysine 29 [86]Histidine 30 [86]Tyrosine 31 [86]Tryptophan 32 [86]Alanine 33 [85]Glycine 34 [85]Proline 35 [85]Serine 36 [85]Glutamine acid 37 [85]120573-Alanine 38 [85]Glutamine 39 [85]120573-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [85]4-hydroxyproline 41 [85]Essential oil(E)-2(3)-tagetenoneepoxide 42 [83]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]120572-Pinene 44 [3ndash5 87ndash91]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4](+)-2-Carene 46 [4]3-Carene 47 [4]Eucalyptol 48 [4]18 myrcene 49 [87]Ipsdienone 50 [87]Caryophyllene 51 [85]Geranial 52 [5 92 93]26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [92]Geraniol 54 [92]Octen-3-one 55 [5]6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]120588-Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]Artemisia ketone 58 [5]Linalool oxide 59 [5]Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5](Z)-120573-Ocimenone 61 [5](E)-120573-Ocimenone 62 [5]Carvyl acetate 63 [5]120572-Cubebene 64 [5]Sesquithujene 65 [5]Acora-35-diene 66 [5]120573-Bergamotene 67 [5]Trans-calamenene 68 [5]120573-Alaskene 69 [5]120574-Cadinene 70 [5]120575-Cadinene 71 [3 88 89 91]Cis-calamenene 72 [5]Nerolidol 73 [5](E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 88 89]Spathulenol 75 [5]Epi-120572-muurolol 76 [5]120572-Longipinene 77 [90]Chrysanthenone 78 [90]120572-Terpineol 79 [3 5 90 91]120572-Amorphene 80 [90]120572-Thujene 81 [91]120574-Terpinene 82 [91]120572-Cubebene 83 [91]Linalool acetate 84 [91]Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [91]Camphene 86 [3 5 88ndash91]120573-Pinene 87 [3 5 91]Sabinene 88 [3 5 87 90 91]Myrcene 89 [3 5 87ndash89 91ndash95]120572-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 88 89]2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]Limonene 92 [3 5 88ndash94]18-Cineole 93 [3 5 90 91 95]120573-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 88 89 91]

20 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3](Z)-120573-Ocimene 96 [3 5 88 89 91](E)-120573-Ocimene 97 [3 5 88 89 91]Isomyrcenol 98 [3]p-Cymene 99 [3 5 85 88ndash91]2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]Terpinolene 101 [3]Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 88 89 91 95]Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 88 89](Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]Nonanal 106 [3]Perillene 107 [3 91]Ipsenone 108 [3 87ndash89 95]Trans-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 88ndash90]1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 88 89]Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]Ttrans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]cis-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 88ndash90]120572-Copaene 114 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetone 115 [3 88 89]Trans-tagetone 116 [3 88 89]Camphor 117 [3 5 88ndash90 93 94]120573-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 91]Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 85 88ndash90 92 93]

Trans-120572-bergamotene 121 [3]120572-Cedrene 122 [3 5]Myrcenone 123 [3 5 83 91]120573-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 87ndash91 93 94]2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 88 89](Z)-120573-Farnesene 129 [3](E)-120573-Farnesene 130 [3 5](EE)-120572-Farnesene 131 [3 88 89]Ipsdienol 132 [3](Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]Isovaleric acid 134 [3]120572-Humulene 135 [3 5 88 89 91]120572-Acoradiene 136 [3]120573-Acoradiene 137 [3]120574-Muurolene 138 [3 5 88 89]120572-Muurolene 139 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]Borneol 142 [3 5 88ndash90]Verbenone 143 [3 91]Germacrene-D 144 [3 87ndash89 93]120573-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]120574-Bisabolene 146 [3]Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]Carvone 148 [3 5 91]Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 88 89 91]120573-Curcumene 150 [3]Ar-curcumene 151 [3]Cis-piperitol 152 [3]2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol156 [3 88 89]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]Calamenene 158 [3]Carvone oxide 159 [3]Isopiperitenone 160 [3]Cis-carveol 161 [3]Piperitenone 162 [2 3 73 83]Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 88 89]Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3ndash5 88ndash90]Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 88 89]Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]Spathulenol 167 [3]Eugenol 168 [3 5]Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120573-ol(=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120572-ol(=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [83]Icterogenin 173 [96]

B Chemical Structures ofPhenolic Compounds Alkaloids AminoAcids and Essential Oils Isolated fromLippia javanica

See Figure 4

Competing Interests

The author declares that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 21

O

OO

OO O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

C CH CHO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

COOH

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

Me

OMe

OMe

OMe

MeO

Me

HOOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OMe

OMe

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

（2 （2

（2

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

（3CO

（3CO

Coumarin 1 [4]

Verbascoside 2 [89]

Isoverbascoside 3 [89]

Theveside-Na 4 [90]

Theveridoside 5 [90]

4-Ethylnonacosane 6 [91]

Apigenin 7 [120 91]

Cirsimaritin 8 [120 91]

Crassifolioside 11 [120]

Luteolin 12 [120]

Diosmetin 13 [120]

Chrysoeriol 14 [120]

Tricin 15 [120]

Isothymusin 16 [120]

Eupatorin 17 [120]

6-Methoxyluteolin 3 47-trimethyl ether 10 [91]

6-Methoxyluteolin 4-methyl ether 9 [91]

Figure 4 Continued

22 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

N

NH

HN

HO

NH

O

NH

O

O

O

O

HN

N N

N

H

H

OAc

OAcOAc

OO

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

（3CO

（2

（2

（2

（2 （2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3N

（2N

（2N

（2N

（2N

minus

+

+

5-Desmethylnoboletin 18 [120]

Genkwanin 19 [120]

Salvigenin 20 [120]

Lippialactone 21 [92]

Xanthine 22 [120]

Valine 24 [94]

Isoleucine 25 [94]

Asparagine 26 [94]

Phenylalanine 27 [94]

Lysine 29 [94]

Histidine 30 [94]

Tyrosine 31 [94]

Tryptophan 32 [94]

Alanine 33 [93]

Glycine 34 [93]

Proline 35 [93]

Serine 36 [93]

Glutamine acid 37 [93]

Glutamine 39 [93]

4-Hydroxyproline 41 [93]

(E)-2(3)-Tagetenone epoxide 42 [91]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]

-Alanine 38 [93]

-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [93]

-Aminoadipic acid 28 [94]

-Aminobutyric acid 23 [93 94]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 23

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

H

H

HH

H

O

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

HO

OH

O

O

O

O

OH（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4]

3-Carene 47 [4]

Eucalyptol 48 [4]

18 myrcene 49 [123]

Ipsdienone 50 [123]

Caryophyllene 51 [93]

Geranial 52 [5 100 101]

26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [100]

Geraniol 54 [100]

Octen-3-one 55 [5]

6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]

Artemisia ketone 58 [5]

Linalool oxide 59 [5]

Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5]

Carvyl acetate 63 [5]

Sesquithujene 65 [5]

Acora-35-diene 66 [5]

-Pinene 44 [3-5 123 96 97 98 99] -Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]

(+)-2-Carene 46 [4]

-Bergamotene 67 [5]

-Cubebene 64 [5]

(Z)--Ocimenone 61 [5]

(E)--Ocimenone 62 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

24 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OH

H

H

H

H

O

OHO

HO

H

HH H

H

H

HH

H

HO

HO

O

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

Trans-calamenene 68 [5]

Cis-calamenene 72 [5]

Nerolidol 73 [5]

(E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 96 97]

Spathulenol 75 [5]

Chrysanthenone 78 [98]

Linalool acetate 84 [99]

Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [99]

Camphene 86 [3 5 96 97 98 99]

Sabinene 88 [3 5 123 98 99]

Myrcene 89 [3 5 123 100 101 96 97 99 102 103]

-Alaskene 69 [5]

-Terpineol 79 [3 5 98 99]

-Amorphene 80 [98]

-Cadinene 70 [45]-Thujene 81 [99]

-Cadinene 71 [3 96 97 99] -Terpinene 82 [99]

-Cubebene 83 [99]

-Pinene 87 [3 5 99]

-Longipinene 77 [98]

-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 96 97]

Epi--muurolol 76 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 25

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O

OH

OH

H

H

H

H

H

HOO

OH

O

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（3(（2)3（2

（3(（2)6（2

2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]

Limonene 92 [3 5 100 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3]

Isomyrcenol 98 [3]

p-Cymene 99 [3 5 93 96 97 98 99]

2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]

Terpinolene 101 [3]

Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 96 97 99 103]

Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 96 97]

(Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]

67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]

Nonanal 106 [3]

Perillene 107 [3 99]

Ipsenone 108 [3 123 96 97 103]

Trans-linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 96 97 98]

1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 96 97]

Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]

Trans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]

Cis-linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 96 97 98]

Cis-tagetone 115 [3 96 97]

Trans-tagetone 116 [3 96 97]

-Copaene 114 [3 5 96 97 98]

18-Cineole (=eucalyptol) 93 [3 5 98 99 103]

-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 96 97 99]

(Z)--Ocimene 96 [3 5 96 97 99]

(E)--Ocimene 97 [3 5 96 97 99]

Camphor 117 [3 5 101 96 97 98 102]

Figure 4 Continued

26 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

HH

H

H

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 93 100 101 96 97 98]

Myrcenone 123 [3 5 91 99]

2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol 125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]

Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 96 97]

Ipsdienol 132 [3]

(Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]

Isovaleric acid 134 [3]

Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]

Borneol 142 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 99]

Trans--bergamotene 121 [3]

-Cedrene 122 [3 5]

-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 123 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)--Farnesene 129 [3]

(E)--Farnesene 130 [3 5]

-Muurolene 139 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Muurolene 138 [3 5 96 97]

-Acoradiene 136 [3]

-Acoradiene 137 [3]

-Humulene 135 [3 5 96 97 99]

(EE)--Farnesene 131 [3 96 97]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O O

HO

O

H

H

H

HO

HO

OH

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3CO（3

Verbenone 143 [3 99]

Germacrene-D 144 [3 123 101 96 97]

Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]

Carvone 148 [3 5 99]

Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 96 97 99]

Ar-curcumene 151 [3]

Cis-piperitol 152 [3]

2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]

26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol 156 [3 96 97]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]

Calamenene 158 [3]

Carvone oxide 159 [3]

Isopiperitenone 160 [3]

Cis-carveol 161 [3]

Piperitenone 162 [2 3 91 81]

Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 96 97]

-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]

-Bisabolene 146 [3]

-Curcumene 150 [3]

Figure 4 Continued

28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

OO

O

O

H

H

H

H

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

H

H

HCH

HH

HO

（3

（2

（2C

（3C（3C

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C O（3

Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3-5 96 97 98]

Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 96 97]

Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]

Spathulenol 167 [3]

Eugenol 168 [3 5]

Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [91]

Icterogenin 173 [104]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Figure 4

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to the NationalResearch Foundation (NRF) and GovanMbeki Research andDevelopment Centre (GMRDC) University of Fort Hare forfinancial support to conduct this research

References

[1] JWMwangi I Addae-Mensah RMMunavu andW LwandeldquoEssential oils of Kenyan Lippia species Part IIIrdquo Flavour andFragrance Journal vol 6 no 3 pp 221ndash224 1991

[2] N J Manenzhe N Potgieter and T Van Ree ldquoCompositionand antimicrobial activities of volatile components of Lippiajavanicardquo Phytochemistry vol 65 no 16 pp 2333ndash2336 2004

[3] A M Viljoen S Subramoney S F V Vuuren K H C Baserand B Demirci ldquoThe composition geographical variation andantimicrobial activity of Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae) leafessential oilsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 96 no 1-2 pp271ndash277 2005

[4] N Lukwa P Moslashlgaard P Furu and C Boslashgh ldquoLippia javanica(Burm f) Spreng its general constituents and bioactivity onmosquitoesrdquoTropical Biomedicine vol 26 no 1 pp 85ndash91 2009

[5] L S Chagonda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssential oil compositionof Lippia javanica (Burmf) spreng chemotype from WesternZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants vol 18 no 2pp 482ndash485 2015

[6] W Kipkore B Wanjohi H Rono and G Kigen ldquoA study of themedicinal plants used by the Marakwet Community in KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 242014

[7] E A Shikanga S Combrinck and T Regnier ldquoSouth AfricanLippia herbal infusions total phenolic content antioxidant andantibacterial activitiesrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76no 3 pp 567ndash571 2010

[8] N T Parrant ldquoThe potential of non-timber forest products ofBotswanardquo Botswana Notes Records vol 28 no 1 pp 203ndash2181996

[9] D M Motlhanka and S W Makhabu ldquoMedicinal and ediblewild fruit plants of Botswana as emerging new crop opportu-nitiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plants Research vol 5 no 10 pp1836ndash1842 2011

[10] M Bhebhe T N Fuller B Chipurura and M MuchuwetildquoEffect of solvent type on total phenolic content and free radicalscavenging activity of black tea and herbal infusionsrdquo FoodAnalytical Methods vol 9 no 4 pp 1060ndash1067 2016

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29

[11] M Bhebhe B Chipurura and M Muchuweti ldquoDeterminationand comparison of phenolic compound content and antioxidantactivity of selected local Zimbabwean herbal teas with exoticAspalathus linearisrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 100no 1 pp 213ndash218 2015

[12] B Patiri and A Borah Wild Edible Plants of Assam GeetakhiPrinters Guwahati India 2007

[13] H Narzary and A Basumatary ldquoProximate and vitamin Canalysis of wild edible plants consumed by Bodos of AssamIndiardquo Journal of Molecular Pathophysiology vol 4 no 4 pp128ndash133 2015

[14] M Gelfand S Mavi R B Drummond and B Ndemera TheTraditional Medical Practitioners in Zimbabwe His Principles ofPractice and Pharmacopoeia Mambo Press Gweru Zimbabwe1985

[15] D Davids Materia medica and care a study of the uses ofmedicinal herbs and remedies as a form of treatment andnegotiating social relationships in cape town and surroundings[MS dissertation] University of theWestern Cape Cape TownSouth Africa 2012

[16] A Maroyi and G K E Mosina ldquoMedicinal plants and tradi-tional practices in peri-urban domestic gardens of the Limpopoprovince South africardquo Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledgevol 13 no 4 pp 665ndash672 2014

[17] A Samie C L Obi P O Bessong and L Namrita ldquoActivityprofiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Vendacommunities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterialspeciesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 4 no 12 pp1443ndash1451 2005

[18] T York An ethnopharmacological study of plants used fortreating respiratory infections in rural Maputaland [MS disser-tation] University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa South Africa2012

[19] D Davids T Blouws O Aboyade et al ldquoTraditional healthpractitionersrsquo perceptions herbal treatment andmanagement ofHIV and related opportunistic infectionsrdquo Journal of Ethnobiol-ogy and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 77 2014

[20] A Hutchings A H Scott G Lewis and A CunninghamZulu Medicinal Plants An Inventory University of Natal PressPietermarizburg South Africa 1996

[21] RM Coopoosamy andK K Naidoo ldquoAn ethnobotanical studyofmedicinal plants used by traditional healers inDurban SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 6no 11 pp 818ndash823 2012

[22] I Hedberg and F Staugard Traditional Medicinal Plants inBotswana Ipeleng Gaborone Botswana 1989

[23] H Shahriar A S M H K Chowdhury S Rahman et al ldquoSci-entific validation of medicinal plants used by a folk medicinalpractitioner of Chuadanga District BangladeshrdquoWorld Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 11 pp 13ndash24 2014

[24] S S Semenya M J Potgieter and M P Tshisikhawe ldquoUseconservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinalplants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 12 no 18 pp2392ndash2405 2013

[25] M Roberts Indigenous Healing Plants Southern Book Publish-ers Halfway House Johannesburg South Africa 1990

[26] T Birhanu D Abera and E Ejeta ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas westernEthiopiardquo Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare vol 5no 1 pp 83ndash93 2015

[27] N T Mahlangeni R Moodley and S B Jonnalagadda ldquoEle-mental composition of Cyrtanthus obliquus and Lippia javanicaused in South African herbal tonic Imbizardquo Arabian Journal ofChemistry 2013

[28] W Musila D Kisangau and J Muema ldquoConservation statusand use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitionersin Machakos District Kenyardquo in Indigenous Knowledge Con-ference Proceedings Pennsylvania State University May 27ndash292004 2004

[29] G N Njoroge and R W Bussmann ldquoTraditional managementof ear nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 542006

[30] P Chigora R Masocha and F Mutenheri ldquoThe role of indige-nous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailmentsin rural Zimbabwe the case of Mutirikwi communal landsrdquoJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol 9 no 2 pp26ndash43 2007

[31] R W Bussmann G G Gilbreath J Solio et al ldquoPlant use ofthe Maasai of Sekenani Valley Maasai Mara Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 22 2006

[32] D Motlhanka and G P Nthoiwa ldquoEthnobotanical Survey ofmedicinal plants of Tswapong North in Eastern Botswana acase of plants from Mosweu and Seolwane Villagesrdquo EuropeanJournal of Medicinal Plants vol 3 no 1 pp 10ndash24 2013

[33] A Vhurumuku ldquoKnowledge use and attitudes towardsmedici-nal plants of pre-service teachers at a South African UniversityrdquoGlobal Advanced Research Journal in Environmental Science andToxicology vol 4 no 2 pp 15ndash24 2015

[34] M N Nkwanyana An ethnobotanical and antidiarrhoeal inves-tigation of plants used traditionally in the maputaland areahomesteads [MS dissertation] University of Zululand KwaD-langezwa South Africa 2013

[35] T E Moeng An investigation into the trade of medicinal plantsbymuthi shops and street vendors in the Limpopo Province SouthAfrica [MS thesis] University of Limpopo Gauteng SouthAfrica 2010

[36] S Bandeira A M Manjate and O Filipe ldquoAn EcologicalAssessment of the Health of the Chibuto-Missavene Wetlandin the Dry Season Mozambique Emphasis on ResourcesAssessment Utilization and Sustainability Analysisrdquo reportto Challenge Program for Water and Food InternationalWater Management Institute Pretoria South Africa 2006httpscgspacecgiarorgbitstreamhandle105682160421604pdfsequence=1

[37] M C Palgrave R B Drummond and E J Moll Trees ofSouthern Africa Struik Cape Town South Africa 2003

[38] M O Nanyingi J M Mbaria A L Lanyasunya et alldquoEthnopharmacological survey of Samburu district KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4 article 142008

[39] J G J P Sankar and K B Satapathy ldquoWeed diversity of Rabicrops and their ethnomedicinal uses in Kendrapara districtof Odisha Indiardquo International Research Journal of BiologicalSciences vol 4 no 3 pp 33ndash38 2015

[40] D E N Mabogo The ethnobotany of the vhavenda [MSdissertation] University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa1990

[41] B-E van Wyk B van Oudtshoorn and N Gericke MedicinalPlants of South Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2013

[42] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used forthe treatment of tuberculosis by Bapedi traditional healers

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

OphthalmologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Diabetes ResearchJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Research and TreatmentAIDS

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 4: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

4 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table1Con

tinued

Use

Plantp

art(s

)used

Mod

eofu

seCou

ntry

practised

Reference(s)

Measle

sLeavesstems

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

body

washedwith

infusio

nor

leafand

stem

infusio

nof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofA

afra

takenorally

KenyaSouth

Africaand

Zimbabw

e[14

2038]

Pneumon

iaLeaves

Ointm

entrub

bedon

chestand

abdo

men

Zimbabw

e[14

]Re

spira

tory

disorders

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorally

IndiaSouthAfrica

[39ndash

41]

Runn

yno

seLeavesroo

ts

Leafandroot

decoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofanyof

theses

peciesB

transvaalensisB

cathartica

CanisataC

brachiataE

grandisHypoxissppK

mosam

bicin

aPguajavaSserratuloidesP

neochilusor

Tem

etica

takenorally

SouthAfrica

[18]

Shortnesso

fbreath(dyspn

oea)

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorallyor

body

washedwith

decoction

Zimbabw

e[14

]

Sore

throat

Leaves

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofE

grandiso

rTripariatakenorally

SouthAfrica

[18]

Tonsillitis

Leaves

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofE

grandistaken

orally

SouthAfrica

[18]

Tuberculosis

Leaves

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

ldquoimbizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

stakenorally

SouthAfrica

Ugand

a[244243]

Gastro

intestina

ldise

ases

Amoebiasis

Leavestwigs

Decoctio

ntakenorally

Kenya

[6]

Anthelm

intic

sLeaf

Infusio

nstakenorally

SouthAfrica

[40]

Diarrho

eaLeavesroo

tsDecoctio

ntakenorally

Kenya

Mozam

biqu

eSouthAfrica

[1729343744]

Gangrenou

srectitis

Leaves

Infusio

nstakenorally

SouthAfrica

[45]

Prop

hylacticagainstd

iarrho

eaLeaves

Infusio

ntakenorally

SouthAfrica

[40]

Vomiting

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorally

ZanzibarTanzania

[46]

Fevermalariaand

asinsectrepellent

Fever

Leaves

stemsand

twigs

Leafandtwigdecoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

leafandste

minfusio

nof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofanyof

theses

peciesA

afra

BtransvaalensisC

anisataC

molle

EgrandisPgua

javaSserratuloidesTripariaorT

emetica

takenorally

SouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[14

161820]

Gettin

grid

ofliceinsectsandlicea

ndas

mosqu

itorepellent

Leavestwigs

andwho

leplant

Usedin

washesa

ndpo

ultic

esor

asste

amor

sprayedor

burnttochasea

way

mosqu

itoes

Ethiop

iaSou

thAfricaand

Zimbabw

e[4263447ndash51]

Malaria

Leavesroo

tsDecoctio

ntakenorally

Mozam

biqu

eSouthAfrica

[173352]

Prop

hylacticagainstm

alaria

Leaves

Infusio

ntakenorally

SouthAfrica

[40]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 5

Table1Con

tinued

Use

Plantp

art(s

)used

Mod

eofu

seCou

ntry

practised

Reference(s)

Wound

sinjurie

spainand

skin

infec

tions

Abdo

minalpains

Leaves

Leaves

chew

edandjuices

wallowed

Zimbabw

e[14

]Ac

neLeaves

Not

specified

Botsw

ana

[22]

Antidotes

Roots

Usedas

antid

otefor

food

poiso

ning

Botsw

ana

[22]

Backache

Roots

Infusio

ntakenorally

SouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[14

20]

Bleeding

from

then

ose(epistaxis)

Leaves

Freshleaves

inserted

into

nose

orpo

wderedleaves

sniffed

SouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[14

53]

Boils

Leaves

Infusio

ntakenorally

SouthAfrica

[54]

Chickenpo

xLeaves

Usedin

washesa

ndpo

ultices

oras

steam

SouthAfrica

[50]

Earache

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorallymixed

with

leaves

ofE

grandis

SouthAfrica

[18]

Febrile

rashes

Leaves

Infusio

nstakenorally

SouthAfrica

[40]

Headachemigraine

Leavesroo

tsLeafandroot

decoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofanyof

theses

peciesB

cathartica

CbrachiataE

grand

isTrip

aria

andTem

etica

takenorally

KenyaSouth

Africaand

Zimbabw

e[14

18333438]

Inflammation

Leaves

Not

specified

SouthAfrica

[41]

Pubics

ores

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorallymixed

with

leaves

ofAc

anthosperm

umau

strale(Lo

efl)Ku

ntze

Swaziland

[55]

Scabies

Leavesroo

tsInfusio

ntakenorallyor

used

inwashesa

ndpo

ultic

esor

asste

amSouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[14

5054]

Shingles

Leavestwigs

androots

Appliedas

anointment

SouthAfrica

[15]

Skin

disorderssuch

asheatrash

scratchessting

sandbites

Leavestwigs

Appliedas

anointmento

rldquoim

bizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

stakenorally

SouthAfrica

[2127]

Sores

Leaves

Decoctio

nof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

bark

ofAc

aciaburkeiBe

nthO

zoroaengle

riR

Fern

ampAFernScle

rocaryabirrea

(AR

ich)H

ochstSyzygium

cordatum

Hochstex

Krauss

andTabernaemontana

elegans

Stapftaken

orally

SouthAfrica

[56]

Sore

eyescataracts

Leavesroo

tsJuices

queezedinto

eyes

Botsw

ana

Zimbabw

e[14

22]

Sprained

joints

Roots

Root

powdera

ppliedto

scarificatio

nsarou

ndsprained

joints

SouthAfrica

[20]

Ulcers

Leaves

Juicetaken

orallywith

cloveso

fAsativum

Bang

ladesh

[23]

Wou

nds

Leaves

Freshleaves

wrapp

edarou

ndwou

ndto

enhanceh

ealin

gor

infusio

ntakenorally

KenyaSouth

Africa

[5457]

Ethn

oveterinaryu

ses

Disinfectin

gsuspectedanthrax-infeste

dmeat

Who

leplant

Who

leplantsused

todisin

fectsuspectedanthrax-infeste

dmeat

SouthAfrica

[20]

Gettin

grid

ofticks

andother

ectoparasites

Leavestwigs

andwho

leplant

Crushedleaves

mixed

with

water

andsprayedtwigsu

sedas

bedd

ingin

fowlrun

sSouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[58ndash60]

Lice

repellant

Who

leplant

Who

leplantu

sedto

repelliceinpo

ultry

India

[61]

Milk

preservativ

eStem

Stem

appliedto

milk

gourdbefore

milk

ferm

entatio

nKe

nya

[62]

6 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table1Con

tinued

Use

Plantp

art(s

)used

Mod

eofu

seCou

ntry

practised

Reference(s)

Otheruses

Anaem

iain

pregnancy

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorally

ZanzibarTanzania

[46]

Broo

mWho

leplant

Who

leplantscutand

tiedtogether

tomaker

ough

broo

ms

SouthAfrica

[53]

Cancer

Leaves

ldquoImbizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

stakenorally

SouthAfrica

[27]

Cerem

onial

Leavesw

hole

plant

Usedbefore

andaft

erfuneralsor

placed

onpatie

ntsrsquobedaft

ercircum

cisio

nKe

nyaSouth

Africa

[315863]

Con

vulsion

sLeaves

Leaves

rubb

edon

face

Zimbabw

e[14

64]

Diabetes

Leaves

ldquoImbizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

stakenorally

SouthAfrica

[27]

Fatig

ueor

tiredness

Leaves

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofA

glabratum

orE

grandiso

rTriparia

takenorally

SouthAfrica

[18]

Fence

Who

leplant

Plantedarou

ndho

mesteads

Ethiop

ia[26]

Fodd

erLeaves

Leaves

eatenby

goats

Kenya

[31]

Fuelw

ood

Who

leplant

Who

leplantu

sedas

fuelw

ood

ZanzibarTanzania

[46]

Hum

anim

mun

odeficiency

virus(HIV

)or

acqu

iredim

mun

odeficiency

synd

rome

(AID

S)symptom

sLeaves

ldquoImbizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

swhich

istakenorally

SouthAfrica

[6566

]

Kidn

eyprob

lems

Root

50groot

powd

erbo

iledin

2litreso

fwaterpatient

takesa

cupof

thismixture

once

per

dayfor3

days

Swaziland

[67]

Madness

Leavesw

hole

plant

Body

washedwith

leafinfusio

nMalaw

iZimbabw

e[14

68]

Marasmicinfants

Roots

Infusio

nsused

tobath

infants

SouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[14

20]

Night

blindn

ess

Leaves

Face

washedwith

infusio

nZimbabw

e[14

]Nightmares

Not

specified

Not

specified

Zimbabw

e[64]

Pre-intra-andpo

stpartum

complications

Stem

roo

tsSm

earp

owdero

froo

torstem

Kenya

[69]

Preventin

god

oursor

beingused

indo

ors

tofre

shen

air

Leavesw

hole

plant

Leaves

sprin

kled

intoiletsto

prevento

dourso

rwho

leplantp

lacedin

vase

orroom

KenyaSouth

Africa

[313558]

Protectio

nagainstd

ogsa

ndcrocod

iles

Leaves

Leaves

smearedon

body

SouthAfrica

[70]

Psycho

tropicb

ehaviour

Leaves

Infusio

ntakenorally

Swaziland

[71]

Removingbadluck

Leaves

Face

andhand

swashedwith

infusio

nof

Ljavanica

leaves

mixed

with

Cmolleleaves

Swaziland

[72]

Sleeplessn

ights

Leaves

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofE

grandisand

Trip

ariatakenorally

SouthAfrica

[18]

Todrivea

way

badspirits

Leaves

Body

washedwith

infusio

nZimbabw

e[14

]To

preventinfantsfro

mcontracting

illnesscaused

byfather

ormother

committingadultery

Leaves

Leaves

rubb

edon

foreheadelbow

sandkn

eesa

fterc

ommittingadultery

Zimbabw

e[14

]

Venerealdiseases

Roots

Decoctio

ntakenorally

Mozam

biqu

e[44]

Weakjoints

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorally

Zimbabw

e[14

]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Asthma

Bronchitis

Chest pains

Diarrhoea

Mosquito repellent

Wounds

Fevermalaria

Herbal tea

Cough

Colds

Times found in literature

Figure 3 Main ethnobotanical applications of Lippia javanica in central eastern and southern Africa An ethnobotanical use is countedonly once per publication

Food Uses Respiratory Problems Gastrointestinal DiseasesFever Malaria and Insect Repellent Wounds Injuries Painand Skin Infections Ethnoveterinary Uses and Other Uses

21 Food Uses Leaves and twigs of Lippia javanica are usedas food additives in Kenya [6] and leafy vegetable in India[12 13] Lippia javanica is popular as herbal tea particularlyin Botswana South Africa and Zimbabwe [7ndash11] Lippiajavanica herbal tea is prepared by steeping fresh or driedleaves stems or twigs in boiling water and letting them standfor two to five minutes to release flavour with or withoutmilk and sugar added according to taste A stronger brewknown as a decoction is prepared by boiling fresh or driedleaves stems or twigs for more than five minutes The herbaltea prepared from L javanica leaves stems or twigs has alemon or vanilla aroma and is often used as a common tea(ie C sinensis) substitute or a few leaves stems or twigsare added to C sinensis to provide a lemon or vanilla aromaAccording to Soukand and Kalle [87] herbal tea or tisaneis an English term used to denote a decoction or infusionmade of herbs for medicinal purposes When L javanica isused as medicinal herbal tea it is consumed for a limitednumber of days to treat a specific condition like asthma inZimbabwe [14] bronchitis in South Africa [19] chest painsin Zimbabwe and South Africa [14 24] colds in KenyaSouth Africa and Zimbabwe [19 20 28ndash30] cough in SouthAfrica and Zimbabwe [19 20 30 53] and other diseases(see Table 1) From literature it seems L javanica herbaltea evolved over the years from medicinal tea decoctionsor infusions to nonmedicinal uses where the herbal teais now drunk for recreation and enjoyment According toShikanga et al [7] L javanica tea is appreciated throughoutits distributional range as a general health tonic and alsobecause it is naturally caffeine-free and has a calming andrelaxing effect Research done by other workers for exampleManenzhe et al [2] Shikanga et al [7] Parrant [8] Olivieret al [81] Motlhanka and Makhabu [9] and Bhebhe et al[10 11] revealed that L javanica is a popular recreational teain southern Africa consumed on a daily basis within a food

context while medicinal infusions or tisanes of L javanicaare taken for a specific medical purpose During the past20 years the use of herbal teas has increased globally [107]because of their functional properties and consumer interestin the health promoting properties of such beverages [108]The other advantage associated with L javanica usage is thatthe leaves can be sun-dried and later boiled in water anddrunk as herbal tea [9]

Most of L javanica used as herbal tea in rural andperiurban communities in central eastern and southernAfrica is still collected from the wild although small-scale cultivation has become necessary as it is marketed asherbal tea in Botswana under the brand name ldquoMosukudurdquoor ldquoMosukujanerdquo [109] and in Zimbabwe as ldquoZumbanirdquo(Figure 1(b)) Although considerable quantities of L javanicaare sold in local markets in Botswana and Zimbabwe andalso traded on the Internet there is no data on presentproduction levels traded volumes values and export figuresin these two countries Research by Whiteside [110] showedthat sales of L javanica tea bags generated an income ofR2030000 (US$5718) during 19941995 in Botswana Thereis increased demand for L javanica herbal tea especiallyin the light of growing health consciousness worldwidewith the estimated potential demand for the species and itsproducts around 100 tonnes per year on the local marketand 1000 tonnes per year on the export market (httpbio-innovationorgworkfever-tea-tree) Considering the rapidgrowth of the herbal tea industry worldwide and the increas-ing demand for L javanica products there is need for theimprovement of L javanica products as well as developmentof new products Therefore L javanica has potential to makethe transition from limited local use to commercial andinternational product Lippia javanica has been identifiedas one of the few plant species that should be integratedin the domestication process in farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa to supportmedicinal nutritional and incomesecurity of local communities [107 111] According to VanWyk [111] L javanica is of commercial value as herbal tea andhealth drinks Therefore commercialization of L javanica is

8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

unlikely to be viable if the product is sorely harvested fromthe wild In the same line commercialization of L javanicamight be more worthy if other products other than tea arederived from the plant

22 Respiratory Problems The different parts of L javanicafor example the leaves and twigs are used for the treatmentof asthma coughs colds influenza pneumonia tuberculosisand bronchial problems in Bangladesh Botswana EthiopiaKenya South Africa and Zimbabwe [14ndash16 19 20 23 25 2628ndash32 53 112] In Bangladesh leaf infusion of L javanica istaken orally mixed with 3-4 pieces of cloves ofA sativum 2-3times daily as remedy for chest pains [23] In Ethiopia leavesof L javanica are chewed with butter as remedy for chestpains and cough [26] In India L javanica leaf decoctionis taken orally as remedy for respiratory disorders [39] InKenya leaves are sniffed [31] or half glass of hot leaf infusionis taken orally three times a day [28 29] as remedy for coldsand cough Research done by Davids et al [19] in SouthAfrica revealed that about 50 g of leaves is added to a cupof boiling water to produce an infusion which is taken orallyas remedy for coughs colds and bronchial problems or theinfusion is applied to the skin or mixed with Vaseline tomake an ointment In South Africa leaf or twig decoctionis taken orally for asthma colds and cough [16 53] leavesare used in washes and poultices for chest pains [25] andleaves are boiled for 5 minutes and one cup of extract is takenorally thrice a day for chest pains and tuberculosis [24 42]According to York [18] two handfuls of L javanica leaves areboiled in two litres of water and patient is steamed once ortwice a day to treat coughs chest pain headaches fever chillsa sore throat or a blocked nose This decoction can also betaken orally by drinking half a cup daily [18] Alternativelya handful of L javanica roots or leaves are mixed with ahandful leaves of A glabratum or B transvaalensis or Buniflora or B cathartica or C anisata or C brachiata orC molle or E grandis or H kraussii or Hypoxis spp or Kmosambicina or P neochilus or P guajava or S serratuloides orT sericea or T riparia or T emetica to treat blocked nosechest pain cough earache fatigue fever influenza headacherunny nose sleepless nights sore throat tiredness andtonsillitis [18] Leaf and stem infusion of L javanica are takenorally together with A afra by the Zulu people in SouthAfrica as remedy for bronchial ailments colds and cough[20] ldquoImbizardquo a popular herbal decoction prepared from Ljavanica and C obliquus is used by the Zulu people in SouthAfrica as herbal tonic and an immune booster and also forthe treatment of cancer chest pains colds diabetes HIV orAIDS symptoms skin infections and tuberculosis [27] Insome communities in South Africa L javanica leaf or rootinfusion is taken orally as remedy for influenza and malaria[33] and respiratory disorders [40 41] In Zimbabwe leafor root decoction is taken orally or smoke of burnt leavesand roots is inhaled as remedy for chest pains [14] and leafand twigs are boiled in water and infusion is taken orally asremedy for colds and cough [30] According to Gelfand etal [14] Shona people in Zimbabwe rub leaf ointment of Ljavanica on the chest and abdomen as remedy for pneumoniaand leaf decoction is taken orally and body washed with leaf

decoction as remedy for shortness of breath or dyspnoea InSouth Africa a leaf and stem infusion of L javanica are takenorally together with leaves of A afra as remedy for measles[20]

Based on literature inhalation of smoke from L javanicaappears to be a popular remedy for asthma chest painscolds and chronic coughs in Botswana South Africa andZimbabwe [14 15 20 32] In Botswana L javanica leafinfusion vapour is inhaled as remedy for colds and cough[32] In SouthAfrica for example leaves and twigs are burnedand smoke is inhaled as remedy for asthma and cough [15]or steam from leaf infusions is inhaled or hot leaf infusionsare taken orally against colds and cough [20] In Zimbabwesmoke of burnt leaves and roots is inhaled as remedy for chestpains [14]

23 Gastrointestinal Diseases The leaf and root decoction orinfusions of L javanica are used as remedies of the digestivesystem diseases such as cholera diarrhoea and dysenteryFor example in Mozambique root decoction is taken orallyas remedy for a type of diarrhoea commonly known asldquochinhamucacardquo which is characterized by milky diarrhoeaaccompanied by vomiting in children [44] Leaf decoctionis used as herbal medicine for diarrhoea in Kenya [113] InSouth Africa the leaves of L javanica are crushed and mixedwith cold or hot water and the mixture is then sieved and aquarter of a cup (75mL) is taken twice a day until diarrhoeasubsides [34] The Venda people in South Africa use leafinfusions as prophylactic against diarrhoea [40] Researchdone by Palgrave et al [37] in South Africa revealed that teainfusions of the L javanica leaves are used as remedies forHIVAIDS opportunistic infections such as lung infectionsand diarrhoea Previous research inMozambique [114] SouthAfrica [115] and Zimbabwe [116] showed that gastrointestinaldisorders particularly cholera diarrhoea and dysentery areamong human diseases often treated with herbal medicinesFor those patients diagnosed as having intestinal worms inVenda South Africa a leaf infusion of L javanica leavesis used as an anthelmintic [40] Therefore these findingsillustrate that herbal medicines including L javanica can playan important role in basic health care of local communitiesthrough treatment and management of cholera diarrhoeaand dysentery

24 Fever Malaria and Insect Repellent Traditionally Ljavanica is commonly used to treat fever and malaria andrepel insects throughout its distributional range [4 14 1617 33ndash35 40 48ndash50 58ndash60] In South Africa a decoctionof fresh or air dried leaves is used to wash or steam bodyparts infested with lice [50] In India the whole plant is usedto repel lice in poultry [61] In South Africa and Zimbabwewhole plant or leaves are burnt to repel mosquitoes [4 3435 48 49 58] In South Africa and Zimbabwe L javanicais widely used to get rid of ticks and other ectoparasites forexample ticks are sprayed with crushed leaves mixed withwater or twigs are used as bedding in fowl runs [58ndash60]Leaf and twig decoction of L javanica are taken orally asremedy for fever [16] The Venda people in South Africa useleaf infusions of L javanica as prophylactic against malaria

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9

[40] In Zimbabwe leaf decoction is taken orally as remedyfor fever [14]

Lippia javanica is also cultivated on a commercial scale bya rural community in Giyani the Limpopo province SouthAfrica for the production of mosquito-repellent candles[117] Clinical studies using human volunteers showed thatL javanica repels no less than 95 of mosquitos whereasmost mosquito repellents repel only 42 of them [118]Based on these findings the Council for Scientific andIndustrial Research (CSIR) South Africa signed a benefitsharing agreement with traditional healers allowing for thecommercial cultivation of L javanica aimed at establishingan indigenous oil industry for rural development and large-scale production of antimosquito candles and other insectrepellents The mosquito repellent is registered as a patentunder the Fertilisers Farm Feeds and Stock Remedies Act(Act 36 of 1947) as a pest repellent [119] These findings andthe establishment of a large-scale production of antimosquitocandles and other insect repellents strengthen the view thatL javanica is a potential source of antipesticidal agentsand to some extent validate the traditional use of the plantspecies for insect pest control Pesticidal plants such as Ljavanica are increasingly being used as alternatives wheresynthetic products are unaffordable or are not available or areineffective A number of studies have indicated that the use ofL javanica as a pesticide is a long-standing tradition passeddown from generation to generation [120]

25 Wounds Injuries Pain and Skin Infections Lippia javan-ica is used as remedy for a variety of skin infections andinjuries in Kenya South Africa Swaziland and ZimbabweIn SouthAfrica leaf infusions are used to treat skin disorderssuch as boils chicken pox febrile rashes heat rashesmeaslesscabies scratches and stings [20 21 40 50 54] In Kenyaabout 50 g of fresh leaves is wrapped around a fresh woundto enhance healing [57] and in South Africa leaf infusionsare taken orally as remedy for wounds [54] In SouthAfrica powder from burnt roots of L javanica is appliedto scarifications made around sprained joints to facilitatehealing [20] In Kenya and Zimbabwe leaf infusion is takenorally to treatmeasles or a patient is washedwith leaf infusion[14 38] The Zulu people in South Africa take a mixtureof chopped handful leaves of L javanica with the sameamount of bark of A burkeiO engleri S birrea S cordatumand T elegans boiled in two litres of water as an enemafor the treatment of sores [56] In Swaziland about 30 g ofL javanica leaves and similar amount of Acanthospermumaustrale Kuntze are boiled in 5 litres of water and decoctionis taken as remedy for sores [55] In Zimbabwe root ashesof L javanica mixed with fat are applied to the skin ofa patient with scabies [14] Wound healing is a processwhich involves distinct overlapping phases of coagulationinflammation proliferation and tissue remodelling [121]The same authors argued that a set of complex biochemicalevents takes place in a closely orchestrated cascade to repairthe wound and any errors in the wound healing processcan lead to delayed healing or formation of hypertrophicscars Abubakar [122] argued that colonization of woundsby opportunistic microorganisms usually delays the wound

healing process andor may lead to infectious conditionTherefore application of L javanica on wounds and skininfections leads to disinfection debridement and provisionof a suitable environment for aiding the wound healingprocess Lippia javanica has potential for therapeutic use inwound and skin diseases management but there is needfor research on the safety phytochemistry and biologicalproperties of the species

26 EthnoveterinaryUses The leaves stems twigs andwholeplants of L javanica are used as ethnoveterinary medicinein India Kenya South Africa and Zimbabwe The Xhosapeople in the Eastern Cape province South Africa use Ljavanica leaves for the disinfection of meat that has beeninfected with anthrax [20] In Kenya the stem of L javanicais used to preserve milk by applying it to the gourd beforemilk fermentation [62] In India whole plants are used aslice repellants while in South Africa and Zimbabwe crushedleaves mixed with water are used to get rid of ticks and twigsare used as bedding in fowl runs to get rid of ectoparasites[58ndash60]

27 Other Uses Lippia javanica is used as a good luck charmto treat persons experiencing bad dreams to ward off evilspirits to protect one from lightening and to protect thehome (Table 1) In Zimbabwe L javanica leaves are preparedas an infusion to treat persons experiencing nightmares [64]In both South Africa and Zimbabwe evil spirits are cleansedby washing the body of an affected person by leaf infusion ofL javanica [14 123] In Swaziland 50 g leaves of L javanicaand C molle are ground into a powder and 5 litres of wateris added and face and hands are washed to remove badluck when exposed to a corpse [71] In South Africa thewhole plant is placed on a patientrsquos bed after the circumcisionceremony [58] to prevent odours and freshen surroundingair A mixture of L javanica leaves and roots is used toclean tools and hands before and after funerals the stemsand leaves are used as brooms to sweep grave sites and theentire plant is also used when coming from the mortuaryto remove bad spirits [58 124] The corpse is washed withL javanica infusion after death to prevent odours formingor if the corpse has an odour women place pieces of Ljavanica in the nostrils of the corpse and sweep the roomwith twigs where the person was sleeping [58] In KwaZuluNatal South Africa if the meat started to smell it will beboiled with L javanica leaves to take away the smell [58]TheXhosa people in the Eastern Cape province South Africa useL javanica leaves for the disinfection of meat that has beeninfected with anthrax [20] In KwaZulu Natal South Africaleaves are sprinkled in toilets to prevent odours [58] Leavesof L javanica are sprinkled in houses for pleasant smell inthe Limpopo province South Africa [35] and Kenya [31] InKwaZulu Natal South Africa it is believed that a person canrepel snakes by placing a small stem with leaves on his orher head [58] In Malawi Swaziland and Zimbabwe peopleshowing sign of mental disorder madness or hystericaloutbursts are required towash their bodies with leaf infusions[14 67 68 71]

10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 2 Nutritional composition of Lippia javanica leaves

Caloric and nutritional composition Values ReferenceAsh 160 plusmn 0001 g [13]Calorific value 5064 plusmn 563 kcal [13]Crude fat 016 plusmn 0001 g [13]Crude fibre 263 plusmn 0002 g [13]Crude protein 122 plusmn 00004 g [13]Dry matter 1546 plusmn 140 g [13]Moisture 9044 plusmn 026 g [13]Total carbohydrate 655 plusmn 026 g [13]Vitamin C 2242 plusmn 0001mg [13]Ca 2856ndash9225 120583g gminus1 [27]Mg 1598ndash5619 120583g gminus1 [27]Fe 75ndash750 120583g gminus1 [27]Mn 401 plusmn 116 120583g gminus1 [27]Zn 156ndash273 120583g gminus1 [27]Cu 30ndash85 120583g gminus1 [27]Cr 0ndash27 120583g gminus1 [27]Se 257 plusmn 019 120583g gminus1 [27]Pb 038ndash119 120583g gminus1 [27]Cd 053 plusmn 005 120583g gminus1 [27]Co 019 plusmn 001 120583g gminus1 [27]

3 Phytochemical Constituents and NutritionalComposition of Lippia javanica

Multiple classes of phytochemicals including volatile andnonvolatile secondary metabolites such as alkaloids aminoacids flavonoids iridoids and triterpenes as well as severalminerals have been identified from L javanica [1ndash5 7 13 2773 78 81 83ndash86 88ndash94 120 123 125ndash127] Leaves flowersand twigs of L javanica have a wide variety of the so-calledclassic nutrients such as minerals carbohydrates proteinsfats and vitamins (Table 2) Lippia javanica leaves are a goodsource of minerals such as cadmium calcium chromiumcobalt copper iron magnesium manganese selenium andzinc [27] These authors assessed the levels of the elementsin L javanica leaves and found the elements to be in thedecreasing order of Ca gt Mg gt Fe gt Zn gt Mn gt Cu gt Se gtCr gt Pb gt Co gt Cd for total concentrations and Ca gt Mggt Fe gt Zn gt Cu gt Cr gt Pb for water extractable forms Theseresults corroborate an observation made by Sedaghathooret al [128] that Ca and Mg are among the most abundantelements in tea plants These mineral elements are importantin human nutrition since L javanica is used as herbaltea and food additive (Table 1) Calcium magnesium ironmanganese and zinc play a major role in activating someenzymes and regulating many responses of cells to stimuli[129] Some of the mineral elements identified from Ljavanica leaves are required by the human body for repair ofworn out cell tissues and strong bones and teeth and buildingof red blood cells and other related tissuesTherefore since Ljavanica has appreciable concentrations of mineral elementssuch as calcium magnesium iron manganese and zinc

(Table 2) which are essential for enzyme metabolism thesemineral elements could enhance the nutritional and curativeproperties of the species

Bhebhe et al [10] determined the total phenolic and tan-nin content and radical scavenging activities of L javanicacomparing it with Aspalathus linearis (Burmf) R Dahlgren(Rooibos) a commercial South African herbal tea andother popular herbal teas in Zimbabwe (Table 3) Adansoniadigitata L Fadogia ancylantha Schweinf Ficus sycomorus Land Myrothamnus flabellifolius Welw are indigenous herbalteas consumed in Zimbabwe The tannin content of Ljavanica is very low when compared to A linearis (Rooibos)(Table 3) Lippia javanica has higher radical scavenging activ-ity than A linearis (Table 3) which is probably due to highertotal phenolic content in comparison to A linearis which is apopular herbal tea consumed by 10 of the global herbal teamarket [10] In another study Bhebhe et al [11] determinedand compared the effect of several solvents namely hotwater 50 methanol ethanol 50 ethanol acetone 50acetone and ethyl acetate on phenolic composition and freeradical scavenging activity in common black tea C sinensisand five other well-known herbal teas including L javanicaIn all the seven solvents used L javanica had higher totalphenolic content than C sinensis implying that L javanicais competitive to the black tea in terms of phenolic contentShikanga et al [7] found leaf extracts of L javanica to havehigher phenolic content of 148 mgg gallic acid equivalentof dry weight than flowers (99mgg) and twigs (83mgg)Phenolic compounds found in plants are known to play animportant role as antioxidants in exhibiting the medicinalproperties such as antibiotic anti-inflammatory anticancerand antiallergic properties [10 66 130 131]

The compounds isolated from L javanica are docu-mented and listed in Appendix A and their structures arepresented in Appendix B Simple phenolic compounds andcaffeic acid and its derivatives are some of the compoundsthat have been identified in L javanica and examplesinclude coumarin 1 34-dihydroxy-120573-phenylethoxy-O-[410158401015840-120573-caffeoyl-120572-rhamnopyranosyl-(1101584010158401015840310158401015840)-O-120573-glucopyrano-side] commonly referred to as verbascoside 2 and 34-dihydroxy-120573-phenylethoxy-O-[610158401015840-120573-caffeoyl-120572-rhamnopy-ranosyl-(1101584010158401015840310158401015840)-O-120573-glucopyranoside] commonly referredto as isoverbascoside 3 isolated by Olivier et al [81] from theaerial parts of the species Nonvolatile diterpenes known asiridoid-glycosides have also been isolated from L javanicaby Rimpler and Sauerbier [82] represented by theveside-Na4 and theveridoside 5 Mujovo et al [83] isolated a longchain alkane ldquo4-ethylnonacosanerdquo 6 and four flavanonesapigenin 7 cirsimaritin 8 6-methoxyluteolin 41015840-methylether 9 and 6-methoxyluteolin 31015840410158407-trimethyl ether 10from ethanolic extracts of L javanica leaves Madzimureet al [120] identified an array of phenolic glycosides andflavonoids which include crassifolioside 11 luteolin 12diosmetin 13 chrysoeriol 14 tricin 15 isothymusin 16eupatorin 17 5-dimethyl noboletin 18 genkwanin 19salvigenin 20 and an alkaloid xanthine 22 Ludere et al[84] isolated lippialactone 21 from the ethyl acetate extractof aerial parts of L javanica Neidlein and Staehle [85] andDlamini [86] isolated 19 amino acids compounds 23 to

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11

Table 3 Total phenolic content (TPC) as gallic acid equivalents (GAE) and tannin content as leucocyanidin equivalents (LE) and free radicalscavenging activity (FRSA) of herbal tea extracts (after Bhebhe et al [10])

Plant species TPC g GAE100 g Tannin content of LE100 g Percentage FRSA IC50gmL

Lippia javanica 1246 plusmn 431 012 plusmn 001 8377 plusmn 08 0016Aspalathus linearis 669 plusmn 083 094 plusmn 004 6727 plusmn 025 0053Adansonia digitata 079 plusmn 028 169 plusmn 001 4307 plusmn 10 0132Fadogia ancylantha 288 plusmn 048 020 plusmn 012 700 plusmn 040 0051Ficus sycamores 1402 plusmn 001 198 plusmn 012 8613 plusmn 085 0009Myrothamnus flabellifolius 475 plusmn 033 104 plusmn 001 8093 plusmn 075 0019

41 in Appendix A from L javanica At least 131 differentclasses of essential oil compounds (compounds 42ndash172 inAppendices A and B) have been isolated from L javanica byseveral researchers [3ndash5 83 85 86 88ndash94 123] Hutchingsand van Staden [96] isolated a toxic triterpenoid saponinicterogenin 173 from L javanica leaves These differentclasses of essential oil compounds have been associatedwith various therapeutic activities such as anaestheticanalgesic anti-inflammatory antimicrobial cardiovasculardecongestant digestive expectorant hepatoprotective andsedative activities as well as stimulant of nervous systemand tonifying effects [132] Meanwhile flavonoids possessseveral pharmacological properties including antibacterialanticancer anti-inflammatory antioxidant antiviral andhepatoprotective effects [133] which play important rolesin human health Flavonoid such as apigenin 7 is reportedto possess antibacterial [134] and hepatoprotective [135]properties Apigenin 7 and luteolin 12 are reported to possessanti-inflammatory and analgesic effects [133] affecting thefunction of enzyme systems involved in the generation ofinflammatory processes especially tyrosine and serine-threonine protein kinases [136 137] It has also been reportedthat apigenin 7 prevents HIV-1 activation via a novelmechanism that involves inhibition of viral transcription[138] and luteolin 12 demonstrated synergistic effects withanother flavonoid kaempferol against herpes simplex virus[133] Kamiya [139] documented the importance of essentialamino acids such as lysine valine isoleucine and histidinein terms of the risks to health if they are deficientThe authoralso documented their biological effects which includemuscle protein maintenance potentiation of immunefunction tissue repair acceleration after burn or traumaprotecting liver from toxic agents lowering blood pressuremodulating cholesterol metabolism and stimulating insulinor growth hormone secretion Therefore L javanica leavesand other plant parts which have shown to be rich inflavonoid and polyphenolic compounds amino acids andessential oil could play an important role in the treatmentand management of diseases such as hypertension andinflammation listed in Table 1

4 Pharmacological Activities

Scientific studies on L javanica indicate that it has a widerange of pharmacological activities (Table 4) which include

anticancer [140] antidiabetic [141] antimalarial [4 49 142]antimicrobial [2 3 7 17 73ndash75 77 83 84 126 143]antioxidant [7 10 11 75 77 125] antiplasmodial [2 7980 84 144 145] and pesticidal effects [1 2 59 95 120146ndash150] and cytotoxicity [2 73 79 120] activities Table 4summarizes some of the pharmacological studies undertakenon L javanica extracts aimed at evaluating some of theethnomedicinal uses of the species documented throughoutits distributional range (see Table 1) Some of the listedpharmacological activities may not relate directly to thedocumented ethnomedicinal uses of the species but mayprovide some insight into the speciesrsquo potential therapeuticvalue and bioactive properties and application

41 Anticancer Activity Fouche et al [140] reported anti-cancer activity of dichloromethane root extract of L javanicaagainst three human cells exhibiting TGI value of 182120583gmLfor breast MDA-MB-435 186 120583gmL for breast MDA-N and209 120583gmL for melanoma MALME-3M Based on literaturea couple of terpenoid compounds that have been isolatedfrom L javanica are known to have antitumor propertiesFor example linalool 120 is known to have antitumoractivity which plays a protective role against hepatotoxicityand the compound has anti-inflammatory activities as well[151] Research by Yang et al [152] showed limonene 92 tohave inhibitory effect on pancreatic and mammary tumorsAnother terpenoid compound 120572-pinene 44 is known toinhibit translocation of NF-120581B or p65 protein into nuclei ofLPS-stimulated THP-1 cells [153] These findings serve as ascientific validation for the use of L javanica as a componentof a herbal concoction known in KwaZulu Natal province asldquoimbizardquo prepared by mixing L javanica with C obliquus asherbal medicine for cancer [27]

42 Antidiabetic Activity Arika et al [141] determined the invivo antidiabetic activity of aqueous leaf extracts of L javan-ica in white male alloxan-induced albino mice The aqueousleaf extracts of L javanica at all dose levels significantlylowered the blood glucose levels in both oral and intraperi-toneal routes The antidiabetic effect of L javanica couldhave been due to the observed presence of flavonoids Thepolyhydroxylated flavonol enhances lipogenesis and glucoseuptake in the adipocytes and flavanoids have demonstratedinsulinmimetic properties as the compound is known to beeffective at controlling blood sugar levels These findings

12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table4Summaryof

pharmacologicalactiv

ities

ofthee

xtractsisolated

from

different

partso

fLippiajavanica

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Antiamoebic

Piperitenon

e162

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f25120583

gmLagainstE

histolytica

[73]

Antibacteria

lPiperitenon

e162

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f50120583

gmLagainstA

calcoaceticu

sMkristin

ae(50120583

gmL)Styphi(25120583

gmL)and

Saureus

(12120583

gmL)

[73]

Antibacteria

l(Antiproteus)

Methano

lLeaves

Disc

diffu

sion

assay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f313120583gmLagainstPm

irabilis

and926120583

gmL

againstPvulgaris

[74]

Water

Leaves

Disc

diffu

sion

assay

Exhibitedweakactiv

ityagainstPm

irabilis

with

MIC

valueo

f1873120583gmLand1768120583gmLagainstPvulgaris

[74]

Antibacteria

l

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

coliwith

MIC

valueo

f064m

gmLE

faecalis(064)P

aeruginosa

(032

)andSaureus

(064)Totalactiv

ityMIC

values

werea

sfollo

wsE

coli(127

mgmL)E

faecalis

(127

mgmL)Paeruginosa

(253

mgmL)and

Saureus

(127

mgmL)

[75]

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

valueo

f3mgmLBa

cillusp

umilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(gt12mgmL)Saureus(12mgmL)E

faecalis

(6mgmL)E

cloacae

(6mgmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pantoea

agglo

meran

s(12mgmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Shigella

flexneri

(15mgmL)A

erom

onas

hydrophila(12m

gmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae(12mgmL)Salmonellacholeraesuis

(6mgmL)and

Serratiamarcescens(gt12mgmL)

[17]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

valueo

f12m

gmLB

pumilu

s(12m

gmL)B

subtilis(12m

gmL)Saureus(6m

gmL)E

faecalis

(12m

gmL)E

cloacae

(12m

gmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(12m

gmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(6

mgmL)A

hydrophila(12m

gmL)Pm

irabilis

(12m

gmL)K

pneum

oniae

(12m

gmL)Scholeraesuis(6

mgmL)and

antia

moebice

ffect

(12m

gmL)

[17]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

values

of15

mgmLB

pumilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(gt12mgmL)Saureus(12mgmL)E

faecalis

(3mgmL)E

cloacae

(6mgmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(12m

gmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(15mgmL)A

hydrophila(6

mgmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae

(12m

gmL)Scholeraesuis(6

mgmL)and

Smarcescens(12mgmL)

[17]

Essentialoil

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

values

of6m

gmLB

pumilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(3mgmL)Saureus(15

mgmL)E

faecalis

(3mgmL)E

cloacae

(12m

gmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(6

mgmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(3mgmL)A

hydrophila(3mgmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae

(3mgmL)Scholeraesuis(15mgmL)and

Smarcescens(gt12mgmL)

[17]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 13

Table4Con

tinued

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

faecaliswith

MIC

valueo

f014

mgmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

coliwith

MIC

valueo

f031

mgmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPaeruginosa

with

MIC

valueo

f042m

gmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstSaureus

with

MIC

valueo

f013

mgmL

[7]

Antifu

ngal

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

albicans

with

MIC

valueo

fgt75m

gmLC

krusei

(188m

gmL)and

Cneoforman

s(gt75

mgmL)

[7]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

albicans

with

MIC

valueo

fgt375

mgmLC

krusei

(375m

gmL)and

Cneoforman

s(gt75

mgmL)

[7]

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

kruseiwith

MFC

valueo

f75mgmL

[7]

Dichlorom

ethane

Aeria

lparts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFu

sariu

mproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f014

mgmLand

Fusariu

mverticillioides(019mgmL)

[76]

Hexane

Aeria

lparts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f023m

gmLandF

verticillioides(045

mgmL)

[76]

Methano

lAe

rialp

arts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f177m

gmLandF

verticillioides(043

mgmL)

[76]

Methano

lAe

rialp

arts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

fgt250

mgmLandF

verticillioides(gt250

mgmL)

[76]

Antim

ycob

acteria

l

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f047m

gmLandtotalactivity

of10mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Dichlorom

ethane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f125m

gmLandtotalactivity

of23

mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f062m

gmLandtotalactivity

of13mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f125m

gmLandtotalactivity

of7m

Lgagainst

Msmegmatis

[77]

14 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table4Con

tinued

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Antioxidant

Water

Leaves

DPP

Hassay

Exhibitedactiv

itywith

EC50valueo

f358120583gmL

[7]

Water

Leaves

mdashEx

hibitedactiv

itywith

209ascorbicacid

equivalent

(mggdryweight)

[7]

Water

Leaves

ABT

Sassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f15mmol10

0g[78]

Water

Leaves

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f146254

mmol10

0g[78]

Water

Leaves

FRAPassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f238m

mol10

0g[78]

Antiplasm

odial

Hexanechloroform

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f1225plusmn072120583gmL

[79]

Ethylacetate

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f1212plusmn079120583gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f135plusmn006120583gmL

[79]

Hexanechloroform

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f1859plusmn026120583gmL

[79]

Ethylacetate

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f1580plusmn026120583gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f175plusmn017120583gmL

[79]

Dichlorom

ethane

Roots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f38120583gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethanem

ethano

lRo

ots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f27120583

gmL

[80]

Methano

lRo

ots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f24120583

gmL

[80]

Water

Roots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

fgt100120583

gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethane

Stem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f45120583gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethanem

ethano

lStem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f218120583gmL

[80]

Methano

lStem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f298120583gmL

[80]

Water

Stem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

fgt100120583

gmL

[80]

Free

radicalscaveng

ing

activ

ity

Water

mdashDPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0059plusmn002

gmL

[11]

50methano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f004plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Ethano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0025plusmn0001gmL

[11]

50ethano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0027plusmn0005gmL

[11]

Aceton

emdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0057plusmn0004gmL

[11]

50aceton

emdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0022plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Ethylacetate

mdashDPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0066plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Toxicity

Methano

lLeaf

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

40mortalityrecorded

after

48hexpo

sure

towards

Artemianauplii

[74]

Methano

lRo

ots

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f8430120583

gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f6503120583

gmL

[79]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 15

strengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantidiabetic agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species mixed with C obliquus to form aherbal concoction known in KwaZulu Natal province SouthAfrica as ldquoimbizardquo used against diabetes [27]

43 Antimalarial Activity Govere et al [142] found thattopical application of L javanica alcohol extract leads to767 protection against Anopheles arabiensis for 4 hoursLippia javanica has been used as a mosquito repellent by therural communities in Zimbabwe for a long time and previousstudies have shown that essential oils from the species havevery strong and lasting repellent activity against female Aarabiensis [64] Research by Lukwa et al [4] revealed thattopical application of 5mgcm2 of L javanica leads to 100protection againstAnopheles aegypti for 8 hoursMavundza etal [154] screened dichloromethane and ethanol leaf extractsof L javanica for adulticidal activity againstA arabiensisTheauthors observed dichloromethane and ethanol activities of45 and 55mosquitomortality respectivelyThese findingsstrengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantimalarial agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species as mosquito repellent in India [47]South Africa [34 49 58] and Zimbabwe [4 48]

44 Antioxidant Activity Leaf infusions of L javanica exhib-ited antioxidant activity with EC

50value of 358120583gmL and

contained 148mgmL of dry weight gallic acid equivalentphenolic compounds [7] The EC

50value of 358 120583gmL

obtained for L javanica by Shikanga et al [7] compareswell to those of many commercial teas including antioxidantcapacity of Rooibos Fresh Pack herbal teas (A linearis)with the best antioxidant activity of 333 120583gmL The highantioxidant activities displayed by L javanica infusions canbe partially attributed to the high levels of verbascoside 2(15mgg dry weight) reported by Olivier et al [81] in theleaf extract of the species Earlier research by Muchuwetiet al [125] reported 744 inhibition of the DPPH radicalby an ethanolic leaf extract of L javanica Lekganyane etal [75] reported antioxidant activity in L javanica and theacetone extracts of the species displayed antioxidant activityon BEA chromatogram [77] Bhebhe et al [10] reported theantioxidant activities of L javanica based on the DPPHreducing power and inhibition of phospholipid peroxidationassays Free radical scavenging activity of L javanica isattributed to phenolic compounds since these compoundshave an ideal structural chemistry for free radical scavengingactivity [155] Bhebhe et al [11] determined the effect ofseveral solvents on the free radical scavenging activity ofL javanica using the DPPH assay Free radical scavengingactivity expressed as IC

50ranged from 0022 plusmn 0001 gmL to

0066 plusmn 0001 gmL see Table 4

45 Antiplasmodial Activity Prozesky et al [144] evaluatedL javanica leaf acetone extract for in vitro antiplasmodialactivity using PfUP1 a chloroquine resistant strain of themalaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum by means of theflow cytometric test The IC

50value for L javanica was

426 120583gmL Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil

piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica for antiplasmodialactivity using chloroquine diphosphate as positive controland found it active against a chloroquine sensitive strainof P falciparum in micromolar concentrations with IC

50of

8 120583gmL Clarkson et al [80] evaluated L javanica rootsand stems extracts for in vitro activity against P falciparumusing the parasite lactase dehydrogenase (pLDH) assay andchloroquine diphosphate (Sigma) as the positive controlThedichloromethane methane and water extracts showed IC

50

values ranging from 38 to gt100 120583gmL see Table 4 Omolo etal [145] screened the essential oil of L javanica for fumiganttoxicity to Anopheles gambiae which exhibited LD

50of 43 times

10minus3mg cmminus3 Ayuko et al [79] showed that L javanica rootextracts have antiplasmodial activity against P falciparumwith IC

50ranging from 135 to 1859 120583gmL see Table 4

Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity againstthe chloroquine sensitive D10 strain of P falciparum withan IC

50value of 91 120583gmL and is also mildly cytotoxic [84]

Compared to chloroquine the compound is approximately2000 times less active against the D10 strain of P falciparum[84]

46 Antimicrobial Activities Lippia javanica is widely usedin the treatment of a wide range of infectious diseasescaused by microorganisms Viljoen et al [3] determined theantimicrobial properties of L javanica by evaluating the timekill studies of the speciesrsquo essential oil using the disc diffusionassay on three respiratory pathogens Klebsiella pneumoniaeCryptococcus neoformans and Bacillus cereus This studyshowed that the killing rate was greatest for K pneumoniaefollowed by C neoformans and very little reduction of micro-bial populations was observed for B cereus The efficacy of Ljavanica oil for K pneumoniae showed a killing rate within30 minutes for the concentrations 025 05 075 and 1C neoformans showed a killing rate for concentrations 05075 and 1 within 1 hour and the lowest concentration of025 took 8 hours before a bactericidal effect was notedwhile B cereus showed some reduction in colonies [3] Thepositive antimicrobial activity of L javanica as revealed bythe time kill study could be attributed to linalool 120 whichaverages between 65 and 70 in yield [3 5 88 90] and hasknown antimicrobial properties [93 156ndash159]These findingssomehow corroborate the traditional use of L javanica asherbal medicine for a wide range of bacterial and fungalrespiratory ailments indicated in Table 1

Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil piperitenone162 isolated from L javanica for antibacterial activityon cultures of Bacillus subtilis Staphylococcus aureus andEscherichia coli using imipenem cefazolin and ampicillinas positive controls The authors found piperitenone 162to inhibit S aureus and E coli at 1 dilution Acetonehexane and methanol leaf extracts and essential oil isolatedfrom L javanica showed some activity against fifteen Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria with MIC values rang-ing from 15 to gt12mgmL [60] see Table 4 In a similarstudy Samie et al [73] demonstrated that a pure compoundpiperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica has antibacte-rial activities against Acinetobacter calcoaceticus Micrococcus

16 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

kristinae Salmonella typhi and S aureus using dimethylsulphoxide and kanamycin as controls with MIC valuesranging from 12 to 50 120583gmL see Table 4 Shikanga et al [7]evaluated the antibacterial activity of L javanica methanolicleaf extract against S aureus Enterococcus faecalis E coliand Pseudomonas aeruginosa using the serial microdilutionmethod with gentamycin (Virbac) and acetone as positiveand negative controls respectively Lippia javanica displayedantibacterial activities with MIC values ranging from 013to 042mgmL against all four pathogens see Table 4 Theobtained minimum inhibitory concentrations are promisingsince natural products with MIC values below 1mgmLare generally considered to be noteworthy findings [160]Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity against theE coli and S aureus at a concentration of 10mgmL [84]Lekganyane et al [75] reported antibacterial activity of Ljavanica acetone leaf extracts against E coli E faecalis Paeruginosa and S aureus with MIC values ranging from 032to 064mgmL and total activity of the same species rangingfrom 127 to 253mgmL see Table 4 Methanol and water leafextracts of L javanica exhibited some antiproteus activityagainstProteusmirabilis andProteus vulgariswithMICvalueslt2000120583gmL with standard discs of ampicillin (2120583g) andchloramphenicol (10 120583g) as positive controls [74] Some of theantibacterial properties of L javanica can be attributed to thephytochemical constituents of the species for example thephenolic compound apigenin 7 is a well-known antibacterialagent [7 134] Apigenin 7 was shown to be highly activeagainst Vibrio cholera and E faecalis [161] while Basile et al[162] reported the inhibition of S typhi P mirabilis and Paeruginosa by the compound Therefore results from theseantibacterial evaluations of L javanica give credence to theuse of the speciesrsquo infusions against bacterial infections andother related diseases

Shikanga et al [126] investigated the antifungal activ-ities of leaf extracts and essential oil compounds isolatedfrom L javanica leafy extracts against a Guazatine-resistantstrain of Penicillium digitatumThemethanolic leafy extractsisoverbascoside 3 and verbascoside 2 compounds isolatedfrom L javanica inhibited fungal growth at concentrationsabove 06mgsdotmLminus1 causing significant inhibition of mycelialgrowth Verbascoside 2 is well-known for its antimicrobialproperties and has been found to inhibit viruses bacteriaand fungi [163] Similarly Samie et al [143] investigatedantifungal effects of acetone and hexane leaf extracts of Ljavanica against Candida albicans Candida krusei and Cneoformans isolated from AIDS patients using the microdi-lution method with nystatin Roche and DMSO as positiveand negative controls respectively Noteworthy moderateantifungal activities were recorded from C krusei with MICvalue of 188mgmL and other recordedMFCandMICvaluesfor other species ranged from 188mgmL to gt75mgmLsee Table 4 Thembo et al [76] investigated the antifungalactivity of aqueous and organic extracts of L javanica usinga serial microdilution assay Generally extracts of L javanicaexhibited weak activity see Table 4

47 Antimycobacterial Activity Mujovo et al [83] evaluatedL javanica compounds against a drug-sensitive strain ofMycobacterium tuberculosis using the radiometric respira-tory techniques Of all the isolated compounds only onetriterpenoid carboxylic acid euscaphic acid 172 exhibitedantimycobacterial activity with MIC value of 50120583gmLminus1against this strain In a similar study the leaf extract ofL javanica exhibited antimycobacterial activity against Msmegmatis in an evaluation which used microdilution assayand rifampicin as control [77] Acetone extract was thebest extractant with MIC value of 047mgmL it extractedantibacterial agents which was indicated by the lowest MICvalue [77] Masoko and Nxumalo [77] also evaluated thetotal activity ofL javanicawhich averaged 13mLg suggestingthat the extract prepared from one gram of L javanicacould be diluted to a volume of 13mL and will still inhibitM smegmatis efficiently According to Semenya and Maroyi[115] tuberculosis caused by M tuberculosis is a seriousdisease requiring effective strategies and tools to controland manage it Therefore preliminary evaluations done byMujovo et al [83] and Masoko and Nxumalo [77] serve asa scientific validation for the use of L javanica in traditionalmedicine for treatment of tuberculosis and other respiratoryailments in South Africa [24 27 115] and Uganda [43] as wellas their efficiency in tuberculosis drug discovery

48 Antiviral Activity Mujovo et al [83] found that (E)-2(3)-tagetenone epoxide 42 and piperitenone 162 inhibitedthe HIV-1 reverse transcriptase enzyme by 91 and 53respectively at 100 120583gmLminus1 based on a nonradioactive HIVRT colorimetric ELISA kit Little is known about the HIV RTactivity of L javanica extracts or compounds but flavonoidsare known to be active against viral RT and also as potentinhibitors of the cellular alpha and beta DNA polymerase[83] while luteolin 12 is active against HIV RT [164 165]Lippia javanica is traditionally used to treat HIVAIDSsymptoms in South Africa [65 66] and several viral andHIVAIDS opportunistic diseases and infections such asbronchitis [15 19ndash22] chicken pox [50] diarrhoea [17 3437 44 113] measles [14 20 38] pneumonia [14] shingles[15] and venereal diseases [44] Despite significant advancesin the utilization of L javanica in southern Africa overthe years for numerous viral diseases (Table 1) very littleantiviral evaluations have been done on crude extracts andpurified compounds of the species There is need thereforefor more pharmacological research as L javanica could beharbouring potent (RT) inhibitors which could be useful forthe development of new pharmaceutical products importantfor use against viral diseases and infections

49 Pesticidal Effects Magano et al [95] evaluated the repel-lent effects of hexane extracts of L javanica essential oilusing the in vitro tick climbing repellency bioassay on adultsof Hyalomma marginatum rufipes Koch ticks The authorsfound that 107mgmL caused repellency index of 100 at onehour and 30 minutes In a similar study by Madzimure et al[120] L javanica aqueous leaf extracts at 10 and 20 wvwere effective at controlling cattle ticks (Amblyomma species

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 17

Boophilus species Hyalomma species Rhipicephalus appen-diculatus and Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi) and were as goodas the positive control amitraz-based acaricide TrickbusterThese authors found no parasites on microscopic exami-nation of the Giemsa-stained thin blood smear collectedfrom treated cattle implying that the animals did not sufferfrom clinical tick-borne diseases Similarly Nyahangare etal [59] tested the pesticidal activity of L javanica waterextracts against cattle ticks The authors found no significantdifference between cattle treated with a commercial syntheticacaricide and those under L javanica treatment Martinez-Velazquez et al [166] evaluated pesticidal effects of twoessential oils namely 120574-terpinene 82 and 120588-cymene 99isolated from Lippia graveolens Kunth against 10-day-oldRhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini) tick larvaeusing the larval packet test bioassay The two essential oilsproduced highmortality ranging from90 to 100 in all testedconcentrations of 20 to 125 (vv)Therefore L javanica canprovide an effective tick control option where synthetic prod-ucts are unavailable or unaffordable particularly in remoterural areas in sub-Saharan Africa Lippia javanica is popularfor tick control and management among resource-poorsmallholder farmers in South Africa [58 95] and Zimbabwe[59 60 120] While these preliminary evaluations may serveas confirmation that L javanica has some bioactivities againstticks a comprehensive method of tick control is requiredfor the resource-constrained smallholder farmers based onethnopharmacological properties of L javanica

McGaw et al [146] screened L javanica for the anthel-mintic test systems using the free living nematodeCaenorhabditis elegans The crude ethanol and hexaneextracts showed some activity at a concentration of 2mgmLwith the 7-day incubation assay appearing to be moresensitive than the shorter assay Earlier research by Mwangiet al [1] indicated that L javanica was active against Aedesaegypti larvae and Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (maizeweevil) Katsvanga and Chigwiza [147] reported that Ljavanica is an effective natural pesticide which can be used tocontrol aphid species (Brevicoryne brassicae) In their studyKatsvanga and Chigwiza [147] found that 1 1 powderedaqueous leaf extract of L javanica reduced B brassicae by532 against 783 and 967 of two synthetic pesticidesAphid kill and Bexadust ldquoLrdquo respectively Chikukura etal [149] found L javanica powdered leaf extracts to haveinsecticidal properties with potential to control graindamage by 21ndash33 Mashela et al [148] reported that theapplication of ground L javanica leaves to soil in nematode-infested (Meloidogyne incognita) pots reduced the nematodenumbers by 79ndash92 and significantly increased fresh fruityield dry shoot mass plant height and stem diameter ofthe tomato plants as well as levels of potassium nitrogenand manganese in leaf tissue Muzemu et al [150] evaluatedwater extracts of L javanica leaf powder for pesticidal effectsagainst rape (Brassica napus L) aphids B brassicae andtomato (Solanum lycopersicum Lam) red spider mites andTetranychus evansi as alternatives to conventional pesticidesLippia javanica reduced B brassicae and Tetranychus evansiby 125 and 63 respectively [150]The study demonstratedthat L javanica has pesticidal effects on B brassicae and T

evansi The reduced number of B brassicae and T evansicould be due to L javanicarsquos extracts having repellent toxicand antifeedant effects since the species has essential oilswith pesticidal properties [2] Therefore these findingsindicate that L javanica has both nematicidal and plantgrowth-promoting properties

410 Toxicity and Cytotoxicity Activity Lippia javanica isknown to cause liver damage and photosensitisation in live-stock resulting in stock losses [167] Triterpenoids isolatedfrom the genus Lippia are icterogenic and cause jaundice asa result of liver damage [167] The characteristic swellingyellowing and later peeling of unpigmented skin are due tothe presence of phylloerythrin a photodynamic porphyrinthat reacts with sunlight and causes severe cell damage [167]The compound is normally formed when chlorophyll isbroken down by microorganisms in the rumen but it nowaccumulates in the liver as a result of the damage caused bytriterpenoids [167] In view of the known toxicity of Lippiaspecies the prolonged use of high doses of L javanica ispotentially harmful [167] Lippia javanica showed low toxicityafter 48 h exposure with the percentage of mortality below50 [74]

Ayuko et al [79] evaluated the toxicity of L javanicausing a brine shrimp cytotoxicity assay with LC

50value of

1138 plusmn 133 120583gmL Ayuko et al [79] found the cytotoxicity toantiplasmodial activity ratios for the methanolic extracts ofthe two tested strains to be 8430 and 6503 and since theseare greater than 100 it may be concluded that the extractsare of low toxicity Samie et al [73] demonstrated that apure compound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanicaessential oil has low cytotoxicity activity against intestinaladenocarcinoma cells (ie the HCT-8 monolayers with IC

50

of 2656 plusmn 53 120583gmL) Lukwa [64] evaluated the toxicity of Ljavanica aqueous leaf extracts using sexually mature BALBcmice with the placebo as control Within 48 hours all micefed with the L javanica leaf aqueous extract at 125ndash375 vvwere lethargic and the overall mortality was 375 Previousresearch byManenzhe et al [2] showed that hydrodistillationof L javanica leaves flowers and stems produced oil thatwas poisonous against P falciparumwhen diluted to 1 (vv)These findings imply that despite its apparent safety waterextracts of L javanica leaves may have deleterious healthimplications on humans and animals if consumed at veryhigh doses

Many compounds that have been isolated from L javan-ica including phenolic glycosides flavonoids and essentialoils are not known to have acute toxic properties withthe exception of icterogenin 173 Icterogenin 173 has beenshown to inhibit biliary excretion in rabbits [168] Reports inliterature indicate that the consumption of xanthine 22 hasresulted in mammalian toxicity According to Madzimure etal [64] xanthine 22 is a demethylated derivative of caffeinewith pharmacological actions such as central nervous system(CNS) stimulation relaxation of smooth muscle (especiallybronchial muscle) myocardial stimulation peripheral vaso-constriction and diuresis Considering the widespread useof L javanica as herbal tea and medicine it is important

18 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

to determine if any toxicological effects can occur from itschronic or subchronic usage

411 Other Activities Mpofu et al [169] determined the effectof inclusion of L javanica leaf meal in broiler diets ongrowth performance carcass characteristics and fatty acidprofiles The authors found that the L javanica fed broilershad higher total polyunsaturated fatty acids and n-3 fattyacidsThe findings from the study showed that inclusion of Ljavanica in broiler diets at 5 gkg feed has positive influenceson growth performance carcass characteristics and fattyacid profiles of broiler meat and therefore L javanica haspotential as growth-promoting feed additive in broilersSamie et al [73] evaluated antiamoebic activity of a purecompound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica essen-tial oil against Entamoeba histolytica using microdilutionmethod with metronidazole as the positive control diluents(ie culture medium with an appropriate concentration ofdimethyl sulphoxide as the negative control) and a blank(ie culture medium without dimethyl sulphoxide) Samieet al [73] demonstrated that piperitenone 162 had markedantiamoebic activity with IC

50value of 25 120583gmL More

research is required as L javanica could be harbouring potentantiamoebic properties which could be useful for managingamoebiasis an infection that remains a significant cause ofmorbidity and mortality worldwide

5 Conclusion

Lippia javanica has been used in African and Asian countriesas herbal tea and medicine for many centuries Utilization ofL javanica because of its flavour and medicinal propertiesforms the basis of the current demand for the plant speciesin central eastern and southern Africa Research on Ljavanica over the past decade on health promoting propertieshas greatly contributed to the increased consumption ofthe species as herbal or recreational tea The focus of thisresearch has been on phytochemical compounds particularlyphenolic content and antioxidant and free radical scavengingactivities Phenolic compounds present in L javanica arelargely responsible for the antioxidant properties possessedby the species More research in this regard is required andfuture research should focus on more comprehensive chem-ical characterization of both crude and pure extracts andevaluate potential for commercialization and developmentof nutraceutical products based on traditional uses of Ljavanica Most of the pharmacological researches conductedon L javanica so far have focused on the phytochemistryand biological properties of leaves and little or no researchhas been done on roots and other plant parts Thereforefuture research on the species should focus on other plantparts for example flowers roots and stems as well asorgan-to-organ age and seasonal variation evaluations in thephytochemical content and pharmacological activities of thespecies

The recent increase in the demand for L javanica prod-ucts may partly be ascribed to growing body of scientific evi-dence indicating important health benefits Lippia javanica

is widely sold as herbal tea in Botswana South Africa andZimbabwe Leaves and stems of L javanica are also sold asherbal medicines in the medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquo marketsin South Africa [35 170] For local people who rely onherbal medicines as part of their primary healthcare aswell as cultural beliefs they prefer L javanica harvestedfrom the wild and unprocessed plant parts sold in informalmedicinal ldquomuthirdquo markets [170] In the past there were norecords of overexploitation of L javanica wild populationsin southern Africa resulting in Raimondo et al [171] listingthe species as Least Concern (LC) under the IUCN RedList Categories and Criteria version 31 of threatened species(httpwwwiucnredlistorg) Recently signs of overharvest-ing have been noted where local people or plant traders haveuprooted whole plants to supply medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquomarkets or use the plants as herbal medicines brooms orherbal tea Therefore large-scale commercial utilization of Ljavanica is not sustainable if the species is harvested fromthe wild Currently L javanica is cultivated on a commercialscale in Kenya [28] and South Africa [117] for essential oilproduction for the mosquito-repellent candles and perfumeindustry Cultivation of L javanica is therefore a solutionto the sustainability problems associated with harvesting ofthe species from the wild and this option is also necessaryfor establishing commercial scale medicinal production andprocessing and trade enterprises The success of commercialcultivation of L javanica will depend on how the species ismarketed as herbal tea and medicine and source of essentialoil and health care products and as a source of functionalfoods

Significant research has been made in the past 50 yearsinto the chemistry and pharmacology of L javanica Thesestudies have shown L javanica to display various chemicaland different biological activities some of which justify itsethnopharmacological utilization in variety of cultures Inthe light of the evidence that L javanica is combined withother plant species in traditional medicine it will be valuableto investigate the possibility of synergistic effects of thedifferent extracts Deep phytochemical studies of L javanicaand its phytochemical properties especially the mechanismsof action of its bioactive constituents to illustrate the cor-relation between ethnomedicinal uses and pharmacologicalactivities should be the focus of further research on thespecies There is need for extensive in vivo experiments tovalidate the existing pharmacological activities Howeverbecause L javanica contains potentially toxic compoundsits toxicological properties need to be properly establishedvia proper quality control of product development to ensurethat potentially toxic components are kept below tolerancelevels

Appendix

A Chemical Compounds Isolated andCharacterized from Lippia javanica

See Table 5

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 19

Table 5

Chemical compound Reference(s)Phenolic compoundsCoumarin 1 [4]Verbascoside 2 [81]Isoverbascoside 3 [81]Theveside-Na 4 [82]Theveridoside 5 [82]4-ethylnonacosane 6 [83]Apigenin 7 [64 83]Cirsimaritin 8 [64 83]6-Methoxy luteolin41015840-methyl ether 9 [83]

6-Methoxy luteolin31015840410158407-trimethyl ether 10 [83]

Crassifolioside 11 [64]Luteolin 12 [64]Diosmetin 13 [64]Chrysoeriol 14 [64]Tricin 15 [64]Isothymusin 16 [64]Eupatorin 17 [64]5-Dimethyl noboletin 18 [64]Genkwanin 19 [64]Salvigenin 20 [64]Lippialactone 21 [84]AlkaloidXanthine 22 [64]Amino acids120572-Aminobutyric acid 23 [85 86]Valine 24 [86]Isoleucine 25 [86]Asparagine 26 [86]Phenylalanine 27 [86]120572-Aminoadipic acid 28 [86]Lysine 29 [86]Histidine 30 [86]Tyrosine 31 [86]Tryptophan 32 [86]Alanine 33 [85]Glycine 34 [85]Proline 35 [85]Serine 36 [85]Glutamine acid 37 [85]120573-Alanine 38 [85]Glutamine 39 [85]120573-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [85]4-hydroxyproline 41 [85]Essential oil(E)-2(3)-tagetenoneepoxide 42 [83]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]120572-Pinene 44 [3ndash5 87ndash91]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4](+)-2-Carene 46 [4]3-Carene 47 [4]Eucalyptol 48 [4]18 myrcene 49 [87]Ipsdienone 50 [87]Caryophyllene 51 [85]Geranial 52 [5 92 93]26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [92]Geraniol 54 [92]Octen-3-one 55 [5]6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]120588-Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]Artemisia ketone 58 [5]Linalool oxide 59 [5]Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5](Z)-120573-Ocimenone 61 [5](E)-120573-Ocimenone 62 [5]Carvyl acetate 63 [5]120572-Cubebene 64 [5]Sesquithujene 65 [5]Acora-35-diene 66 [5]120573-Bergamotene 67 [5]Trans-calamenene 68 [5]120573-Alaskene 69 [5]120574-Cadinene 70 [5]120575-Cadinene 71 [3 88 89 91]Cis-calamenene 72 [5]Nerolidol 73 [5](E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 88 89]Spathulenol 75 [5]Epi-120572-muurolol 76 [5]120572-Longipinene 77 [90]Chrysanthenone 78 [90]120572-Terpineol 79 [3 5 90 91]120572-Amorphene 80 [90]120572-Thujene 81 [91]120574-Terpinene 82 [91]120572-Cubebene 83 [91]Linalool acetate 84 [91]Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [91]Camphene 86 [3 5 88ndash91]120573-Pinene 87 [3 5 91]Sabinene 88 [3 5 87 90 91]Myrcene 89 [3 5 87ndash89 91ndash95]120572-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 88 89]2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]Limonene 92 [3 5 88ndash94]18-Cineole 93 [3 5 90 91 95]120573-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 88 89 91]

20 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3](Z)-120573-Ocimene 96 [3 5 88 89 91](E)-120573-Ocimene 97 [3 5 88 89 91]Isomyrcenol 98 [3]p-Cymene 99 [3 5 85 88ndash91]2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]Terpinolene 101 [3]Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 88 89 91 95]Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 88 89](Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]Nonanal 106 [3]Perillene 107 [3 91]Ipsenone 108 [3 87ndash89 95]Trans-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 88ndash90]1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 88 89]Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]Ttrans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]cis-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 88ndash90]120572-Copaene 114 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetone 115 [3 88 89]Trans-tagetone 116 [3 88 89]Camphor 117 [3 5 88ndash90 93 94]120573-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 91]Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 85 88ndash90 92 93]

Trans-120572-bergamotene 121 [3]120572-Cedrene 122 [3 5]Myrcenone 123 [3 5 83 91]120573-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 87ndash91 93 94]2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 88 89](Z)-120573-Farnesene 129 [3](E)-120573-Farnesene 130 [3 5](EE)-120572-Farnesene 131 [3 88 89]Ipsdienol 132 [3](Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]Isovaleric acid 134 [3]120572-Humulene 135 [3 5 88 89 91]120572-Acoradiene 136 [3]120573-Acoradiene 137 [3]120574-Muurolene 138 [3 5 88 89]120572-Muurolene 139 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]Borneol 142 [3 5 88ndash90]Verbenone 143 [3 91]Germacrene-D 144 [3 87ndash89 93]120573-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]120574-Bisabolene 146 [3]Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]Carvone 148 [3 5 91]Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 88 89 91]120573-Curcumene 150 [3]Ar-curcumene 151 [3]Cis-piperitol 152 [3]2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol156 [3 88 89]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]Calamenene 158 [3]Carvone oxide 159 [3]Isopiperitenone 160 [3]Cis-carveol 161 [3]Piperitenone 162 [2 3 73 83]Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 88 89]Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3ndash5 88ndash90]Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 88 89]Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]Spathulenol 167 [3]Eugenol 168 [3 5]Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120573-ol(=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120572-ol(=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [83]Icterogenin 173 [96]

B Chemical Structures ofPhenolic Compounds Alkaloids AminoAcids and Essential Oils Isolated fromLippia javanica

See Figure 4

Competing Interests

The author declares that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 21

O

OO

OO O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

C CH CHO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

COOH

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

Me

OMe

OMe

OMe

MeO

Me

HOOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OMe

OMe

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

（2 （2

（2

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

（3CO

（3CO

Coumarin 1 [4]

Verbascoside 2 [89]

Isoverbascoside 3 [89]

Theveside-Na 4 [90]

Theveridoside 5 [90]

4-Ethylnonacosane 6 [91]

Apigenin 7 [120 91]

Cirsimaritin 8 [120 91]

Crassifolioside 11 [120]

Luteolin 12 [120]

Diosmetin 13 [120]

Chrysoeriol 14 [120]

Tricin 15 [120]

Isothymusin 16 [120]

Eupatorin 17 [120]

6-Methoxyluteolin 3 47-trimethyl ether 10 [91]

6-Methoxyluteolin 4-methyl ether 9 [91]

Figure 4 Continued

22 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

N

NH

HN

HO

NH

O

NH

O

O

O

O

HN

N N

N

H

H

OAc

OAcOAc

OO

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

（3CO

（2

（2

（2

（2 （2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3N

（2N

（2N

（2N

（2N

minus

+

+

5-Desmethylnoboletin 18 [120]

Genkwanin 19 [120]

Salvigenin 20 [120]

Lippialactone 21 [92]

Xanthine 22 [120]

Valine 24 [94]

Isoleucine 25 [94]

Asparagine 26 [94]

Phenylalanine 27 [94]

Lysine 29 [94]

Histidine 30 [94]

Tyrosine 31 [94]

Tryptophan 32 [94]

Alanine 33 [93]

Glycine 34 [93]

Proline 35 [93]

Serine 36 [93]

Glutamine acid 37 [93]

Glutamine 39 [93]

4-Hydroxyproline 41 [93]

(E)-2(3)-Tagetenone epoxide 42 [91]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]

-Alanine 38 [93]

-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [93]

-Aminoadipic acid 28 [94]

-Aminobutyric acid 23 [93 94]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 23

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

H

H

HH

H

O

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

HO

OH

O

O

O

O

OH（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4]

3-Carene 47 [4]

Eucalyptol 48 [4]

18 myrcene 49 [123]

Ipsdienone 50 [123]

Caryophyllene 51 [93]

Geranial 52 [5 100 101]

26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [100]

Geraniol 54 [100]

Octen-3-one 55 [5]

6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]

Artemisia ketone 58 [5]

Linalool oxide 59 [5]

Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5]

Carvyl acetate 63 [5]

Sesquithujene 65 [5]

Acora-35-diene 66 [5]

-Pinene 44 [3-5 123 96 97 98 99] -Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]

(+)-2-Carene 46 [4]

-Bergamotene 67 [5]

-Cubebene 64 [5]

(Z)--Ocimenone 61 [5]

(E)--Ocimenone 62 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

24 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OH

H

H

H

H

O

OHO

HO

H

HH H

H

H

HH

H

HO

HO

O

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

Trans-calamenene 68 [5]

Cis-calamenene 72 [5]

Nerolidol 73 [5]

(E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 96 97]

Spathulenol 75 [5]

Chrysanthenone 78 [98]

Linalool acetate 84 [99]

Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [99]

Camphene 86 [3 5 96 97 98 99]

Sabinene 88 [3 5 123 98 99]

Myrcene 89 [3 5 123 100 101 96 97 99 102 103]

-Alaskene 69 [5]

-Terpineol 79 [3 5 98 99]

-Amorphene 80 [98]

-Cadinene 70 [45]-Thujene 81 [99]

-Cadinene 71 [3 96 97 99] -Terpinene 82 [99]

-Cubebene 83 [99]

-Pinene 87 [3 5 99]

-Longipinene 77 [98]

-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 96 97]

Epi--muurolol 76 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 25

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O

OH

OH

H

H

H

H

H

HOO

OH

O

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（3(（2)3（2

（3(（2)6（2

2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]

Limonene 92 [3 5 100 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3]

Isomyrcenol 98 [3]

p-Cymene 99 [3 5 93 96 97 98 99]

2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]

Terpinolene 101 [3]

Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 96 97 99 103]

Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 96 97]

(Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]

67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]

Nonanal 106 [3]

Perillene 107 [3 99]

Ipsenone 108 [3 123 96 97 103]

Trans-linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 96 97 98]

1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 96 97]

Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]

Trans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]

Cis-linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 96 97 98]

Cis-tagetone 115 [3 96 97]

Trans-tagetone 116 [3 96 97]

-Copaene 114 [3 5 96 97 98]

18-Cineole (=eucalyptol) 93 [3 5 98 99 103]

-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 96 97 99]

(Z)--Ocimene 96 [3 5 96 97 99]

(E)--Ocimene 97 [3 5 96 97 99]

Camphor 117 [3 5 101 96 97 98 102]

Figure 4 Continued

26 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

HH

H

H

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 93 100 101 96 97 98]

Myrcenone 123 [3 5 91 99]

2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol 125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]

Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 96 97]

Ipsdienol 132 [3]

(Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]

Isovaleric acid 134 [3]

Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]

Borneol 142 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 99]

Trans--bergamotene 121 [3]

-Cedrene 122 [3 5]

-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 123 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)--Farnesene 129 [3]

(E)--Farnesene 130 [3 5]

-Muurolene 139 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Muurolene 138 [3 5 96 97]

-Acoradiene 136 [3]

-Acoradiene 137 [3]

-Humulene 135 [3 5 96 97 99]

(EE)--Farnesene 131 [3 96 97]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O O

HO

O

H

H

H

HO

HO

OH

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3CO（3

Verbenone 143 [3 99]

Germacrene-D 144 [3 123 101 96 97]

Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]

Carvone 148 [3 5 99]

Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 96 97 99]

Ar-curcumene 151 [3]

Cis-piperitol 152 [3]

2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]

26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol 156 [3 96 97]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]

Calamenene 158 [3]

Carvone oxide 159 [3]

Isopiperitenone 160 [3]

Cis-carveol 161 [3]

Piperitenone 162 [2 3 91 81]

Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 96 97]

-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]

-Bisabolene 146 [3]

-Curcumene 150 [3]

Figure 4 Continued

28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

OO

O

O

H

H

H

H

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

H

H

HCH

HH

HO

（3

（2

（2C

（3C（3C

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C O（3

Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3-5 96 97 98]

Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 96 97]

Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]

Spathulenol 167 [3]

Eugenol 168 [3 5]

Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [91]

Icterogenin 173 [104]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Figure 4

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to the NationalResearch Foundation (NRF) and GovanMbeki Research andDevelopment Centre (GMRDC) University of Fort Hare forfinancial support to conduct this research

References

[1] JWMwangi I Addae-Mensah RMMunavu andW LwandeldquoEssential oils of Kenyan Lippia species Part IIIrdquo Flavour andFragrance Journal vol 6 no 3 pp 221ndash224 1991

[2] N J Manenzhe N Potgieter and T Van Ree ldquoCompositionand antimicrobial activities of volatile components of Lippiajavanicardquo Phytochemistry vol 65 no 16 pp 2333ndash2336 2004

[3] A M Viljoen S Subramoney S F V Vuuren K H C Baserand B Demirci ldquoThe composition geographical variation andantimicrobial activity of Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae) leafessential oilsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 96 no 1-2 pp271ndash277 2005

[4] N Lukwa P Moslashlgaard P Furu and C Boslashgh ldquoLippia javanica(Burm f) Spreng its general constituents and bioactivity onmosquitoesrdquoTropical Biomedicine vol 26 no 1 pp 85ndash91 2009

[5] L S Chagonda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssential oil compositionof Lippia javanica (Burmf) spreng chemotype from WesternZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants vol 18 no 2pp 482ndash485 2015

[6] W Kipkore B Wanjohi H Rono and G Kigen ldquoA study of themedicinal plants used by the Marakwet Community in KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 242014

[7] E A Shikanga S Combrinck and T Regnier ldquoSouth AfricanLippia herbal infusions total phenolic content antioxidant andantibacterial activitiesrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76no 3 pp 567ndash571 2010

[8] N T Parrant ldquoThe potential of non-timber forest products ofBotswanardquo Botswana Notes Records vol 28 no 1 pp 203ndash2181996

[9] D M Motlhanka and S W Makhabu ldquoMedicinal and ediblewild fruit plants of Botswana as emerging new crop opportu-nitiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plants Research vol 5 no 10 pp1836ndash1842 2011

[10] M Bhebhe T N Fuller B Chipurura and M MuchuwetildquoEffect of solvent type on total phenolic content and free radicalscavenging activity of black tea and herbal infusionsrdquo FoodAnalytical Methods vol 9 no 4 pp 1060ndash1067 2016

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29

[11] M Bhebhe B Chipurura and M Muchuweti ldquoDeterminationand comparison of phenolic compound content and antioxidantactivity of selected local Zimbabwean herbal teas with exoticAspalathus linearisrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 100no 1 pp 213ndash218 2015

[12] B Patiri and A Borah Wild Edible Plants of Assam GeetakhiPrinters Guwahati India 2007

[13] H Narzary and A Basumatary ldquoProximate and vitamin Canalysis of wild edible plants consumed by Bodos of AssamIndiardquo Journal of Molecular Pathophysiology vol 4 no 4 pp128ndash133 2015

[14] M Gelfand S Mavi R B Drummond and B Ndemera TheTraditional Medical Practitioners in Zimbabwe His Principles ofPractice and Pharmacopoeia Mambo Press Gweru Zimbabwe1985

[15] D Davids Materia medica and care a study of the uses ofmedicinal herbs and remedies as a form of treatment andnegotiating social relationships in cape town and surroundings[MS dissertation] University of theWestern Cape Cape TownSouth Africa 2012

[16] A Maroyi and G K E Mosina ldquoMedicinal plants and tradi-tional practices in peri-urban domestic gardens of the Limpopoprovince South africardquo Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledgevol 13 no 4 pp 665ndash672 2014

[17] A Samie C L Obi P O Bessong and L Namrita ldquoActivityprofiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Vendacommunities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterialspeciesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 4 no 12 pp1443ndash1451 2005

[18] T York An ethnopharmacological study of plants used fortreating respiratory infections in rural Maputaland [MS disser-tation] University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa South Africa2012

[19] D Davids T Blouws O Aboyade et al ldquoTraditional healthpractitionersrsquo perceptions herbal treatment andmanagement ofHIV and related opportunistic infectionsrdquo Journal of Ethnobiol-ogy and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 77 2014

[20] A Hutchings A H Scott G Lewis and A CunninghamZulu Medicinal Plants An Inventory University of Natal PressPietermarizburg South Africa 1996

[21] RM Coopoosamy andK K Naidoo ldquoAn ethnobotanical studyofmedicinal plants used by traditional healers inDurban SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 6no 11 pp 818ndash823 2012

[22] I Hedberg and F Staugard Traditional Medicinal Plants inBotswana Ipeleng Gaborone Botswana 1989

[23] H Shahriar A S M H K Chowdhury S Rahman et al ldquoSci-entific validation of medicinal plants used by a folk medicinalpractitioner of Chuadanga District BangladeshrdquoWorld Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 11 pp 13ndash24 2014

[24] S S Semenya M J Potgieter and M P Tshisikhawe ldquoUseconservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinalplants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 12 no 18 pp2392ndash2405 2013

[25] M Roberts Indigenous Healing Plants Southern Book Publish-ers Halfway House Johannesburg South Africa 1990

[26] T Birhanu D Abera and E Ejeta ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas westernEthiopiardquo Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare vol 5no 1 pp 83ndash93 2015

[27] N T Mahlangeni R Moodley and S B Jonnalagadda ldquoEle-mental composition of Cyrtanthus obliquus and Lippia javanicaused in South African herbal tonic Imbizardquo Arabian Journal ofChemistry 2013

[28] W Musila D Kisangau and J Muema ldquoConservation statusand use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitionersin Machakos District Kenyardquo in Indigenous Knowledge Con-ference Proceedings Pennsylvania State University May 27ndash292004 2004

[29] G N Njoroge and R W Bussmann ldquoTraditional managementof ear nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 542006

[30] P Chigora R Masocha and F Mutenheri ldquoThe role of indige-nous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailmentsin rural Zimbabwe the case of Mutirikwi communal landsrdquoJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol 9 no 2 pp26ndash43 2007

[31] R W Bussmann G G Gilbreath J Solio et al ldquoPlant use ofthe Maasai of Sekenani Valley Maasai Mara Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 22 2006

[32] D Motlhanka and G P Nthoiwa ldquoEthnobotanical Survey ofmedicinal plants of Tswapong North in Eastern Botswana acase of plants from Mosweu and Seolwane Villagesrdquo EuropeanJournal of Medicinal Plants vol 3 no 1 pp 10ndash24 2013

[33] A Vhurumuku ldquoKnowledge use and attitudes towardsmedici-nal plants of pre-service teachers at a South African UniversityrdquoGlobal Advanced Research Journal in Environmental Science andToxicology vol 4 no 2 pp 15ndash24 2015

[34] M N Nkwanyana An ethnobotanical and antidiarrhoeal inves-tigation of plants used traditionally in the maputaland areahomesteads [MS dissertation] University of Zululand KwaD-langezwa South Africa 2013

[35] T E Moeng An investigation into the trade of medicinal plantsbymuthi shops and street vendors in the Limpopo Province SouthAfrica [MS thesis] University of Limpopo Gauteng SouthAfrica 2010

[36] S Bandeira A M Manjate and O Filipe ldquoAn EcologicalAssessment of the Health of the Chibuto-Missavene Wetlandin the Dry Season Mozambique Emphasis on ResourcesAssessment Utilization and Sustainability Analysisrdquo reportto Challenge Program for Water and Food InternationalWater Management Institute Pretoria South Africa 2006httpscgspacecgiarorgbitstreamhandle105682160421604pdfsequence=1

[37] M C Palgrave R B Drummond and E J Moll Trees ofSouthern Africa Struik Cape Town South Africa 2003

[38] M O Nanyingi J M Mbaria A L Lanyasunya et alldquoEthnopharmacological survey of Samburu district KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4 article 142008

[39] J G J P Sankar and K B Satapathy ldquoWeed diversity of Rabicrops and their ethnomedicinal uses in Kendrapara districtof Odisha Indiardquo International Research Journal of BiologicalSciences vol 4 no 3 pp 33ndash38 2015

[40] D E N Mabogo The ethnobotany of the vhavenda [MSdissertation] University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa1990

[41] B-E van Wyk B van Oudtshoorn and N Gericke MedicinalPlants of South Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2013

[42] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used forthe treatment of tuberculosis by Bapedi traditional healers

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

OphthalmologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Diabetes ResearchJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Research and TreatmentAIDS

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 5: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 5

Table1Con

tinued

Use

Plantp

art(s

)used

Mod

eofu

seCou

ntry

practised

Reference(s)

Wound

sinjurie

spainand

skin

infec

tions

Abdo

minalpains

Leaves

Leaves

chew

edandjuices

wallowed

Zimbabw

e[14

]Ac

neLeaves

Not

specified

Botsw

ana

[22]

Antidotes

Roots

Usedas

antid

otefor

food

poiso

ning

Botsw

ana

[22]

Backache

Roots

Infusio

ntakenorally

SouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[14

20]

Bleeding

from

then

ose(epistaxis)

Leaves

Freshleaves

inserted

into

nose

orpo

wderedleaves

sniffed

SouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[14

53]

Boils

Leaves

Infusio

ntakenorally

SouthAfrica

[54]

Chickenpo

xLeaves

Usedin

washesa

ndpo

ultices

oras

steam

SouthAfrica

[50]

Earache

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorallymixed

with

leaves

ofE

grandis

SouthAfrica

[18]

Febrile

rashes

Leaves

Infusio

nstakenorally

SouthAfrica

[40]

Headachemigraine

Leavesroo

tsLeafandroot

decoctionof

Ljavanica

alon

etaken

orallyor

leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofanyof

theses

peciesB

cathartica

CbrachiataE

grand

isTrip

aria

andTem

etica

takenorally

KenyaSouth

Africaand

Zimbabw

e[14

18333438]

Inflammation

Leaves

Not

specified

SouthAfrica

[41]

Pubics

ores

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorallymixed

with

leaves

ofAc

anthosperm

umau

strale(Lo

efl)Ku

ntze

Swaziland

[55]

Scabies

Leavesroo

tsInfusio

ntakenorallyor

used

inwashesa

ndpo

ultic

esor

asste

amSouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[14

5054]

Shingles

Leavestwigs

androots

Appliedas

anointment

SouthAfrica

[15]

Skin

disorderssuch

asheatrash

scratchessting

sandbites

Leavestwigs

Appliedas

anointmento

rldquoim

bizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

stakenorally

SouthAfrica

[2127]

Sores

Leaves

Decoctio

nof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

bark

ofAc

aciaburkeiBe

nthO

zoroaengle

riR

Fern

ampAFernScle

rocaryabirrea

(AR

ich)H

ochstSyzygium

cordatum

Hochstex

Krauss

andTabernaemontana

elegans

Stapftaken

orally

SouthAfrica

[56]

Sore

eyescataracts

Leavesroo

tsJuices

queezedinto

eyes

Botsw

ana

Zimbabw

e[14

22]

Sprained

joints

Roots

Root

powdera

ppliedto

scarificatio

nsarou

ndsprained

joints

SouthAfrica

[20]

Ulcers

Leaves

Juicetaken

orallywith

cloveso

fAsativum

Bang

ladesh

[23]

Wou

nds

Leaves

Freshleaves

wrapp

edarou

ndwou

ndto

enhanceh

ealin

gor

infusio

ntakenorally

KenyaSouth

Africa

[5457]

Ethn

oveterinaryu

ses

Disinfectin

gsuspectedanthrax-infeste

dmeat

Who

leplant

Who

leplantsused

todisin

fectsuspectedanthrax-infeste

dmeat

SouthAfrica

[20]

Gettin

grid

ofticks

andother

ectoparasites

Leavestwigs

andwho

leplant

Crushedleaves

mixed

with

water

andsprayedtwigsu

sedas

bedd

ingin

fowlrun

sSouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[58ndash60]

Lice

repellant

Who

leplant

Who

leplantu

sedto

repelliceinpo

ultry

India

[61]

Milk

preservativ

eStem

Stem

appliedto

milk

gourdbefore

milk

ferm

entatio

nKe

nya

[62]

6 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table1Con

tinued

Use

Plantp

art(s

)used

Mod

eofu

seCou

ntry

practised

Reference(s)

Otheruses

Anaem

iain

pregnancy

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorally

ZanzibarTanzania

[46]

Broo

mWho

leplant

Who

leplantscutand

tiedtogether

tomaker

ough

broo

ms

SouthAfrica

[53]

Cancer

Leaves

ldquoImbizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

stakenorally

SouthAfrica

[27]

Cerem

onial

Leavesw

hole

plant

Usedbefore

andaft

erfuneralsor

placed

onpatie

ntsrsquobedaft

ercircum

cisio

nKe

nyaSouth

Africa

[315863]

Con

vulsion

sLeaves

Leaves

rubb

edon

face

Zimbabw

e[14

64]

Diabetes

Leaves

ldquoImbizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

stakenorally

SouthAfrica

[27]

Fatig

ueor

tiredness

Leaves

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofA

glabratum

orE

grandiso

rTriparia

takenorally

SouthAfrica

[18]

Fence

Who

leplant

Plantedarou

ndho

mesteads

Ethiop

ia[26]

Fodd

erLeaves

Leaves

eatenby

goats

Kenya

[31]

Fuelw

ood

Who

leplant

Who

leplantu

sedas

fuelw

ood

ZanzibarTanzania

[46]

Hum

anim

mun

odeficiency

virus(HIV

)or

acqu

iredim

mun

odeficiency

synd

rome

(AID

S)symptom

sLeaves

ldquoImbizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

swhich

istakenorally

SouthAfrica

[6566

]

Kidn

eyprob

lems

Root

50groot

powd

erbo

iledin

2litreso

fwaterpatient

takesa

cupof

thismixture

once

per

dayfor3

days

Swaziland

[67]

Madness

Leavesw

hole

plant

Body

washedwith

leafinfusio

nMalaw

iZimbabw

e[14

68]

Marasmicinfants

Roots

Infusio

nsused

tobath

infants

SouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[14

20]

Night

blindn

ess

Leaves

Face

washedwith

infusio

nZimbabw

e[14

]Nightmares

Not

specified

Not

specified

Zimbabw

e[64]

Pre-intra-andpo

stpartum

complications

Stem

roo

tsSm

earp

owdero

froo

torstem

Kenya

[69]

Preventin

god

oursor

beingused

indo

ors

tofre

shen

air

Leavesw

hole

plant

Leaves

sprin

kled

intoiletsto

prevento

dourso

rwho

leplantp

lacedin

vase

orroom

KenyaSouth

Africa

[313558]

Protectio

nagainstd

ogsa

ndcrocod

iles

Leaves

Leaves

smearedon

body

SouthAfrica

[70]

Psycho

tropicb

ehaviour

Leaves

Infusio

ntakenorally

Swaziland

[71]

Removingbadluck

Leaves

Face

andhand

swashedwith

infusio

nof

Ljavanica

leaves

mixed

with

Cmolleleaves

Swaziland

[72]

Sleeplessn

ights

Leaves

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofE

grandisand

Trip

ariatakenorally

SouthAfrica

[18]

Todrivea

way

badspirits

Leaves

Body

washedwith

infusio

nZimbabw

e[14

]To

preventinfantsfro

mcontracting

illnesscaused

byfather

ormother

committingadultery

Leaves

Leaves

rubb

edon

foreheadelbow

sandkn

eesa

fterc

ommittingadultery

Zimbabw

e[14

]

Venerealdiseases

Roots

Decoctio

ntakenorally

Mozam

biqu

e[44]

Weakjoints

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorally

Zimbabw

e[14

]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Asthma

Bronchitis

Chest pains

Diarrhoea

Mosquito repellent

Wounds

Fevermalaria

Herbal tea

Cough

Colds

Times found in literature

Figure 3 Main ethnobotanical applications of Lippia javanica in central eastern and southern Africa An ethnobotanical use is countedonly once per publication

Food Uses Respiratory Problems Gastrointestinal DiseasesFever Malaria and Insect Repellent Wounds Injuries Painand Skin Infections Ethnoveterinary Uses and Other Uses

21 Food Uses Leaves and twigs of Lippia javanica are usedas food additives in Kenya [6] and leafy vegetable in India[12 13] Lippia javanica is popular as herbal tea particularlyin Botswana South Africa and Zimbabwe [7ndash11] Lippiajavanica herbal tea is prepared by steeping fresh or driedleaves stems or twigs in boiling water and letting them standfor two to five minutes to release flavour with or withoutmilk and sugar added according to taste A stronger brewknown as a decoction is prepared by boiling fresh or driedleaves stems or twigs for more than five minutes The herbaltea prepared from L javanica leaves stems or twigs has alemon or vanilla aroma and is often used as a common tea(ie C sinensis) substitute or a few leaves stems or twigsare added to C sinensis to provide a lemon or vanilla aromaAccording to Soukand and Kalle [87] herbal tea or tisaneis an English term used to denote a decoction or infusionmade of herbs for medicinal purposes When L javanica isused as medicinal herbal tea it is consumed for a limitednumber of days to treat a specific condition like asthma inZimbabwe [14] bronchitis in South Africa [19] chest painsin Zimbabwe and South Africa [14 24] colds in KenyaSouth Africa and Zimbabwe [19 20 28ndash30] cough in SouthAfrica and Zimbabwe [19 20 30 53] and other diseases(see Table 1) From literature it seems L javanica herbaltea evolved over the years from medicinal tea decoctionsor infusions to nonmedicinal uses where the herbal teais now drunk for recreation and enjoyment According toShikanga et al [7] L javanica tea is appreciated throughoutits distributional range as a general health tonic and alsobecause it is naturally caffeine-free and has a calming andrelaxing effect Research done by other workers for exampleManenzhe et al [2] Shikanga et al [7] Parrant [8] Olivieret al [81] Motlhanka and Makhabu [9] and Bhebhe et al[10 11] revealed that L javanica is a popular recreational teain southern Africa consumed on a daily basis within a food

context while medicinal infusions or tisanes of L javanicaare taken for a specific medical purpose During the past20 years the use of herbal teas has increased globally [107]because of their functional properties and consumer interestin the health promoting properties of such beverages [108]The other advantage associated with L javanica usage is thatthe leaves can be sun-dried and later boiled in water anddrunk as herbal tea [9]

Most of L javanica used as herbal tea in rural andperiurban communities in central eastern and southernAfrica is still collected from the wild although small-scale cultivation has become necessary as it is marketed asherbal tea in Botswana under the brand name ldquoMosukudurdquoor ldquoMosukujanerdquo [109] and in Zimbabwe as ldquoZumbanirdquo(Figure 1(b)) Although considerable quantities of L javanicaare sold in local markets in Botswana and Zimbabwe andalso traded on the Internet there is no data on presentproduction levels traded volumes values and export figuresin these two countries Research by Whiteside [110] showedthat sales of L javanica tea bags generated an income ofR2030000 (US$5718) during 19941995 in Botswana Thereis increased demand for L javanica herbal tea especiallyin the light of growing health consciousness worldwidewith the estimated potential demand for the species and itsproducts around 100 tonnes per year on the local marketand 1000 tonnes per year on the export market (httpbio-innovationorgworkfever-tea-tree) Considering the rapidgrowth of the herbal tea industry worldwide and the increas-ing demand for L javanica products there is need for theimprovement of L javanica products as well as developmentof new products Therefore L javanica has potential to makethe transition from limited local use to commercial andinternational product Lippia javanica has been identifiedas one of the few plant species that should be integratedin the domestication process in farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa to supportmedicinal nutritional and incomesecurity of local communities [107 111] According to VanWyk [111] L javanica is of commercial value as herbal tea andhealth drinks Therefore commercialization of L javanica is

8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

unlikely to be viable if the product is sorely harvested fromthe wild In the same line commercialization of L javanicamight be more worthy if other products other than tea arederived from the plant

22 Respiratory Problems The different parts of L javanicafor example the leaves and twigs are used for the treatmentof asthma coughs colds influenza pneumonia tuberculosisand bronchial problems in Bangladesh Botswana EthiopiaKenya South Africa and Zimbabwe [14ndash16 19 20 23 25 2628ndash32 53 112] In Bangladesh leaf infusion of L javanica istaken orally mixed with 3-4 pieces of cloves ofA sativum 2-3times daily as remedy for chest pains [23] In Ethiopia leavesof L javanica are chewed with butter as remedy for chestpains and cough [26] In India L javanica leaf decoctionis taken orally as remedy for respiratory disorders [39] InKenya leaves are sniffed [31] or half glass of hot leaf infusionis taken orally three times a day [28 29] as remedy for coldsand cough Research done by Davids et al [19] in SouthAfrica revealed that about 50 g of leaves is added to a cupof boiling water to produce an infusion which is taken orallyas remedy for coughs colds and bronchial problems or theinfusion is applied to the skin or mixed with Vaseline tomake an ointment In South Africa leaf or twig decoctionis taken orally for asthma colds and cough [16 53] leavesare used in washes and poultices for chest pains [25] andleaves are boiled for 5 minutes and one cup of extract is takenorally thrice a day for chest pains and tuberculosis [24 42]According to York [18] two handfuls of L javanica leaves areboiled in two litres of water and patient is steamed once ortwice a day to treat coughs chest pain headaches fever chillsa sore throat or a blocked nose This decoction can also betaken orally by drinking half a cup daily [18] Alternativelya handful of L javanica roots or leaves are mixed with ahandful leaves of A glabratum or B transvaalensis or Buniflora or B cathartica or C anisata or C brachiata orC molle or E grandis or H kraussii or Hypoxis spp or Kmosambicina or P neochilus or P guajava or S serratuloides orT sericea or T riparia or T emetica to treat blocked nosechest pain cough earache fatigue fever influenza headacherunny nose sleepless nights sore throat tiredness andtonsillitis [18] Leaf and stem infusion of L javanica are takenorally together with A afra by the Zulu people in SouthAfrica as remedy for bronchial ailments colds and cough[20] ldquoImbizardquo a popular herbal decoction prepared from Ljavanica and C obliquus is used by the Zulu people in SouthAfrica as herbal tonic and an immune booster and also forthe treatment of cancer chest pains colds diabetes HIV orAIDS symptoms skin infections and tuberculosis [27] Insome communities in South Africa L javanica leaf or rootinfusion is taken orally as remedy for influenza and malaria[33] and respiratory disorders [40 41] In Zimbabwe leafor root decoction is taken orally or smoke of burnt leavesand roots is inhaled as remedy for chest pains [14] and leafand twigs are boiled in water and infusion is taken orally asremedy for colds and cough [30] According to Gelfand etal [14] Shona people in Zimbabwe rub leaf ointment of Ljavanica on the chest and abdomen as remedy for pneumoniaand leaf decoction is taken orally and body washed with leaf

decoction as remedy for shortness of breath or dyspnoea InSouth Africa a leaf and stem infusion of L javanica are takenorally together with leaves of A afra as remedy for measles[20]

Based on literature inhalation of smoke from L javanicaappears to be a popular remedy for asthma chest painscolds and chronic coughs in Botswana South Africa andZimbabwe [14 15 20 32] In Botswana L javanica leafinfusion vapour is inhaled as remedy for colds and cough[32] In SouthAfrica for example leaves and twigs are burnedand smoke is inhaled as remedy for asthma and cough [15]or steam from leaf infusions is inhaled or hot leaf infusionsare taken orally against colds and cough [20] In Zimbabwesmoke of burnt leaves and roots is inhaled as remedy for chestpains [14]

23 Gastrointestinal Diseases The leaf and root decoction orinfusions of L javanica are used as remedies of the digestivesystem diseases such as cholera diarrhoea and dysenteryFor example in Mozambique root decoction is taken orallyas remedy for a type of diarrhoea commonly known asldquochinhamucacardquo which is characterized by milky diarrhoeaaccompanied by vomiting in children [44] Leaf decoctionis used as herbal medicine for diarrhoea in Kenya [113] InSouth Africa the leaves of L javanica are crushed and mixedwith cold or hot water and the mixture is then sieved and aquarter of a cup (75mL) is taken twice a day until diarrhoeasubsides [34] The Venda people in South Africa use leafinfusions as prophylactic against diarrhoea [40] Researchdone by Palgrave et al [37] in South Africa revealed that teainfusions of the L javanica leaves are used as remedies forHIVAIDS opportunistic infections such as lung infectionsand diarrhoea Previous research inMozambique [114] SouthAfrica [115] and Zimbabwe [116] showed that gastrointestinaldisorders particularly cholera diarrhoea and dysentery areamong human diseases often treated with herbal medicinesFor those patients diagnosed as having intestinal worms inVenda South Africa a leaf infusion of L javanica leavesis used as an anthelmintic [40] Therefore these findingsillustrate that herbal medicines including L javanica can playan important role in basic health care of local communitiesthrough treatment and management of cholera diarrhoeaand dysentery

24 Fever Malaria and Insect Repellent Traditionally Ljavanica is commonly used to treat fever and malaria andrepel insects throughout its distributional range [4 14 1617 33ndash35 40 48ndash50 58ndash60] In South Africa a decoctionof fresh or air dried leaves is used to wash or steam bodyparts infested with lice [50] In India the whole plant is usedto repel lice in poultry [61] In South Africa and Zimbabwewhole plant or leaves are burnt to repel mosquitoes [4 3435 48 49 58] In South Africa and Zimbabwe L javanicais widely used to get rid of ticks and other ectoparasites forexample ticks are sprayed with crushed leaves mixed withwater or twigs are used as bedding in fowl runs [58ndash60]Leaf and twig decoction of L javanica are taken orally asremedy for fever [16] The Venda people in South Africa useleaf infusions of L javanica as prophylactic against malaria

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9

[40] In Zimbabwe leaf decoction is taken orally as remedyfor fever [14]

Lippia javanica is also cultivated on a commercial scale bya rural community in Giyani the Limpopo province SouthAfrica for the production of mosquito-repellent candles[117] Clinical studies using human volunteers showed thatL javanica repels no less than 95 of mosquitos whereasmost mosquito repellents repel only 42 of them [118]Based on these findings the Council for Scientific andIndustrial Research (CSIR) South Africa signed a benefitsharing agreement with traditional healers allowing for thecommercial cultivation of L javanica aimed at establishingan indigenous oil industry for rural development and large-scale production of antimosquito candles and other insectrepellents The mosquito repellent is registered as a patentunder the Fertilisers Farm Feeds and Stock Remedies Act(Act 36 of 1947) as a pest repellent [119] These findings andthe establishment of a large-scale production of antimosquitocandles and other insect repellents strengthen the view thatL javanica is a potential source of antipesticidal agentsand to some extent validate the traditional use of the plantspecies for insect pest control Pesticidal plants such as Ljavanica are increasingly being used as alternatives wheresynthetic products are unaffordable or are not available or areineffective A number of studies have indicated that the use ofL javanica as a pesticide is a long-standing tradition passeddown from generation to generation [120]

25 Wounds Injuries Pain and Skin Infections Lippia javan-ica is used as remedy for a variety of skin infections andinjuries in Kenya South Africa Swaziland and ZimbabweIn SouthAfrica leaf infusions are used to treat skin disorderssuch as boils chicken pox febrile rashes heat rashesmeaslesscabies scratches and stings [20 21 40 50 54] In Kenyaabout 50 g of fresh leaves is wrapped around a fresh woundto enhance healing [57] and in South Africa leaf infusionsare taken orally as remedy for wounds [54] In SouthAfrica powder from burnt roots of L javanica is appliedto scarifications made around sprained joints to facilitatehealing [20] In Kenya and Zimbabwe leaf infusion is takenorally to treatmeasles or a patient is washedwith leaf infusion[14 38] The Zulu people in South Africa take a mixtureof chopped handful leaves of L javanica with the sameamount of bark of A burkeiO engleri S birrea S cordatumand T elegans boiled in two litres of water as an enemafor the treatment of sores [56] In Swaziland about 30 g ofL javanica leaves and similar amount of Acanthospermumaustrale Kuntze are boiled in 5 litres of water and decoctionis taken as remedy for sores [55] In Zimbabwe root ashesof L javanica mixed with fat are applied to the skin ofa patient with scabies [14] Wound healing is a processwhich involves distinct overlapping phases of coagulationinflammation proliferation and tissue remodelling [121]The same authors argued that a set of complex biochemicalevents takes place in a closely orchestrated cascade to repairthe wound and any errors in the wound healing processcan lead to delayed healing or formation of hypertrophicscars Abubakar [122] argued that colonization of woundsby opportunistic microorganisms usually delays the wound

healing process andor may lead to infectious conditionTherefore application of L javanica on wounds and skininfections leads to disinfection debridement and provisionof a suitable environment for aiding the wound healingprocess Lippia javanica has potential for therapeutic use inwound and skin diseases management but there is needfor research on the safety phytochemistry and biologicalproperties of the species

26 EthnoveterinaryUses The leaves stems twigs andwholeplants of L javanica are used as ethnoveterinary medicinein India Kenya South Africa and Zimbabwe The Xhosapeople in the Eastern Cape province South Africa use Ljavanica leaves for the disinfection of meat that has beeninfected with anthrax [20] In Kenya the stem of L javanicais used to preserve milk by applying it to the gourd beforemilk fermentation [62] In India whole plants are used aslice repellants while in South Africa and Zimbabwe crushedleaves mixed with water are used to get rid of ticks and twigsare used as bedding in fowl runs to get rid of ectoparasites[58ndash60]

27 Other Uses Lippia javanica is used as a good luck charmto treat persons experiencing bad dreams to ward off evilspirits to protect one from lightening and to protect thehome (Table 1) In Zimbabwe L javanica leaves are preparedas an infusion to treat persons experiencing nightmares [64]In both South Africa and Zimbabwe evil spirits are cleansedby washing the body of an affected person by leaf infusion ofL javanica [14 123] In Swaziland 50 g leaves of L javanicaand C molle are ground into a powder and 5 litres of wateris added and face and hands are washed to remove badluck when exposed to a corpse [71] In South Africa thewhole plant is placed on a patientrsquos bed after the circumcisionceremony [58] to prevent odours and freshen surroundingair A mixture of L javanica leaves and roots is used toclean tools and hands before and after funerals the stemsand leaves are used as brooms to sweep grave sites and theentire plant is also used when coming from the mortuaryto remove bad spirits [58 124] The corpse is washed withL javanica infusion after death to prevent odours formingor if the corpse has an odour women place pieces of Ljavanica in the nostrils of the corpse and sweep the roomwith twigs where the person was sleeping [58] In KwaZuluNatal South Africa if the meat started to smell it will beboiled with L javanica leaves to take away the smell [58]TheXhosa people in the Eastern Cape province South Africa useL javanica leaves for the disinfection of meat that has beeninfected with anthrax [20] In KwaZulu Natal South Africaleaves are sprinkled in toilets to prevent odours [58] Leavesof L javanica are sprinkled in houses for pleasant smell inthe Limpopo province South Africa [35] and Kenya [31] InKwaZulu Natal South Africa it is believed that a person canrepel snakes by placing a small stem with leaves on his orher head [58] In Malawi Swaziland and Zimbabwe peopleshowing sign of mental disorder madness or hystericaloutbursts are required towash their bodies with leaf infusions[14 67 68 71]

10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 2 Nutritional composition of Lippia javanica leaves

Caloric and nutritional composition Values ReferenceAsh 160 plusmn 0001 g [13]Calorific value 5064 plusmn 563 kcal [13]Crude fat 016 plusmn 0001 g [13]Crude fibre 263 plusmn 0002 g [13]Crude protein 122 plusmn 00004 g [13]Dry matter 1546 plusmn 140 g [13]Moisture 9044 plusmn 026 g [13]Total carbohydrate 655 plusmn 026 g [13]Vitamin C 2242 plusmn 0001mg [13]Ca 2856ndash9225 120583g gminus1 [27]Mg 1598ndash5619 120583g gminus1 [27]Fe 75ndash750 120583g gminus1 [27]Mn 401 plusmn 116 120583g gminus1 [27]Zn 156ndash273 120583g gminus1 [27]Cu 30ndash85 120583g gminus1 [27]Cr 0ndash27 120583g gminus1 [27]Se 257 plusmn 019 120583g gminus1 [27]Pb 038ndash119 120583g gminus1 [27]Cd 053 plusmn 005 120583g gminus1 [27]Co 019 plusmn 001 120583g gminus1 [27]

3 Phytochemical Constituents and NutritionalComposition of Lippia javanica

Multiple classes of phytochemicals including volatile andnonvolatile secondary metabolites such as alkaloids aminoacids flavonoids iridoids and triterpenes as well as severalminerals have been identified from L javanica [1ndash5 7 13 2773 78 81 83ndash86 88ndash94 120 123 125ndash127] Leaves flowersand twigs of L javanica have a wide variety of the so-calledclassic nutrients such as minerals carbohydrates proteinsfats and vitamins (Table 2) Lippia javanica leaves are a goodsource of minerals such as cadmium calcium chromiumcobalt copper iron magnesium manganese selenium andzinc [27] These authors assessed the levels of the elementsin L javanica leaves and found the elements to be in thedecreasing order of Ca gt Mg gt Fe gt Zn gt Mn gt Cu gt Se gtCr gt Pb gt Co gt Cd for total concentrations and Ca gt Mggt Fe gt Zn gt Cu gt Cr gt Pb for water extractable forms Theseresults corroborate an observation made by Sedaghathooret al [128] that Ca and Mg are among the most abundantelements in tea plants These mineral elements are importantin human nutrition since L javanica is used as herbaltea and food additive (Table 1) Calcium magnesium ironmanganese and zinc play a major role in activating someenzymes and regulating many responses of cells to stimuli[129] Some of the mineral elements identified from Ljavanica leaves are required by the human body for repair ofworn out cell tissues and strong bones and teeth and buildingof red blood cells and other related tissuesTherefore since Ljavanica has appreciable concentrations of mineral elementssuch as calcium magnesium iron manganese and zinc

(Table 2) which are essential for enzyme metabolism thesemineral elements could enhance the nutritional and curativeproperties of the species

Bhebhe et al [10] determined the total phenolic and tan-nin content and radical scavenging activities of L javanicacomparing it with Aspalathus linearis (Burmf) R Dahlgren(Rooibos) a commercial South African herbal tea andother popular herbal teas in Zimbabwe (Table 3) Adansoniadigitata L Fadogia ancylantha Schweinf Ficus sycomorus Land Myrothamnus flabellifolius Welw are indigenous herbalteas consumed in Zimbabwe The tannin content of Ljavanica is very low when compared to A linearis (Rooibos)(Table 3) Lippia javanica has higher radical scavenging activ-ity than A linearis (Table 3) which is probably due to highertotal phenolic content in comparison to A linearis which is apopular herbal tea consumed by 10 of the global herbal teamarket [10] In another study Bhebhe et al [11] determinedand compared the effect of several solvents namely hotwater 50 methanol ethanol 50 ethanol acetone 50acetone and ethyl acetate on phenolic composition and freeradical scavenging activity in common black tea C sinensisand five other well-known herbal teas including L javanicaIn all the seven solvents used L javanica had higher totalphenolic content than C sinensis implying that L javanicais competitive to the black tea in terms of phenolic contentShikanga et al [7] found leaf extracts of L javanica to havehigher phenolic content of 148 mgg gallic acid equivalentof dry weight than flowers (99mgg) and twigs (83mgg)Phenolic compounds found in plants are known to play animportant role as antioxidants in exhibiting the medicinalproperties such as antibiotic anti-inflammatory anticancerand antiallergic properties [10 66 130 131]

The compounds isolated from L javanica are docu-mented and listed in Appendix A and their structures arepresented in Appendix B Simple phenolic compounds andcaffeic acid and its derivatives are some of the compoundsthat have been identified in L javanica and examplesinclude coumarin 1 34-dihydroxy-120573-phenylethoxy-O-[410158401015840-120573-caffeoyl-120572-rhamnopyranosyl-(1101584010158401015840310158401015840)-O-120573-glucopyrano-side] commonly referred to as verbascoside 2 and 34-dihydroxy-120573-phenylethoxy-O-[610158401015840-120573-caffeoyl-120572-rhamnopy-ranosyl-(1101584010158401015840310158401015840)-O-120573-glucopyranoside] commonly referredto as isoverbascoside 3 isolated by Olivier et al [81] from theaerial parts of the species Nonvolatile diterpenes known asiridoid-glycosides have also been isolated from L javanicaby Rimpler and Sauerbier [82] represented by theveside-Na4 and theveridoside 5 Mujovo et al [83] isolated a longchain alkane ldquo4-ethylnonacosanerdquo 6 and four flavanonesapigenin 7 cirsimaritin 8 6-methoxyluteolin 41015840-methylether 9 and 6-methoxyluteolin 31015840410158407-trimethyl ether 10from ethanolic extracts of L javanica leaves Madzimureet al [120] identified an array of phenolic glycosides andflavonoids which include crassifolioside 11 luteolin 12diosmetin 13 chrysoeriol 14 tricin 15 isothymusin 16eupatorin 17 5-dimethyl noboletin 18 genkwanin 19salvigenin 20 and an alkaloid xanthine 22 Ludere et al[84] isolated lippialactone 21 from the ethyl acetate extractof aerial parts of L javanica Neidlein and Staehle [85] andDlamini [86] isolated 19 amino acids compounds 23 to

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11

Table 3 Total phenolic content (TPC) as gallic acid equivalents (GAE) and tannin content as leucocyanidin equivalents (LE) and free radicalscavenging activity (FRSA) of herbal tea extracts (after Bhebhe et al [10])

Plant species TPC g GAE100 g Tannin content of LE100 g Percentage FRSA IC50gmL

Lippia javanica 1246 plusmn 431 012 plusmn 001 8377 plusmn 08 0016Aspalathus linearis 669 plusmn 083 094 plusmn 004 6727 plusmn 025 0053Adansonia digitata 079 plusmn 028 169 plusmn 001 4307 plusmn 10 0132Fadogia ancylantha 288 plusmn 048 020 plusmn 012 700 plusmn 040 0051Ficus sycamores 1402 plusmn 001 198 plusmn 012 8613 plusmn 085 0009Myrothamnus flabellifolius 475 plusmn 033 104 plusmn 001 8093 plusmn 075 0019

41 in Appendix A from L javanica At least 131 differentclasses of essential oil compounds (compounds 42ndash172 inAppendices A and B) have been isolated from L javanica byseveral researchers [3ndash5 83 85 86 88ndash94 123] Hutchingsand van Staden [96] isolated a toxic triterpenoid saponinicterogenin 173 from L javanica leaves These differentclasses of essential oil compounds have been associatedwith various therapeutic activities such as anaestheticanalgesic anti-inflammatory antimicrobial cardiovasculardecongestant digestive expectorant hepatoprotective andsedative activities as well as stimulant of nervous systemand tonifying effects [132] Meanwhile flavonoids possessseveral pharmacological properties including antibacterialanticancer anti-inflammatory antioxidant antiviral andhepatoprotective effects [133] which play important rolesin human health Flavonoid such as apigenin 7 is reportedto possess antibacterial [134] and hepatoprotective [135]properties Apigenin 7 and luteolin 12 are reported to possessanti-inflammatory and analgesic effects [133] affecting thefunction of enzyme systems involved in the generation ofinflammatory processes especially tyrosine and serine-threonine protein kinases [136 137] It has also been reportedthat apigenin 7 prevents HIV-1 activation via a novelmechanism that involves inhibition of viral transcription[138] and luteolin 12 demonstrated synergistic effects withanother flavonoid kaempferol against herpes simplex virus[133] Kamiya [139] documented the importance of essentialamino acids such as lysine valine isoleucine and histidinein terms of the risks to health if they are deficientThe authoralso documented their biological effects which includemuscle protein maintenance potentiation of immunefunction tissue repair acceleration after burn or traumaprotecting liver from toxic agents lowering blood pressuremodulating cholesterol metabolism and stimulating insulinor growth hormone secretion Therefore L javanica leavesand other plant parts which have shown to be rich inflavonoid and polyphenolic compounds amino acids andessential oil could play an important role in the treatmentand management of diseases such as hypertension andinflammation listed in Table 1

4 Pharmacological Activities

Scientific studies on L javanica indicate that it has a widerange of pharmacological activities (Table 4) which include

anticancer [140] antidiabetic [141] antimalarial [4 49 142]antimicrobial [2 3 7 17 73ndash75 77 83 84 126 143]antioxidant [7 10 11 75 77 125] antiplasmodial [2 7980 84 144 145] and pesticidal effects [1 2 59 95 120146ndash150] and cytotoxicity [2 73 79 120] activities Table 4summarizes some of the pharmacological studies undertakenon L javanica extracts aimed at evaluating some of theethnomedicinal uses of the species documented throughoutits distributional range (see Table 1) Some of the listedpharmacological activities may not relate directly to thedocumented ethnomedicinal uses of the species but mayprovide some insight into the speciesrsquo potential therapeuticvalue and bioactive properties and application

41 Anticancer Activity Fouche et al [140] reported anti-cancer activity of dichloromethane root extract of L javanicaagainst three human cells exhibiting TGI value of 182120583gmLfor breast MDA-MB-435 186 120583gmL for breast MDA-N and209 120583gmL for melanoma MALME-3M Based on literaturea couple of terpenoid compounds that have been isolatedfrom L javanica are known to have antitumor propertiesFor example linalool 120 is known to have antitumoractivity which plays a protective role against hepatotoxicityand the compound has anti-inflammatory activities as well[151] Research by Yang et al [152] showed limonene 92 tohave inhibitory effect on pancreatic and mammary tumorsAnother terpenoid compound 120572-pinene 44 is known toinhibit translocation of NF-120581B or p65 protein into nuclei ofLPS-stimulated THP-1 cells [153] These findings serve as ascientific validation for the use of L javanica as a componentof a herbal concoction known in KwaZulu Natal province asldquoimbizardquo prepared by mixing L javanica with C obliquus asherbal medicine for cancer [27]

42 Antidiabetic Activity Arika et al [141] determined the invivo antidiabetic activity of aqueous leaf extracts of L javan-ica in white male alloxan-induced albino mice The aqueousleaf extracts of L javanica at all dose levels significantlylowered the blood glucose levels in both oral and intraperi-toneal routes The antidiabetic effect of L javanica couldhave been due to the observed presence of flavonoids Thepolyhydroxylated flavonol enhances lipogenesis and glucoseuptake in the adipocytes and flavanoids have demonstratedinsulinmimetic properties as the compound is known to beeffective at controlling blood sugar levels These findings

12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table4Summaryof

pharmacologicalactiv

ities

ofthee

xtractsisolated

from

different

partso

fLippiajavanica

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Antiamoebic

Piperitenon

e162

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f25120583

gmLagainstE

histolytica

[73]

Antibacteria

lPiperitenon

e162

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f50120583

gmLagainstA

calcoaceticu

sMkristin

ae(50120583

gmL)Styphi(25120583

gmL)and

Saureus

(12120583

gmL)

[73]

Antibacteria

l(Antiproteus)

Methano

lLeaves

Disc

diffu

sion

assay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f313120583gmLagainstPm

irabilis

and926120583

gmL

againstPvulgaris

[74]

Water

Leaves

Disc

diffu

sion

assay

Exhibitedweakactiv

ityagainstPm

irabilis

with

MIC

valueo

f1873120583gmLand1768120583gmLagainstPvulgaris

[74]

Antibacteria

l

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

coliwith

MIC

valueo

f064m

gmLE

faecalis(064)P

aeruginosa

(032

)andSaureus

(064)Totalactiv

ityMIC

values

werea

sfollo

wsE

coli(127

mgmL)E

faecalis

(127

mgmL)Paeruginosa

(253

mgmL)and

Saureus

(127

mgmL)

[75]

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

valueo

f3mgmLBa

cillusp

umilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(gt12mgmL)Saureus(12mgmL)E

faecalis

(6mgmL)E

cloacae

(6mgmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pantoea

agglo

meran

s(12mgmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Shigella

flexneri

(15mgmL)A

erom

onas

hydrophila(12m

gmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae(12mgmL)Salmonellacholeraesuis

(6mgmL)and

Serratiamarcescens(gt12mgmL)

[17]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

valueo

f12m

gmLB

pumilu

s(12m

gmL)B

subtilis(12m

gmL)Saureus(6m

gmL)E

faecalis

(12m

gmL)E

cloacae

(12m

gmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(12m

gmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(6

mgmL)A

hydrophila(12m

gmL)Pm

irabilis

(12m

gmL)K

pneum

oniae

(12m

gmL)Scholeraesuis(6

mgmL)and

antia

moebice

ffect

(12m

gmL)

[17]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

values

of15

mgmLB

pumilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(gt12mgmL)Saureus(12mgmL)E

faecalis

(3mgmL)E

cloacae

(6mgmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(12m

gmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(15mgmL)A

hydrophila(6

mgmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae

(12m

gmL)Scholeraesuis(6

mgmL)and

Smarcescens(12mgmL)

[17]

Essentialoil

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

values

of6m

gmLB

pumilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(3mgmL)Saureus(15

mgmL)E

faecalis

(3mgmL)E

cloacae

(12m

gmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(6

mgmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(3mgmL)A

hydrophila(3mgmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae

(3mgmL)Scholeraesuis(15mgmL)and

Smarcescens(gt12mgmL)

[17]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 13

Table4Con

tinued

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

faecaliswith

MIC

valueo

f014

mgmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

coliwith

MIC

valueo

f031

mgmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPaeruginosa

with

MIC

valueo

f042m

gmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstSaureus

with

MIC

valueo

f013

mgmL

[7]

Antifu

ngal

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

albicans

with

MIC

valueo

fgt75m

gmLC

krusei

(188m

gmL)and

Cneoforman

s(gt75

mgmL)

[7]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

albicans

with

MIC

valueo

fgt375

mgmLC

krusei

(375m

gmL)and

Cneoforman

s(gt75

mgmL)

[7]

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

kruseiwith

MFC

valueo

f75mgmL

[7]

Dichlorom

ethane

Aeria

lparts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFu

sariu

mproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f014

mgmLand

Fusariu

mverticillioides(019mgmL)

[76]

Hexane

Aeria

lparts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f023m

gmLandF

verticillioides(045

mgmL)

[76]

Methano

lAe

rialp

arts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f177m

gmLandF

verticillioides(043

mgmL)

[76]

Methano

lAe

rialp

arts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

fgt250

mgmLandF

verticillioides(gt250

mgmL)

[76]

Antim

ycob

acteria

l

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f047m

gmLandtotalactivity

of10mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Dichlorom

ethane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f125m

gmLandtotalactivity

of23

mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f062m

gmLandtotalactivity

of13mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f125m

gmLandtotalactivity

of7m

Lgagainst

Msmegmatis

[77]

14 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table4Con

tinued

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Antioxidant

Water

Leaves

DPP

Hassay

Exhibitedactiv

itywith

EC50valueo

f358120583gmL

[7]

Water

Leaves

mdashEx

hibitedactiv

itywith

209ascorbicacid

equivalent

(mggdryweight)

[7]

Water

Leaves

ABT

Sassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f15mmol10

0g[78]

Water

Leaves

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f146254

mmol10

0g[78]

Water

Leaves

FRAPassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f238m

mol10

0g[78]

Antiplasm

odial

Hexanechloroform

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f1225plusmn072120583gmL

[79]

Ethylacetate

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f1212plusmn079120583gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f135plusmn006120583gmL

[79]

Hexanechloroform

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f1859plusmn026120583gmL

[79]

Ethylacetate

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f1580plusmn026120583gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f175plusmn017120583gmL

[79]

Dichlorom

ethane

Roots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f38120583gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethanem

ethano

lRo

ots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f27120583

gmL

[80]

Methano

lRo

ots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f24120583

gmL

[80]

Water

Roots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

fgt100120583

gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethane

Stem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f45120583gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethanem

ethano

lStem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f218120583gmL

[80]

Methano

lStem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f298120583gmL

[80]

Water

Stem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

fgt100120583

gmL

[80]

Free

radicalscaveng

ing

activ

ity

Water

mdashDPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0059plusmn002

gmL

[11]

50methano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f004plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Ethano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0025plusmn0001gmL

[11]

50ethano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0027plusmn0005gmL

[11]

Aceton

emdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0057plusmn0004gmL

[11]

50aceton

emdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0022plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Ethylacetate

mdashDPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0066plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Toxicity

Methano

lLeaf

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

40mortalityrecorded

after

48hexpo

sure

towards

Artemianauplii

[74]

Methano

lRo

ots

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f8430120583

gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f6503120583

gmL

[79]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 15

strengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantidiabetic agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species mixed with C obliquus to form aherbal concoction known in KwaZulu Natal province SouthAfrica as ldquoimbizardquo used against diabetes [27]

43 Antimalarial Activity Govere et al [142] found thattopical application of L javanica alcohol extract leads to767 protection against Anopheles arabiensis for 4 hoursLippia javanica has been used as a mosquito repellent by therural communities in Zimbabwe for a long time and previousstudies have shown that essential oils from the species havevery strong and lasting repellent activity against female Aarabiensis [64] Research by Lukwa et al [4] revealed thattopical application of 5mgcm2 of L javanica leads to 100protection againstAnopheles aegypti for 8 hoursMavundza etal [154] screened dichloromethane and ethanol leaf extractsof L javanica for adulticidal activity againstA arabiensisTheauthors observed dichloromethane and ethanol activities of45 and 55mosquitomortality respectivelyThese findingsstrengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantimalarial agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species as mosquito repellent in India [47]South Africa [34 49 58] and Zimbabwe [4 48]

44 Antioxidant Activity Leaf infusions of L javanica exhib-ited antioxidant activity with EC

50value of 358120583gmL and

contained 148mgmL of dry weight gallic acid equivalentphenolic compounds [7] The EC

50value of 358 120583gmL

obtained for L javanica by Shikanga et al [7] compareswell to those of many commercial teas including antioxidantcapacity of Rooibos Fresh Pack herbal teas (A linearis)with the best antioxidant activity of 333 120583gmL The highantioxidant activities displayed by L javanica infusions canbe partially attributed to the high levels of verbascoside 2(15mgg dry weight) reported by Olivier et al [81] in theleaf extract of the species Earlier research by Muchuwetiet al [125] reported 744 inhibition of the DPPH radicalby an ethanolic leaf extract of L javanica Lekganyane etal [75] reported antioxidant activity in L javanica and theacetone extracts of the species displayed antioxidant activityon BEA chromatogram [77] Bhebhe et al [10] reported theantioxidant activities of L javanica based on the DPPHreducing power and inhibition of phospholipid peroxidationassays Free radical scavenging activity of L javanica isattributed to phenolic compounds since these compoundshave an ideal structural chemistry for free radical scavengingactivity [155] Bhebhe et al [11] determined the effect ofseveral solvents on the free radical scavenging activity ofL javanica using the DPPH assay Free radical scavengingactivity expressed as IC

50ranged from 0022 plusmn 0001 gmL to

0066 plusmn 0001 gmL see Table 4

45 Antiplasmodial Activity Prozesky et al [144] evaluatedL javanica leaf acetone extract for in vitro antiplasmodialactivity using PfUP1 a chloroquine resistant strain of themalaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum by means of theflow cytometric test The IC

50value for L javanica was

426 120583gmL Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil

piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica for antiplasmodialactivity using chloroquine diphosphate as positive controland found it active against a chloroquine sensitive strainof P falciparum in micromolar concentrations with IC

50of

8 120583gmL Clarkson et al [80] evaluated L javanica rootsand stems extracts for in vitro activity against P falciparumusing the parasite lactase dehydrogenase (pLDH) assay andchloroquine diphosphate (Sigma) as the positive controlThedichloromethane methane and water extracts showed IC

50

values ranging from 38 to gt100 120583gmL see Table 4 Omolo etal [145] screened the essential oil of L javanica for fumiganttoxicity to Anopheles gambiae which exhibited LD

50of 43 times

10minus3mg cmminus3 Ayuko et al [79] showed that L javanica rootextracts have antiplasmodial activity against P falciparumwith IC

50ranging from 135 to 1859 120583gmL see Table 4

Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity againstthe chloroquine sensitive D10 strain of P falciparum withan IC

50value of 91 120583gmL and is also mildly cytotoxic [84]

Compared to chloroquine the compound is approximately2000 times less active against the D10 strain of P falciparum[84]

46 Antimicrobial Activities Lippia javanica is widely usedin the treatment of a wide range of infectious diseasescaused by microorganisms Viljoen et al [3] determined theantimicrobial properties of L javanica by evaluating the timekill studies of the speciesrsquo essential oil using the disc diffusionassay on three respiratory pathogens Klebsiella pneumoniaeCryptococcus neoformans and Bacillus cereus This studyshowed that the killing rate was greatest for K pneumoniaefollowed by C neoformans and very little reduction of micro-bial populations was observed for B cereus The efficacy of Ljavanica oil for K pneumoniae showed a killing rate within30 minutes for the concentrations 025 05 075 and 1C neoformans showed a killing rate for concentrations 05075 and 1 within 1 hour and the lowest concentration of025 took 8 hours before a bactericidal effect was notedwhile B cereus showed some reduction in colonies [3] Thepositive antimicrobial activity of L javanica as revealed bythe time kill study could be attributed to linalool 120 whichaverages between 65 and 70 in yield [3 5 88 90] and hasknown antimicrobial properties [93 156ndash159]These findingssomehow corroborate the traditional use of L javanica asherbal medicine for a wide range of bacterial and fungalrespiratory ailments indicated in Table 1

Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil piperitenone162 isolated from L javanica for antibacterial activityon cultures of Bacillus subtilis Staphylococcus aureus andEscherichia coli using imipenem cefazolin and ampicillinas positive controls The authors found piperitenone 162to inhibit S aureus and E coli at 1 dilution Acetonehexane and methanol leaf extracts and essential oil isolatedfrom L javanica showed some activity against fifteen Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria with MIC values rang-ing from 15 to gt12mgmL [60] see Table 4 In a similarstudy Samie et al [73] demonstrated that a pure compoundpiperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica has antibacte-rial activities against Acinetobacter calcoaceticus Micrococcus

16 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

kristinae Salmonella typhi and S aureus using dimethylsulphoxide and kanamycin as controls with MIC valuesranging from 12 to 50 120583gmL see Table 4 Shikanga et al [7]evaluated the antibacterial activity of L javanica methanolicleaf extract against S aureus Enterococcus faecalis E coliand Pseudomonas aeruginosa using the serial microdilutionmethod with gentamycin (Virbac) and acetone as positiveand negative controls respectively Lippia javanica displayedantibacterial activities with MIC values ranging from 013to 042mgmL against all four pathogens see Table 4 Theobtained minimum inhibitory concentrations are promisingsince natural products with MIC values below 1mgmLare generally considered to be noteworthy findings [160]Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity against theE coli and S aureus at a concentration of 10mgmL [84]Lekganyane et al [75] reported antibacterial activity of Ljavanica acetone leaf extracts against E coli E faecalis Paeruginosa and S aureus with MIC values ranging from 032to 064mgmL and total activity of the same species rangingfrom 127 to 253mgmL see Table 4 Methanol and water leafextracts of L javanica exhibited some antiproteus activityagainstProteusmirabilis andProteus vulgariswithMICvalueslt2000120583gmL with standard discs of ampicillin (2120583g) andchloramphenicol (10 120583g) as positive controls [74] Some of theantibacterial properties of L javanica can be attributed to thephytochemical constituents of the species for example thephenolic compound apigenin 7 is a well-known antibacterialagent [7 134] Apigenin 7 was shown to be highly activeagainst Vibrio cholera and E faecalis [161] while Basile et al[162] reported the inhibition of S typhi P mirabilis and Paeruginosa by the compound Therefore results from theseantibacterial evaluations of L javanica give credence to theuse of the speciesrsquo infusions against bacterial infections andother related diseases

Shikanga et al [126] investigated the antifungal activ-ities of leaf extracts and essential oil compounds isolatedfrom L javanica leafy extracts against a Guazatine-resistantstrain of Penicillium digitatumThemethanolic leafy extractsisoverbascoside 3 and verbascoside 2 compounds isolatedfrom L javanica inhibited fungal growth at concentrationsabove 06mgsdotmLminus1 causing significant inhibition of mycelialgrowth Verbascoside 2 is well-known for its antimicrobialproperties and has been found to inhibit viruses bacteriaand fungi [163] Similarly Samie et al [143] investigatedantifungal effects of acetone and hexane leaf extracts of Ljavanica against Candida albicans Candida krusei and Cneoformans isolated from AIDS patients using the microdi-lution method with nystatin Roche and DMSO as positiveand negative controls respectively Noteworthy moderateantifungal activities were recorded from C krusei with MICvalue of 188mgmL and other recordedMFCandMICvaluesfor other species ranged from 188mgmL to gt75mgmLsee Table 4 Thembo et al [76] investigated the antifungalactivity of aqueous and organic extracts of L javanica usinga serial microdilution assay Generally extracts of L javanicaexhibited weak activity see Table 4

47 Antimycobacterial Activity Mujovo et al [83] evaluatedL javanica compounds against a drug-sensitive strain ofMycobacterium tuberculosis using the radiometric respira-tory techniques Of all the isolated compounds only onetriterpenoid carboxylic acid euscaphic acid 172 exhibitedantimycobacterial activity with MIC value of 50120583gmLminus1against this strain In a similar study the leaf extract ofL javanica exhibited antimycobacterial activity against Msmegmatis in an evaluation which used microdilution assayand rifampicin as control [77] Acetone extract was thebest extractant with MIC value of 047mgmL it extractedantibacterial agents which was indicated by the lowest MICvalue [77] Masoko and Nxumalo [77] also evaluated thetotal activity ofL javanicawhich averaged 13mLg suggestingthat the extract prepared from one gram of L javanicacould be diluted to a volume of 13mL and will still inhibitM smegmatis efficiently According to Semenya and Maroyi[115] tuberculosis caused by M tuberculosis is a seriousdisease requiring effective strategies and tools to controland manage it Therefore preliminary evaluations done byMujovo et al [83] and Masoko and Nxumalo [77] serve asa scientific validation for the use of L javanica in traditionalmedicine for treatment of tuberculosis and other respiratoryailments in South Africa [24 27 115] and Uganda [43] as wellas their efficiency in tuberculosis drug discovery

48 Antiviral Activity Mujovo et al [83] found that (E)-2(3)-tagetenone epoxide 42 and piperitenone 162 inhibitedthe HIV-1 reverse transcriptase enzyme by 91 and 53respectively at 100 120583gmLminus1 based on a nonradioactive HIVRT colorimetric ELISA kit Little is known about the HIV RTactivity of L javanica extracts or compounds but flavonoidsare known to be active against viral RT and also as potentinhibitors of the cellular alpha and beta DNA polymerase[83] while luteolin 12 is active against HIV RT [164 165]Lippia javanica is traditionally used to treat HIVAIDSsymptoms in South Africa [65 66] and several viral andHIVAIDS opportunistic diseases and infections such asbronchitis [15 19ndash22] chicken pox [50] diarrhoea [17 3437 44 113] measles [14 20 38] pneumonia [14] shingles[15] and venereal diseases [44] Despite significant advancesin the utilization of L javanica in southern Africa overthe years for numerous viral diseases (Table 1) very littleantiviral evaluations have been done on crude extracts andpurified compounds of the species There is need thereforefor more pharmacological research as L javanica could beharbouring potent (RT) inhibitors which could be useful forthe development of new pharmaceutical products importantfor use against viral diseases and infections

49 Pesticidal Effects Magano et al [95] evaluated the repel-lent effects of hexane extracts of L javanica essential oilusing the in vitro tick climbing repellency bioassay on adultsof Hyalomma marginatum rufipes Koch ticks The authorsfound that 107mgmL caused repellency index of 100 at onehour and 30 minutes In a similar study by Madzimure et al[120] L javanica aqueous leaf extracts at 10 and 20 wvwere effective at controlling cattle ticks (Amblyomma species

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 17

Boophilus species Hyalomma species Rhipicephalus appen-diculatus and Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi) and were as goodas the positive control amitraz-based acaricide TrickbusterThese authors found no parasites on microscopic exami-nation of the Giemsa-stained thin blood smear collectedfrom treated cattle implying that the animals did not sufferfrom clinical tick-borne diseases Similarly Nyahangare etal [59] tested the pesticidal activity of L javanica waterextracts against cattle ticks The authors found no significantdifference between cattle treated with a commercial syntheticacaricide and those under L javanica treatment Martinez-Velazquez et al [166] evaluated pesticidal effects of twoessential oils namely 120574-terpinene 82 and 120588-cymene 99isolated from Lippia graveolens Kunth against 10-day-oldRhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini) tick larvaeusing the larval packet test bioassay The two essential oilsproduced highmortality ranging from90 to 100 in all testedconcentrations of 20 to 125 (vv)Therefore L javanica canprovide an effective tick control option where synthetic prod-ucts are unavailable or unaffordable particularly in remoterural areas in sub-Saharan Africa Lippia javanica is popularfor tick control and management among resource-poorsmallholder farmers in South Africa [58 95] and Zimbabwe[59 60 120] While these preliminary evaluations may serveas confirmation that L javanica has some bioactivities againstticks a comprehensive method of tick control is requiredfor the resource-constrained smallholder farmers based onethnopharmacological properties of L javanica

McGaw et al [146] screened L javanica for the anthel-mintic test systems using the free living nematodeCaenorhabditis elegans The crude ethanol and hexaneextracts showed some activity at a concentration of 2mgmLwith the 7-day incubation assay appearing to be moresensitive than the shorter assay Earlier research by Mwangiet al [1] indicated that L javanica was active against Aedesaegypti larvae and Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (maizeweevil) Katsvanga and Chigwiza [147] reported that Ljavanica is an effective natural pesticide which can be used tocontrol aphid species (Brevicoryne brassicae) In their studyKatsvanga and Chigwiza [147] found that 1 1 powderedaqueous leaf extract of L javanica reduced B brassicae by532 against 783 and 967 of two synthetic pesticidesAphid kill and Bexadust ldquoLrdquo respectively Chikukura etal [149] found L javanica powdered leaf extracts to haveinsecticidal properties with potential to control graindamage by 21ndash33 Mashela et al [148] reported that theapplication of ground L javanica leaves to soil in nematode-infested (Meloidogyne incognita) pots reduced the nematodenumbers by 79ndash92 and significantly increased fresh fruityield dry shoot mass plant height and stem diameter ofthe tomato plants as well as levels of potassium nitrogenand manganese in leaf tissue Muzemu et al [150] evaluatedwater extracts of L javanica leaf powder for pesticidal effectsagainst rape (Brassica napus L) aphids B brassicae andtomato (Solanum lycopersicum Lam) red spider mites andTetranychus evansi as alternatives to conventional pesticidesLippia javanica reduced B brassicae and Tetranychus evansiby 125 and 63 respectively [150]The study demonstratedthat L javanica has pesticidal effects on B brassicae and T

evansi The reduced number of B brassicae and T evansicould be due to L javanicarsquos extracts having repellent toxicand antifeedant effects since the species has essential oilswith pesticidal properties [2] Therefore these findingsindicate that L javanica has both nematicidal and plantgrowth-promoting properties

410 Toxicity and Cytotoxicity Activity Lippia javanica isknown to cause liver damage and photosensitisation in live-stock resulting in stock losses [167] Triterpenoids isolatedfrom the genus Lippia are icterogenic and cause jaundice asa result of liver damage [167] The characteristic swellingyellowing and later peeling of unpigmented skin are due tothe presence of phylloerythrin a photodynamic porphyrinthat reacts with sunlight and causes severe cell damage [167]The compound is normally formed when chlorophyll isbroken down by microorganisms in the rumen but it nowaccumulates in the liver as a result of the damage caused bytriterpenoids [167] In view of the known toxicity of Lippiaspecies the prolonged use of high doses of L javanica ispotentially harmful [167] Lippia javanica showed low toxicityafter 48 h exposure with the percentage of mortality below50 [74]

Ayuko et al [79] evaluated the toxicity of L javanicausing a brine shrimp cytotoxicity assay with LC

50value of

1138 plusmn 133 120583gmL Ayuko et al [79] found the cytotoxicity toantiplasmodial activity ratios for the methanolic extracts ofthe two tested strains to be 8430 and 6503 and since theseare greater than 100 it may be concluded that the extractsare of low toxicity Samie et al [73] demonstrated that apure compound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanicaessential oil has low cytotoxicity activity against intestinaladenocarcinoma cells (ie the HCT-8 monolayers with IC

50

of 2656 plusmn 53 120583gmL) Lukwa [64] evaluated the toxicity of Ljavanica aqueous leaf extracts using sexually mature BALBcmice with the placebo as control Within 48 hours all micefed with the L javanica leaf aqueous extract at 125ndash375 vvwere lethargic and the overall mortality was 375 Previousresearch byManenzhe et al [2] showed that hydrodistillationof L javanica leaves flowers and stems produced oil thatwas poisonous against P falciparumwhen diluted to 1 (vv)These findings imply that despite its apparent safety waterextracts of L javanica leaves may have deleterious healthimplications on humans and animals if consumed at veryhigh doses

Many compounds that have been isolated from L javan-ica including phenolic glycosides flavonoids and essentialoils are not known to have acute toxic properties withthe exception of icterogenin 173 Icterogenin 173 has beenshown to inhibit biliary excretion in rabbits [168] Reports inliterature indicate that the consumption of xanthine 22 hasresulted in mammalian toxicity According to Madzimure etal [64] xanthine 22 is a demethylated derivative of caffeinewith pharmacological actions such as central nervous system(CNS) stimulation relaxation of smooth muscle (especiallybronchial muscle) myocardial stimulation peripheral vaso-constriction and diuresis Considering the widespread useof L javanica as herbal tea and medicine it is important

18 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

to determine if any toxicological effects can occur from itschronic or subchronic usage

411 Other Activities Mpofu et al [169] determined the effectof inclusion of L javanica leaf meal in broiler diets ongrowth performance carcass characteristics and fatty acidprofiles The authors found that the L javanica fed broilershad higher total polyunsaturated fatty acids and n-3 fattyacidsThe findings from the study showed that inclusion of Ljavanica in broiler diets at 5 gkg feed has positive influenceson growth performance carcass characteristics and fattyacid profiles of broiler meat and therefore L javanica haspotential as growth-promoting feed additive in broilersSamie et al [73] evaluated antiamoebic activity of a purecompound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica essen-tial oil against Entamoeba histolytica using microdilutionmethod with metronidazole as the positive control diluents(ie culture medium with an appropriate concentration ofdimethyl sulphoxide as the negative control) and a blank(ie culture medium without dimethyl sulphoxide) Samieet al [73] demonstrated that piperitenone 162 had markedantiamoebic activity with IC

50value of 25 120583gmL More

research is required as L javanica could be harbouring potentantiamoebic properties which could be useful for managingamoebiasis an infection that remains a significant cause ofmorbidity and mortality worldwide

5 Conclusion

Lippia javanica has been used in African and Asian countriesas herbal tea and medicine for many centuries Utilization ofL javanica because of its flavour and medicinal propertiesforms the basis of the current demand for the plant speciesin central eastern and southern Africa Research on Ljavanica over the past decade on health promoting propertieshas greatly contributed to the increased consumption ofthe species as herbal or recreational tea The focus of thisresearch has been on phytochemical compounds particularlyphenolic content and antioxidant and free radical scavengingactivities Phenolic compounds present in L javanica arelargely responsible for the antioxidant properties possessedby the species More research in this regard is required andfuture research should focus on more comprehensive chem-ical characterization of both crude and pure extracts andevaluate potential for commercialization and developmentof nutraceutical products based on traditional uses of Ljavanica Most of the pharmacological researches conductedon L javanica so far have focused on the phytochemistryand biological properties of leaves and little or no researchhas been done on roots and other plant parts Thereforefuture research on the species should focus on other plantparts for example flowers roots and stems as well asorgan-to-organ age and seasonal variation evaluations in thephytochemical content and pharmacological activities of thespecies

The recent increase in the demand for L javanica prod-ucts may partly be ascribed to growing body of scientific evi-dence indicating important health benefits Lippia javanica

is widely sold as herbal tea in Botswana South Africa andZimbabwe Leaves and stems of L javanica are also sold asherbal medicines in the medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquo marketsin South Africa [35 170] For local people who rely onherbal medicines as part of their primary healthcare aswell as cultural beliefs they prefer L javanica harvestedfrom the wild and unprocessed plant parts sold in informalmedicinal ldquomuthirdquo markets [170] In the past there were norecords of overexploitation of L javanica wild populationsin southern Africa resulting in Raimondo et al [171] listingthe species as Least Concern (LC) under the IUCN RedList Categories and Criteria version 31 of threatened species(httpwwwiucnredlistorg) Recently signs of overharvest-ing have been noted where local people or plant traders haveuprooted whole plants to supply medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquomarkets or use the plants as herbal medicines brooms orherbal tea Therefore large-scale commercial utilization of Ljavanica is not sustainable if the species is harvested fromthe wild Currently L javanica is cultivated on a commercialscale in Kenya [28] and South Africa [117] for essential oilproduction for the mosquito-repellent candles and perfumeindustry Cultivation of L javanica is therefore a solutionto the sustainability problems associated with harvesting ofthe species from the wild and this option is also necessaryfor establishing commercial scale medicinal production andprocessing and trade enterprises The success of commercialcultivation of L javanica will depend on how the species ismarketed as herbal tea and medicine and source of essentialoil and health care products and as a source of functionalfoods

Significant research has been made in the past 50 yearsinto the chemistry and pharmacology of L javanica Thesestudies have shown L javanica to display various chemicaland different biological activities some of which justify itsethnopharmacological utilization in variety of cultures Inthe light of the evidence that L javanica is combined withother plant species in traditional medicine it will be valuableto investigate the possibility of synergistic effects of thedifferent extracts Deep phytochemical studies of L javanicaand its phytochemical properties especially the mechanismsof action of its bioactive constituents to illustrate the cor-relation between ethnomedicinal uses and pharmacologicalactivities should be the focus of further research on thespecies There is need for extensive in vivo experiments tovalidate the existing pharmacological activities Howeverbecause L javanica contains potentially toxic compoundsits toxicological properties need to be properly establishedvia proper quality control of product development to ensurethat potentially toxic components are kept below tolerancelevels

Appendix

A Chemical Compounds Isolated andCharacterized from Lippia javanica

See Table 5

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 19

Table 5

Chemical compound Reference(s)Phenolic compoundsCoumarin 1 [4]Verbascoside 2 [81]Isoverbascoside 3 [81]Theveside-Na 4 [82]Theveridoside 5 [82]4-ethylnonacosane 6 [83]Apigenin 7 [64 83]Cirsimaritin 8 [64 83]6-Methoxy luteolin41015840-methyl ether 9 [83]

6-Methoxy luteolin31015840410158407-trimethyl ether 10 [83]

Crassifolioside 11 [64]Luteolin 12 [64]Diosmetin 13 [64]Chrysoeriol 14 [64]Tricin 15 [64]Isothymusin 16 [64]Eupatorin 17 [64]5-Dimethyl noboletin 18 [64]Genkwanin 19 [64]Salvigenin 20 [64]Lippialactone 21 [84]AlkaloidXanthine 22 [64]Amino acids120572-Aminobutyric acid 23 [85 86]Valine 24 [86]Isoleucine 25 [86]Asparagine 26 [86]Phenylalanine 27 [86]120572-Aminoadipic acid 28 [86]Lysine 29 [86]Histidine 30 [86]Tyrosine 31 [86]Tryptophan 32 [86]Alanine 33 [85]Glycine 34 [85]Proline 35 [85]Serine 36 [85]Glutamine acid 37 [85]120573-Alanine 38 [85]Glutamine 39 [85]120573-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [85]4-hydroxyproline 41 [85]Essential oil(E)-2(3)-tagetenoneepoxide 42 [83]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]120572-Pinene 44 [3ndash5 87ndash91]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4](+)-2-Carene 46 [4]3-Carene 47 [4]Eucalyptol 48 [4]18 myrcene 49 [87]Ipsdienone 50 [87]Caryophyllene 51 [85]Geranial 52 [5 92 93]26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [92]Geraniol 54 [92]Octen-3-one 55 [5]6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]120588-Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]Artemisia ketone 58 [5]Linalool oxide 59 [5]Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5](Z)-120573-Ocimenone 61 [5](E)-120573-Ocimenone 62 [5]Carvyl acetate 63 [5]120572-Cubebene 64 [5]Sesquithujene 65 [5]Acora-35-diene 66 [5]120573-Bergamotene 67 [5]Trans-calamenene 68 [5]120573-Alaskene 69 [5]120574-Cadinene 70 [5]120575-Cadinene 71 [3 88 89 91]Cis-calamenene 72 [5]Nerolidol 73 [5](E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 88 89]Spathulenol 75 [5]Epi-120572-muurolol 76 [5]120572-Longipinene 77 [90]Chrysanthenone 78 [90]120572-Terpineol 79 [3 5 90 91]120572-Amorphene 80 [90]120572-Thujene 81 [91]120574-Terpinene 82 [91]120572-Cubebene 83 [91]Linalool acetate 84 [91]Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [91]Camphene 86 [3 5 88ndash91]120573-Pinene 87 [3 5 91]Sabinene 88 [3 5 87 90 91]Myrcene 89 [3 5 87ndash89 91ndash95]120572-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 88 89]2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]Limonene 92 [3 5 88ndash94]18-Cineole 93 [3 5 90 91 95]120573-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 88 89 91]

20 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3](Z)-120573-Ocimene 96 [3 5 88 89 91](E)-120573-Ocimene 97 [3 5 88 89 91]Isomyrcenol 98 [3]p-Cymene 99 [3 5 85 88ndash91]2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]Terpinolene 101 [3]Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 88 89 91 95]Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 88 89](Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]Nonanal 106 [3]Perillene 107 [3 91]Ipsenone 108 [3 87ndash89 95]Trans-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 88ndash90]1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 88 89]Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]Ttrans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]cis-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 88ndash90]120572-Copaene 114 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetone 115 [3 88 89]Trans-tagetone 116 [3 88 89]Camphor 117 [3 5 88ndash90 93 94]120573-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 91]Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 85 88ndash90 92 93]

Trans-120572-bergamotene 121 [3]120572-Cedrene 122 [3 5]Myrcenone 123 [3 5 83 91]120573-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 87ndash91 93 94]2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 88 89](Z)-120573-Farnesene 129 [3](E)-120573-Farnesene 130 [3 5](EE)-120572-Farnesene 131 [3 88 89]Ipsdienol 132 [3](Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]Isovaleric acid 134 [3]120572-Humulene 135 [3 5 88 89 91]120572-Acoradiene 136 [3]120573-Acoradiene 137 [3]120574-Muurolene 138 [3 5 88 89]120572-Muurolene 139 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]Borneol 142 [3 5 88ndash90]Verbenone 143 [3 91]Germacrene-D 144 [3 87ndash89 93]120573-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]120574-Bisabolene 146 [3]Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]Carvone 148 [3 5 91]Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 88 89 91]120573-Curcumene 150 [3]Ar-curcumene 151 [3]Cis-piperitol 152 [3]2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol156 [3 88 89]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]Calamenene 158 [3]Carvone oxide 159 [3]Isopiperitenone 160 [3]Cis-carveol 161 [3]Piperitenone 162 [2 3 73 83]Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 88 89]Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3ndash5 88ndash90]Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 88 89]Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]Spathulenol 167 [3]Eugenol 168 [3 5]Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120573-ol(=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120572-ol(=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [83]Icterogenin 173 [96]

B Chemical Structures ofPhenolic Compounds Alkaloids AminoAcids and Essential Oils Isolated fromLippia javanica

See Figure 4

Competing Interests

The author declares that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 21

O

OO

OO O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

C CH CHO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

COOH

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

Me

OMe

OMe

OMe

MeO

Me

HOOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OMe

OMe

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

（2 （2

（2

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

（3CO

（3CO

Coumarin 1 [4]

Verbascoside 2 [89]

Isoverbascoside 3 [89]

Theveside-Na 4 [90]

Theveridoside 5 [90]

4-Ethylnonacosane 6 [91]

Apigenin 7 [120 91]

Cirsimaritin 8 [120 91]

Crassifolioside 11 [120]

Luteolin 12 [120]

Diosmetin 13 [120]

Chrysoeriol 14 [120]

Tricin 15 [120]

Isothymusin 16 [120]

Eupatorin 17 [120]

6-Methoxyluteolin 3 47-trimethyl ether 10 [91]

6-Methoxyluteolin 4-methyl ether 9 [91]

Figure 4 Continued

22 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

N

NH

HN

HO

NH

O

NH

O

O

O

O

HN

N N

N

H

H

OAc

OAcOAc

OO

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

（3CO

（2

（2

（2

（2 （2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3N

（2N

（2N

（2N

（2N

minus

+

+

5-Desmethylnoboletin 18 [120]

Genkwanin 19 [120]

Salvigenin 20 [120]

Lippialactone 21 [92]

Xanthine 22 [120]

Valine 24 [94]

Isoleucine 25 [94]

Asparagine 26 [94]

Phenylalanine 27 [94]

Lysine 29 [94]

Histidine 30 [94]

Tyrosine 31 [94]

Tryptophan 32 [94]

Alanine 33 [93]

Glycine 34 [93]

Proline 35 [93]

Serine 36 [93]

Glutamine acid 37 [93]

Glutamine 39 [93]

4-Hydroxyproline 41 [93]

(E)-2(3)-Tagetenone epoxide 42 [91]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]

-Alanine 38 [93]

-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [93]

-Aminoadipic acid 28 [94]

-Aminobutyric acid 23 [93 94]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 23

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

H

H

HH

H

O

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

HO

OH

O

O

O

O

OH（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4]

3-Carene 47 [4]

Eucalyptol 48 [4]

18 myrcene 49 [123]

Ipsdienone 50 [123]

Caryophyllene 51 [93]

Geranial 52 [5 100 101]

26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [100]

Geraniol 54 [100]

Octen-3-one 55 [5]

6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]

Artemisia ketone 58 [5]

Linalool oxide 59 [5]

Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5]

Carvyl acetate 63 [5]

Sesquithujene 65 [5]

Acora-35-diene 66 [5]

-Pinene 44 [3-5 123 96 97 98 99] -Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]

(+)-2-Carene 46 [4]

-Bergamotene 67 [5]

-Cubebene 64 [5]

(Z)--Ocimenone 61 [5]

(E)--Ocimenone 62 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

24 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OH

H

H

H

H

O

OHO

HO

H

HH H

H

H

HH

H

HO

HO

O

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

Trans-calamenene 68 [5]

Cis-calamenene 72 [5]

Nerolidol 73 [5]

(E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 96 97]

Spathulenol 75 [5]

Chrysanthenone 78 [98]

Linalool acetate 84 [99]

Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [99]

Camphene 86 [3 5 96 97 98 99]

Sabinene 88 [3 5 123 98 99]

Myrcene 89 [3 5 123 100 101 96 97 99 102 103]

-Alaskene 69 [5]

-Terpineol 79 [3 5 98 99]

-Amorphene 80 [98]

-Cadinene 70 [45]-Thujene 81 [99]

-Cadinene 71 [3 96 97 99] -Terpinene 82 [99]

-Cubebene 83 [99]

-Pinene 87 [3 5 99]

-Longipinene 77 [98]

-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 96 97]

Epi--muurolol 76 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 25

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O

OH

OH

H

H

H

H

H

HOO

OH

O

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（3(（2)3（2

（3(（2)6（2

2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]

Limonene 92 [3 5 100 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3]

Isomyrcenol 98 [3]

p-Cymene 99 [3 5 93 96 97 98 99]

2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]

Terpinolene 101 [3]

Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 96 97 99 103]

Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 96 97]

(Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]

67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]

Nonanal 106 [3]

Perillene 107 [3 99]

Ipsenone 108 [3 123 96 97 103]

Trans-linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 96 97 98]

1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 96 97]

Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]

Trans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]

Cis-linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 96 97 98]

Cis-tagetone 115 [3 96 97]

Trans-tagetone 116 [3 96 97]

-Copaene 114 [3 5 96 97 98]

18-Cineole (=eucalyptol) 93 [3 5 98 99 103]

-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 96 97 99]

(Z)--Ocimene 96 [3 5 96 97 99]

(E)--Ocimene 97 [3 5 96 97 99]

Camphor 117 [3 5 101 96 97 98 102]

Figure 4 Continued

26 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

HH

H

H

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 93 100 101 96 97 98]

Myrcenone 123 [3 5 91 99]

2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol 125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]

Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 96 97]

Ipsdienol 132 [3]

(Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]

Isovaleric acid 134 [3]

Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]

Borneol 142 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 99]

Trans--bergamotene 121 [3]

-Cedrene 122 [3 5]

-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 123 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)--Farnesene 129 [3]

(E)--Farnesene 130 [3 5]

-Muurolene 139 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Muurolene 138 [3 5 96 97]

-Acoradiene 136 [3]

-Acoradiene 137 [3]

-Humulene 135 [3 5 96 97 99]

(EE)--Farnesene 131 [3 96 97]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O O

HO

O

H

H

H

HO

HO

OH

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3CO（3

Verbenone 143 [3 99]

Germacrene-D 144 [3 123 101 96 97]

Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]

Carvone 148 [3 5 99]

Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 96 97 99]

Ar-curcumene 151 [3]

Cis-piperitol 152 [3]

2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]

26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol 156 [3 96 97]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]

Calamenene 158 [3]

Carvone oxide 159 [3]

Isopiperitenone 160 [3]

Cis-carveol 161 [3]

Piperitenone 162 [2 3 91 81]

Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 96 97]

-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]

-Bisabolene 146 [3]

-Curcumene 150 [3]

Figure 4 Continued

28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

OO

O

O

H

H

H

H

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

H

H

HCH

HH

HO

（3

（2

（2C

（3C（3C

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C O（3

Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3-5 96 97 98]

Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 96 97]

Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]

Spathulenol 167 [3]

Eugenol 168 [3 5]

Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [91]

Icterogenin 173 [104]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Figure 4

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to the NationalResearch Foundation (NRF) and GovanMbeki Research andDevelopment Centre (GMRDC) University of Fort Hare forfinancial support to conduct this research

References

[1] JWMwangi I Addae-Mensah RMMunavu andW LwandeldquoEssential oils of Kenyan Lippia species Part IIIrdquo Flavour andFragrance Journal vol 6 no 3 pp 221ndash224 1991

[2] N J Manenzhe N Potgieter and T Van Ree ldquoCompositionand antimicrobial activities of volatile components of Lippiajavanicardquo Phytochemistry vol 65 no 16 pp 2333ndash2336 2004

[3] A M Viljoen S Subramoney S F V Vuuren K H C Baserand B Demirci ldquoThe composition geographical variation andantimicrobial activity of Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae) leafessential oilsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 96 no 1-2 pp271ndash277 2005

[4] N Lukwa P Moslashlgaard P Furu and C Boslashgh ldquoLippia javanica(Burm f) Spreng its general constituents and bioactivity onmosquitoesrdquoTropical Biomedicine vol 26 no 1 pp 85ndash91 2009

[5] L S Chagonda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssential oil compositionof Lippia javanica (Burmf) spreng chemotype from WesternZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants vol 18 no 2pp 482ndash485 2015

[6] W Kipkore B Wanjohi H Rono and G Kigen ldquoA study of themedicinal plants used by the Marakwet Community in KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 242014

[7] E A Shikanga S Combrinck and T Regnier ldquoSouth AfricanLippia herbal infusions total phenolic content antioxidant andantibacterial activitiesrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76no 3 pp 567ndash571 2010

[8] N T Parrant ldquoThe potential of non-timber forest products ofBotswanardquo Botswana Notes Records vol 28 no 1 pp 203ndash2181996

[9] D M Motlhanka and S W Makhabu ldquoMedicinal and ediblewild fruit plants of Botswana as emerging new crop opportu-nitiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plants Research vol 5 no 10 pp1836ndash1842 2011

[10] M Bhebhe T N Fuller B Chipurura and M MuchuwetildquoEffect of solvent type on total phenolic content and free radicalscavenging activity of black tea and herbal infusionsrdquo FoodAnalytical Methods vol 9 no 4 pp 1060ndash1067 2016

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29

[11] M Bhebhe B Chipurura and M Muchuweti ldquoDeterminationand comparison of phenolic compound content and antioxidantactivity of selected local Zimbabwean herbal teas with exoticAspalathus linearisrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 100no 1 pp 213ndash218 2015

[12] B Patiri and A Borah Wild Edible Plants of Assam GeetakhiPrinters Guwahati India 2007

[13] H Narzary and A Basumatary ldquoProximate and vitamin Canalysis of wild edible plants consumed by Bodos of AssamIndiardquo Journal of Molecular Pathophysiology vol 4 no 4 pp128ndash133 2015

[14] M Gelfand S Mavi R B Drummond and B Ndemera TheTraditional Medical Practitioners in Zimbabwe His Principles ofPractice and Pharmacopoeia Mambo Press Gweru Zimbabwe1985

[15] D Davids Materia medica and care a study of the uses ofmedicinal herbs and remedies as a form of treatment andnegotiating social relationships in cape town and surroundings[MS dissertation] University of theWestern Cape Cape TownSouth Africa 2012

[16] A Maroyi and G K E Mosina ldquoMedicinal plants and tradi-tional practices in peri-urban domestic gardens of the Limpopoprovince South africardquo Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledgevol 13 no 4 pp 665ndash672 2014

[17] A Samie C L Obi P O Bessong and L Namrita ldquoActivityprofiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Vendacommunities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterialspeciesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 4 no 12 pp1443ndash1451 2005

[18] T York An ethnopharmacological study of plants used fortreating respiratory infections in rural Maputaland [MS disser-tation] University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa South Africa2012

[19] D Davids T Blouws O Aboyade et al ldquoTraditional healthpractitionersrsquo perceptions herbal treatment andmanagement ofHIV and related opportunistic infectionsrdquo Journal of Ethnobiol-ogy and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 77 2014

[20] A Hutchings A H Scott G Lewis and A CunninghamZulu Medicinal Plants An Inventory University of Natal PressPietermarizburg South Africa 1996

[21] RM Coopoosamy andK K Naidoo ldquoAn ethnobotanical studyofmedicinal plants used by traditional healers inDurban SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 6no 11 pp 818ndash823 2012

[22] I Hedberg and F Staugard Traditional Medicinal Plants inBotswana Ipeleng Gaborone Botswana 1989

[23] H Shahriar A S M H K Chowdhury S Rahman et al ldquoSci-entific validation of medicinal plants used by a folk medicinalpractitioner of Chuadanga District BangladeshrdquoWorld Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 11 pp 13ndash24 2014

[24] S S Semenya M J Potgieter and M P Tshisikhawe ldquoUseconservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinalplants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 12 no 18 pp2392ndash2405 2013

[25] M Roberts Indigenous Healing Plants Southern Book Publish-ers Halfway House Johannesburg South Africa 1990

[26] T Birhanu D Abera and E Ejeta ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas westernEthiopiardquo Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare vol 5no 1 pp 83ndash93 2015

[27] N T Mahlangeni R Moodley and S B Jonnalagadda ldquoEle-mental composition of Cyrtanthus obliquus and Lippia javanicaused in South African herbal tonic Imbizardquo Arabian Journal ofChemistry 2013

[28] W Musila D Kisangau and J Muema ldquoConservation statusand use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitionersin Machakos District Kenyardquo in Indigenous Knowledge Con-ference Proceedings Pennsylvania State University May 27ndash292004 2004

[29] G N Njoroge and R W Bussmann ldquoTraditional managementof ear nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 542006

[30] P Chigora R Masocha and F Mutenheri ldquoThe role of indige-nous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailmentsin rural Zimbabwe the case of Mutirikwi communal landsrdquoJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol 9 no 2 pp26ndash43 2007

[31] R W Bussmann G G Gilbreath J Solio et al ldquoPlant use ofthe Maasai of Sekenani Valley Maasai Mara Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 22 2006

[32] D Motlhanka and G P Nthoiwa ldquoEthnobotanical Survey ofmedicinal plants of Tswapong North in Eastern Botswana acase of plants from Mosweu and Seolwane Villagesrdquo EuropeanJournal of Medicinal Plants vol 3 no 1 pp 10ndash24 2013

[33] A Vhurumuku ldquoKnowledge use and attitudes towardsmedici-nal plants of pre-service teachers at a South African UniversityrdquoGlobal Advanced Research Journal in Environmental Science andToxicology vol 4 no 2 pp 15ndash24 2015

[34] M N Nkwanyana An ethnobotanical and antidiarrhoeal inves-tigation of plants used traditionally in the maputaland areahomesteads [MS dissertation] University of Zululand KwaD-langezwa South Africa 2013

[35] T E Moeng An investigation into the trade of medicinal plantsbymuthi shops and street vendors in the Limpopo Province SouthAfrica [MS thesis] University of Limpopo Gauteng SouthAfrica 2010

[36] S Bandeira A M Manjate and O Filipe ldquoAn EcologicalAssessment of the Health of the Chibuto-Missavene Wetlandin the Dry Season Mozambique Emphasis on ResourcesAssessment Utilization and Sustainability Analysisrdquo reportto Challenge Program for Water and Food InternationalWater Management Institute Pretoria South Africa 2006httpscgspacecgiarorgbitstreamhandle105682160421604pdfsequence=1

[37] M C Palgrave R B Drummond and E J Moll Trees ofSouthern Africa Struik Cape Town South Africa 2003

[38] M O Nanyingi J M Mbaria A L Lanyasunya et alldquoEthnopharmacological survey of Samburu district KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4 article 142008

[39] J G J P Sankar and K B Satapathy ldquoWeed diversity of Rabicrops and their ethnomedicinal uses in Kendrapara districtof Odisha Indiardquo International Research Journal of BiologicalSciences vol 4 no 3 pp 33ndash38 2015

[40] D E N Mabogo The ethnobotany of the vhavenda [MSdissertation] University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa1990

[41] B-E van Wyk B van Oudtshoorn and N Gericke MedicinalPlants of South Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2013

[42] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used forthe treatment of tuberculosis by Bapedi traditional healers

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

OphthalmologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Diabetes ResearchJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Research and TreatmentAIDS

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 6: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

6 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table1Con

tinued

Use

Plantp

art(s

)used

Mod

eofu

seCou

ntry

practised

Reference(s)

Otheruses

Anaem

iain

pregnancy

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorally

ZanzibarTanzania

[46]

Broo

mWho

leplant

Who

leplantscutand

tiedtogether

tomaker

ough

broo

ms

SouthAfrica

[53]

Cancer

Leaves

ldquoImbizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

stakenorally

SouthAfrica

[27]

Cerem

onial

Leavesw

hole

plant

Usedbefore

andaft

erfuneralsor

placed

onpatie

ntsrsquobedaft

ercircum

cisio

nKe

nyaSouth

Africa

[315863]

Con

vulsion

sLeaves

Leaves

rubb

edon

face

Zimbabw

e[14

64]

Diabetes

Leaves

ldquoImbizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

stakenorally

SouthAfrica

[27]

Fatig

ueor

tiredness

Leaves

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofA

glabratum

orE

grandiso

rTriparia

takenorally

SouthAfrica

[18]

Fence

Who

leplant

Plantedarou

ndho

mesteads

Ethiop

ia[26]

Fodd

erLeaves

Leaves

eatenby

goats

Kenya

[31]

Fuelw

ood

Who

leplant

Who

leplantu

sedas

fuelw

ood

ZanzibarTanzania

[46]

Hum

anim

mun

odeficiency

virus(HIV

)or

acqu

iredim

mun

odeficiency

synd

rome

(AID

S)symptom

sLeaves

ldquoImbizardquodecoctionprepared

from

Ljavanica

andC

obliquu

swhich

istakenorally

SouthAfrica

[6566

]

Kidn

eyprob

lems

Root

50groot

powd

erbo

iledin

2litreso

fwaterpatient

takesa

cupof

thismixture

once

per

dayfor3

days

Swaziland

[67]

Madness

Leavesw

hole

plant

Body

washedwith

leafinfusio

nMalaw

iZimbabw

e[14

68]

Marasmicinfants

Roots

Infusio

nsused

tobath

infants

SouthAfrica

Zimbabw

e[14

20]

Night

blindn

ess

Leaves

Face

washedwith

infusio

nZimbabw

e[14

]Nightmares

Not

specified

Not

specified

Zimbabw

e[64]

Pre-intra-andpo

stpartum

complications

Stem

roo

tsSm

earp

owdero

froo

torstem

Kenya

[69]

Preventin

god

oursor

beingused

indo

ors

tofre

shen

air

Leavesw

hole

plant

Leaves

sprin

kled

intoiletsto

prevento

dourso

rwho

leplantp

lacedin

vase

orroom

KenyaSouth

Africa

[313558]

Protectio

nagainstd

ogsa

ndcrocod

iles

Leaves

Leaves

smearedon

body

SouthAfrica

[70]

Psycho

tropicb

ehaviour

Leaves

Infusio

ntakenorally

Swaziland

[71]

Removingbadluck

Leaves

Face

andhand

swashedwith

infusio

nof

Ljavanica

leaves

mixed

with

Cmolleleaves

Swaziland

[72]

Sleeplessn

ights

Leaves

Leafdecoctionof

Ljavanica

mixed

with

leaves

ofE

grandisand

Trip

ariatakenorally

SouthAfrica

[18]

Todrivea

way

badspirits

Leaves

Body

washedwith

infusio

nZimbabw

e[14

]To

preventinfantsfro

mcontracting

illnesscaused

byfather

ormother

committingadultery

Leaves

Leaves

rubb

edon

foreheadelbow

sandkn

eesa

fterc

ommittingadultery

Zimbabw

e[14

]

Venerealdiseases

Roots

Decoctio

ntakenorally

Mozam

biqu

e[44]

Weakjoints

Leaves

Decoctio

ntakenorally

Zimbabw

e[14

]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Asthma

Bronchitis

Chest pains

Diarrhoea

Mosquito repellent

Wounds

Fevermalaria

Herbal tea

Cough

Colds

Times found in literature

Figure 3 Main ethnobotanical applications of Lippia javanica in central eastern and southern Africa An ethnobotanical use is countedonly once per publication

Food Uses Respiratory Problems Gastrointestinal DiseasesFever Malaria and Insect Repellent Wounds Injuries Painand Skin Infections Ethnoveterinary Uses and Other Uses

21 Food Uses Leaves and twigs of Lippia javanica are usedas food additives in Kenya [6] and leafy vegetable in India[12 13] Lippia javanica is popular as herbal tea particularlyin Botswana South Africa and Zimbabwe [7ndash11] Lippiajavanica herbal tea is prepared by steeping fresh or driedleaves stems or twigs in boiling water and letting them standfor two to five minutes to release flavour with or withoutmilk and sugar added according to taste A stronger brewknown as a decoction is prepared by boiling fresh or driedleaves stems or twigs for more than five minutes The herbaltea prepared from L javanica leaves stems or twigs has alemon or vanilla aroma and is often used as a common tea(ie C sinensis) substitute or a few leaves stems or twigsare added to C sinensis to provide a lemon or vanilla aromaAccording to Soukand and Kalle [87] herbal tea or tisaneis an English term used to denote a decoction or infusionmade of herbs for medicinal purposes When L javanica isused as medicinal herbal tea it is consumed for a limitednumber of days to treat a specific condition like asthma inZimbabwe [14] bronchitis in South Africa [19] chest painsin Zimbabwe and South Africa [14 24] colds in KenyaSouth Africa and Zimbabwe [19 20 28ndash30] cough in SouthAfrica and Zimbabwe [19 20 30 53] and other diseases(see Table 1) From literature it seems L javanica herbaltea evolved over the years from medicinal tea decoctionsor infusions to nonmedicinal uses where the herbal teais now drunk for recreation and enjoyment According toShikanga et al [7] L javanica tea is appreciated throughoutits distributional range as a general health tonic and alsobecause it is naturally caffeine-free and has a calming andrelaxing effect Research done by other workers for exampleManenzhe et al [2] Shikanga et al [7] Parrant [8] Olivieret al [81] Motlhanka and Makhabu [9] and Bhebhe et al[10 11] revealed that L javanica is a popular recreational teain southern Africa consumed on a daily basis within a food

context while medicinal infusions or tisanes of L javanicaare taken for a specific medical purpose During the past20 years the use of herbal teas has increased globally [107]because of their functional properties and consumer interestin the health promoting properties of such beverages [108]The other advantage associated with L javanica usage is thatthe leaves can be sun-dried and later boiled in water anddrunk as herbal tea [9]

Most of L javanica used as herbal tea in rural andperiurban communities in central eastern and southernAfrica is still collected from the wild although small-scale cultivation has become necessary as it is marketed asherbal tea in Botswana under the brand name ldquoMosukudurdquoor ldquoMosukujanerdquo [109] and in Zimbabwe as ldquoZumbanirdquo(Figure 1(b)) Although considerable quantities of L javanicaare sold in local markets in Botswana and Zimbabwe andalso traded on the Internet there is no data on presentproduction levels traded volumes values and export figuresin these two countries Research by Whiteside [110] showedthat sales of L javanica tea bags generated an income ofR2030000 (US$5718) during 19941995 in Botswana Thereis increased demand for L javanica herbal tea especiallyin the light of growing health consciousness worldwidewith the estimated potential demand for the species and itsproducts around 100 tonnes per year on the local marketand 1000 tonnes per year on the export market (httpbio-innovationorgworkfever-tea-tree) Considering the rapidgrowth of the herbal tea industry worldwide and the increas-ing demand for L javanica products there is need for theimprovement of L javanica products as well as developmentof new products Therefore L javanica has potential to makethe transition from limited local use to commercial andinternational product Lippia javanica has been identifiedas one of the few plant species that should be integratedin the domestication process in farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa to supportmedicinal nutritional and incomesecurity of local communities [107 111] According to VanWyk [111] L javanica is of commercial value as herbal tea andhealth drinks Therefore commercialization of L javanica is

8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

unlikely to be viable if the product is sorely harvested fromthe wild In the same line commercialization of L javanicamight be more worthy if other products other than tea arederived from the plant

22 Respiratory Problems The different parts of L javanicafor example the leaves and twigs are used for the treatmentof asthma coughs colds influenza pneumonia tuberculosisand bronchial problems in Bangladesh Botswana EthiopiaKenya South Africa and Zimbabwe [14ndash16 19 20 23 25 2628ndash32 53 112] In Bangladesh leaf infusion of L javanica istaken orally mixed with 3-4 pieces of cloves ofA sativum 2-3times daily as remedy for chest pains [23] In Ethiopia leavesof L javanica are chewed with butter as remedy for chestpains and cough [26] In India L javanica leaf decoctionis taken orally as remedy for respiratory disorders [39] InKenya leaves are sniffed [31] or half glass of hot leaf infusionis taken orally three times a day [28 29] as remedy for coldsand cough Research done by Davids et al [19] in SouthAfrica revealed that about 50 g of leaves is added to a cupof boiling water to produce an infusion which is taken orallyas remedy for coughs colds and bronchial problems or theinfusion is applied to the skin or mixed with Vaseline tomake an ointment In South Africa leaf or twig decoctionis taken orally for asthma colds and cough [16 53] leavesare used in washes and poultices for chest pains [25] andleaves are boiled for 5 minutes and one cup of extract is takenorally thrice a day for chest pains and tuberculosis [24 42]According to York [18] two handfuls of L javanica leaves areboiled in two litres of water and patient is steamed once ortwice a day to treat coughs chest pain headaches fever chillsa sore throat or a blocked nose This decoction can also betaken orally by drinking half a cup daily [18] Alternativelya handful of L javanica roots or leaves are mixed with ahandful leaves of A glabratum or B transvaalensis or Buniflora or B cathartica or C anisata or C brachiata orC molle or E grandis or H kraussii or Hypoxis spp or Kmosambicina or P neochilus or P guajava or S serratuloides orT sericea or T riparia or T emetica to treat blocked nosechest pain cough earache fatigue fever influenza headacherunny nose sleepless nights sore throat tiredness andtonsillitis [18] Leaf and stem infusion of L javanica are takenorally together with A afra by the Zulu people in SouthAfrica as remedy for bronchial ailments colds and cough[20] ldquoImbizardquo a popular herbal decoction prepared from Ljavanica and C obliquus is used by the Zulu people in SouthAfrica as herbal tonic and an immune booster and also forthe treatment of cancer chest pains colds diabetes HIV orAIDS symptoms skin infections and tuberculosis [27] Insome communities in South Africa L javanica leaf or rootinfusion is taken orally as remedy for influenza and malaria[33] and respiratory disorders [40 41] In Zimbabwe leafor root decoction is taken orally or smoke of burnt leavesand roots is inhaled as remedy for chest pains [14] and leafand twigs are boiled in water and infusion is taken orally asremedy for colds and cough [30] According to Gelfand etal [14] Shona people in Zimbabwe rub leaf ointment of Ljavanica on the chest and abdomen as remedy for pneumoniaand leaf decoction is taken orally and body washed with leaf

decoction as remedy for shortness of breath or dyspnoea InSouth Africa a leaf and stem infusion of L javanica are takenorally together with leaves of A afra as remedy for measles[20]

Based on literature inhalation of smoke from L javanicaappears to be a popular remedy for asthma chest painscolds and chronic coughs in Botswana South Africa andZimbabwe [14 15 20 32] In Botswana L javanica leafinfusion vapour is inhaled as remedy for colds and cough[32] In SouthAfrica for example leaves and twigs are burnedand smoke is inhaled as remedy for asthma and cough [15]or steam from leaf infusions is inhaled or hot leaf infusionsare taken orally against colds and cough [20] In Zimbabwesmoke of burnt leaves and roots is inhaled as remedy for chestpains [14]

23 Gastrointestinal Diseases The leaf and root decoction orinfusions of L javanica are used as remedies of the digestivesystem diseases such as cholera diarrhoea and dysenteryFor example in Mozambique root decoction is taken orallyas remedy for a type of diarrhoea commonly known asldquochinhamucacardquo which is characterized by milky diarrhoeaaccompanied by vomiting in children [44] Leaf decoctionis used as herbal medicine for diarrhoea in Kenya [113] InSouth Africa the leaves of L javanica are crushed and mixedwith cold or hot water and the mixture is then sieved and aquarter of a cup (75mL) is taken twice a day until diarrhoeasubsides [34] The Venda people in South Africa use leafinfusions as prophylactic against diarrhoea [40] Researchdone by Palgrave et al [37] in South Africa revealed that teainfusions of the L javanica leaves are used as remedies forHIVAIDS opportunistic infections such as lung infectionsand diarrhoea Previous research inMozambique [114] SouthAfrica [115] and Zimbabwe [116] showed that gastrointestinaldisorders particularly cholera diarrhoea and dysentery areamong human diseases often treated with herbal medicinesFor those patients diagnosed as having intestinal worms inVenda South Africa a leaf infusion of L javanica leavesis used as an anthelmintic [40] Therefore these findingsillustrate that herbal medicines including L javanica can playan important role in basic health care of local communitiesthrough treatment and management of cholera diarrhoeaand dysentery

24 Fever Malaria and Insect Repellent Traditionally Ljavanica is commonly used to treat fever and malaria andrepel insects throughout its distributional range [4 14 1617 33ndash35 40 48ndash50 58ndash60] In South Africa a decoctionof fresh or air dried leaves is used to wash or steam bodyparts infested with lice [50] In India the whole plant is usedto repel lice in poultry [61] In South Africa and Zimbabwewhole plant or leaves are burnt to repel mosquitoes [4 3435 48 49 58] In South Africa and Zimbabwe L javanicais widely used to get rid of ticks and other ectoparasites forexample ticks are sprayed with crushed leaves mixed withwater or twigs are used as bedding in fowl runs [58ndash60]Leaf and twig decoction of L javanica are taken orally asremedy for fever [16] The Venda people in South Africa useleaf infusions of L javanica as prophylactic against malaria

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9

[40] In Zimbabwe leaf decoction is taken orally as remedyfor fever [14]

Lippia javanica is also cultivated on a commercial scale bya rural community in Giyani the Limpopo province SouthAfrica for the production of mosquito-repellent candles[117] Clinical studies using human volunteers showed thatL javanica repels no less than 95 of mosquitos whereasmost mosquito repellents repel only 42 of them [118]Based on these findings the Council for Scientific andIndustrial Research (CSIR) South Africa signed a benefitsharing agreement with traditional healers allowing for thecommercial cultivation of L javanica aimed at establishingan indigenous oil industry for rural development and large-scale production of antimosquito candles and other insectrepellents The mosquito repellent is registered as a patentunder the Fertilisers Farm Feeds and Stock Remedies Act(Act 36 of 1947) as a pest repellent [119] These findings andthe establishment of a large-scale production of antimosquitocandles and other insect repellents strengthen the view thatL javanica is a potential source of antipesticidal agentsand to some extent validate the traditional use of the plantspecies for insect pest control Pesticidal plants such as Ljavanica are increasingly being used as alternatives wheresynthetic products are unaffordable or are not available or areineffective A number of studies have indicated that the use ofL javanica as a pesticide is a long-standing tradition passeddown from generation to generation [120]

25 Wounds Injuries Pain and Skin Infections Lippia javan-ica is used as remedy for a variety of skin infections andinjuries in Kenya South Africa Swaziland and ZimbabweIn SouthAfrica leaf infusions are used to treat skin disorderssuch as boils chicken pox febrile rashes heat rashesmeaslesscabies scratches and stings [20 21 40 50 54] In Kenyaabout 50 g of fresh leaves is wrapped around a fresh woundto enhance healing [57] and in South Africa leaf infusionsare taken orally as remedy for wounds [54] In SouthAfrica powder from burnt roots of L javanica is appliedto scarifications made around sprained joints to facilitatehealing [20] In Kenya and Zimbabwe leaf infusion is takenorally to treatmeasles or a patient is washedwith leaf infusion[14 38] The Zulu people in South Africa take a mixtureof chopped handful leaves of L javanica with the sameamount of bark of A burkeiO engleri S birrea S cordatumand T elegans boiled in two litres of water as an enemafor the treatment of sores [56] In Swaziland about 30 g ofL javanica leaves and similar amount of Acanthospermumaustrale Kuntze are boiled in 5 litres of water and decoctionis taken as remedy for sores [55] In Zimbabwe root ashesof L javanica mixed with fat are applied to the skin ofa patient with scabies [14] Wound healing is a processwhich involves distinct overlapping phases of coagulationinflammation proliferation and tissue remodelling [121]The same authors argued that a set of complex biochemicalevents takes place in a closely orchestrated cascade to repairthe wound and any errors in the wound healing processcan lead to delayed healing or formation of hypertrophicscars Abubakar [122] argued that colonization of woundsby opportunistic microorganisms usually delays the wound

healing process andor may lead to infectious conditionTherefore application of L javanica on wounds and skininfections leads to disinfection debridement and provisionof a suitable environment for aiding the wound healingprocess Lippia javanica has potential for therapeutic use inwound and skin diseases management but there is needfor research on the safety phytochemistry and biologicalproperties of the species

26 EthnoveterinaryUses The leaves stems twigs andwholeplants of L javanica are used as ethnoveterinary medicinein India Kenya South Africa and Zimbabwe The Xhosapeople in the Eastern Cape province South Africa use Ljavanica leaves for the disinfection of meat that has beeninfected with anthrax [20] In Kenya the stem of L javanicais used to preserve milk by applying it to the gourd beforemilk fermentation [62] In India whole plants are used aslice repellants while in South Africa and Zimbabwe crushedleaves mixed with water are used to get rid of ticks and twigsare used as bedding in fowl runs to get rid of ectoparasites[58ndash60]

27 Other Uses Lippia javanica is used as a good luck charmto treat persons experiencing bad dreams to ward off evilspirits to protect one from lightening and to protect thehome (Table 1) In Zimbabwe L javanica leaves are preparedas an infusion to treat persons experiencing nightmares [64]In both South Africa and Zimbabwe evil spirits are cleansedby washing the body of an affected person by leaf infusion ofL javanica [14 123] In Swaziland 50 g leaves of L javanicaand C molle are ground into a powder and 5 litres of wateris added and face and hands are washed to remove badluck when exposed to a corpse [71] In South Africa thewhole plant is placed on a patientrsquos bed after the circumcisionceremony [58] to prevent odours and freshen surroundingair A mixture of L javanica leaves and roots is used toclean tools and hands before and after funerals the stemsand leaves are used as brooms to sweep grave sites and theentire plant is also used when coming from the mortuaryto remove bad spirits [58 124] The corpse is washed withL javanica infusion after death to prevent odours formingor if the corpse has an odour women place pieces of Ljavanica in the nostrils of the corpse and sweep the roomwith twigs where the person was sleeping [58] In KwaZuluNatal South Africa if the meat started to smell it will beboiled with L javanica leaves to take away the smell [58]TheXhosa people in the Eastern Cape province South Africa useL javanica leaves for the disinfection of meat that has beeninfected with anthrax [20] In KwaZulu Natal South Africaleaves are sprinkled in toilets to prevent odours [58] Leavesof L javanica are sprinkled in houses for pleasant smell inthe Limpopo province South Africa [35] and Kenya [31] InKwaZulu Natal South Africa it is believed that a person canrepel snakes by placing a small stem with leaves on his orher head [58] In Malawi Swaziland and Zimbabwe peopleshowing sign of mental disorder madness or hystericaloutbursts are required towash their bodies with leaf infusions[14 67 68 71]

10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 2 Nutritional composition of Lippia javanica leaves

Caloric and nutritional composition Values ReferenceAsh 160 plusmn 0001 g [13]Calorific value 5064 plusmn 563 kcal [13]Crude fat 016 plusmn 0001 g [13]Crude fibre 263 plusmn 0002 g [13]Crude protein 122 plusmn 00004 g [13]Dry matter 1546 plusmn 140 g [13]Moisture 9044 plusmn 026 g [13]Total carbohydrate 655 plusmn 026 g [13]Vitamin C 2242 plusmn 0001mg [13]Ca 2856ndash9225 120583g gminus1 [27]Mg 1598ndash5619 120583g gminus1 [27]Fe 75ndash750 120583g gminus1 [27]Mn 401 plusmn 116 120583g gminus1 [27]Zn 156ndash273 120583g gminus1 [27]Cu 30ndash85 120583g gminus1 [27]Cr 0ndash27 120583g gminus1 [27]Se 257 plusmn 019 120583g gminus1 [27]Pb 038ndash119 120583g gminus1 [27]Cd 053 plusmn 005 120583g gminus1 [27]Co 019 plusmn 001 120583g gminus1 [27]

3 Phytochemical Constituents and NutritionalComposition of Lippia javanica

Multiple classes of phytochemicals including volatile andnonvolatile secondary metabolites such as alkaloids aminoacids flavonoids iridoids and triterpenes as well as severalminerals have been identified from L javanica [1ndash5 7 13 2773 78 81 83ndash86 88ndash94 120 123 125ndash127] Leaves flowersand twigs of L javanica have a wide variety of the so-calledclassic nutrients such as minerals carbohydrates proteinsfats and vitamins (Table 2) Lippia javanica leaves are a goodsource of minerals such as cadmium calcium chromiumcobalt copper iron magnesium manganese selenium andzinc [27] These authors assessed the levels of the elementsin L javanica leaves and found the elements to be in thedecreasing order of Ca gt Mg gt Fe gt Zn gt Mn gt Cu gt Se gtCr gt Pb gt Co gt Cd for total concentrations and Ca gt Mggt Fe gt Zn gt Cu gt Cr gt Pb for water extractable forms Theseresults corroborate an observation made by Sedaghathooret al [128] that Ca and Mg are among the most abundantelements in tea plants These mineral elements are importantin human nutrition since L javanica is used as herbaltea and food additive (Table 1) Calcium magnesium ironmanganese and zinc play a major role in activating someenzymes and regulating many responses of cells to stimuli[129] Some of the mineral elements identified from Ljavanica leaves are required by the human body for repair ofworn out cell tissues and strong bones and teeth and buildingof red blood cells and other related tissuesTherefore since Ljavanica has appreciable concentrations of mineral elementssuch as calcium magnesium iron manganese and zinc

(Table 2) which are essential for enzyme metabolism thesemineral elements could enhance the nutritional and curativeproperties of the species

Bhebhe et al [10] determined the total phenolic and tan-nin content and radical scavenging activities of L javanicacomparing it with Aspalathus linearis (Burmf) R Dahlgren(Rooibos) a commercial South African herbal tea andother popular herbal teas in Zimbabwe (Table 3) Adansoniadigitata L Fadogia ancylantha Schweinf Ficus sycomorus Land Myrothamnus flabellifolius Welw are indigenous herbalteas consumed in Zimbabwe The tannin content of Ljavanica is very low when compared to A linearis (Rooibos)(Table 3) Lippia javanica has higher radical scavenging activ-ity than A linearis (Table 3) which is probably due to highertotal phenolic content in comparison to A linearis which is apopular herbal tea consumed by 10 of the global herbal teamarket [10] In another study Bhebhe et al [11] determinedand compared the effect of several solvents namely hotwater 50 methanol ethanol 50 ethanol acetone 50acetone and ethyl acetate on phenolic composition and freeradical scavenging activity in common black tea C sinensisand five other well-known herbal teas including L javanicaIn all the seven solvents used L javanica had higher totalphenolic content than C sinensis implying that L javanicais competitive to the black tea in terms of phenolic contentShikanga et al [7] found leaf extracts of L javanica to havehigher phenolic content of 148 mgg gallic acid equivalentof dry weight than flowers (99mgg) and twigs (83mgg)Phenolic compounds found in plants are known to play animportant role as antioxidants in exhibiting the medicinalproperties such as antibiotic anti-inflammatory anticancerand antiallergic properties [10 66 130 131]

The compounds isolated from L javanica are docu-mented and listed in Appendix A and their structures arepresented in Appendix B Simple phenolic compounds andcaffeic acid and its derivatives are some of the compoundsthat have been identified in L javanica and examplesinclude coumarin 1 34-dihydroxy-120573-phenylethoxy-O-[410158401015840-120573-caffeoyl-120572-rhamnopyranosyl-(1101584010158401015840310158401015840)-O-120573-glucopyrano-side] commonly referred to as verbascoside 2 and 34-dihydroxy-120573-phenylethoxy-O-[610158401015840-120573-caffeoyl-120572-rhamnopy-ranosyl-(1101584010158401015840310158401015840)-O-120573-glucopyranoside] commonly referredto as isoverbascoside 3 isolated by Olivier et al [81] from theaerial parts of the species Nonvolatile diterpenes known asiridoid-glycosides have also been isolated from L javanicaby Rimpler and Sauerbier [82] represented by theveside-Na4 and theveridoside 5 Mujovo et al [83] isolated a longchain alkane ldquo4-ethylnonacosanerdquo 6 and four flavanonesapigenin 7 cirsimaritin 8 6-methoxyluteolin 41015840-methylether 9 and 6-methoxyluteolin 31015840410158407-trimethyl ether 10from ethanolic extracts of L javanica leaves Madzimureet al [120] identified an array of phenolic glycosides andflavonoids which include crassifolioside 11 luteolin 12diosmetin 13 chrysoeriol 14 tricin 15 isothymusin 16eupatorin 17 5-dimethyl noboletin 18 genkwanin 19salvigenin 20 and an alkaloid xanthine 22 Ludere et al[84] isolated lippialactone 21 from the ethyl acetate extractof aerial parts of L javanica Neidlein and Staehle [85] andDlamini [86] isolated 19 amino acids compounds 23 to

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11

Table 3 Total phenolic content (TPC) as gallic acid equivalents (GAE) and tannin content as leucocyanidin equivalents (LE) and free radicalscavenging activity (FRSA) of herbal tea extracts (after Bhebhe et al [10])

Plant species TPC g GAE100 g Tannin content of LE100 g Percentage FRSA IC50gmL

Lippia javanica 1246 plusmn 431 012 plusmn 001 8377 plusmn 08 0016Aspalathus linearis 669 plusmn 083 094 plusmn 004 6727 plusmn 025 0053Adansonia digitata 079 plusmn 028 169 plusmn 001 4307 plusmn 10 0132Fadogia ancylantha 288 plusmn 048 020 plusmn 012 700 plusmn 040 0051Ficus sycamores 1402 plusmn 001 198 plusmn 012 8613 plusmn 085 0009Myrothamnus flabellifolius 475 plusmn 033 104 plusmn 001 8093 plusmn 075 0019

41 in Appendix A from L javanica At least 131 differentclasses of essential oil compounds (compounds 42ndash172 inAppendices A and B) have been isolated from L javanica byseveral researchers [3ndash5 83 85 86 88ndash94 123] Hutchingsand van Staden [96] isolated a toxic triterpenoid saponinicterogenin 173 from L javanica leaves These differentclasses of essential oil compounds have been associatedwith various therapeutic activities such as anaestheticanalgesic anti-inflammatory antimicrobial cardiovasculardecongestant digestive expectorant hepatoprotective andsedative activities as well as stimulant of nervous systemand tonifying effects [132] Meanwhile flavonoids possessseveral pharmacological properties including antibacterialanticancer anti-inflammatory antioxidant antiviral andhepatoprotective effects [133] which play important rolesin human health Flavonoid such as apigenin 7 is reportedto possess antibacterial [134] and hepatoprotective [135]properties Apigenin 7 and luteolin 12 are reported to possessanti-inflammatory and analgesic effects [133] affecting thefunction of enzyme systems involved in the generation ofinflammatory processes especially tyrosine and serine-threonine protein kinases [136 137] It has also been reportedthat apigenin 7 prevents HIV-1 activation via a novelmechanism that involves inhibition of viral transcription[138] and luteolin 12 demonstrated synergistic effects withanother flavonoid kaempferol against herpes simplex virus[133] Kamiya [139] documented the importance of essentialamino acids such as lysine valine isoleucine and histidinein terms of the risks to health if they are deficientThe authoralso documented their biological effects which includemuscle protein maintenance potentiation of immunefunction tissue repair acceleration after burn or traumaprotecting liver from toxic agents lowering blood pressuremodulating cholesterol metabolism and stimulating insulinor growth hormone secretion Therefore L javanica leavesand other plant parts which have shown to be rich inflavonoid and polyphenolic compounds amino acids andessential oil could play an important role in the treatmentand management of diseases such as hypertension andinflammation listed in Table 1

4 Pharmacological Activities

Scientific studies on L javanica indicate that it has a widerange of pharmacological activities (Table 4) which include

anticancer [140] antidiabetic [141] antimalarial [4 49 142]antimicrobial [2 3 7 17 73ndash75 77 83 84 126 143]antioxidant [7 10 11 75 77 125] antiplasmodial [2 7980 84 144 145] and pesticidal effects [1 2 59 95 120146ndash150] and cytotoxicity [2 73 79 120] activities Table 4summarizes some of the pharmacological studies undertakenon L javanica extracts aimed at evaluating some of theethnomedicinal uses of the species documented throughoutits distributional range (see Table 1) Some of the listedpharmacological activities may not relate directly to thedocumented ethnomedicinal uses of the species but mayprovide some insight into the speciesrsquo potential therapeuticvalue and bioactive properties and application

41 Anticancer Activity Fouche et al [140] reported anti-cancer activity of dichloromethane root extract of L javanicaagainst three human cells exhibiting TGI value of 182120583gmLfor breast MDA-MB-435 186 120583gmL for breast MDA-N and209 120583gmL for melanoma MALME-3M Based on literaturea couple of terpenoid compounds that have been isolatedfrom L javanica are known to have antitumor propertiesFor example linalool 120 is known to have antitumoractivity which plays a protective role against hepatotoxicityand the compound has anti-inflammatory activities as well[151] Research by Yang et al [152] showed limonene 92 tohave inhibitory effect on pancreatic and mammary tumorsAnother terpenoid compound 120572-pinene 44 is known toinhibit translocation of NF-120581B or p65 protein into nuclei ofLPS-stimulated THP-1 cells [153] These findings serve as ascientific validation for the use of L javanica as a componentof a herbal concoction known in KwaZulu Natal province asldquoimbizardquo prepared by mixing L javanica with C obliquus asherbal medicine for cancer [27]

42 Antidiabetic Activity Arika et al [141] determined the invivo antidiabetic activity of aqueous leaf extracts of L javan-ica in white male alloxan-induced albino mice The aqueousleaf extracts of L javanica at all dose levels significantlylowered the blood glucose levels in both oral and intraperi-toneal routes The antidiabetic effect of L javanica couldhave been due to the observed presence of flavonoids Thepolyhydroxylated flavonol enhances lipogenesis and glucoseuptake in the adipocytes and flavanoids have demonstratedinsulinmimetic properties as the compound is known to beeffective at controlling blood sugar levels These findings

12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table4Summaryof

pharmacologicalactiv

ities

ofthee

xtractsisolated

from

different

partso

fLippiajavanica

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Antiamoebic

Piperitenon

e162

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f25120583

gmLagainstE

histolytica

[73]

Antibacteria

lPiperitenon

e162

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f50120583

gmLagainstA

calcoaceticu

sMkristin

ae(50120583

gmL)Styphi(25120583

gmL)and

Saureus

(12120583

gmL)

[73]

Antibacteria

l(Antiproteus)

Methano

lLeaves

Disc

diffu

sion

assay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f313120583gmLagainstPm

irabilis

and926120583

gmL

againstPvulgaris

[74]

Water

Leaves

Disc

diffu

sion

assay

Exhibitedweakactiv

ityagainstPm

irabilis

with

MIC

valueo

f1873120583gmLand1768120583gmLagainstPvulgaris

[74]

Antibacteria

l

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

coliwith

MIC

valueo

f064m

gmLE

faecalis(064)P

aeruginosa

(032

)andSaureus

(064)Totalactiv

ityMIC

values

werea

sfollo

wsE

coli(127

mgmL)E

faecalis

(127

mgmL)Paeruginosa

(253

mgmL)and

Saureus

(127

mgmL)

[75]

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

valueo

f3mgmLBa

cillusp

umilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(gt12mgmL)Saureus(12mgmL)E

faecalis

(6mgmL)E

cloacae

(6mgmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pantoea

agglo

meran

s(12mgmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Shigella

flexneri

(15mgmL)A

erom

onas

hydrophila(12m

gmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae(12mgmL)Salmonellacholeraesuis

(6mgmL)and

Serratiamarcescens(gt12mgmL)

[17]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

valueo

f12m

gmLB

pumilu

s(12m

gmL)B

subtilis(12m

gmL)Saureus(6m

gmL)E

faecalis

(12m

gmL)E

cloacae

(12m

gmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(12m

gmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(6

mgmL)A

hydrophila(12m

gmL)Pm

irabilis

(12m

gmL)K

pneum

oniae

(12m

gmL)Scholeraesuis(6

mgmL)and

antia

moebice

ffect

(12m

gmL)

[17]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

values

of15

mgmLB

pumilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(gt12mgmL)Saureus(12mgmL)E

faecalis

(3mgmL)E

cloacae

(6mgmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(12m

gmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(15mgmL)A

hydrophila(6

mgmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae

(12m

gmL)Scholeraesuis(6

mgmL)and

Smarcescens(12mgmL)

[17]

Essentialoil

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

values

of6m

gmLB

pumilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(3mgmL)Saureus(15

mgmL)E

faecalis

(3mgmL)E

cloacae

(12m

gmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(6

mgmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(3mgmL)A

hydrophila(3mgmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae

(3mgmL)Scholeraesuis(15mgmL)and

Smarcescens(gt12mgmL)

[17]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 13

Table4Con

tinued

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

faecaliswith

MIC

valueo

f014

mgmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

coliwith

MIC

valueo

f031

mgmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPaeruginosa

with

MIC

valueo

f042m

gmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstSaureus

with

MIC

valueo

f013

mgmL

[7]

Antifu

ngal

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

albicans

with

MIC

valueo

fgt75m

gmLC

krusei

(188m

gmL)and

Cneoforman

s(gt75

mgmL)

[7]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

albicans

with

MIC

valueo

fgt375

mgmLC

krusei

(375m

gmL)and

Cneoforman

s(gt75

mgmL)

[7]

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

kruseiwith

MFC

valueo

f75mgmL

[7]

Dichlorom

ethane

Aeria

lparts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFu

sariu

mproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f014

mgmLand

Fusariu

mverticillioides(019mgmL)

[76]

Hexane

Aeria

lparts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f023m

gmLandF

verticillioides(045

mgmL)

[76]

Methano

lAe

rialp

arts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f177m

gmLandF

verticillioides(043

mgmL)

[76]

Methano

lAe

rialp

arts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

fgt250

mgmLandF

verticillioides(gt250

mgmL)

[76]

Antim

ycob

acteria

l

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f047m

gmLandtotalactivity

of10mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Dichlorom

ethane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f125m

gmLandtotalactivity

of23

mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f062m

gmLandtotalactivity

of13mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f125m

gmLandtotalactivity

of7m

Lgagainst

Msmegmatis

[77]

14 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table4Con

tinued

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Antioxidant

Water

Leaves

DPP

Hassay

Exhibitedactiv

itywith

EC50valueo

f358120583gmL

[7]

Water

Leaves

mdashEx

hibitedactiv

itywith

209ascorbicacid

equivalent

(mggdryweight)

[7]

Water

Leaves

ABT

Sassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f15mmol10

0g[78]

Water

Leaves

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f146254

mmol10

0g[78]

Water

Leaves

FRAPassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f238m

mol10

0g[78]

Antiplasm

odial

Hexanechloroform

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f1225plusmn072120583gmL

[79]

Ethylacetate

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f1212plusmn079120583gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f135plusmn006120583gmL

[79]

Hexanechloroform

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f1859plusmn026120583gmL

[79]

Ethylacetate

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f1580plusmn026120583gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f175plusmn017120583gmL

[79]

Dichlorom

ethane

Roots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f38120583gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethanem

ethano

lRo

ots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f27120583

gmL

[80]

Methano

lRo

ots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f24120583

gmL

[80]

Water

Roots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

fgt100120583

gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethane

Stem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f45120583gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethanem

ethano

lStem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f218120583gmL

[80]

Methano

lStem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f298120583gmL

[80]

Water

Stem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

fgt100120583

gmL

[80]

Free

radicalscaveng

ing

activ

ity

Water

mdashDPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0059plusmn002

gmL

[11]

50methano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f004plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Ethano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0025plusmn0001gmL

[11]

50ethano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0027plusmn0005gmL

[11]

Aceton

emdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0057plusmn0004gmL

[11]

50aceton

emdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0022plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Ethylacetate

mdashDPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0066plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Toxicity

Methano

lLeaf

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

40mortalityrecorded

after

48hexpo

sure

towards

Artemianauplii

[74]

Methano

lRo

ots

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f8430120583

gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f6503120583

gmL

[79]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 15

strengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantidiabetic agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species mixed with C obliquus to form aherbal concoction known in KwaZulu Natal province SouthAfrica as ldquoimbizardquo used against diabetes [27]

43 Antimalarial Activity Govere et al [142] found thattopical application of L javanica alcohol extract leads to767 protection against Anopheles arabiensis for 4 hoursLippia javanica has been used as a mosquito repellent by therural communities in Zimbabwe for a long time and previousstudies have shown that essential oils from the species havevery strong and lasting repellent activity against female Aarabiensis [64] Research by Lukwa et al [4] revealed thattopical application of 5mgcm2 of L javanica leads to 100protection againstAnopheles aegypti for 8 hoursMavundza etal [154] screened dichloromethane and ethanol leaf extractsof L javanica for adulticidal activity againstA arabiensisTheauthors observed dichloromethane and ethanol activities of45 and 55mosquitomortality respectivelyThese findingsstrengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantimalarial agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species as mosquito repellent in India [47]South Africa [34 49 58] and Zimbabwe [4 48]

44 Antioxidant Activity Leaf infusions of L javanica exhib-ited antioxidant activity with EC

50value of 358120583gmL and

contained 148mgmL of dry weight gallic acid equivalentphenolic compounds [7] The EC

50value of 358 120583gmL

obtained for L javanica by Shikanga et al [7] compareswell to those of many commercial teas including antioxidantcapacity of Rooibos Fresh Pack herbal teas (A linearis)with the best antioxidant activity of 333 120583gmL The highantioxidant activities displayed by L javanica infusions canbe partially attributed to the high levels of verbascoside 2(15mgg dry weight) reported by Olivier et al [81] in theleaf extract of the species Earlier research by Muchuwetiet al [125] reported 744 inhibition of the DPPH radicalby an ethanolic leaf extract of L javanica Lekganyane etal [75] reported antioxidant activity in L javanica and theacetone extracts of the species displayed antioxidant activityon BEA chromatogram [77] Bhebhe et al [10] reported theantioxidant activities of L javanica based on the DPPHreducing power and inhibition of phospholipid peroxidationassays Free radical scavenging activity of L javanica isattributed to phenolic compounds since these compoundshave an ideal structural chemistry for free radical scavengingactivity [155] Bhebhe et al [11] determined the effect ofseveral solvents on the free radical scavenging activity ofL javanica using the DPPH assay Free radical scavengingactivity expressed as IC

50ranged from 0022 plusmn 0001 gmL to

0066 plusmn 0001 gmL see Table 4

45 Antiplasmodial Activity Prozesky et al [144] evaluatedL javanica leaf acetone extract for in vitro antiplasmodialactivity using PfUP1 a chloroquine resistant strain of themalaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum by means of theflow cytometric test The IC

50value for L javanica was

426 120583gmL Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil

piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica for antiplasmodialactivity using chloroquine diphosphate as positive controland found it active against a chloroquine sensitive strainof P falciparum in micromolar concentrations with IC

50of

8 120583gmL Clarkson et al [80] evaluated L javanica rootsand stems extracts for in vitro activity against P falciparumusing the parasite lactase dehydrogenase (pLDH) assay andchloroquine diphosphate (Sigma) as the positive controlThedichloromethane methane and water extracts showed IC

50

values ranging from 38 to gt100 120583gmL see Table 4 Omolo etal [145] screened the essential oil of L javanica for fumiganttoxicity to Anopheles gambiae which exhibited LD

50of 43 times

10minus3mg cmminus3 Ayuko et al [79] showed that L javanica rootextracts have antiplasmodial activity against P falciparumwith IC

50ranging from 135 to 1859 120583gmL see Table 4

Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity againstthe chloroquine sensitive D10 strain of P falciparum withan IC

50value of 91 120583gmL and is also mildly cytotoxic [84]

Compared to chloroquine the compound is approximately2000 times less active against the D10 strain of P falciparum[84]

46 Antimicrobial Activities Lippia javanica is widely usedin the treatment of a wide range of infectious diseasescaused by microorganisms Viljoen et al [3] determined theantimicrobial properties of L javanica by evaluating the timekill studies of the speciesrsquo essential oil using the disc diffusionassay on three respiratory pathogens Klebsiella pneumoniaeCryptococcus neoformans and Bacillus cereus This studyshowed that the killing rate was greatest for K pneumoniaefollowed by C neoformans and very little reduction of micro-bial populations was observed for B cereus The efficacy of Ljavanica oil for K pneumoniae showed a killing rate within30 minutes for the concentrations 025 05 075 and 1C neoformans showed a killing rate for concentrations 05075 and 1 within 1 hour and the lowest concentration of025 took 8 hours before a bactericidal effect was notedwhile B cereus showed some reduction in colonies [3] Thepositive antimicrobial activity of L javanica as revealed bythe time kill study could be attributed to linalool 120 whichaverages between 65 and 70 in yield [3 5 88 90] and hasknown antimicrobial properties [93 156ndash159]These findingssomehow corroborate the traditional use of L javanica asherbal medicine for a wide range of bacterial and fungalrespiratory ailments indicated in Table 1

Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil piperitenone162 isolated from L javanica for antibacterial activityon cultures of Bacillus subtilis Staphylococcus aureus andEscherichia coli using imipenem cefazolin and ampicillinas positive controls The authors found piperitenone 162to inhibit S aureus and E coli at 1 dilution Acetonehexane and methanol leaf extracts and essential oil isolatedfrom L javanica showed some activity against fifteen Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria with MIC values rang-ing from 15 to gt12mgmL [60] see Table 4 In a similarstudy Samie et al [73] demonstrated that a pure compoundpiperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica has antibacte-rial activities against Acinetobacter calcoaceticus Micrococcus

16 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

kristinae Salmonella typhi and S aureus using dimethylsulphoxide and kanamycin as controls with MIC valuesranging from 12 to 50 120583gmL see Table 4 Shikanga et al [7]evaluated the antibacterial activity of L javanica methanolicleaf extract against S aureus Enterococcus faecalis E coliand Pseudomonas aeruginosa using the serial microdilutionmethod with gentamycin (Virbac) and acetone as positiveand negative controls respectively Lippia javanica displayedantibacterial activities with MIC values ranging from 013to 042mgmL against all four pathogens see Table 4 Theobtained minimum inhibitory concentrations are promisingsince natural products with MIC values below 1mgmLare generally considered to be noteworthy findings [160]Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity against theE coli and S aureus at a concentration of 10mgmL [84]Lekganyane et al [75] reported antibacterial activity of Ljavanica acetone leaf extracts against E coli E faecalis Paeruginosa and S aureus with MIC values ranging from 032to 064mgmL and total activity of the same species rangingfrom 127 to 253mgmL see Table 4 Methanol and water leafextracts of L javanica exhibited some antiproteus activityagainstProteusmirabilis andProteus vulgariswithMICvalueslt2000120583gmL with standard discs of ampicillin (2120583g) andchloramphenicol (10 120583g) as positive controls [74] Some of theantibacterial properties of L javanica can be attributed to thephytochemical constituents of the species for example thephenolic compound apigenin 7 is a well-known antibacterialagent [7 134] Apigenin 7 was shown to be highly activeagainst Vibrio cholera and E faecalis [161] while Basile et al[162] reported the inhibition of S typhi P mirabilis and Paeruginosa by the compound Therefore results from theseantibacterial evaluations of L javanica give credence to theuse of the speciesrsquo infusions against bacterial infections andother related diseases

Shikanga et al [126] investigated the antifungal activ-ities of leaf extracts and essential oil compounds isolatedfrom L javanica leafy extracts against a Guazatine-resistantstrain of Penicillium digitatumThemethanolic leafy extractsisoverbascoside 3 and verbascoside 2 compounds isolatedfrom L javanica inhibited fungal growth at concentrationsabove 06mgsdotmLminus1 causing significant inhibition of mycelialgrowth Verbascoside 2 is well-known for its antimicrobialproperties and has been found to inhibit viruses bacteriaand fungi [163] Similarly Samie et al [143] investigatedantifungal effects of acetone and hexane leaf extracts of Ljavanica against Candida albicans Candida krusei and Cneoformans isolated from AIDS patients using the microdi-lution method with nystatin Roche and DMSO as positiveand negative controls respectively Noteworthy moderateantifungal activities were recorded from C krusei with MICvalue of 188mgmL and other recordedMFCandMICvaluesfor other species ranged from 188mgmL to gt75mgmLsee Table 4 Thembo et al [76] investigated the antifungalactivity of aqueous and organic extracts of L javanica usinga serial microdilution assay Generally extracts of L javanicaexhibited weak activity see Table 4

47 Antimycobacterial Activity Mujovo et al [83] evaluatedL javanica compounds against a drug-sensitive strain ofMycobacterium tuberculosis using the radiometric respira-tory techniques Of all the isolated compounds only onetriterpenoid carboxylic acid euscaphic acid 172 exhibitedantimycobacterial activity with MIC value of 50120583gmLminus1against this strain In a similar study the leaf extract ofL javanica exhibited antimycobacterial activity against Msmegmatis in an evaluation which used microdilution assayand rifampicin as control [77] Acetone extract was thebest extractant with MIC value of 047mgmL it extractedantibacterial agents which was indicated by the lowest MICvalue [77] Masoko and Nxumalo [77] also evaluated thetotal activity ofL javanicawhich averaged 13mLg suggestingthat the extract prepared from one gram of L javanicacould be diluted to a volume of 13mL and will still inhibitM smegmatis efficiently According to Semenya and Maroyi[115] tuberculosis caused by M tuberculosis is a seriousdisease requiring effective strategies and tools to controland manage it Therefore preliminary evaluations done byMujovo et al [83] and Masoko and Nxumalo [77] serve asa scientific validation for the use of L javanica in traditionalmedicine for treatment of tuberculosis and other respiratoryailments in South Africa [24 27 115] and Uganda [43] as wellas their efficiency in tuberculosis drug discovery

48 Antiviral Activity Mujovo et al [83] found that (E)-2(3)-tagetenone epoxide 42 and piperitenone 162 inhibitedthe HIV-1 reverse transcriptase enzyme by 91 and 53respectively at 100 120583gmLminus1 based on a nonradioactive HIVRT colorimetric ELISA kit Little is known about the HIV RTactivity of L javanica extracts or compounds but flavonoidsare known to be active against viral RT and also as potentinhibitors of the cellular alpha and beta DNA polymerase[83] while luteolin 12 is active against HIV RT [164 165]Lippia javanica is traditionally used to treat HIVAIDSsymptoms in South Africa [65 66] and several viral andHIVAIDS opportunistic diseases and infections such asbronchitis [15 19ndash22] chicken pox [50] diarrhoea [17 3437 44 113] measles [14 20 38] pneumonia [14] shingles[15] and venereal diseases [44] Despite significant advancesin the utilization of L javanica in southern Africa overthe years for numerous viral diseases (Table 1) very littleantiviral evaluations have been done on crude extracts andpurified compounds of the species There is need thereforefor more pharmacological research as L javanica could beharbouring potent (RT) inhibitors which could be useful forthe development of new pharmaceutical products importantfor use against viral diseases and infections

49 Pesticidal Effects Magano et al [95] evaluated the repel-lent effects of hexane extracts of L javanica essential oilusing the in vitro tick climbing repellency bioassay on adultsof Hyalomma marginatum rufipes Koch ticks The authorsfound that 107mgmL caused repellency index of 100 at onehour and 30 minutes In a similar study by Madzimure et al[120] L javanica aqueous leaf extracts at 10 and 20 wvwere effective at controlling cattle ticks (Amblyomma species

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 17

Boophilus species Hyalomma species Rhipicephalus appen-diculatus and Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi) and were as goodas the positive control amitraz-based acaricide TrickbusterThese authors found no parasites on microscopic exami-nation of the Giemsa-stained thin blood smear collectedfrom treated cattle implying that the animals did not sufferfrom clinical tick-borne diseases Similarly Nyahangare etal [59] tested the pesticidal activity of L javanica waterextracts against cattle ticks The authors found no significantdifference between cattle treated with a commercial syntheticacaricide and those under L javanica treatment Martinez-Velazquez et al [166] evaluated pesticidal effects of twoessential oils namely 120574-terpinene 82 and 120588-cymene 99isolated from Lippia graveolens Kunth against 10-day-oldRhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini) tick larvaeusing the larval packet test bioassay The two essential oilsproduced highmortality ranging from90 to 100 in all testedconcentrations of 20 to 125 (vv)Therefore L javanica canprovide an effective tick control option where synthetic prod-ucts are unavailable or unaffordable particularly in remoterural areas in sub-Saharan Africa Lippia javanica is popularfor tick control and management among resource-poorsmallholder farmers in South Africa [58 95] and Zimbabwe[59 60 120] While these preliminary evaluations may serveas confirmation that L javanica has some bioactivities againstticks a comprehensive method of tick control is requiredfor the resource-constrained smallholder farmers based onethnopharmacological properties of L javanica

McGaw et al [146] screened L javanica for the anthel-mintic test systems using the free living nematodeCaenorhabditis elegans The crude ethanol and hexaneextracts showed some activity at a concentration of 2mgmLwith the 7-day incubation assay appearing to be moresensitive than the shorter assay Earlier research by Mwangiet al [1] indicated that L javanica was active against Aedesaegypti larvae and Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (maizeweevil) Katsvanga and Chigwiza [147] reported that Ljavanica is an effective natural pesticide which can be used tocontrol aphid species (Brevicoryne brassicae) In their studyKatsvanga and Chigwiza [147] found that 1 1 powderedaqueous leaf extract of L javanica reduced B brassicae by532 against 783 and 967 of two synthetic pesticidesAphid kill and Bexadust ldquoLrdquo respectively Chikukura etal [149] found L javanica powdered leaf extracts to haveinsecticidal properties with potential to control graindamage by 21ndash33 Mashela et al [148] reported that theapplication of ground L javanica leaves to soil in nematode-infested (Meloidogyne incognita) pots reduced the nematodenumbers by 79ndash92 and significantly increased fresh fruityield dry shoot mass plant height and stem diameter ofthe tomato plants as well as levels of potassium nitrogenand manganese in leaf tissue Muzemu et al [150] evaluatedwater extracts of L javanica leaf powder for pesticidal effectsagainst rape (Brassica napus L) aphids B brassicae andtomato (Solanum lycopersicum Lam) red spider mites andTetranychus evansi as alternatives to conventional pesticidesLippia javanica reduced B brassicae and Tetranychus evansiby 125 and 63 respectively [150]The study demonstratedthat L javanica has pesticidal effects on B brassicae and T

evansi The reduced number of B brassicae and T evansicould be due to L javanicarsquos extracts having repellent toxicand antifeedant effects since the species has essential oilswith pesticidal properties [2] Therefore these findingsindicate that L javanica has both nematicidal and plantgrowth-promoting properties

410 Toxicity and Cytotoxicity Activity Lippia javanica isknown to cause liver damage and photosensitisation in live-stock resulting in stock losses [167] Triterpenoids isolatedfrom the genus Lippia are icterogenic and cause jaundice asa result of liver damage [167] The characteristic swellingyellowing and later peeling of unpigmented skin are due tothe presence of phylloerythrin a photodynamic porphyrinthat reacts with sunlight and causes severe cell damage [167]The compound is normally formed when chlorophyll isbroken down by microorganisms in the rumen but it nowaccumulates in the liver as a result of the damage caused bytriterpenoids [167] In view of the known toxicity of Lippiaspecies the prolonged use of high doses of L javanica ispotentially harmful [167] Lippia javanica showed low toxicityafter 48 h exposure with the percentage of mortality below50 [74]

Ayuko et al [79] evaluated the toxicity of L javanicausing a brine shrimp cytotoxicity assay with LC

50value of

1138 plusmn 133 120583gmL Ayuko et al [79] found the cytotoxicity toantiplasmodial activity ratios for the methanolic extracts ofthe two tested strains to be 8430 and 6503 and since theseare greater than 100 it may be concluded that the extractsare of low toxicity Samie et al [73] demonstrated that apure compound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanicaessential oil has low cytotoxicity activity against intestinaladenocarcinoma cells (ie the HCT-8 monolayers with IC

50

of 2656 plusmn 53 120583gmL) Lukwa [64] evaluated the toxicity of Ljavanica aqueous leaf extracts using sexually mature BALBcmice with the placebo as control Within 48 hours all micefed with the L javanica leaf aqueous extract at 125ndash375 vvwere lethargic and the overall mortality was 375 Previousresearch byManenzhe et al [2] showed that hydrodistillationof L javanica leaves flowers and stems produced oil thatwas poisonous against P falciparumwhen diluted to 1 (vv)These findings imply that despite its apparent safety waterextracts of L javanica leaves may have deleterious healthimplications on humans and animals if consumed at veryhigh doses

Many compounds that have been isolated from L javan-ica including phenolic glycosides flavonoids and essentialoils are not known to have acute toxic properties withthe exception of icterogenin 173 Icterogenin 173 has beenshown to inhibit biliary excretion in rabbits [168] Reports inliterature indicate that the consumption of xanthine 22 hasresulted in mammalian toxicity According to Madzimure etal [64] xanthine 22 is a demethylated derivative of caffeinewith pharmacological actions such as central nervous system(CNS) stimulation relaxation of smooth muscle (especiallybronchial muscle) myocardial stimulation peripheral vaso-constriction and diuresis Considering the widespread useof L javanica as herbal tea and medicine it is important

18 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

to determine if any toxicological effects can occur from itschronic or subchronic usage

411 Other Activities Mpofu et al [169] determined the effectof inclusion of L javanica leaf meal in broiler diets ongrowth performance carcass characteristics and fatty acidprofiles The authors found that the L javanica fed broilershad higher total polyunsaturated fatty acids and n-3 fattyacidsThe findings from the study showed that inclusion of Ljavanica in broiler diets at 5 gkg feed has positive influenceson growth performance carcass characteristics and fattyacid profiles of broiler meat and therefore L javanica haspotential as growth-promoting feed additive in broilersSamie et al [73] evaluated antiamoebic activity of a purecompound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica essen-tial oil against Entamoeba histolytica using microdilutionmethod with metronidazole as the positive control diluents(ie culture medium with an appropriate concentration ofdimethyl sulphoxide as the negative control) and a blank(ie culture medium without dimethyl sulphoxide) Samieet al [73] demonstrated that piperitenone 162 had markedantiamoebic activity with IC

50value of 25 120583gmL More

research is required as L javanica could be harbouring potentantiamoebic properties which could be useful for managingamoebiasis an infection that remains a significant cause ofmorbidity and mortality worldwide

5 Conclusion

Lippia javanica has been used in African and Asian countriesas herbal tea and medicine for many centuries Utilization ofL javanica because of its flavour and medicinal propertiesforms the basis of the current demand for the plant speciesin central eastern and southern Africa Research on Ljavanica over the past decade on health promoting propertieshas greatly contributed to the increased consumption ofthe species as herbal or recreational tea The focus of thisresearch has been on phytochemical compounds particularlyphenolic content and antioxidant and free radical scavengingactivities Phenolic compounds present in L javanica arelargely responsible for the antioxidant properties possessedby the species More research in this regard is required andfuture research should focus on more comprehensive chem-ical characterization of both crude and pure extracts andevaluate potential for commercialization and developmentof nutraceutical products based on traditional uses of Ljavanica Most of the pharmacological researches conductedon L javanica so far have focused on the phytochemistryand biological properties of leaves and little or no researchhas been done on roots and other plant parts Thereforefuture research on the species should focus on other plantparts for example flowers roots and stems as well asorgan-to-organ age and seasonal variation evaluations in thephytochemical content and pharmacological activities of thespecies

The recent increase in the demand for L javanica prod-ucts may partly be ascribed to growing body of scientific evi-dence indicating important health benefits Lippia javanica

is widely sold as herbal tea in Botswana South Africa andZimbabwe Leaves and stems of L javanica are also sold asherbal medicines in the medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquo marketsin South Africa [35 170] For local people who rely onherbal medicines as part of their primary healthcare aswell as cultural beliefs they prefer L javanica harvestedfrom the wild and unprocessed plant parts sold in informalmedicinal ldquomuthirdquo markets [170] In the past there were norecords of overexploitation of L javanica wild populationsin southern Africa resulting in Raimondo et al [171] listingthe species as Least Concern (LC) under the IUCN RedList Categories and Criteria version 31 of threatened species(httpwwwiucnredlistorg) Recently signs of overharvest-ing have been noted where local people or plant traders haveuprooted whole plants to supply medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquomarkets or use the plants as herbal medicines brooms orherbal tea Therefore large-scale commercial utilization of Ljavanica is not sustainable if the species is harvested fromthe wild Currently L javanica is cultivated on a commercialscale in Kenya [28] and South Africa [117] for essential oilproduction for the mosquito-repellent candles and perfumeindustry Cultivation of L javanica is therefore a solutionto the sustainability problems associated with harvesting ofthe species from the wild and this option is also necessaryfor establishing commercial scale medicinal production andprocessing and trade enterprises The success of commercialcultivation of L javanica will depend on how the species ismarketed as herbal tea and medicine and source of essentialoil and health care products and as a source of functionalfoods

Significant research has been made in the past 50 yearsinto the chemistry and pharmacology of L javanica Thesestudies have shown L javanica to display various chemicaland different biological activities some of which justify itsethnopharmacological utilization in variety of cultures Inthe light of the evidence that L javanica is combined withother plant species in traditional medicine it will be valuableto investigate the possibility of synergistic effects of thedifferent extracts Deep phytochemical studies of L javanicaand its phytochemical properties especially the mechanismsof action of its bioactive constituents to illustrate the cor-relation between ethnomedicinal uses and pharmacologicalactivities should be the focus of further research on thespecies There is need for extensive in vivo experiments tovalidate the existing pharmacological activities Howeverbecause L javanica contains potentially toxic compoundsits toxicological properties need to be properly establishedvia proper quality control of product development to ensurethat potentially toxic components are kept below tolerancelevels

Appendix

A Chemical Compounds Isolated andCharacterized from Lippia javanica

See Table 5

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 19

Table 5

Chemical compound Reference(s)Phenolic compoundsCoumarin 1 [4]Verbascoside 2 [81]Isoverbascoside 3 [81]Theveside-Na 4 [82]Theveridoside 5 [82]4-ethylnonacosane 6 [83]Apigenin 7 [64 83]Cirsimaritin 8 [64 83]6-Methoxy luteolin41015840-methyl ether 9 [83]

6-Methoxy luteolin31015840410158407-trimethyl ether 10 [83]

Crassifolioside 11 [64]Luteolin 12 [64]Diosmetin 13 [64]Chrysoeriol 14 [64]Tricin 15 [64]Isothymusin 16 [64]Eupatorin 17 [64]5-Dimethyl noboletin 18 [64]Genkwanin 19 [64]Salvigenin 20 [64]Lippialactone 21 [84]AlkaloidXanthine 22 [64]Amino acids120572-Aminobutyric acid 23 [85 86]Valine 24 [86]Isoleucine 25 [86]Asparagine 26 [86]Phenylalanine 27 [86]120572-Aminoadipic acid 28 [86]Lysine 29 [86]Histidine 30 [86]Tyrosine 31 [86]Tryptophan 32 [86]Alanine 33 [85]Glycine 34 [85]Proline 35 [85]Serine 36 [85]Glutamine acid 37 [85]120573-Alanine 38 [85]Glutamine 39 [85]120573-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [85]4-hydroxyproline 41 [85]Essential oil(E)-2(3)-tagetenoneepoxide 42 [83]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]120572-Pinene 44 [3ndash5 87ndash91]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4](+)-2-Carene 46 [4]3-Carene 47 [4]Eucalyptol 48 [4]18 myrcene 49 [87]Ipsdienone 50 [87]Caryophyllene 51 [85]Geranial 52 [5 92 93]26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [92]Geraniol 54 [92]Octen-3-one 55 [5]6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]120588-Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]Artemisia ketone 58 [5]Linalool oxide 59 [5]Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5](Z)-120573-Ocimenone 61 [5](E)-120573-Ocimenone 62 [5]Carvyl acetate 63 [5]120572-Cubebene 64 [5]Sesquithujene 65 [5]Acora-35-diene 66 [5]120573-Bergamotene 67 [5]Trans-calamenene 68 [5]120573-Alaskene 69 [5]120574-Cadinene 70 [5]120575-Cadinene 71 [3 88 89 91]Cis-calamenene 72 [5]Nerolidol 73 [5](E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 88 89]Spathulenol 75 [5]Epi-120572-muurolol 76 [5]120572-Longipinene 77 [90]Chrysanthenone 78 [90]120572-Terpineol 79 [3 5 90 91]120572-Amorphene 80 [90]120572-Thujene 81 [91]120574-Terpinene 82 [91]120572-Cubebene 83 [91]Linalool acetate 84 [91]Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [91]Camphene 86 [3 5 88ndash91]120573-Pinene 87 [3 5 91]Sabinene 88 [3 5 87 90 91]Myrcene 89 [3 5 87ndash89 91ndash95]120572-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 88 89]2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]Limonene 92 [3 5 88ndash94]18-Cineole 93 [3 5 90 91 95]120573-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 88 89 91]

20 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3](Z)-120573-Ocimene 96 [3 5 88 89 91](E)-120573-Ocimene 97 [3 5 88 89 91]Isomyrcenol 98 [3]p-Cymene 99 [3 5 85 88ndash91]2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]Terpinolene 101 [3]Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 88 89 91 95]Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 88 89](Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]Nonanal 106 [3]Perillene 107 [3 91]Ipsenone 108 [3 87ndash89 95]Trans-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 88ndash90]1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 88 89]Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]Ttrans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]cis-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 88ndash90]120572-Copaene 114 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetone 115 [3 88 89]Trans-tagetone 116 [3 88 89]Camphor 117 [3 5 88ndash90 93 94]120573-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 91]Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 85 88ndash90 92 93]

Trans-120572-bergamotene 121 [3]120572-Cedrene 122 [3 5]Myrcenone 123 [3 5 83 91]120573-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 87ndash91 93 94]2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 88 89](Z)-120573-Farnesene 129 [3](E)-120573-Farnesene 130 [3 5](EE)-120572-Farnesene 131 [3 88 89]Ipsdienol 132 [3](Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]Isovaleric acid 134 [3]120572-Humulene 135 [3 5 88 89 91]120572-Acoradiene 136 [3]120573-Acoradiene 137 [3]120574-Muurolene 138 [3 5 88 89]120572-Muurolene 139 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]Borneol 142 [3 5 88ndash90]Verbenone 143 [3 91]Germacrene-D 144 [3 87ndash89 93]120573-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]120574-Bisabolene 146 [3]Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]Carvone 148 [3 5 91]Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 88 89 91]120573-Curcumene 150 [3]Ar-curcumene 151 [3]Cis-piperitol 152 [3]2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol156 [3 88 89]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]Calamenene 158 [3]Carvone oxide 159 [3]Isopiperitenone 160 [3]Cis-carveol 161 [3]Piperitenone 162 [2 3 73 83]Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 88 89]Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3ndash5 88ndash90]Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 88 89]Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]Spathulenol 167 [3]Eugenol 168 [3 5]Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120573-ol(=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120572-ol(=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [83]Icterogenin 173 [96]

B Chemical Structures ofPhenolic Compounds Alkaloids AminoAcids and Essential Oils Isolated fromLippia javanica

See Figure 4

Competing Interests

The author declares that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 21

O

OO

OO O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

C CH CHO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

COOH

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

Me

OMe

OMe

OMe

MeO

Me

HOOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OMe

OMe

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

（2 （2

（2

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

（3CO

（3CO

Coumarin 1 [4]

Verbascoside 2 [89]

Isoverbascoside 3 [89]

Theveside-Na 4 [90]

Theveridoside 5 [90]

4-Ethylnonacosane 6 [91]

Apigenin 7 [120 91]

Cirsimaritin 8 [120 91]

Crassifolioside 11 [120]

Luteolin 12 [120]

Diosmetin 13 [120]

Chrysoeriol 14 [120]

Tricin 15 [120]

Isothymusin 16 [120]

Eupatorin 17 [120]

6-Methoxyluteolin 3 47-trimethyl ether 10 [91]

6-Methoxyluteolin 4-methyl ether 9 [91]

Figure 4 Continued

22 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

N

NH

HN

HO

NH

O

NH

O

O

O

O

HN

N N

N

H

H

OAc

OAcOAc

OO

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

（3CO

（2

（2

（2

（2 （2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3N

（2N

（2N

（2N

（2N

minus

+

+

5-Desmethylnoboletin 18 [120]

Genkwanin 19 [120]

Salvigenin 20 [120]

Lippialactone 21 [92]

Xanthine 22 [120]

Valine 24 [94]

Isoleucine 25 [94]

Asparagine 26 [94]

Phenylalanine 27 [94]

Lysine 29 [94]

Histidine 30 [94]

Tyrosine 31 [94]

Tryptophan 32 [94]

Alanine 33 [93]

Glycine 34 [93]

Proline 35 [93]

Serine 36 [93]

Glutamine acid 37 [93]

Glutamine 39 [93]

4-Hydroxyproline 41 [93]

(E)-2(3)-Tagetenone epoxide 42 [91]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]

-Alanine 38 [93]

-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [93]

-Aminoadipic acid 28 [94]

-Aminobutyric acid 23 [93 94]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 23

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

H

H

HH

H

O

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

HO

OH

O

O

O

O

OH（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4]

3-Carene 47 [4]

Eucalyptol 48 [4]

18 myrcene 49 [123]

Ipsdienone 50 [123]

Caryophyllene 51 [93]

Geranial 52 [5 100 101]

26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [100]

Geraniol 54 [100]

Octen-3-one 55 [5]

6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]

Artemisia ketone 58 [5]

Linalool oxide 59 [5]

Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5]

Carvyl acetate 63 [5]

Sesquithujene 65 [5]

Acora-35-diene 66 [5]

-Pinene 44 [3-5 123 96 97 98 99] -Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]

(+)-2-Carene 46 [4]

-Bergamotene 67 [5]

-Cubebene 64 [5]

(Z)--Ocimenone 61 [5]

(E)--Ocimenone 62 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

24 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OH

H

H

H

H

O

OHO

HO

H

HH H

H

H

HH

H

HO

HO

O

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

Trans-calamenene 68 [5]

Cis-calamenene 72 [5]

Nerolidol 73 [5]

(E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 96 97]

Spathulenol 75 [5]

Chrysanthenone 78 [98]

Linalool acetate 84 [99]

Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [99]

Camphene 86 [3 5 96 97 98 99]

Sabinene 88 [3 5 123 98 99]

Myrcene 89 [3 5 123 100 101 96 97 99 102 103]

-Alaskene 69 [5]

-Terpineol 79 [3 5 98 99]

-Amorphene 80 [98]

-Cadinene 70 [45]-Thujene 81 [99]

-Cadinene 71 [3 96 97 99] -Terpinene 82 [99]

-Cubebene 83 [99]

-Pinene 87 [3 5 99]

-Longipinene 77 [98]

-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 96 97]

Epi--muurolol 76 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 25

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O

OH

OH

H

H

H

H

H

HOO

OH

O

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（3(（2)3（2

（3(（2)6（2

2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]

Limonene 92 [3 5 100 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3]

Isomyrcenol 98 [3]

p-Cymene 99 [3 5 93 96 97 98 99]

2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]

Terpinolene 101 [3]

Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 96 97 99 103]

Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 96 97]

(Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]

67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]

Nonanal 106 [3]

Perillene 107 [3 99]

Ipsenone 108 [3 123 96 97 103]

Trans-linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 96 97 98]

1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 96 97]

Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]

Trans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]

Cis-linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 96 97 98]

Cis-tagetone 115 [3 96 97]

Trans-tagetone 116 [3 96 97]

-Copaene 114 [3 5 96 97 98]

18-Cineole (=eucalyptol) 93 [3 5 98 99 103]

-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 96 97 99]

(Z)--Ocimene 96 [3 5 96 97 99]

(E)--Ocimene 97 [3 5 96 97 99]

Camphor 117 [3 5 101 96 97 98 102]

Figure 4 Continued

26 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

HH

H

H

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 93 100 101 96 97 98]

Myrcenone 123 [3 5 91 99]

2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol 125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]

Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 96 97]

Ipsdienol 132 [3]

(Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]

Isovaleric acid 134 [3]

Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]

Borneol 142 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 99]

Trans--bergamotene 121 [3]

-Cedrene 122 [3 5]

-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 123 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)--Farnesene 129 [3]

(E)--Farnesene 130 [3 5]

-Muurolene 139 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Muurolene 138 [3 5 96 97]

-Acoradiene 136 [3]

-Acoradiene 137 [3]

-Humulene 135 [3 5 96 97 99]

(EE)--Farnesene 131 [3 96 97]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O O

HO

O

H

H

H

HO

HO

OH

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3CO（3

Verbenone 143 [3 99]

Germacrene-D 144 [3 123 101 96 97]

Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]

Carvone 148 [3 5 99]

Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 96 97 99]

Ar-curcumene 151 [3]

Cis-piperitol 152 [3]

2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]

26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol 156 [3 96 97]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]

Calamenene 158 [3]

Carvone oxide 159 [3]

Isopiperitenone 160 [3]

Cis-carveol 161 [3]

Piperitenone 162 [2 3 91 81]

Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 96 97]

-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]

-Bisabolene 146 [3]

-Curcumene 150 [3]

Figure 4 Continued

28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

OO

O

O

H

H

H

H

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

H

H

HCH

HH

HO

（3

（2

（2C

（3C（3C

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C O（3

Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3-5 96 97 98]

Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 96 97]

Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]

Spathulenol 167 [3]

Eugenol 168 [3 5]

Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [91]

Icterogenin 173 [104]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Figure 4

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to the NationalResearch Foundation (NRF) and GovanMbeki Research andDevelopment Centre (GMRDC) University of Fort Hare forfinancial support to conduct this research

References

[1] JWMwangi I Addae-Mensah RMMunavu andW LwandeldquoEssential oils of Kenyan Lippia species Part IIIrdquo Flavour andFragrance Journal vol 6 no 3 pp 221ndash224 1991

[2] N J Manenzhe N Potgieter and T Van Ree ldquoCompositionand antimicrobial activities of volatile components of Lippiajavanicardquo Phytochemistry vol 65 no 16 pp 2333ndash2336 2004

[3] A M Viljoen S Subramoney S F V Vuuren K H C Baserand B Demirci ldquoThe composition geographical variation andantimicrobial activity of Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae) leafessential oilsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 96 no 1-2 pp271ndash277 2005

[4] N Lukwa P Moslashlgaard P Furu and C Boslashgh ldquoLippia javanica(Burm f) Spreng its general constituents and bioactivity onmosquitoesrdquoTropical Biomedicine vol 26 no 1 pp 85ndash91 2009

[5] L S Chagonda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssential oil compositionof Lippia javanica (Burmf) spreng chemotype from WesternZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants vol 18 no 2pp 482ndash485 2015

[6] W Kipkore B Wanjohi H Rono and G Kigen ldquoA study of themedicinal plants used by the Marakwet Community in KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 242014

[7] E A Shikanga S Combrinck and T Regnier ldquoSouth AfricanLippia herbal infusions total phenolic content antioxidant andantibacterial activitiesrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76no 3 pp 567ndash571 2010

[8] N T Parrant ldquoThe potential of non-timber forest products ofBotswanardquo Botswana Notes Records vol 28 no 1 pp 203ndash2181996

[9] D M Motlhanka and S W Makhabu ldquoMedicinal and ediblewild fruit plants of Botswana as emerging new crop opportu-nitiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plants Research vol 5 no 10 pp1836ndash1842 2011

[10] M Bhebhe T N Fuller B Chipurura and M MuchuwetildquoEffect of solvent type on total phenolic content and free radicalscavenging activity of black tea and herbal infusionsrdquo FoodAnalytical Methods vol 9 no 4 pp 1060ndash1067 2016

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29

[11] M Bhebhe B Chipurura and M Muchuweti ldquoDeterminationand comparison of phenolic compound content and antioxidantactivity of selected local Zimbabwean herbal teas with exoticAspalathus linearisrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 100no 1 pp 213ndash218 2015

[12] B Patiri and A Borah Wild Edible Plants of Assam GeetakhiPrinters Guwahati India 2007

[13] H Narzary and A Basumatary ldquoProximate and vitamin Canalysis of wild edible plants consumed by Bodos of AssamIndiardquo Journal of Molecular Pathophysiology vol 4 no 4 pp128ndash133 2015

[14] M Gelfand S Mavi R B Drummond and B Ndemera TheTraditional Medical Practitioners in Zimbabwe His Principles ofPractice and Pharmacopoeia Mambo Press Gweru Zimbabwe1985

[15] D Davids Materia medica and care a study of the uses ofmedicinal herbs and remedies as a form of treatment andnegotiating social relationships in cape town and surroundings[MS dissertation] University of theWestern Cape Cape TownSouth Africa 2012

[16] A Maroyi and G K E Mosina ldquoMedicinal plants and tradi-tional practices in peri-urban domestic gardens of the Limpopoprovince South africardquo Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledgevol 13 no 4 pp 665ndash672 2014

[17] A Samie C L Obi P O Bessong and L Namrita ldquoActivityprofiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Vendacommunities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterialspeciesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 4 no 12 pp1443ndash1451 2005

[18] T York An ethnopharmacological study of plants used fortreating respiratory infections in rural Maputaland [MS disser-tation] University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa South Africa2012

[19] D Davids T Blouws O Aboyade et al ldquoTraditional healthpractitionersrsquo perceptions herbal treatment andmanagement ofHIV and related opportunistic infectionsrdquo Journal of Ethnobiol-ogy and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 77 2014

[20] A Hutchings A H Scott G Lewis and A CunninghamZulu Medicinal Plants An Inventory University of Natal PressPietermarizburg South Africa 1996

[21] RM Coopoosamy andK K Naidoo ldquoAn ethnobotanical studyofmedicinal plants used by traditional healers inDurban SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 6no 11 pp 818ndash823 2012

[22] I Hedberg and F Staugard Traditional Medicinal Plants inBotswana Ipeleng Gaborone Botswana 1989

[23] H Shahriar A S M H K Chowdhury S Rahman et al ldquoSci-entific validation of medicinal plants used by a folk medicinalpractitioner of Chuadanga District BangladeshrdquoWorld Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 11 pp 13ndash24 2014

[24] S S Semenya M J Potgieter and M P Tshisikhawe ldquoUseconservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinalplants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 12 no 18 pp2392ndash2405 2013

[25] M Roberts Indigenous Healing Plants Southern Book Publish-ers Halfway House Johannesburg South Africa 1990

[26] T Birhanu D Abera and E Ejeta ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas westernEthiopiardquo Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare vol 5no 1 pp 83ndash93 2015

[27] N T Mahlangeni R Moodley and S B Jonnalagadda ldquoEle-mental composition of Cyrtanthus obliquus and Lippia javanicaused in South African herbal tonic Imbizardquo Arabian Journal ofChemistry 2013

[28] W Musila D Kisangau and J Muema ldquoConservation statusand use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitionersin Machakos District Kenyardquo in Indigenous Knowledge Con-ference Proceedings Pennsylvania State University May 27ndash292004 2004

[29] G N Njoroge and R W Bussmann ldquoTraditional managementof ear nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 542006

[30] P Chigora R Masocha and F Mutenheri ldquoThe role of indige-nous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailmentsin rural Zimbabwe the case of Mutirikwi communal landsrdquoJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol 9 no 2 pp26ndash43 2007

[31] R W Bussmann G G Gilbreath J Solio et al ldquoPlant use ofthe Maasai of Sekenani Valley Maasai Mara Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 22 2006

[32] D Motlhanka and G P Nthoiwa ldquoEthnobotanical Survey ofmedicinal plants of Tswapong North in Eastern Botswana acase of plants from Mosweu and Seolwane Villagesrdquo EuropeanJournal of Medicinal Plants vol 3 no 1 pp 10ndash24 2013

[33] A Vhurumuku ldquoKnowledge use and attitudes towardsmedici-nal plants of pre-service teachers at a South African UniversityrdquoGlobal Advanced Research Journal in Environmental Science andToxicology vol 4 no 2 pp 15ndash24 2015

[34] M N Nkwanyana An ethnobotanical and antidiarrhoeal inves-tigation of plants used traditionally in the maputaland areahomesteads [MS dissertation] University of Zululand KwaD-langezwa South Africa 2013

[35] T E Moeng An investigation into the trade of medicinal plantsbymuthi shops and street vendors in the Limpopo Province SouthAfrica [MS thesis] University of Limpopo Gauteng SouthAfrica 2010

[36] S Bandeira A M Manjate and O Filipe ldquoAn EcologicalAssessment of the Health of the Chibuto-Missavene Wetlandin the Dry Season Mozambique Emphasis on ResourcesAssessment Utilization and Sustainability Analysisrdquo reportto Challenge Program for Water and Food InternationalWater Management Institute Pretoria South Africa 2006httpscgspacecgiarorgbitstreamhandle105682160421604pdfsequence=1

[37] M C Palgrave R B Drummond and E J Moll Trees ofSouthern Africa Struik Cape Town South Africa 2003

[38] M O Nanyingi J M Mbaria A L Lanyasunya et alldquoEthnopharmacological survey of Samburu district KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4 article 142008

[39] J G J P Sankar and K B Satapathy ldquoWeed diversity of Rabicrops and their ethnomedicinal uses in Kendrapara districtof Odisha Indiardquo International Research Journal of BiologicalSciences vol 4 no 3 pp 33ndash38 2015

[40] D E N Mabogo The ethnobotany of the vhavenda [MSdissertation] University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa1990

[41] B-E van Wyk B van Oudtshoorn and N Gericke MedicinalPlants of South Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2013

[42] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used forthe treatment of tuberculosis by Bapedi traditional healers

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

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OncologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

OphthalmologyJournal of

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Research and TreatmentAIDS

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 7: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Asthma

Bronchitis

Chest pains

Diarrhoea

Mosquito repellent

Wounds

Fevermalaria

Herbal tea

Cough

Colds

Times found in literature

Figure 3 Main ethnobotanical applications of Lippia javanica in central eastern and southern Africa An ethnobotanical use is countedonly once per publication

Food Uses Respiratory Problems Gastrointestinal DiseasesFever Malaria and Insect Repellent Wounds Injuries Painand Skin Infections Ethnoveterinary Uses and Other Uses

21 Food Uses Leaves and twigs of Lippia javanica are usedas food additives in Kenya [6] and leafy vegetable in India[12 13] Lippia javanica is popular as herbal tea particularlyin Botswana South Africa and Zimbabwe [7ndash11] Lippiajavanica herbal tea is prepared by steeping fresh or driedleaves stems or twigs in boiling water and letting them standfor two to five minutes to release flavour with or withoutmilk and sugar added according to taste A stronger brewknown as a decoction is prepared by boiling fresh or driedleaves stems or twigs for more than five minutes The herbaltea prepared from L javanica leaves stems or twigs has alemon or vanilla aroma and is often used as a common tea(ie C sinensis) substitute or a few leaves stems or twigsare added to C sinensis to provide a lemon or vanilla aromaAccording to Soukand and Kalle [87] herbal tea or tisaneis an English term used to denote a decoction or infusionmade of herbs for medicinal purposes When L javanica isused as medicinal herbal tea it is consumed for a limitednumber of days to treat a specific condition like asthma inZimbabwe [14] bronchitis in South Africa [19] chest painsin Zimbabwe and South Africa [14 24] colds in KenyaSouth Africa and Zimbabwe [19 20 28ndash30] cough in SouthAfrica and Zimbabwe [19 20 30 53] and other diseases(see Table 1) From literature it seems L javanica herbaltea evolved over the years from medicinal tea decoctionsor infusions to nonmedicinal uses where the herbal teais now drunk for recreation and enjoyment According toShikanga et al [7] L javanica tea is appreciated throughoutits distributional range as a general health tonic and alsobecause it is naturally caffeine-free and has a calming andrelaxing effect Research done by other workers for exampleManenzhe et al [2] Shikanga et al [7] Parrant [8] Olivieret al [81] Motlhanka and Makhabu [9] and Bhebhe et al[10 11] revealed that L javanica is a popular recreational teain southern Africa consumed on a daily basis within a food

context while medicinal infusions or tisanes of L javanicaare taken for a specific medical purpose During the past20 years the use of herbal teas has increased globally [107]because of their functional properties and consumer interestin the health promoting properties of such beverages [108]The other advantage associated with L javanica usage is thatthe leaves can be sun-dried and later boiled in water anddrunk as herbal tea [9]

Most of L javanica used as herbal tea in rural andperiurban communities in central eastern and southernAfrica is still collected from the wild although small-scale cultivation has become necessary as it is marketed asherbal tea in Botswana under the brand name ldquoMosukudurdquoor ldquoMosukujanerdquo [109] and in Zimbabwe as ldquoZumbanirdquo(Figure 1(b)) Although considerable quantities of L javanicaare sold in local markets in Botswana and Zimbabwe andalso traded on the Internet there is no data on presentproduction levels traded volumes values and export figuresin these two countries Research by Whiteside [110] showedthat sales of L javanica tea bags generated an income ofR2030000 (US$5718) during 19941995 in Botswana Thereis increased demand for L javanica herbal tea especiallyin the light of growing health consciousness worldwidewith the estimated potential demand for the species and itsproducts around 100 tonnes per year on the local marketand 1000 tonnes per year on the export market (httpbio-innovationorgworkfever-tea-tree) Considering the rapidgrowth of the herbal tea industry worldwide and the increas-ing demand for L javanica products there is need for theimprovement of L javanica products as well as developmentof new products Therefore L javanica has potential to makethe transition from limited local use to commercial andinternational product Lippia javanica has been identifiedas one of the few plant species that should be integratedin the domestication process in farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa to supportmedicinal nutritional and incomesecurity of local communities [107 111] According to VanWyk [111] L javanica is of commercial value as herbal tea andhealth drinks Therefore commercialization of L javanica is

8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

unlikely to be viable if the product is sorely harvested fromthe wild In the same line commercialization of L javanicamight be more worthy if other products other than tea arederived from the plant

22 Respiratory Problems The different parts of L javanicafor example the leaves and twigs are used for the treatmentof asthma coughs colds influenza pneumonia tuberculosisand bronchial problems in Bangladesh Botswana EthiopiaKenya South Africa and Zimbabwe [14ndash16 19 20 23 25 2628ndash32 53 112] In Bangladesh leaf infusion of L javanica istaken orally mixed with 3-4 pieces of cloves ofA sativum 2-3times daily as remedy for chest pains [23] In Ethiopia leavesof L javanica are chewed with butter as remedy for chestpains and cough [26] In India L javanica leaf decoctionis taken orally as remedy for respiratory disorders [39] InKenya leaves are sniffed [31] or half glass of hot leaf infusionis taken orally three times a day [28 29] as remedy for coldsand cough Research done by Davids et al [19] in SouthAfrica revealed that about 50 g of leaves is added to a cupof boiling water to produce an infusion which is taken orallyas remedy for coughs colds and bronchial problems or theinfusion is applied to the skin or mixed with Vaseline tomake an ointment In South Africa leaf or twig decoctionis taken orally for asthma colds and cough [16 53] leavesare used in washes and poultices for chest pains [25] andleaves are boiled for 5 minutes and one cup of extract is takenorally thrice a day for chest pains and tuberculosis [24 42]According to York [18] two handfuls of L javanica leaves areboiled in two litres of water and patient is steamed once ortwice a day to treat coughs chest pain headaches fever chillsa sore throat or a blocked nose This decoction can also betaken orally by drinking half a cup daily [18] Alternativelya handful of L javanica roots or leaves are mixed with ahandful leaves of A glabratum or B transvaalensis or Buniflora or B cathartica or C anisata or C brachiata orC molle or E grandis or H kraussii or Hypoxis spp or Kmosambicina or P neochilus or P guajava or S serratuloides orT sericea or T riparia or T emetica to treat blocked nosechest pain cough earache fatigue fever influenza headacherunny nose sleepless nights sore throat tiredness andtonsillitis [18] Leaf and stem infusion of L javanica are takenorally together with A afra by the Zulu people in SouthAfrica as remedy for bronchial ailments colds and cough[20] ldquoImbizardquo a popular herbal decoction prepared from Ljavanica and C obliquus is used by the Zulu people in SouthAfrica as herbal tonic and an immune booster and also forthe treatment of cancer chest pains colds diabetes HIV orAIDS symptoms skin infections and tuberculosis [27] Insome communities in South Africa L javanica leaf or rootinfusion is taken orally as remedy for influenza and malaria[33] and respiratory disorders [40 41] In Zimbabwe leafor root decoction is taken orally or smoke of burnt leavesand roots is inhaled as remedy for chest pains [14] and leafand twigs are boiled in water and infusion is taken orally asremedy for colds and cough [30] According to Gelfand etal [14] Shona people in Zimbabwe rub leaf ointment of Ljavanica on the chest and abdomen as remedy for pneumoniaand leaf decoction is taken orally and body washed with leaf

decoction as remedy for shortness of breath or dyspnoea InSouth Africa a leaf and stem infusion of L javanica are takenorally together with leaves of A afra as remedy for measles[20]

Based on literature inhalation of smoke from L javanicaappears to be a popular remedy for asthma chest painscolds and chronic coughs in Botswana South Africa andZimbabwe [14 15 20 32] In Botswana L javanica leafinfusion vapour is inhaled as remedy for colds and cough[32] In SouthAfrica for example leaves and twigs are burnedand smoke is inhaled as remedy for asthma and cough [15]or steam from leaf infusions is inhaled or hot leaf infusionsare taken orally against colds and cough [20] In Zimbabwesmoke of burnt leaves and roots is inhaled as remedy for chestpains [14]

23 Gastrointestinal Diseases The leaf and root decoction orinfusions of L javanica are used as remedies of the digestivesystem diseases such as cholera diarrhoea and dysenteryFor example in Mozambique root decoction is taken orallyas remedy for a type of diarrhoea commonly known asldquochinhamucacardquo which is characterized by milky diarrhoeaaccompanied by vomiting in children [44] Leaf decoctionis used as herbal medicine for diarrhoea in Kenya [113] InSouth Africa the leaves of L javanica are crushed and mixedwith cold or hot water and the mixture is then sieved and aquarter of a cup (75mL) is taken twice a day until diarrhoeasubsides [34] The Venda people in South Africa use leafinfusions as prophylactic against diarrhoea [40] Researchdone by Palgrave et al [37] in South Africa revealed that teainfusions of the L javanica leaves are used as remedies forHIVAIDS opportunistic infections such as lung infectionsand diarrhoea Previous research inMozambique [114] SouthAfrica [115] and Zimbabwe [116] showed that gastrointestinaldisorders particularly cholera diarrhoea and dysentery areamong human diseases often treated with herbal medicinesFor those patients diagnosed as having intestinal worms inVenda South Africa a leaf infusion of L javanica leavesis used as an anthelmintic [40] Therefore these findingsillustrate that herbal medicines including L javanica can playan important role in basic health care of local communitiesthrough treatment and management of cholera diarrhoeaand dysentery

24 Fever Malaria and Insect Repellent Traditionally Ljavanica is commonly used to treat fever and malaria andrepel insects throughout its distributional range [4 14 1617 33ndash35 40 48ndash50 58ndash60] In South Africa a decoctionof fresh or air dried leaves is used to wash or steam bodyparts infested with lice [50] In India the whole plant is usedto repel lice in poultry [61] In South Africa and Zimbabwewhole plant or leaves are burnt to repel mosquitoes [4 3435 48 49 58] In South Africa and Zimbabwe L javanicais widely used to get rid of ticks and other ectoparasites forexample ticks are sprayed with crushed leaves mixed withwater or twigs are used as bedding in fowl runs [58ndash60]Leaf and twig decoction of L javanica are taken orally asremedy for fever [16] The Venda people in South Africa useleaf infusions of L javanica as prophylactic against malaria

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9

[40] In Zimbabwe leaf decoction is taken orally as remedyfor fever [14]

Lippia javanica is also cultivated on a commercial scale bya rural community in Giyani the Limpopo province SouthAfrica for the production of mosquito-repellent candles[117] Clinical studies using human volunteers showed thatL javanica repels no less than 95 of mosquitos whereasmost mosquito repellents repel only 42 of them [118]Based on these findings the Council for Scientific andIndustrial Research (CSIR) South Africa signed a benefitsharing agreement with traditional healers allowing for thecommercial cultivation of L javanica aimed at establishingan indigenous oil industry for rural development and large-scale production of antimosquito candles and other insectrepellents The mosquito repellent is registered as a patentunder the Fertilisers Farm Feeds and Stock Remedies Act(Act 36 of 1947) as a pest repellent [119] These findings andthe establishment of a large-scale production of antimosquitocandles and other insect repellents strengthen the view thatL javanica is a potential source of antipesticidal agentsand to some extent validate the traditional use of the plantspecies for insect pest control Pesticidal plants such as Ljavanica are increasingly being used as alternatives wheresynthetic products are unaffordable or are not available or areineffective A number of studies have indicated that the use ofL javanica as a pesticide is a long-standing tradition passeddown from generation to generation [120]

25 Wounds Injuries Pain and Skin Infections Lippia javan-ica is used as remedy for a variety of skin infections andinjuries in Kenya South Africa Swaziland and ZimbabweIn SouthAfrica leaf infusions are used to treat skin disorderssuch as boils chicken pox febrile rashes heat rashesmeaslesscabies scratches and stings [20 21 40 50 54] In Kenyaabout 50 g of fresh leaves is wrapped around a fresh woundto enhance healing [57] and in South Africa leaf infusionsare taken orally as remedy for wounds [54] In SouthAfrica powder from burnt roots of L javanica is appliedto scarifications made around sprained joints to facilitatehealing [20] In Kenya and Zimbabwe leaf infusion is takenorally to treatmeasles or a patient is washedwith leaf infusion[14 38] The Zulu people in South Africa take a mixtureof chopped handful leaves of L javanica with the sameamount of bark of A burkeiO engleri S birrea S cordatumand T elegans boiled in two litres of water as an enemafor the treatment of sores [56] In Swaziland about 30 g ofL javanica leaves and similar amount of Acanthospermumaustrale Kuntze are boiled in 5 litres of water and decoctionis taken as remedy for sores [55] In Zimbabwe root ashesof L javanica mixed with fat are applied to the skin ofa patient with scabies [14] Wound healing is a processwhich involves distinct overlapping phases of coagulationinflammation proliferation and tissue remodelling [121]The same authors argued that a set of complex biochemicalevents takes place in a closely orchestrated cascade to repairthe wound and any errors in the wound healing processcan lead to delayed healing or formation of hypertrophicscars Abubakar [122] argued that colonization of woundsby opportunistic microorganisms usually delays the wound

healing process andor may lead to infectious conditionTherefore application of L javanica on wounds and skininfections leads to disinfection debridement and provisionof a suitable environment for aiding the wound healingprocess Lippia javanica has potential for therapeutic use inwound and skin diseases management but there is needfor research on the safety phytochemistry and biologicalproperties of the species

26 EthnoveterinaryUses The leaves stems twigs andwholeplants of L javanica are used as ethnoveterinary medicinein India Kenya South Africa and Zimbabwe The Xhosapeople in the Eastern Cape province South Africa use Ljavanica leaves for the disinfection of meat that has beeninfected with anthrax [20] In Kenya the stem of L javanicais used to preserve milk by applying it to the gourd beforemilk fermentation [62] In India whole plants are used aslice repellants while in South Africa and Zimbabwe crushedleaves mixed with water are used to get rid of ticks and twigsare used as bedding in fowl runs to get rid of ectoparasites[58ndash60]

27 Other Uses Lippia javanica is used as a good luck charmto treat persons experiencing bad dreams to ward off evilspirits to protect one from lightening and to protect thehome (Table 1) In Zimbabwe L javanica leaves are preparedas an infusion to treat persons experiencing nightmares [64]In both South Africa and Zimbabwe evil spirits are cleansedby washing the body of an affected person by leaf infusion ofL javanica [14 123] In Swaziland 50 g leaves of L javanicaand C molle are ground into a powder and 5 litres of wateris added and face and hands are washed to remove badluck when exposed to a corpse [71] In South Africa thewhole plant is placed on a patientrsquos bed after the circumcisionceremony [58] to prevent odours and freshen surroundingair A mixture of L javanica leaves and roots is used toclean tools and hands before and after funerals the stemsand leaves are used as brooms to sweep grave sites and theentire plant is also used when coming from the mortuaryto remove bad spirits [58 124] The corpse is washed withL javanica infusion after death to prevent odours formingor if the corpse has an odour women place pieces of Ljavanica in the nostrils of the corpse and sweep the roomwith twigs where the person was sleeping [58] In KwaZuluNatal South Africa if the meat started to smell it will beboiled with L javanica leaves to take away the smell [58]TheXhosa people in the Eastern Cape province South Africa useL javanica leaves for the disinfection of meat that has beeninfected with anthrax [20] In KwaZulu Natal South Africaleaves are sprinkled in toilets to prevent odours [58] Leavesof L javanica are sprinkled in houses for pleasant smell inthe Limpopo province South Africa [35] and Kenya [31] InKwaZulu Natal South Africa it is believed that a person canrepel snakes by placing a small stem with leaves on his orher head [58] In Malawi Swaziland and Zimbabwe peopleshowing sign of mental disorder madness or hystericaloutbursts are required towash their bodies with leaf infusions[14 67 68 71]

10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 2 Nutritional composition of Lippia javanica leaves

Caloric and nutritional composition Values ReferenceAsh 160 plusmn 0001 g [13]Calorific value 5064 plusmn 563 kcal [13]Crude fat 016 plusmn 0001 g [13]Crude fibre 263 plusmn 0002 g [13]Crude protein 122 plusmn 00004 g [13]Dry matter 1546 plusmn 140 g [13]Moisture 9044 plusmn 026 g [13]Total carbohydrate 655 plusmn 026 g [13]Vitamin C 2242 plusmn 0001mg [13]Ca 2856ndash9225 120583g gminus1 [27]Mg 1598ndash5619 120583g gminus1 [27]Fe 75ndash750 120583g gminus1 [27]Mn 401 plusmn 116 120583g gminus1 [27]Zn 156ndash273 120583g gminus1 [27]Cu 30ndash85 120583g gminus1 [27]Cr 0ndash27 120583g gminus1 [27]Se 257 plusmn 019 120583g gminus1 [27]Pb 038ndash119 120583g gminus1 [27]Cd 053 plusmn 005 120583g gminus1 [27]Co 019 plusmn 001 120583g gminus1 [27]

3 Phytochemical Constituents and NutritionalComposition of Lippia javanica

Multiple classes of phytochemicals including volatile andnonvolatile secondary metabolites such as alkaloids aminoacids flavonoids iridoids and triterpenes as well as severalminerals have been identified from L javanica [1ndash5 7 13 2773 78 81 83ndash86 88ndash94 120 123 125ndash127] Leaves flowersand twigs of L javanica have a wide variety of the so-calledclassic nutrients such as minerals carbohydrates proteinsfats and vitamins (Table 2) Lippia javanica leaves are a goodsource of minerals such as cadmium calcium chromiumcobalt copper iron magnesium manganese selenium andzinc [27] These authors assessed the levels of the elementsin L javanica leaves and found the elements to be in thedecreasing order of Ca gt Mg gt Fe gt Zn gt Mn gt Cu gt Se gtCr gt Pb gt Co gt Cd for total concentrations and Ca gt Mggt Fe gt Zn gt Cu gt Cr gt Pb for water extractable forms Theseresults corroborate an observation made by Sedaghathooret al [128] that Ca and Mg are among the most abundantelements in tea plants These mineral elements are importantin human nutrition since L javanica is used as herbaltea and food additive (Table 1) Calcium magnesium ironmanganese and zinc play a major role in activating someenzymes and regulating many responses of cells to stimuli[129] Some of the mineral elements identified from Ljavanica leaves are required by the human body for repair ofworn out cell tissues and strong bones and teeth and buildingof red blood cells and other related tissuesTherefore since Ljavanica has appreciable concentrations of mineral elementssuch as calcium magnesium iron manganese and zinc

(Table 2) which are essential for enzyme metabolism thesemineral elements could enhance the nutritional and curativeproperties of the species

Bhebhe et al [10] determined the total phenolic and tan-nin content and radical scavenging activities of L javanicacomparing it with Aspalathus linearis (Burmf) R Dahlgren(Rooibos) a commercial South African herbal tea andother popular herbal teas in Zimbabwe (Table 3) Adansoniadigitata L Fadogia ancylantha Schweinf Ficus sycomorus Land Myrothamnus flabellifolius Welw are indigenous herbalteas consumed in Zimbabwe The tannin content of Ljavanica is very low when compared to A linearis (Rooibos)(Table 3) Lippia javanica has higher radical scavenging activ-ity than A linearis (Table 3) which is probably due to highertotal phenolic content in comparison to A linearis which is apopular herbal tea consumed by 10 of the global herbal teamarket [10] In another study Bhebhe et al [11] determinedand compared the effect of several solvents namely hotwater 50 methanol ethanol 50 ethanol acetone 50acetone and ethyl acetate on phenolic composition and freeradical scavenging activity in common black tea C sinensisand five other well-known herbal teas including L javanicaIn all the seven solvents used L javanica had higher totalphenolic content than C sinensis implying that L javanicais competitive to the black tea in terms of phenolic contentShikanga et al [7] found leaf extracts of L javanica to havehigher phenolic content of 148 mgg gallic acid equivalentof dry weight than flowers (99mgg) and twigs (83mgg)Phenolic compounds found in plants are known to play animportant role as antioxidants in exhibiting the medicinalproperties such as antibiotic anti-inflammatory anticancerand antiallergic properties [10 66 130 131]

The compounds isolated from L javanica are docu-mented and listed in Appendix A and their structures arepresented in Appendix B Simple phenolic compounds andcaffeic acid and its derivatives are some of the compoundsthat have been identified in L javanica and examplesinclude coumarin 1 34-dihydroxy-120573-phenylethoxy-O-[410158401015840-120573-caffeoyl-120572-rhamnopyranosyl-(1101584010158401015840310158401015840)-O-120573-glucopyrano-side] commonly referred to as verbascoside 2 and 34-dihydroxy-120573-phenylethoxy-O-[610158401015840-120573-caffeoyl-120572-rhamnopy-ranosyl-(1101584010158401015840310158401015840)-O-120573-glucopyranoside] commonly referredto as isoverbascoside 3 isolated by Olivier et al [81] from theaerial parts of the species Nonvolatile diterpenes known asiridoid-glycosides have also been isolated from L javanicaby Rimpler and Sauerbier [82] represented by theveside-Na4 and theveridoside 5 Mujovo et al [83] isolated a longchain alkane ldquo4-ethylnonacosanerdquo 6 and four flavanonesapigenin 7 cirsimaritin 8 6-methoxyluteolin 41015840-methylether 9 and 6-methoxyluteolin 31015840410158407-trimethyl ether 10from ethanolic extracts of L javanica leaves Madzimureet al [120] identified an array of phenolic glycosides andflavonoids which include crassifolioside 11 luteolin 12diosmetin 13 chrysoeriol 14 tricin 15 isothymusin 16eupatorin 17 5-dimethyl noboletin 18 genkwanin 19salvigenin 20 and an alkaloid xanthine 22 Ludere et al[84] isolated lippialactone 21 from the ethyl acetate extractof aerial parts of L javanica Neidlein and Staehle [85] andDlamini [86] isolated 19 amino acids compounds 23 to

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11

Table 3 Total phenolic content (TPC) as gallic acid equivalents (GAE) and tannin content as leucocyanidin equivalents (LE) and free radicalscavenging activity (FRSA) of herbal tea extracts (after Bhebhe et al [10])

Plant species TPC g GAE100 g Tannin content of LE100 g Percentage FRSA IC50gmL

Lippia javanica 1246 plusmn 431 012 plusmn 001 8377 plusmn 08 0016Aspalathus linearis 669 plusmn 083 094 plusmn 004 6727 plusmn 025 0053Adansonia digitata 079 plusmn 028 169 plusmn 001 4307 plusmn 10 0132Fadogia ancylantha 288 plusmn 048 020 plusmn 012 700 plusmn 040 0051Ficus sycamores 1402 plusmn 001 198 plusmn 012 8613 plusmn 085 0009Myrothamnus flabellifolius 475 plusmn 033 104 plusmn 001 8093 plusmn 075 0019

41 in Appendix A from L javanica At least 131 differentclasses of essential oil compounds (compounds 42ndash172 inAppendices A and B) have been isolated from L javanica byseveral researchers [3ndash5 83 85 86 88ndash94 123] Hutchingsand van Staden [96] isolated a toxic triterpenoid saponinicterogenin 173 from L javanica leaves These differentclasses of essential oil compounds have been associatedwith various therapeutic activities such as anaestheticanalgesic anti-inflammatory antimicrobial cardiovasculardecongestant digestive expectorant hepatoprotective andsedative activities as well as stimulant of nervous systemand tonifying effects [132] Meanwhile flavonoids possessseveral pharmacological properties including antibacterialanticancer anti-inflammatory antioxidant antiviral andhepatoprotective effects [133] which play important rolesin human health Flavonoid such as apigenin 7 is reportedto possess antibacterial [134] and hepatoprotective [135]properties Apigenin 7 and luteolin 12 are reported to possessanti-inflammatory and analgesic effects [133] affecting thefunction of enzyme systems involved in the generation ofinflammatory processes especially tyrosine and serine-threonine protein kinases [136 137] It has also been reportedthat apigenin 7 prevents HIV-1 activation via a novelmechanism that involves inhibition of viral transcription[138] and luteolin 12 demonstrated synergistic effects withanother flavonoid kaempferol against herpes simplex virus[133] Kamiya [139] documented the importance of essentialamino acids such as lysine valine isoleucine and histidinein terms of the risks to health if they are deficientThe authoralso documented their biological effects which includemuscle protein maintenance potentiation of immunefunction tissue repair acceleration after burn or traumaprotecting liver from toxic agents lowering blood pressuremodulating cholesterol metabolism and stimulating insulinor growth hormone secretion Therefore L javanica leavesand other plant parts which have shown to be rich inflavonoid and polyphenolic compounds amino acids andessential oil could play an important role in the treatmentand management of diseases such as hypertension andinflammation listed in Table 1

4 Pharmacological Activities

Scientific studies on L javanica indicate that it has a widerange of pharmacological activities (Table 4) which include

anticancer [140] antidiabetic [141] antimalarial [4 49 142]antimicrobial [2 3 7 17 73ndash75 77 83 84 126 143]antioxidant [7 10 11 75 77 125] antiplasmodial [2 7980 84 144 145] and pesticidal effects [1 2 59 95 120146ndash150] and cytotoxicity [2 73 79 120] activities Table 4summarizes some of the pharmacological studies undertakenon L javanica extracts aimed at evaluating some of theethnomedicinal uses of the species documented throughoutits distributional range (see Table 1) Some of the listedpharmacological activities may not relate directly to thedocumented ethnomedicinal uses of the species but mayprovide some insight into the speciesrsquo potential therapeuticvalue and bioactive properties and application

41 Anticancer Activity Fouche et al [140] reported anti-cancer activity of dichloromethane root extract of L javanicaagainst three human cells exhibiting TGI value of 182120583gmLfor breast MDA-MB-435 186 120583gmL for breast MDA-N and209 120583gmL for melanoma MALME-3M Based on literaturea couple of terpenoid compounds that have been isolatedfrom L javanica are known to have antitumor propertiesFor example linalool 120 is known to have antitumoractivity which plays a protective role against hepatotoxicityand the compound has anti-inflammatory activities as well[151] Research by Yang et al [152] showed limonene 92 tohave inhibitory effect on pancreatic and mammary tumorsAnother terpenoid compound 120572-pinene 44 is known toinhibit translocation of NF-120581B or p65 protein into nuclei ofLPS-stimulated THP-1 cells [153] These findings serve as ascientific validation for the use of L javanica as a componentof a herbal concoction known in KwaZulu Natal province asldquoimbizardquo prepared by mixing L javanica with C obliquus asherbal medicine for cancer [27]

42 Antidiabetic Activity Arika et al [141] determined the invivo antidiabetic activity of aqueous leaf extracts of L javan-ica in white male alloxan-induced albino mice The aqueousleaf extracts of L javanica at all dose levels significantlylowered the blood glucose levels in both oral and intraperi-toneal routes The antidiabetic effect of L javanica couldhave been due to the observed presence of flavonoids Thepolyhydroxylated flavonol enhances lipogenesis and glucoseuptake in the adipocytes and flavanoids have demonstratedinsulinmimetic properties as the compound is known to beeffective at controlling blood sugar levels These findings

12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table4Summaryof

pharmacologicalactiv

ities

ofthee

xtractsisolated

from

different

partso

fLippiajavanica

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Antiamoebic

Piperitenon

e162

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f25120583

gmLagainstE

histolytica

[73]

Antibacteria

lPiperitenon

e162

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f50120583

gmLagainstA

calcoaceticu

sMkristin

ae(50120583

gmL)Styphi(25120583

gmL)and

Saureus

(12120583

gmL)

[73]

Antibacteria

l(Antiproteus)

Methano

lLeaves

Disc

diffu

sion

assay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f313120583gmLagainstPm

irabilis

and926120583

gmL

againstPvulgaris

[74]

Water

Leaves

Disc

diffu

sion

assay

Exhibitedweakactiv

ityagainstPm

irabilis

with

MIC

valueo

f1873120583gmLand1768120583gmLagainstPvulgaris

[74]

Antibacteria

l

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

coliwith

MIC

valueo

f064m

gmLE

faecalis(064)P

aeruginosa

(032

)andSaureus

(064)Totalactiv

ityMIC

values

werea

sfollo

wsE

coli(127

mgmL)E

faecalis

(127

mgmL)Paeruginosa

(253

mgmL)and

Saureus

(127

mgmL)

[75]

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

valueo

f3mgmLBa

cillusp

umilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(gt12mgmL)Saureus(12mgmL)E

faecalis

(6mgmL)E

cloacae

(6mgmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pantoea

agglo

meran

s(12mgmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Shigella

flexneri

(15mgmL)A

erom

onas

hydrophila(12m

gmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae(12mgmL)Salmonellacholeraesuis

(6mgmL)and

Serratiamarcescens(gt12mgmL)

[17]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

valueo

f12m

gmLB

pumilu

s(12m

gmL)B

subtilis(12m

gmL)Saureus(6m

gmL)E

faecalis

(12m

gmL)E

cloacae

(12m

gmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(12m

gmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(6

mgmL)A

hydrophila(12m

gmL)Pm

irabilis

(12m

gmL)K

pneum

oniae

(12m

gmL)Scholeraesuis(6

mgmL)and

antia

moebice

ffect

(12m

gmL)

[17]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

values

of15

mgmLB

pumilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(gt12mgmL)Saureus(12mgmL)E

faecalis

(3mgmL)E

cloacae

(6mgmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(12m

gmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(15mgmL)A

hydrophila(6

mgmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae

(12m

gmL)Scholeraesuis(6

mgmL)and

Smarcescens(12mgmL)

[17]

Essentialoil

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

values

of6m

gmLB

pumilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(3mgmL)Saureus(15

mgmL)E

faecalis

(3mgmL)E

cloacae

(12m

gmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(6

mgmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(3mgmL)A

hydrophila(3mgmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae

(3mgmL)Scholeraesuis(15mgmL)and

Smarcescens(gt12mgmL)

[17]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 13

Table4Con

tinued

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

faecaliswith

MIC

valueo

f014

mgmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

coliwith

MIC

valueo

f031

mgmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPaeruginosa

with

MIC

valueo

f042m

gmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstSaureus

with

MIC

valueo

f013

mgmL

[7]

Antifu

ngal

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

albicans

with

MIC

valueo

fgt75m

gmLC

krusei

(188m

gmL)and

Cneoforman

s(gt75

mgmL)

[7]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

albicans

with

MIC

valueo

fgt375

mgmLC

krusei

(375m

gmL)and

Cneoforman

s(gt75

mgmL)

[7]

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

kruseiwith

MFC

valueo

f75mgmL

[7]

Dichlorom

ethane

Aeria

lparts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFu

sariu

mproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f014

mgmLand

Fusariu

mverticillioides(019mgmL)

[76]

Hexane

Aeria

lparts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f023m

gmLandF

verticillioides(045

mgmL)

[76]

Methano

lAe

rialp

arts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f177m

gmLandF

verticillioides(043

mgmL)

[76]

Methano

lAe

rialp

arts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

fgt250

mgmLandF

verticillioides(gt250

mgmL)

[76]

Antim

ycob

acteria

l

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f047m

gmLandtotalactivity

of10mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Dichlorom

ethane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f125m

gmLandtotalactivity

of23

mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f062m

gmLandtotalactivity

of13mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f125m

gmLandtotalactivity

of7m

Lgagainst

Msmegmatis

[77]

14 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table4Con

tinued

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Antioxidant

Water

Leaves

DPP

Hassay

Exhibitedactiv

itywith

EC50valueo

f358120583gmL

[7]

Water

Leaves

mdashEx

hibitedactiv

itywith

209ascorbicacid

equivalent

(mggdryweight)

[7]

Water

Leaves

ABT

Sassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f15mmol10

0g[78]

Water

Leaves

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f146254

mmol10

0g[78]

Water

Leaves

FRAPassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f238m

mol10

0g[78]

Antiplasm

odial

Hexanechloroform

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f1225plusmn072120583gmL

[79]

Ethylacetate

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f1212plusmn079120583gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f135plusmn006120583gmL

[79]

Hexanechloroform

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f1859plusmn026120583gmL

[79]

Ethylacetate

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f1580plusmn026120583gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f175plusmn017120583gmL

[79]

Dichlorom

ethane

Roots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f38120583gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethanem

ethano

lRo

ots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f27120583

gmL

[80]

Methano

lRo

ots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f24120583

gmL

[80]

Water

Roots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

fgt100120583

gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethane

Stem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f45120583gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethanem

ethano

lStem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f218120583gmL

[80]

Methano

lStem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f298120583gmL

[80]

Water

Stem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

fgt100120583

gmL

[80]

Free

radicalscaveng

ing

activ

ity

Water

mdashDPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0059plusmn002

gmL

[11]

50methano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f004plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Ethano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0025plusmn0001gmL

[11]

50ethano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0027plusmn0005gmL

[11]

Aceton

emdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0057plusmn0004gmL

[11]

50aceton

emdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0022plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Ethylacetate

mdashDPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0066plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Toxicity

Methano

lLeaf

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

40mortalityrecorded

after

48hexpo

sure

towards

Artemianauplii

[74]

Methano

lRo

ots

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f8430120583

gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f6503120583

gmL

[79]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 15

strengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantidiabetic agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species mixed with C obliquus to form aherbal concoction known in KwaZulu Natal province SouthAfrica as ldquoimbizardquo used against diabetes [27]

43 Antimalarial Activity Govere et al [142] found thattopical application of L javanica alcohol extract leads to767 protection against Anopheles arabiensis for 4 hoursLippia javanica has been used as a mosquito repellent by therural communities in Zimbabwe for a long time and previousstudies have shown that essential oils from the species havevery strong and lasting repellent activity against female Aarabiensis [64] Research by Lukwa et al [4] revealed thattopical application of 5mgcm2 of L javanica leads to 100protection againstAnopheles aegypti for 8 hoursMavundza etal [154] screened dichloromethane and ethanol leaf extractsof L javanica for adulticidal activity againstA arabiensisTheauthors observed dichloromethane and ethanol activities of45 and 55mosquitomortality respectivelyThese findingsstrengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantimalarial agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species as mosquito repellent in India [47]South Africa [34 49 58] and Zimbabwe [4 48]

44 Antioxidant Activity Leaf infusions of L javanica exhib-ited antioxidant activity with EC

50value of 358120583gmL and

contained 148mgmL of dry weight gallic acid equivalentphenolic compounds [7] The EC

50value of 358 120583gmL

obtained for L javanica by Shikanga et al [7] compareswell to those of many commercial teas including antioxidantcapacity of Rooibos Fresh Pack herbal teas (A linearis)with the best antioxidant activity of 333 120583gmL The highantioxidant activities displayed by L javanica infusions canbe partially attributed to the high levels of verbascoside 2(15mgg dry weight) reported by Olivier et al [81] in theleaf extract of the species Earlier research by Muchuwetiet al [125] reported 744 inhibition of the DPPH radicalby an ethanolic leaf extract of L javanica Lekganyane etal [75] reported antioxidant activity in L javanica and theacetone extracts of the species displayed antioxidant activityon BEA chromatogram [77] Bhebhe et al [10] reported theantioxidant activities of L javanica based on the DPPHreducing power and inhibition of phospholipid peroxidationassays Free radical scavenging activity of L javanica isattributed to phenolic compounds since these compoundshave an ideal structural chemistry for free radical scavengingactivity [155] Bhebhe et al [11] determined the effect ofseveral solvents on the free radical scavenging activity ofL javanica using the DPPH assay Free radical scavengingactivity expressed as IC

50ranged from 0022 plusmn 0001 gmL to

0066 plusmn 0001 gmL see Table 4

45 Antiplasmodial Activity Prozesky et al [144] evaluatedL javanica leaf acetone extract for in vitro antiplasmodialactivity using PfUP1 a chloroquine resistant strain of themalaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum by means of theflow cytometric test The IC

50value for L javanica was

426 120583gmL Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil

piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica for antiplasmodialactivity using chloroquine diphosphate as positive controland found it active against a chloroquine sensitive strainof P falciparum in micromolar concentrations with IC

50of

8 120583gmL Clarkson et al [80] evaluated L javanica rootsand stems extracts for in vitro activity against P falciparumusing the parasite lactase dehydrogenase (pLDH) assay andchloroquine diphosphate (Sigma) as the positive controlThedichloromethane methane and water extracts showed IC

50

values ranging from 38 to gt100 120583gmL see Table 4 Omolo etal [145] screened the essential oil of L javanica for fumiganttoxicity to Anopheles gambiae which exhibited LD

50of 43 times

10minus3mg cmminus3 Ayuko et al [79] showed that L javanica rootextracts have antiplasmodial activity against P falciparumwith IC

50ranging from 135 to 1859 120583gmL see Table 4

Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity againstthe chloroquine sensitive D10 strain of P falciparum withan IC

50value of 91 120583gmL and is also mildly cytotoxic [84]

Compared to chloroquine the compound is approximately2000 times less active against the D10 strain of P falciparum[84]

46 Antimicrobial Activities Lippia javanica is widely usedin the treatment of a wide range of infectious diseasescaused by microorganisms Viljoen et al [3] determined theantimicrobial properties of L javanica by evaluating the timekill studies of the speciesrsquo essential oil using the disc diffusionassay on three respiratory pathogens Klebsiella pneumoniaeCryptococcus neoformans and Bacillus cereus This studyshowed that the killing rate was greatest for K pneumoniaefollowed by C neoformans and very little reduction of micro-bial populations was observed for B cereus The efficacy of Ljavanica oil for K pneumoniae showed a killing rate within30 minutes for the concentrations 025 05 075 and 1C neoformans showed a killing rate for concentrations 05075 and 1 within 1 hour and the lowest concentration of025 took 8 hours before a bactericidal effect was notedwhile B cereus showed some reduction in colonies [3] Thepositive antimicrobial activity of L javanica as revealed bythe time kill study could be attributed to linalool 120 whichaverages between 65 and 70 in yield [3 5 88 90] and hasknown antimicrobial properties [93 156ndash159]These findingssomehow corroborate the traditional use of L javanica asherbal medicine for a wide range of bacterial and fungalrespiratory ailments indicated in Table 1

Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil piperitenone162 isolated from L javanica for antibacterial activityon cultures of Bacillus subtilis Staphylococcus aureus andEscherichia coli using imipenem cefazolin and ampicillinas positive controls The authors found piperitenone 162to inhibit S aureus and E coli at 1 dilution Acetonehexane and methanol leaf extracts and essential oil isolatedfrom L javanica showed some activity against fifteen Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria with MIC values rang-ing from 15 to gt12mgmL [60] see Table 4 In a similarstudy Samie et al [73] demonstrated that a pure compoundpiperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica has antibacte-rial activities against Acinetobacter calcoaceticus Micrococcus

16 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

kristinae Salmonella typhi and S aureus using dimethylsulphoxide and kanamycin as controls with MIC valuesranging from 12 to 50 120583gmL see Table 4 Shikanga et al [7]evaluated the antibacterial activity of L javanica methanolicleaf extract against S aureus Enterococcus faecalis E coliand Pseudomonas aeruginosa using the serial microdilutionmethod with gentamycin (Virbac) and acetone as positiveand negative controls respectively Lippia javanica displayedantibacterial activities with MIC values ranging from 013to 042mgmL against all four pathogens see Table 4 Theobtained minimum inhibitory concentrations are promisingsince natural products with MIC values below 1mgmLare generally considered to be noteworthy findings [160]Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity against theE coli and S aureus at a concentration of 10mgmL [84]Lekganyane et al [75] reported antibacterial activity of Ljavanica acetone leaf extracts against E coli E faecalis Paeruginosa and S aureus with MIC values ranging from 032to 064mgmL and total activity of the same species rangingfrom 127 to 253mgmL see Table 4 Methanol and water leafextracts of L javanica exhibited some antiproteus activityagainstProteusmirabilis andProteus vulgariswithMICvalueslt2000120583gmL with standard discs of ampicillin (2120583g) andchloramphenicol (10 120583g) as positive controls [74] Some of theantibacterial properties of L javanica can be attributed to thephytochemical constituents of the species for example thephenolic compound apigenin 7 is a well-known antibacterialagent [7 134] Apigenin 7 was shown to be highly activeagainst Vibrio cholera and E faecalis [161] while Basile et al[162] reported the inhibition of S typhi P mirabilis and Paeruginosa by the compound Therefore results from theseantibacterial evaluations of L javanica give credence to theuse of the speciesrsquo infusions against bacterial infections andother related diseases

Shikanga et al [126] investigated the antifungal activ-ities of leaf extracts and essential oil compounds isolatedfrom L javanica leafy extracts against a Guazatine-resistantstrain of Penicillium digitatumThemethanolic leafy extractsisoverbascoside 3 and verbascoside 2 compounds isolatedfrom L javanica inhibited fungal growth at concentrationsabove 06mgsdotmLminus1 causing significant inhibition of mycelialgrowth Verbascoside 2 is well-known for its antimicrobialproperties and has been found to inhibit viruses bacteriaand fungi [163] Similarly Samie et al [143] investigatedantifungal effects of acetone and hexane leaf extracts of Ljavanica against Candida albicans Candida krusei and Cneoformans isolated from AIDS patients using the microdi-lution method with nystatin Roche and DMSO as positiveand negative controls respectively Noteworthy moderateantifungal activities were recorded from C krusei with MICvalue of 188mgmL and other recordedMFCandMICvaluesfor other species ranged from 188mgmL to gt75mgmLsee Table 4 Thembo et al [76] investigated the antifungalactivity of aqueous and organic extracts of L javanica usinga serial microdilution assay Generally extracts of L javanicaexhibited weak activity see Table 4

47 Antimycobacterial Activity Mujovo et al [83] evaluatedL javanica compounds against a drug-sensitive strain ofMycobacterium tuberculosis using the radiometric respira-tory techniques Of all the isolated compounds only onetriterpenoid carboxylic acid euscaphic acid 172 exhibitedantimycobacterial activity with MIC value of 50120583gmLminus1against this strain In a similar study the leaf extract ofL javanica exhibited antimycobacterial activity against Msmegmatis in an evaluation which used microdilution assayand rifampicin as control [77] Acetone extract was thebest extractant with MIC value of 047mgmL it extractedantibacterial agents which was indicated by the lowest MICvalue [77] Masoko and Nxumalo [77] also evaluated thetotal activity ofL javanicawhich averaged 13mLg suggestingthat the extract prepared from one gram of L javanicacould be diluted to a volume of 13mL and will still inhibitM smegmatis efficiently According to Semenya and Maroyi[115] tuberculosis caused by M tuberculosis is a seriousdisease requiring effective strategies and tools to controland manage it Therefore preliminary evaluations done byMujovo et al [83] and Masoko and Nxumalo [77] serve asa scientific validation for the use of L javanica in traditionalmedicine for treatment of tuberculosis and other respiratoryailments in South Africa [24 27 115] and Uganda [43] as wellas their efficiency in tuberculosis drug discovery

48 Antiviral Activity Mujovo et al [83] found that (E)-2(3)-tagetenone epoxide 42 and piperitenone 162 inhibitedthe HIV-1 reverse transcriptase enzyme by 91 and 53respectively at 100 120583gmLminus1 based on a nonradioactive HIVRT colorimetric ELISA kit Little is known about the HIV RTactivity of L javanica extracts or compounds but flavonoidsare known to be active against viral RT and also as potentinhibitors of the cellular alpha and beta DNA polymerase[83] while luteolin 12 is active against HIV RT [164 165]Lippia javanica is traditionally used to treat HIVAIDSsymptoms in South Africa [65 66] and several viral andHIVAIDS opportunistic diseases and infections such asbronchitis [15 19ndash22] chicken pox [50] diarrhoea [17 3437 44 113] measles [14 20 38] pneumonia [14] shingles[15] and venereal diseases [44] Despite significant advancesin the utilization of L javanica in southern Africa overthe years for numerous viral diseases (Table 1) very littleantiviral evaluations have been done on crude extracts andpurified compounds of the species There is need thereforefor more pharmacological research as L javanica could beharbouring potent (RT) inhibitors which could be useful forthe development of new pharmaceutical products importantfor use against viral diseases and infections

49 Pesticidal Effects Magano et al [95] evaluated the repel-lent effects of hexane extracts of L javanica essential oilusing the in vitro tick climbing repellency bioassay on adultsof Hyalomma marginatum rufipes Koch ticks The authorsfound that 107mgmL caused repellency index of 100 at onehour and 30 minutes In a similar study by Madzimure et al[120] L javanica aqueous leaf extracts at 10 and 20 wvwere effective at controlling cattle ticks (Amblyomma species

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 17

Boophilus species Hyalomma species Rhipicephalus appen-diculatus and Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi) and were as goodas the positive control amitraz-based acaricide TrickbusterThese authors found no parasites on microscopic exami-nation of the Giemsa-stained thin blood smear collectedfrom treated cattle implying that the animals did not sufferfrom clinical tick-borne diseases Similarly Nyahangare etal [59] tested the pesticidal activity of L javanica waterextracts against cattle ticks The authors found no significantdifference between cattle treated with a commercial syntheticacaricide and those under L javanica treatment Martinez-Velazquez et al [166] evaluated pesticidal effects of twoessential oils namely 120574-terpinene 82 and 120588-cymene 99isolated from Lippia graveolens Kunth against 10-day-oldRhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini) tick larvaeusing the larval packet test bioassay The two essential oilsproduced highmortality ranging from90 to 100 in all testedconcentrations of 20 to 125 (vv)Therefore L javanica canprovide an effective tick control option where synthetic prod-ucts are unavailable or unaffordable particularly in remoterural areas in sub-Saharan Africa Lippia javanica is popularfor tick control and management among resource-poorsmallholder farmers in South Africa [58 95] and Zimbabwe[59 60 120] While these preliminary evaluations may serveas confirmation that L javanica has some bioactivities againstticks a comprehensive method of tick control is requiredfor the resource-constrained smallholder farmers based onethnopharmacological properties of L javanica

McGaw et al [146] screened L javanica for the anthel-mintic test systems using the free living nematodeCaenorhabditis elegans The crude ethanol and hexaneextracts showed some activity at a concentration of 2mgmLwith the 7-day incubation assay appearing to be moresensitive than the shorter assay Earlier research by Mwangiet al [1] indicated that L javanica was active against Aedesaegypti larvae and Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (maizeweevil) Katsvanga and Chigwiza [147] reported that Ljavanica is an effective natural pesticide which can be used tocontrol aphid species (Brevicoryne brassicae) In their studyKatsvanga and Chigwiza [147] found that 1 1 powderedaqueous leaf extract of L javanica reduced B brassicae by532 against 783 and 967 of two synthetic pesticidesAphid kill and Bexadust ldquoLrdquo respectively Chikukura etal [149] found L javanica powdered leaf extracts to haveinsecticidal properties with potential to control graindamage by 21ndash33 Mashela et al [148] reported that theapplication of ground L javanica leaves to soil in nematode-infested (Meloidogyne incognita) pots reduced the nematodenumbers by 79ndash92 and significantly increased fresh fruityield dry shoot mass plant height and stem diameter ofthe tomato plants as well as levels of potassium nitrogenand manganese in leaf tissue Muzemu et al [150] evaluatedwater extracts of L javanica leaf powder for pesticidal effectsagainst rape (Brassica napus L) aphids B brassicae andtomato (Solanum lycopersicum Lam) red spider mites andTetranychus evansi as alternatives to conventional pesticidesLippia javanica reduced B brassicae and Tetranychus evansiby 125 and 63 respectively [150]The study demonstratedthat L javanica has pesticidal effects on B brassicae and T

evansi The reduced number of B brassicae and T evansicould be due to L javanicarsquos extracts having repellent toxicand antifeedant effects since the species has essential oilswith pesticidal properties [2] Therefore these findingsindicate that L javanica has both nematicidal and plantgrowth-promoting properties

410 Toxicity and Cytotoxicity Activity Lippia javanica isknown to cause liver damage and photosensitisation in live-stock resulting in stock losses [167] Triterpenoids isolatedfrom the genus Lippia are icterogenic and cause jaundice asa result of liver damage [167] The characteristic swellingyellowing and later peeling of unpigmented skin are due tothe presence of phylloerythrin a photodynamic porphyrinthat reacts with sunlight and causes severe cell damage [167]The compound is normally formed when chlorophyll isbroken down by microorganisms in the rumen but it nowaccumulates in the liver as a result of the damage caused bytriterpenoids [167] In view of the known toxicity of Lippiaspecies the prolonged use of high doses of L javanica ispotentially harmful [167] Lippia javanica showed low toxicityafter 48 h exposure with the percentage of mortality below50 [74]

Ayuko et al [79] evaluated the toxicity of L javanicausing a brine shrimp cytotoxicity assay with LC

50value of

1138 plusmn 133 120583gmL Ayuko et al [79] found the cytotoxicity toantiplasmodial activity ratios for the methanolic extracts ofthe two tested strains to be 8430 and 6503 and since theseare greater than 100 it may be concluded that the extractsare of low toxicity Samie et al [73] demonstrated that apure compound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanicaessential oil has low cytotoxicity activity against intestinaladenocarcinoma cells (ie the HCT-8 monolayers with IC

50

of 2656 plusmn 53 120583gmL) Lukwa [64] evaluated the toxicity of Ljavanica aqueous leaf extracts using sexually mature BALBcmice with the placebo as control Within 48 hours all micefed with the L javanica leaf aqueous extract at 125ndash375 vvwere lethargic and the overall mortality was 375 Previousresearch byManenzhe et al [2] showed that hydrodistillationof L javanica leaves flowers and stems produced oil thatwas poisonous against P falciparumwhen diluted to 1 (vv)These findings imply that despite its apparent safety waterextracts of L javanica leaves may have deleterious healthimplications on humans and animals if consumed at veryhigh doses

Many compounds that have been isolated from L javan-ica including phenolic glycosides flavonoids and essentialoils are not known to have acute toxic properties withthe exception of icterogenin 173 Icterogenin 173 has beenshown to inhibit biliary excretion in rabbits [168] Reports inliterature indicate that the consumption of xanthine 22 hasresulted in mammalian toxicity According to Madzimure etal [64] xanthine 22 is a demethylated derivative of caffeinewith pharmacological actions such as central nervous system(CNS) stimulation relaxation of smooth muscle (especiallybronchial muscle) myocardial stimulation peripheral vaso-constriction and diuresis Considering the widespread useof L javanica as herbal tea and medicine it is important

18 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

to determine if any toxicological effects can occur from itschronic or subchronic usage

411 Other Activities Mpofu et al [169] determined the effectof inclusion of L javanica leaf meal in broiler diets ongrowth performance carcass characteristics and fatty acidprofiles The authors found that the L javanica fed broilershad higher total polyunsaturated fatty acids and n-3 fattyacidsThe findings from the study showed that inclusion of Ljavanica in broiler diets at 5 gkg feed has positive influenceson growth performance carcass characteristics and fattyacid profiles of broiler meat and therefore L javanica haspotential as growth-promoting feed additive in broilersSamie et al [73] evaluated antiamoebic activity of a purecompound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica essen-tial oil against Entamoeba histolytica using microdilutionmethod with metronidazole as the positive control diluents(ie culture medium with an appropriate concentration ofdimethyl sulphoxide as the negative control) and a blank(ie culture medium without dimethyl sulphoxide) Samieet al [73] demonstrated that piperitenone 162 had markedantiamoebic activity with IC

50value of 25 120583gmL More

research is required as L javanica could be harbouring potentantiamoebic properties which could be useful for managingamoebiasis an infection that remains a significant cause ofmorbidity and mortality worldwide

5 Conclusion

Lippia javanica has been used in African and Asian countriesas herbal tea and medicine for many centuries Utilization ofL javanica because of its flavour and medicinal propertiesforms the basis of the current demand for the plant speciesin central eastern and southern Africa Research on Ljavanica over the past decade on health promoting propertieshas greatly contributed to the increased consumption ofthe species as herbal or recreational tea The focus of thisresearch has been on phytochemical compounds particularlyphenolic content and antioxidant and free radical scavengingactivities Phenolic compounds present in L javanica arelargely responsible for the antioxidant properties possessedby the species More research in this regard is required andfuture research should focus on more comprehensive chem-ical characterization of both crude and pure extracts andevaluate potential for commercialization and developmentof nutraceutical products based on traditional uses of Ljavanica Most of the pharmacological researches conductedon L javanica so far have focused on the phytochemistryand biological properties of leaves and little or no researchhas been done on roots and other plant parts Thereforefuture research on the species should focus on other plantparts for example flowers roots and stems as well asorgan-to-organ age and seasonal variation evaluations in thephytochemical content and pharmacological activities of thespecies

The recent increase in the demand for L javanica prod-ucts may partly be ascribed to growing body of scientific evi-dence indicating important health benefits Lippia javanica

is widely sold as herbal tea in Botswana South Africa andZimbabwe Leaves and stems of L javanica are also sold asherbal medicines in the medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquo marketsin South Africa [35 170] For local people who rely onherbal medicines as part of their primary healthcare aswell as cultural beliefs they prefer L javanica harvestedfrom the wild and unprocessed plant parts sold in informalmedicinal ldquomuthirdquo markets [170] In the past there were norecords of overexploitation of L javanica wild populationsin southern Africa resulting in Raimondo et al [171] listingthe species as Least Concern (LC) under the IUCN RedList Categories and Criteria version 31 of threatened species(httpwwwiucnredlistorg) Recently signs of overharvest-ing have been noted where local people or plant traders haveuprooted whole plants to supply medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquomarkets or use the plants as herbal medicines brooms orherbal tea Therefore large-scale commercial utilization of Ljavanica is not sustainable if the species is harvested fromthe wild Currently L javanica is cultivated on a commercialscale in Kenya [28] and South Africa [117] for essential oilproduction for the mosquito-repellent candles and perfumeindustry Cultivation of L javanica is therefore a solutionto the sustainability problems associated with harvesting ofthe species from the wild and this option is also necessaryfor establishing commercial scale medicinal production andprocessing and trade enterprises The success of commercialcultivation of L javanica will depend on how the species ismarketed as herbal tea and medicine and source of essentialoil and health care products and as a source of functionalfoods

Significant research has been made in the past 50 yearsinto the chemistry and pharmacology of L javanica Thesestudies have shown L javanica to display various chemicaland different biological activities some of which justify itsethnopharmacological utilization in variety of cultures Inthe light of the evidence that L javanica is combined withother plant species in traditional medicine it will be valuableto investigate the possibility of synergistic effects of thedifferent extracts Deep phytochemical studies of L javanicaand its phytochemical properties especially the mechanismsof action of its bioactive constituents to illustrate the cor-relation between ethnomedicinal uses and pharmacologicalactivities should be the focus of further research on thespecies There is need for extensive in vivo experiments tovalidate the existing pharmacological activities Howeverbecause L javanica contains potentially toxic compoundsits toxicological properties need to be properly establishedvia proper quality control of product development to ensurethat potentially toxic components are kept below tolerancelevels

Appendix

A Chemical Compounds Isolated andCharacterized from Lippia javanica

See Table 5

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 19

Table 5

Chemical compound Reference(s)Phenolic compoundsCoumarin 1 [4]Verbascoside 2 [81]Isoverbascoside 3 [81]Theveside-Na 4 [82]Theveridoside 5 [82]4-ethylnonacosane 6 [83]Apigenin 7 [64 83]Cirsimaritin 8 [64 83]6-Methoxy luteolin41015840-methyl ether 9 [83]

6-Methoxy luteolin31015840410158407-trimethyl ether 10 [83]

Crassifolioside 11 [64]Luteolin 12 [64]Diosmetin 13 [64]Chrysoeriol 14 [64]Tricin 15 [64]Isothymusin 16 [64]Eupatorin 17 [64]5-Dimethyl noboletin 18 [64]Genkwanin 19 [64]Salvigenin 20 [64]Lippialactone 21 [84]AlkaloidXanthine 22 [64]Amino acids120572-Aminobutyric acid 23 [85 86]Valine 24 [86]Isoleucine 25 [86]Asparagine 26 [86]Phenylalanine 27 [86]120572-Aminoadipic acid 28 [86]Lysine 29 [86]Histidine 30 [86]Tyrosine 31 [86]Tryptophan 32 [86]Alanine 33 [85]Glycine 34 [85]Proline 35 [85]Serine 36 [85]Glutamine acid 37 [85]120573-Alanine 38 [85]Glutamine 39 [85]120573-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [85]4-hydroxyproline 41 [85]Essential oil(E)-2(3)-tagetenoneepoxide 42 [83]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]120572-Pinene 44 [3ndash5 87ndash91]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4](+)-2-Carene 46 [4]3-Carene 47 [4]Eucalyptol 48 [4]18 myrcene 49 [87]Ipsdienone 50 [87]Caryophyllene 51 [85]Geranial 52 [5 92 93]26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [92]Geraniol 54 [92]Octen-3-one 55 [5]6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]120588-Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]Artemisia ketone 58 [5]Linalool oxide 59 [5]Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5](Z)-120573-Ocimenone 61 [5](E)-120573-Ocimenone 62 [5]Carvyl acetate 63 [5]120572-Cubebene 64 [5]Sesquithujene 65 [5]Acora-35-diene 66 [5]120573-Bergamotene 67 [5]Trans-calamenene 68 [5]120573-Alaskene 69 [5]120574-Cadinene 70 [5]120575-Cadinene 71 [3 88 89 91]Cis-calamenene 72 [5]Nerolidol 73 [5](E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 88 89]Spathulenol 75 [5]Epi-120572-muurolol 76 [5]120572-Longipinene 77 [90]Chrysanthenone 78 [90]120572-Terpineol 79 [3 5 90 91]120572-Amorphene 80 [90]120572-Thujene 81 [91]120574-Terpinene 82 [91]120572-Cubebene 83 [91]Linalool acetate 84 [91]Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [91]Camphene 86 [3 5 88ndash91]120573-Pinene 87 [3 5 91]Sabinene 88 [3 5 87 90 91]Myrcene 89 [3 5 87ndash89 91ndash95]120572-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 88 89]2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]Limonene 92 [3 5 88ndash94]18-Cineole 93 [3 5 90 91 95]120573-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 88 89 91]

20 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3](Z)-120573-Ocimene 96 [3 5 88 89 91](E)-120573-Ocimene 97 [3 5 88 89 91]Isomyrcenol 98 [3]p-Cymene 99 [3 5 85 88ndash91]2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]Terpinolene 101 [3]Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 88 89 91 95]Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 88 89](Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]Nonanal 106 [3]Perillene 107 [3 91]Ipsenone 108 [3 87ndash89 95]Trans-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 88ndash90]1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 88 89]Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]Ttrans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]cis-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 88ndash90]120572-Copaene 114 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetone 115 [3 88 89]Trans-tagetone 116 [3 88 89]Camphor 117 [3 5 88ndash90 93 94]120573-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 91]Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 85 88ndash90 92 93]

Trans-120572-bergamotene 121 [3]120572-Cedrene 122 [3 5]Myrcenone 123 [3 5 83 91]120573-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 87ndash91 93 94]2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 88 89](Z)-120573-Farnesene 129 [3](E)-120573-Farnesene 130 [3 5](EE)-120572-Farnesene 131 [3 88 89]Ipsdienol 132 [3](Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]Isovaleric acid 134 [3]120572-Humulene 135 [3 5 88 89 91]120572-Acoradiene 136 [3]120573-Acoradiene 137 [3]120574-Muurolene 138 [3 5 88 89]120572-Muurolene 139 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]Borneol 142 [3 5 88ndash90]Verbenone 143 [3 91]Germacrene-D 144 [3 87ndash89 93]120573-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]120574-Bisabolene 146 [3]Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]Carvone 148 [3 5 91]Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 88 89 91]120573-Curcumene 150 [3]Ar-curcumene 151 [3]Cis-piperitol 152 [3]2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol156 [3 88 89]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]Calamenene 158 [3]Carvone oxide 159 [3]Isopiperitenone 160 [3]Cis-carveol 161 [3]Piperitenone 162 [2 3 73 83]Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 88 89]Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3ndash5 88ndash90]Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 88 89]Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]Spathulenol 167 [3]Eugenol 168 [3 5]Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120573-ol(=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120572-ol(=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [83]Icterogenin 173 [96]

B Chemical Structures ofPhenolic Compounds Alkaloids AminoAcids and Essential Oils Isolated fromLippia javanica

See Figure 4

Competing Interests

The author declares that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 21

O

OO

OO O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

C CH CHO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

COOH

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

Me

OMe

OMe

OMe

MeO

Me

HOOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OMe

OMe

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

（2 （2

（2

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

（3CO

（3CO

Coumarin 1 [4]

Verbascoside 2 [89]

Isoverbascoside 3 [89]

Theveside-Na 4 [90]

Theveridoside 5 [90]

4-Ethylnonacosane 6 [91]

Apigenin 7 [120 91]

Cirsimaritin 8 [120 91]

Crassifolioside 11 [120]

Luteolin 12 [120]

Diosmetin 13 [120]

Chrysoeriol 14 [120]

Tricin 15 [120]

Isothymusin 16 [120]

Eupatorin 17 [120]

6-Methoxyluteolin 3 47-trimethyl ether 10 [91]

6-Methoxyluteolin 4-methyl ether 9 [91]

Figure 4 Continued

22 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

N

NH

HN

HO

NH

O

NH

O

O

O

O

HN

N N

N

H

H

OAc

OAcOAc

OO

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

（3CO

（2

（2

（2

（2 （2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3N

（2N

（2N

（2N

（2N

minus

+

+

5-Desmethylnoboletin 18 [120]

Genkwanin 19 [120]

Salvigenin 20 [120]

Lippialactone 21 [92]

Xanthine 22 [120]

Valine 24 [94]

Isoleucine 25 [94]

Asparagine 26 [94]

Phenylalanine 27 [94]

Lysine 29 [94]

Histidine 30 [94]

Tyrosine 31 [94]

Tryptophan 32 [94]

Alanine 33 [93]

Glycine 34 [93]

Proline 35 [93]

Serine 36 [93]

Glutamine acid 37 [93]

Glutamine 39 [93]

4-Hydroxyproline 41 [93]

(E)-2(3)-Tagetenone epoxide 42 [91]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]

-Alanine 38 [93]

-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [93]

-Aminoadipic acid 28 [94]

-Aminobutyric acid 23 [93 94]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 23

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

H

H

HH

H

O

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

HO

OH

O

O

O

O

OH（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4]

3-Carene 47 [4]

Eucalyptol 48 [4]

18 myrcene 49 [123]

Ipsdienone 50 [123]

Caryophyllene 51 [93]

Geranial 52 [5 100 101]

26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [100]

Geraniol 54 [100]

Octen-3-one 55 [5]

6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]

Artemisia ketone 58 [5]

Linalool oxide 59 [5]

Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5]

Carvyl acetate 63 [5]

Sesquithujene 65 [5]

Acora-35-diene 66 [5]

-Pinene 44 [3-5 123 96 97 98 99] -Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]

(+)-2-Carene 46 [4]

-Bergamotene 67 [5]

-Cubebene 64 [5]

(Z)--Ocimenone 61 [5]

(E)--Ocimenone 62 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

24 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OH

H

H

H

H

O

OHO

HO

H

HH H

H

H

HH

H

HO

HO

O

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

Trans-calamenene 68 [5]

Cis-calamenene 72 [5]

Nerolidol 73 [5]

(E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 96 97]

Spathulenol 75 [5]

Chrysanthenone 78 [98]

Linalool acetate 84 [99]

Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [99]

Camphene 86 [3 5 96 97 98 99]

Sabinene 88 [3 5 123 98 99]

Myrcene 89 [3 5 123 100 101 96 97 99 102 103]

-Alaskene 69 [5]

-Terpineol 79 [3 5 98 99]

-Amorphene 80 [98]

-Cadinene 70 [45]-Thujene 81 [99]

-Cadinene 71 [3 96 97 99] -Terpinene 82 [99]

-Cubebene 83 [99]

-Pinene 87 [3 5 99]

-Longipinene 77 [98]

-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 96 97]

Epi--muurolol 76 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 25

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O

OH

OH

H

H

H

H

H

HOO

OH

O

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（3(（2)3（2

（3(（2)6（2

2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]

Limonene 92 [3 5 100 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3]

Isomyrcenol 98 [3]

p-Cymene 99 [3 5 93 96 97 98 99]

2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]

Terpinolene 101 [3]

Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 96 97 99 103]

Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 96 97]

(Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]

67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]

Nonanal 106 [3]

Perillene 107 [3 99]

Ipsenone 108 [3 123 96 97 103]

Trans-linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 96 97 98]

1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 96 97]

Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]

Trans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]

Cis-linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 96 97 98]

Cis-tagetone 115 [3 96 97]

Trans-tagetone 116 [3 96 97]

-Copaene 114 [3 5 96 97 98]

18-Cineole (=eucalyptol) 93 [3 5 98 99 103]

-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 96 97 99]

(Z)--Ocimene 96 [3 5 96 97 99]

(E)--Ocimene 97 [3 5 96 97 99]

Camphor 117 [3 5 101 96 97 98 102]

Figure 4 Continued

26 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

HH

H

H

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 93 100 101 96 97 98]

Myrcenone 123 [3 5 91 99]

2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol 125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]

Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 96 97]

Ipsdienol 132 [3]

(Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]

Isovaleric acid 134 [3]

Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]

Borneol 142 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 99]

Trans--bergamotene 121 [3]

-Cedrene 122 [3 5]

-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 123 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)--Farnesene 129 [3]

(E)--Farnesene 130 [3 5]

-Muurolene 139 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Muurolene 138 [3 5 96 97]

-Acoradiene 136 [3]

-Acoradiene 137 [3]

-Humulene 135 [3 5 96 97 99]

(EE)--Farnesene 131 [3 96 97]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O O

HO

O

H

H

H

HO

HO

OH

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3CO（3

Verbenone 143 [3 99]

Germacrene-D 144 [3 123 101 96 97]

Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]

Carvone 148 [3 5 99]

Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 96 97 99]

Ar-curcumene 151 [3]

Cis-piperitol 152 [3]

2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]

26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol 156 [3 96 97]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]

Calamenene 158 [3]

Carvone oxide 159 [3]

Isopiperitenone 160 [3]

Cis-carveol 161 [3]

Piperitenone 162 [2 3 91 81]

Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 96 97]

-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]

-Bisabolene 146 [3]

-Curcumene 150 [3]

Figure 4 Continued

28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

OO

O

O

H

H

H

H

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

H

H

HCH

HH

HO

（3

（2

（2C

（3C（3C

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C O（3

Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3-5 96 97 98]

Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 96 97]

Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]

Spathulenol 167 [3]

Eugenol 168 [3 5]

Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [91]

Icterogenin 173 [104]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Figure 4

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to the NationalResearch Foundation (NRF) and GovanMbeki Research andDevelopment Centre (GMRDC) University of Fort Hare forfinancial support to conduct this research

References

[1] JWMwangi I Addae-Mensah RMMunavu andW LwandeldquoEssential oils of Kenyan Lippia species Part IIIrdquo Flavour andFragrance Journal vol 6 no 3 pp 221ndash224 1991

[2] N J Manenzhe N Potgieter and T Van Ree ldquoCompositionand antimicrobial activities of volatile components of Lippiajavanicardquo Phytochemistry vol 65 no 16 pp 2333ndash2336 2004

[3] A M Viljoen S Subramoney S F V Vuuren K H C Baserand B Demirci ldquoThe composition geographical variation andantimicrobial activity of Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae) leafessential oilsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 96 no 1-2 pp271ndash277 2005

[4] N Lukwa P Moslashlgaard P Furu and C Boslashgh ldquoLippia javanica(Burm f) Spreng its general constituents and bioactivity onmosquitoesrdquoTropical Biomedicine vol 26 no 1 pp 85ndash91 2009

[5] L S Chagonda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssential oil compositionof Lippia javanica (Burmf) spreng chemotype from WesternZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants vol 18 no 2pp 482ndash485 2015

[6] W Kipkore B Wanjohi H Rono and G Kigen ldquoA study of themedicinal plants used by the Marakwet Community in KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 242014

[7] E A Shikanga S Combrinck and T Regnier ldquoSouth AfricanLippia herbal infusions total phenolic content antioxidant andantibacterial activitiesrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76no 3 pp 567ndash571 2010

[8] N T Parrant ldquoThe potential of non-timber forest products ofBotswanardquo Botswana Notes Records vol 28 no 1 pp 203ndash2181996

[9] D M Motlhanka and S W Makhabu ldquoMedicinal and ediblewild fruit plants of Botswana as emerging new crop opportu-nitiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plants Research vol 5 no 10 pp1836ndash1842 2011

[10] M Bhebhe T N Fuller B Chipurura and M MuchuwetildquoEffect of solvent type on total phenolic content and free radicalscavenging activity of black tea and herbal infusionsrdquo FoodAnalytical Methods vol 9 no 4 pp 1060ndash1067 2016

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29

[11] M Bhebhe B Chipurura and M Muchuweti ldquoDeterminationand comparison of phenolic compound content and antioxidantactivity of selected local Zimbabwean herbal teas with exoticAspalathus linearisrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 100no 1 pp 213ndash218 2015

[12] B Patiri and A Borah Wild Edible Plants of Assam GeetakhiPrinters Guwahati India 2007

[13] H Narzary and A Basumatary ldquoProximate and vitamin Canalysis of wild edible plants consumed by Bodos of AssamIndiardquo Journal of Molecular Pathophysiology vol 4 no 4 pp128ndash133 2015

[14] M Gelfand S Mavi R B Drummond and B Ndemera TheTraditional Medical Practitioners in Zimbabwe His Principles ofPractice and Pharmacopoeia Mambo Press Gweru Zimbabwe1985

[15] D Davids Materia medica and care a study of the uses ofmedicinal herbs and remedies as a form of treatment andnegotiating social relationships in cape town and surroundings[MS dissertation] University of theWestern Cape Cape TownSouth Africa 2012

[16] A Maroyi and G K E Mosina ldquoMedicinal plants and tradi-tional practices in peri-urban domestic gardens of the Limpopoprovince South africardquo Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledgevol 13 no 4 pp 665ndash672 2014

[17] A Samie C L Obi P O Bessong and L Namrita ldquoActivityprofiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Vendacommunities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterialspeciesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 4 no 12 pp1443ndash1451 2005

[18] T York An ethnopharmacological study of plants used fortreating respiratory infections in rural Maputaland [MS disser-tation] University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa South Africa2012

[19] D Davids T Blouws O Aboyade et al ldquoTraditional healthpractitionersrsquo perceptions herbal treatment andmanagement ofHIV and related opportunistic infectionsrdquo Journal of Ethnobiol-ogy and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 77 2014

[20] A Hutchings A H Scott G Lewis and A CunninghamZulu Medicinal Plants An Inventory University of Natal PressPietermarizburg South Africa 1996

[21] RM Coopoosamy andK K Naidoo ldquoAn ethnobotanical studyofmedicinal plants used by traditional healers inDurban SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 6no 11 pp 818ndash823 2012

[22] I Hedberg and F Staugard Traditional Medicinal Plants inBotswana Ipeleng Gaborone Botswana 1989

[23] H Shahriar A S M H K Chowdhury S Rahman et al ldquoSci-entific validation of medicinal plants used by a folk medicinalpractitioner of Chuadanga District BangladeshrdquoWorld Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 11 pp 13ndash24 2014

[24] S S Semenya M J Potgieter and M P Tshisikhawe ldquoUseconservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinalplants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 12 no 18 pp2392ndash2405 2013

[25] M Roberts Indigenous Healing Plants Southern Book Publish-ers Halfway House Johannesburg South Africa 1990

[26] T Birhanu D Abera and E Ejeta ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas westernEthiopiardquo Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare vol 5no 1 pp 83ndash93 2015

[27] N T Mahlangeni R Moodley and S B Jonnalagadda ldquoEle-mental composition of Cyrtanthus obliquus and Lippia javanicaused in South African herbal tonic Imbizardquo Arabian Journal ofChemistry 2013

[28] W Musila D Kisangau and J Muema ldquoConservation statusand use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitionersin Machakos District Kenyardquo in Indigenous Knowledge Con-ference Proceedings Pennsylvania State University May 27ndash292004 2004

[29] G N Njoroge and R W Bussmann ldquoTraditional managementof ear nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 542006

[30] P Chigora R Masocha and F Mutenheri ldquoThe role of indige-nous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailmentsin rural Zimbabwe the case of Mutirikwi communal landsrdquoJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol 9 no 2 pp26ndash43 2007

[31] R W Bussmann G G Gilbreath J Solio et al ldquoPlant use ofthe Maasai of Sekenani Valley Maasai Mara Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 22 2006

[32] D Motlhanka and G P Nthoiwa ldquoEthnobotanical Survey ofmedicinal plants of Tswapong North in Eastern Botswana acase of plants from Mosweu and Seolwane Villagesrdquo EuropeanJournal of Medicinal Plants vol 3 no 1 pp 10ndash24 2013

[33] A Vhurumuku ldquoKnowledge use and attitudes towardsmedici-nal plants of pre-service teachers at a South African UniversityrdquoGlobal Advanced Research Journal in Environmental Science andToxicology vol 4 no 2 pp 15ndash24 2015

[34] M N Nkwanyana An ethnobotanical and antidiarrhoeal inves-tigation of plants used traditionally in the maputaland areahomesteads [MS dissertation] University of Zululand KwaD-langezwa South Africa 2013

[35] T E Moeng An investigation into the trade of medicinal plantsbymuthi shops and street vendors in the Limpopo Province SouthAfrica [MS thesis] University of Limpopo Gauteng SouthAfrica 2010

[36] S Bandeira A M Manjate and O Filipe ldquoAn EcologicalAssessment of the Health of the Chibuto-Missavene Wetlandin the Dry Season Mozambique Emphasis on ResourcesAssessment Utilization and Sustainability Analysisrdquo reportto Challenge Program for Water and Food InternationalWater Management Institute Pretoria South Africa 2006httpscgspacecgiarorgbitstreamhandle105682160421604pdfsequence=1

[37] M C Palgrave R B Drummond and E J Moll Trees ofSouthern Africa Struik Cape Town South Africa 2003

[38] M O Nanyingi J M Mbaria A L Lanyasunya et alldquoEthnopharmacological survey of Samburu district KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4 article 142008

[39] J G J P Sankar and K B Satapathy ldquoWeed diversity of Rabicrops and their ethnomedicinal uses in Kendrapara districtof Odisha Indiardquo International Research Journal of BiologicalSciences vol 4 no 3 pp 33ndash38 2015

[40] D E N Mabogo The ethnobotany of the vhavenda [MSdissertation] University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa1990

[41] B-E van Wyk B van Oudtshoorn and N Gericke MedicinalPlants of South Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2013

[42] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used forthe treatment of tuberculosis by Bapedi traditional healers

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

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Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

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Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 8: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

unlikely to be viable if the product is sorely harvested fromthe wild In the same line commercialization of L javanicamight be more worthy if other products other than tea arederived from the plant

22 Respiratory Problems The different parts of L javanicafor example the leaves and twigs are used for the treatmentof asthma coughs colds influenza pneumonia tuberculosisand bronchial problems in Bangladesh Botswana EthiopiaKenya South Africa and Zimbabwe [14ndash16 19 20 23 25 2628ndash32 53 112] In Bangladesh leaf infusion of L javanica istaken orally mixed with 3-4 pieces of cloves ofA sativum 2-3times daily as remedy for chest pains [23] In Ethiopia leavesof L javanica are chewed with butter as remedy for chestpains and cough [26] In India L javanica leaf decoctionis taken orally as remedy for respiratory disorders [39] InKenya leaves are sniffed [31] or half glass of hot leaf infusionis taken orally three times a day [28 29] as remedy for coldsand cough Research done by Davids et al [19] in SouthAfrica revealed that about 50 g of leaves is added to a cupof boiling water to produce an infusion which is taken orallyas remedy for coughs colds and bronchial problems or theinfusion is applied to the skin or mixed with Vaseline tomake an ointment In South Africa leaf or twig decoctionis taken orally for asthma colds and cough [16 53] leavesare used in washes and poultices for chest pains [25] andleaves are boiled for 5 minutes and one cup of extract is takenorally thrice a day for chest pains and tuberculosis [24 42]According to York [18] two handfuls of L javanica leaves areboiled in two litres of water and patient is steamed once ortwice a day to treat coughs chest pain headaches fever chillsa sore throat or a blocked nose This decoction can also betaken orally by drinking half a cup daily [18] Alternativelya handful of L javanica roots or leaves are mixed with ahandful leaves of A glabratum or B transvaalensis or Buniflora or B cathartica or C anisata or C brachiata orC molle or E grandis or H kraussii or Hypoxis spp or Kmosambicina or P neochilus or P guajava or S serratuloides orT sericea or T riparia or T emetica to treat blocked nosechest pain cough earache fatigue fever influenza headacherunny nose sleepless nights sore throat tiredness andtonsillitis [18] Leaf and stem infusion of L javanica are takenorally together with A afra by the Zulu people in SouthAfrica as remedy for bronchial ailments colds and cough[20] ldquoImbizardquo a popular herbal decoction prepared from Ljavanica and C obliquus is used by the Zulu people in SouthAfrica as herbal tonic and an immune booster and also forthe treatment of cancer chest pains colds diabetes HIV orAIDS symptoms skin infections and tuberculosis [27] Insome communities in South Africa L javanica leaf or rootinfusion is taken orally as remedy for influenza and malaria[33] and respiratory disorders [40 41] In Zimbabwe leafor root decoction is taken orally or smoke of burnt leavesand roots is inhaled as remedy for chest pains [14] and leafand twigs are boiled in water and infusion is taken orally asremedy for colds and cough [30] According to Gelfand etal [14] Shona people in Zimbabwe rub leaf ointment of Ljavanica on the chest and abdomen as remedy for pneumoniaand leaf decoction is taken orally and body washed with leaf

decoction as remedy for shortness of breath or dyspnoea InSouth Africa a leaf and stem infusion of L javanica are takenorally together with leaves of A afra as remedy for measles[20]

Based on literature inhalation of smoke from L javanicaappears to be a popular remedy for asthma chest painscolds and chronic coughs in Botswana South Africa andZimbabwe [14 15 20 32] In Botswana L javanica leafinfusion vapour is inhaled as remedy for colds and cough[32] In SouthAfrica for example leaves and twigs are burnedand smoke is inhaled as remedy for asthma and cough [15]or steam from leaf infusions is inhaled or hot leaf infusionsare taken orally against colds and cough [20] In Zimbabwesmoke of burnt leaves and roots is inhaled as remedy for chestpains [14]

23 Gastrointestinal Diseases The leaf and root decoction orinfusions of L javanica are used as remedies of the digestivesystem diseases such as cholera diarrhoea and dysenteryFor example in Mozambique root decoction is taken orallyas remedy for a type of diarrhoea commonly known asldquochinhamucacardquo which is characterized by milky diarrhoeaaccompanied by vomiting in children [44] Leaf decoctionis used as herbal medicine for diarrhoea in Kenya [113] InSouth Africa the leaves of L javanica are crushed and mixedwith cold or hot water and the mixture is then sieved and aquarter of a cup (75mL) is taken twice a day until diarrhoeasubsides [34] The Venda people in South Africa use leafinfusions as prophylactic against diarrhoea [40] Researchdone by Palgrave et al [37] in South Africa revealed that teainfusions of the L javanica leaves are used as remedies forHIVAIDS opportunistic infections such as lung infectionsand diarrhoea Previous research inMozambique [114] SouthAfrica [115] and Zimbabwe [116] showed that gastrointestinaldisorders particularly cholera diarrhoea and dysentery areamong human diseases often treated with herbal medicinesFor those patients diagnosed as having intestinal worms inVenda South Africa a leaf infusion of L javanica leavesis used as an anthelmintic [40] Therefore these findingsillustrate that herbal medicines including L javanica can playan important role in basic health care of local communitiesthrough treatment and management of cholera diarrhoeaand dysentery

24 Fever Malaria and Insect Repellent Traditionally Ljavanica is commonly used to treat fever and malaria andrepel insects throughout its distributional range [4 14 1617 33ndash35 40 48ndash50 58ndash60] In South Africa a decoctionof fresh or air dried leaves is used to wash or steam bodyparts infested with lice [50] In India the whole plant is usedto repel lice in poultry [61] In South Africa and Zimbabwewhole plant or leaves are burnt to repel mosquitoes [4 3435 48 49 58] In South Africa and Zimbabwe L javanicais widely used to get rid of ticks and other ectoparasites forexample ticks are sprayed with crushed leaves mixed withwater or twigs are used as bedding in fowl runs [58ndash60]Leaf and twig decoction of L javanica are taken orally asremedy for fever [16] The Venda people in South Africa useleaf infusions of L javanica as prophylactic against malaria

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9

[40] In Zimbabwe leaf decoction is taken orally as remedyfor fever [14]

Lippia javanica is also cultivated on a commercial scale bya rural community in Giyani the Limpopo province SouthAfrica for the production of mosquito-repellent candles[117] Clinical studies using human volunteers showed thatL javanica repels no less than 95 of mosquitos whereasmost mosquito repellents repel only 42 of them [118]Based on these findings the Council for Scientific andIndustrial Research (CSIR) South Africa signed a benefitsharing agreement with traditional healers allowing for thecommercial cultivation of L javanica aimed at establishingan indigenous oil industry for rural development and large-scale production of antimosquito candles and other insectrepellents The mosquito repellent is registered as a patentunder the Fertilisers Farm Feeds and Stock Remedies Act(Act 36 of 1947) as a pest repellent [119] These findings andthe establishment of a large-scale production of antimosquitocandles and other insect repellents strengthen the view thatL javanica is a potential source of antipesticidal agentsand to some extent validate the traditional use of the plantspecies for insect pest control Pesticidal plants such as Ljavanica are increasingly being used as alternatives wheresynthetic products are unaffordable or are not available or areineffective A number of studies have indicated that the use ofL javanica as a pesticide is a long-standing tradition passeddown from generation to generation [120]

25 Wounds Injuries Pain and Skin Infections Lippia javan-ica is used as remedy for a variety of skin infections andinjuries in Kenya South Africa Swaziland and ZimbabweIn SouthAfrica leaf infusions are used to treat skin disorderssuch as boils chicken pox febrile rashes heat rashesmeaslesscabies scratches and stings [20 21 40 50 54] In Kenyaabout 50 g of fresh leaves is wrapped around a fresh woundto enhance healing [57] and in South Africa leaf infusionsare taken orally as remedy for wounds [54] In SouthAfrica powder from burnt roots of L javanica is appliedto scarifications made around sprained joints to facilitatehealing [20] In Kenya and Zimbabwe leaf infusion is takenorally to treatmeasles or a patient is washedwith leaf infusion[14 38] The Zulu people in South Africa take a mixtureof chopped handful leaves of L javanica with the sameamount of bark of A burkeiO engleri S birrea S cordatumand T elegans boiled in two litres of water as an enemafor the treatment of sores [56] In Swaziland about 30 g ofL javanica leaves and similar amount of Acanthospermumaustrale Kuntze are boiled in 5 litres of water and decoctionis taken as remedy for sores [55] In Zimbabwe root ashesof L javanica mixed with fat are applied to the skin ofa patient with scabies [14] Wound healing is a processwhich involves distinct overlapping phases of coagulationinflammation proliferation and tissue remodelling [121]The same authors argued that a set of complex biochemicalevents takes place in a closely orchestrated cascade to repairthe wound and any errors in the wound healing processcan lead to delayed healing or formation of hypertrophicscars Abubakar [122] argued that colonization of woundsby opportunistic microorganisms usually delays the wound

healing process andor may lead to infectious conditionTherefore application of L javanica on wounds and skininfections leads to disinfection debridement and provisionof a suitable environment for aiding the wound healingprocess Lippia javanica has potential for therapeutic use inwound and skin diseases management but there is needfor research on the safety phytochemistry and biologicalproperties of the species

26 EthnoveterinaryUses The leaves stems twigs andwholeplants of L javanica are used as ethnoveterinary medicinein India Kenya South Africa and Zimbabwe The Xhosapeople in the Eastern Cape province South Africa use Ljavanica leaves for the disinfection of meat that has beeninfected with anthrax [20] In Kenya the stem of L javanicais used to preserve milk by applying it to the gourd beforemilk fermentation [62] In India whole plants are used aslice repellants while in South Africa and Zimbabwe crushedleaves mixed with water are used to get rid of ticks and twigsare used as bedding in fowl runs to get rid of ectoparasites[58ndash60]

27 Other Uses Lippia javanica is used as a good luck charmto treat persons experiencing bad dreams to ward off evilspirits to protect one from lightening and to protect thehome (Table 1) In Zimbabwe L javanica leaves are preparedas an infusion to treat persons experiencing nightmares [64]In both South Africa and Zimbabwe evil spirits are cleansedby washing the body of an affected person by leaf infusion ofL javanica [14 123] In Swaziland 50 g leaves of L javanicaand C molle are ground into a powder and 5 litres of wateris added and face and hands are washed to remove badluck when exposed to a corpse [71] In South Africa thewhole plant is placed on a patientrsquos bed after the circumcisionceremony [58] to prevent odours and freshen surroundingair A mixture of L javanica leaves and roots is used toclean tools and hands before and after funerals the stemsand leaves are used as brooms to sweep grave sites and theentire plant is also used when coming from the mortuaryto remove bad spirits [58 124] The corpse is washed withL javanica infusion after death to prevent odours formingor if the corpse has an odour women place pieces of Ljavanica in the nostrils of the corpse and sweep the roomwith twigs where the person was sleeping [58] In KwaZuluNatal South Africa if the meat started to smell it will beboiled with L javanica leaves to take away the smell [58]TheXhosa people in the Eastern Cape province South Africa useL javanica leaves for the disinfection of meat that has beeninfected with anthrax [20] In KwaZulu Natal South Africaleaves are sprinkled in toilets to prevent odours [58] Leavesof L javanica are sprinkled in houses for pleasant smell inthe Limpopo province South Africa [35] and Kenya [31] InKwaZulu Natal South Africa it is believed that a person canrepel snakes by placing a small stem with leaves on his orher head [58] In Malawi Swaziland and Zimbabwe peopleshowing sign of mental disorder madness or hystericaloutbursts are required towash their bodies with leaf infusions[14 67 68 71]

10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 2 Nutritional composition of Lippia javanica leaves

Caloric and nutritional composition Values ReferenceAsh 160 plusmn 0001 g [13]Calorific value 5064 plusmn 563 kcal [13]Crude fat 016 plusmn 0001 g [13]Crude fibre 263 plusmn 0002 g [13]Crude protein 122 plusmn 00004 g [13]Dry matter 1546 plusmn 140 g [13]Moisture 9044 plusmn 026 g [13]Total carbohydrate 655 plusmn 026 g [13]Vitamin C 2242 plusmn 0001mg [13]Ca 2856ndash9225 120583g gminus1 [27]Mg 1598ndash5619 120583g gminus1 [27]Fe 75ndash750 120583g gminus1 [27]Mn 401 plusmn 116 120583g gminus1 [27]Zn 156ndash273 120583g gminus1 [27]Cu 30ndash85 120583g gminus1 [27]Cr 0ndash27 120583g gminus1 [27]Se 257 plusmn 019 120583g gminus1 [27]Pb 038ndash119 120583g gminus1 [27]Cd 053 plusmn 005 120583g gminus1 [27]Co 019 plusmn 001 120583g gminus1 [27]

3 Phytochemical Constituents and NutritionalComposition of Lippia javanica

Multiple classes of phytochemicals including volatile andnonvolatile secondary metabolites such as alkaloids aminoacids flavonoids iridoids and triterpenes as well as severalminerals have been identified from L javanica [1ndash5 7 13 2773 78 81 83ndash86 88ndash94 120 123 125ndash127] Leaves flowersand twigs of L javanica have a wide variety of the so-calledclassic nutrients such as minerals carbohydrates proteinsfats and vitamins (Table 2) Lippia javanica leaves are a goodsource of minerals such as cadmium calcium chromiumcobalt copper iron magnesium manganese selenium andzinc [27] These authors assessed the levels of the elementsin L javanica leaves and found the elements to be in thedecreasing order of Ca gt Mg gt Fe gt Zn gt Mn gt Cu gt Se gtCr gt Pb gt Co gt Cd for total concentrations and Ca gt Mggt Fe gt Zn gt Cu gt Cr gt Pb for water extractable forms Theseresults corroborate an observation made by Sedaghathooret al [128] that Ca and Mg are among the most abundantelements in tea plants These mineral elements are importantin human nutrition since L javanica is used as herbaltea and food additive (Table 1) Calcium magnesium ironmanganese and zinc play a major role in activating someenzymes and regulating many responses of cells to stimuli[129] Some of the mineral elements identified from Ljavanica leaves are required by the human body for repair ofworn out cell tissues and strong bones and teeth and buildingof red blood cells and other related tissuesTherefore since Ljavanica has appreciable concentrations of mineral elementssuch as calcium magnesium iron manganese and zinc

(Table 2) which are essential for enzyme metabolism thesemineral elements could enhance the nutritional and curativeproperties of the species

Bhebhe et al [10] determined the total phenolic and tan-nin content and radical scavenging activities of L javanicacomparing it with Aspalathus linearis (Burmf) R Dahlgren(Rooibos) a commercial South African herbal tea andother popular herbal teas in Zimbabwe (Table 3) Adansoniadigitata L Fadogia ancylantha Schweinf Ficus sycomorus Land Myrothamnus flabellifolius Welw are indigenous herbalteas consumed in Zimbabwe The tannin content of Ljavanica is very low when compared to A linearis (Rooibos)(Table 3) Lippia javanica has higher radical scavenging activ-ity than A linearis (Table 3) which is probably due to highertotal phenolic content in comparison to A linearis which is apopular herbal tea consumed by 10 of the global herbal teamarket [10] In another study Bhebhe et al [11] determinedand compared the effect of several solvents namely hotwater 50 methanol ethanol 50 ethanol acetone 50acetone and ethyl acetate on phenolic composition and freeradical scavenging activity in common black tea C sinensisand five other well-known herbal teas including L javanicaIn all the seven solvents used L javanica had higher totalphenolic content than C sinensis implying that L javanicais competitive to the black tea in terms of phenolic contentShikanga et al [7] found leaf extracts of L javanica to havehigher phenolic content of 148 mgg gallic acid equivalentof dry weight than flowers (99mgg) and twigs (83mgg)Phenolic compounds found in plants are known to play animportant role as antioxidants in exhibiting the medicinalproperties such as antibiotic anti-inflammatory anticancerand antiallergic properties [10 66 130 131]

The compounds isolated from L javanica are docu-mented and listed in Appendix A and their structures arepresented in Appendix B Simple phenolic compounds andcaffeic acid and its derivatives are some of the compoundsthat have been identified in L javanica and examplesinclude coumarin 1 34-dihydroxy-120573-phenylethoxy-O-[410158401015840-120573-caffeoyl-120572-rhamnopyranosyl-(1101584010158401015840310158401015840)-O-120573-glucopyrano-side] commonly referred to as verbascoside 2 and 34-dihydroxy-120573-phenylethoxy-O-[610158401015840-120573-caffeoyl-120572-rhamnopy-ranosyl-(1101584010158401015840310158401015840)-O-120573-glucopyranoside] commonly referredto as isoverbascoside 3 isolated by Olivier et al [81] from theaerial parts of the species Nonvolatile diterpenes known asiridoid-glycosides have also been isolated from L javanicaby Rimpler and Sauerbier [82] represented by theveside-Na4 and theveridoside 5 Mujovo et al [83] isolated a longchain alkane ldquo4-ethylnonacosanerdquo 6 and four flavanonesapigenin 7 cirsimaritin 8 6-methoxyluteolin 41015840-methylether 9 and 6-methoxyluteolin 31015840410158407-trimethyl ether 10from ethanolic extracts of L javanica leaves Madzimureet al [120] identified an array of phenolic glycosides andflavonoids which include crassifolioside 11 luteolin 12diosmetin 13 chrysoeriol 14 tricin 15 isothymusin 16eupatorin 17 5-dimethyl noboletin 18 genkwanin 19salvigenin 20 and an alkaloid xanthine 22 Ludere et al[84] isolated lippialactone 21 from the ethyl acetate extractof aerial parts of L javanica Neidlein and Staehle [85] andDlamini [86] isolated 19 amino acids compounds 23 to

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11

Table 3 Total phenolic content (TPC) as gallic acid equivalents (GAE) and tannin content as leucocyanidin equivalents (LE) and free radicalscavenging activity (FRSA) of herbal tea extracts (after Bhebhe et al [10])

Plant species TPC g GAE100 g Tannin content of LE100 g Percentage FRSA IC50gmL

Lippia javanica 1246 plusmn 431 012 plusmn 001 8377 plusmn 08 0016Aspalathus linearis 669 plusmn 083 094 plusmn 004 6727 plusmn 025 0053Adansonia digitata 079 plusmn 028 169 plusmn 001 4307 plusmn 10 0132Fadogia ancylantha 288 plusmn 048 020 plusmn 012 700 plusmn 040 0051Ficus sycamores 1402 plusmn 001 198 plusmn 012 8613 plusmn 085 0009Myrothamnus flabellifolius 475 plusmn 033 104 plusmn 001 8093 plusmn 075 0019

41 in Appendix A from L javanica At least 131 differentclasses of essential oil compounds (compounds 42ndash172 inAppendices A and B) have been isolated from L javanica byseveral researchers [3ndash5 83 85 86 88ndash94 123] Hutchingsand van Staden [96] isolated a toxic triterpenoid saponinicterogenin 173 from L javanica leaves These differentclasses of essential oil compounds have been associatedwith various therapeutic activities such as anaestheticanalgesic anti-inflammatory antimicrobial cardiovasculardecongestant digestive expectorant hepatoprotective andsedative activities as well as stimulant of nervous systemand tonifying effects [132] Meanwhile flavonoids possessseveral pharmacological properties including antibacterialanticancer anti-inflammatory antioxidant antiviral andhepatoprotective effects [133] which play important rolesin human health Flavonoid such as apigenin 7 is reportedto possess antibacterial [134] and hepatoprotective [135]properties Apigenin 7 and luteolin 12 are reported to possessanti-inflammatory and analgesic effects [133] affecting thefunction of enzyme systems involved in the generation ofinflammatory processes especially tyrosine and serine-threonine protein kinases [136 137] It has also been reportedthat apigenin 7 prevents HIV-1 activation via a novelmechanism that involves inhibition of viral transcription[138] and luteolin 12 demonstrated synergistic effects withanother flavonoid kaempferol against herpes simplex virus[133] Kamiya [139] documented the importance of essentialamino acids such as lysine valine isoleucine and histidinein terms of the risks to health if they are deficientThe authoralso documented their biological effects which includemuscle protein maintenance potentiation of immunefunction tissue repair acceleration after burn or traumaprotecting liver from toxic agents lowering blood pressuremodulating cholesterol metabolism and stimulating insulinor growth hormone secretion Therefore L javanica leavesand other plant parts which have shown to be rich inflavonoid and polyphenolic compounds amino acids andessential oil could play an important role in the treatmentand management of diseases such as hypertension andinflammation listed in Table 1

4 Pharmacological Activities

Scientific studies on L javanica indicate that it has a widerange of pharmacological activities (Table 4) which include

anticancer [140] antidiabetic [141] antimalarial [4 49 142]antimicrobial [2 3 7 17 73ndash75 77 83 84 126 143]antioxidant [7 10 11 75 77 125] antiplasmodial [2 7980 84 144 145] and pesticidal effects [1 2 59 95 120146ndash150] and cytotoxicity [2 73 79 120] activities Table 4summarizes some of the pharmacological studies undertakenon L javanica extracts aimed at evaluating some of theethnomedicinal uses of the species documented throughoutits distributional range (see Table 1) Some of the listedpharmacological activities may not relate directly to thedocumented ethnomedicinal uses of the species but mayprovide some insight into the speciesrsquo potential therapeuticvalue and bioactive properties and application

41 Anticancer Activity Fouche et al [140] reported anti-cancer activity of dichloromethane root extract of L javanicaagainst three human cells exhibiting TGI value of 182120583gmLfor breast MDA-MB-435 186 120583gmL for breast MDA-N and209 120583gmL for melanoma MALME-3M Based on literaturea couple of terpenoid compounds that have been isolatedfrom L javanica are known to have antitumor propertiesFor example linalool 120 is known to have antitumoractivity which plays a protective role against hepatotoxicityand the compound has anti-inflammatory activities as well[151] Research by Yang et al [152] showed limonene 92 tohave inhibitory effect on pancreatic and mammary tumorsAnother terpenoid compound 120572-pinene 44 is known toinhibit translocation of NF-120581B or p65 protein into nuclei ofLPS-stimulated THP-1 cells [153] These findings serve as ascientific validation for the use of L javanica as a componentof a herbal concoction known in KwaZulu Natal province asldquoimbizardquo prepared by mixing L javanica with C obliquus asherbal medicine for cancer [27]

42 Antidiabetic Activity Arika et al [141] determined the invivo antidiabetic activity of aqueous leaf extracts of L javan-ica in white male alloxan-induced albino mice The aqueousleaf extracts of L javanica at all dose levels significantlylowered the blood glucose levels in both oral and intraperi-toneal routes The antidiabetic effect of L javanica couldhave been due to the observed presence of flavonoids Thepolyhydroxylated flavonol enhances lipogenesis and glucoseuptake in the adipocytes and flavanoids have demonstratedinsulinmimetic properties as the compound is known to beeffective at controlling blood sugar levels These findings

12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table4Summaryof

pharmacologicalactiv

ities

ofthee

xtractsisolated

from

different

partso

fLippiajavanica

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Antiamoebic

Piperitenon

e162

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f25120583

gmLagainstE

histolytica

[73]

Antibacteria

lPiperitenon

e162

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f50120583

gmLagainstA

calcoaceticu

sMkristin

ae(50120583

gmL)Styphi(25120583

gmL)and

Saureus

(12120583

gmL)

[73]

Antibacteria

l(Antiproteus)

Methano

lLeaves

Disc

diffu

sion

assay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f313120583gmLagainstPm

irabilis

and926120583

gmL

againstPvulgaris

[74]

Water

Leaves

Disc

diffu

sion

assay

Exhibitedweakactiv

ityagainstPm

irabilis

with

MIC

valueo

f1873120583gmLand1768120583gmLagainstPvulgaris

[74]

Antibacteria

l

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

coliwith

MIC

valueo

f064m

gmLE

faecalis(064)P

aeruginosa

(032

)andSaureus

(064)Totalactiv

ityMIC

values

werea

sfollo

wsE

coli(127

mgmL)E

faecalis

(127

mgmL)Paeruginosa

(253

mgmL)and

Saureus

(127

mgmL)

[75]

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

valueo

f3mgmLBa

cillusp

umilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(gt12mgmL)Saureus(12mgmL)E

faecalis

(6mgmL)E

cloacae

(6mgmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pantoea

agglo

meran

s(12mgmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Shigella

flexneri

(15mgmL)A

erom

onas

hydrophila(12m

gmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae(12mgmL)Salmonellacholeraesuis

(6mgmL)and

Serratiamarcescens(gt12mgmL)

[17]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

valueo

f12m

gmLB

pumilu

s(12m

gmL)B

subtilis(12m

gmL)Saureus(6m

gmL)E

faecalis

(12m

gmL)E

cloacae

(12m

gmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(12m

gmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(6

mgmL)A

hydrophila(12m

gmL)Pm

irabilis

(12m

gmL)K

pneum

oniae

(12m

gmL)Scholeraesuis(6

mgmL)and

antia

moebice

ffect

(12m

gmL)

[17]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

values

of15

mgmLB

pumilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(gt12mgmL)Saureus(12mgmL)E

faecalis

(3mgmL)E

cloacae

(6mgmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(12m

gmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(15mgmL)A

hydrophila(6

mgmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae

(12m

gmL)Scholeraesuis(6

mgmL)and

Smarcescens(12mgmL)

[17]

Essentialoil

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

values

of6m

gmLB

pumilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(3mgmL)Saureus(15

mgmL)E

faecalis

(3mgmL)E

cloacae

(12m

gmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(6

mgmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(3mgmL)A

hydrophila(3mgmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae

(3mgmL)Scholeraesuis(15mgmL)and

Smarcescens(gt12mgmL)

[17]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 13

Table4Con

tinued

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

faecaliswith

MIC

valueo

f014

mgmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

coliwith

MIC

valueo

f031

mgmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPaeruginosa

with

MIC

valueo

f042m

gmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstSaureus

with

MIC

valueo

f013

mgmL

[7]

Antifu

ngal

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

albicans

with

MIC

valueo

fgt75m

gmLC

krusei

(188m

gmL)and

Cneoforman

s(gt75

mgmL)

[7]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

albicans

with

MIC

valueo

fgt375

mgmLC

krusei

(375m

gmL)and

Cneoforman

s(gt75

mgmL)

[7]

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

kruseiwith

MFC

valueo

f75mgmL

[7]

Dichlorom

ethane

Aeria

lparts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFu

sariu

mproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f014

mgmLand

Fusariu

mverticillioides(019mgmL)

[76]

Hexane

Aeria

lparts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f023m

gmLandF

verticillioides(045

mgmL)

[76]

Methano

lAe

rialp

arts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f177m

gmLandF

verticillioides(043

mgmL)

[76]

Methano

lAe

rialp

arts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

fgt250

mgmLandF

verticillioides(gt250

mgmL)

[76]

Antim

ycob

acteria

l

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f047m

gmLandtotalactivity

of10mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Dichlorom

ethane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f125m

gmLandtotalactivity

of23

mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f062m

gmLandtotalactivity

of13mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f125m

gmLandtotalactivity

of7m

Lgagainst

Msmegmatis

[77]

14 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table4Con

tinued

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Antioxidant

Water

Leaves

DPP

Hassay

Exhibitedactiv

itywith

EC50valueo

f358120583gmL

[7]

Water

Leaves

mdashEx

hibitedactiv

itywith

209ascorbicacid

equivalent

(mggdryweight)

[7]

Water

Leaves

ABT

Sassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f15mmol10

0g[78]

Water

Leaves

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f146254

mmol10

0g[78]

Water

Leaves

FRAPassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f238m

mol10

0g[78]

Antiplasm

odial

Hexanechloroform

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f1225plusmn072120583gmL

[79]

Ethylacetate

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f1212plusmn079120583gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f135plusmn006120583gmL

[79]

Hexanechloroform

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f1859plusmn026120583gmL

[79]

Ethylacetate

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f1580plusmn026120583gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f175plusmn017120583gmL

[79]

Dichlorom

ethane

Roots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f38120583gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethanem

ethano

lRo

ots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f27120583

gmL

[80]

Methano

lRo

ots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f24120583

gmL

[80]

Water

Roots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

fgt100120583

gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethane

Stem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f45120583gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethanem

ethano

lStem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f218120583gmL

[80]

Methano

lStem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f298120583gmL

[80]

Water

Stem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

fgt100120583

gmL

[80]

Free

radicalscaveng

ing

activ

ity

Water

mdashDPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0059plusmn002

gmL

[11]

50methano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f004plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Ethano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0025plusmn0001gmL

[11]

50ethano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0027plusmn0005gmL

[11]

Aceton

emdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0057plusmn0004gmL

[11]

50aceton

emdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0022plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Ethylacetate

mdashDPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0066plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Toxicity

Methano

lLeaf

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

40mortalityrecorded

after

48hexpo

sure

towards

Artemianauplii

[74]

Methano

lRo

ots

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f8430120583

gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f6503120583

gmL

[79]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 15

strengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantidiabetic agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species mixed with C obliquus to form aherbal concoction known in KwaZulu Natal province SouthAfrica as ldquoimbizardquo used against diabetes [27]

43 Antimalarial Activity Govere et al [142] found thattopical application of L javanica alcohol extract leads to767 protection against Anopheles arabiensis for 4 hoursLippia javanica has been used as a mosquito repellent by therural communities in Zimbabwe for a long time and previousstudies have shown that essential oils from the species havevery strong and lasting repellent activity against female Aarabiensis [64] Research by Lukwa et al [4] revealed thattopical application of 5mgcm2 of L javanica leads to 100protection againstAnopheles aegypti for 8 hoursMavundza etal [154] screened dichloromethane and ethanol leaf extractsof L javanica for adulticidal activity againstA arabiensisTheauthors observed dichloromethane and ethanol activities of45 and 55mosquitomortality respectivelyThese findingsstrengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantimalarial agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species as mosquito repellent in India [47]South Africa [34 49 58] and Zimbabwe [4 48]

44 Antioxidant Activity Leaf infusions of L javanica exhib-ited antioxidant activity with EC

50value of 358120583gmL and

contained 148mgmL of dry weight gallic acid equivalentphenolic compounds [7] The EC

50value of 358 120583gmL

obtained for L javanica by Shikanga et al [7] compareswell to those of many commercial teas including antioxidantcapacity of Rooibos Fresh Pack herbal teas (A linearis)with the best antioxidant activity of 333 120583gmL The highantioxidant activities displayed by L javanica infusions canbe partially attributed to the high levels of verbascoside 2(15mgg dry weight) reported by Olivier et al [81] in theleaf extract of the species Earlier research by Muchuwetiet al [125] reported 744 inhibition of the DPPH radicalby an ethanolic leaf extract of L javanica Lekganyane etal [75] reported antioxidant activity in L javanica and theacetone extracts of the species displayed antioxidant activityon BEA chromatogram [77] Bhebhe et al [10] reported theantioxidant activities of L javanica based on the DPPHreducing power and inhibition of phospholipid peroxidationassays Free radical scavenging activity of L javanica isattributed to phenolic compounds since these compoundshave an ideal structural chemistry for free radical scavengingactivity [155] Bhebhe et al [11] determined the effect ofseveral solvents on the free radical scavenging activity ofL javanica using the DPPH assay Free radical scavengingactivity expressed as IC

50ranged from 0022 plusmn 0001 gmL to

0066 plusmn 0001 gmL see Table 4

45 Antiplasmodial Activity Prozesky et al [144] evaluatedL javanica leaf acetone extract for in vitro antiplasmodialactivity using PfUP1 a chloroquine resistant strain of themalaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum by means of theflow cytometric test The IC

50value for L javanica was

426 120583gmL Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil

piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica for antiplasmodialactivity using chloroquine diphosphate as positive controland found it active against a chloroquine sensitive strainof P falciparum in micromolar concentrations with IC

50of

8 120583gmL Clarkson et al [80] evaluated L javanica rootsand stems extracts for in vitro activity against P falciparumusing the parasite lactase dehydrogenase (pLDH) assay andchloroquine diphosphate (Sigma) as the positive controlThedichloromethane methane and water extracts showed IC

50

values ranging from 38 to gt100 120583gmL see Table 4 Omolo etal [145] screened the essential oil of L javanica for fumiganttoxicity to Anopheles gambiae which exhibited LD

50of 43 times

10minus3mg cmminus3 Ayuko et al [79] showed that L javanica rootextracts have antiplasmodial activity against P falciparumwith IC

50ranging from 135 to 1859 120583gmL see Table 4

Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity againstthe chloroquine sensitive D10 strain of P falciparum withan IC

50value of 91 120583gmL and is also mildly cytotoxic [84]

Compared to chloroquine the compound is approximately2000 times less active against the D10 strain of P falciparum[84]

46 Antimicrobial Activities Lippia javanica is widely usedin the treatment of a wide range of infectious diseasescaused by microorganisms Viljoen et al [3] determined theantimicrobial properties of L javanica by evaluating the timekill studies of the speciesrsquo essential oil using the disc diffusionassay on three respiratory pathogens Klebsiella pneumoniaeCryptococcus neoformans and Bacillus cereus This studyshowed that the killing rate was greatest for K pneumoniaefollowed by C neoformans and very little reduction of micro-bial populations was observed for B cereus The efficacy of Ljavanica oil for K pneumoniae showed a killing rate within30 minutes for the concentrations 025 05 075 and 1C neoformans showed a killing rate for concentrations 05075 and 1 within 1 hour and the lowest concentration of025 took 8 hours before a bactericidal effect was notedwhile B cereus showed some reduction in colonies [3] Thepositive antimicrobial activity of L javanica as revealed bythe time kill study could be attributed to linalool 120 whichaverages between 65 and 70 in yield [3 5 88 90] and hasknown antimicrobial properties [93 156ndash159]These findingssomehow corroborate the traditional use of L javanica asherbal medicine for a wide range of bacterial and fungalrespiratory ailments indicated in Table 1

Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil piperitenone162 isolated from L javanica for antibacterial activityon cultures of Bacillus subtilis Staphylococcus aureus andEscherichia coli using imipenem cefazolin and ampicillinas positive controls The authors found piperitenone 162to inhibit S aureus and E coli at 1 dilution Acetonehexane and methanol leaf extracts and essential oil isolatedfrom L javanica showed some activity against fifteen Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria with MIC values rang-ing from 15 to gt12mgmL [60] see Table 4 In a similarstudy Samie et al [73] demonstrated that a pure compoundpiperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica has antibacte-rial activities against Acinetobacter calcoaceticus Micrococcus

16 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

kristinae Salmonella typhi and S aureus using dimethylsulphoxide and kanamycin as controls with MIC valuesranging from 12 to 50 120583gmL see Table 4 Shikanga et al [7]evaluated the antibacterial activity of L javanica methanolicleaf extract against S aureus Enterococcus faecalis E coliand Pseudomonas aeruginosa using the serial microdilutionmethod with gentamycin (Virbac) and acetone as positiveand negative controls respectively Lippia javanica displayedantibacterial activities with MIC values ranging from 013to 042mgmL against all four pathogens see Table 4 Theobtained minimum inhibitory concentrations are promisingsince natural products with MIC values below 1mgmLare generally considered to be noteworthy findings [160]Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity against theE coli and S aureus at a concentration of 10mgmL [84]Lekganyane et al [75] reported antibacterial activity of Ljavanica acetone leaf extracts against E coli E faecalis Paeruginosa and S aureus with MIC values ranging from 032to 064mgmL and total activity of the same species rangingfrom 127 to 253mgmL see Table 4 Methanol and water leafextracts of L javanica exhibited some antiproteus activityagainstProteusmirabilis andProteus vulgariswithMICvalueslt2000120583gmL with standard discs of ampicillin (2120583g) andchloramphenicol (10 120583g) as positive controls [74] Some of theantibacterial properties of L javanica can be attributed to thephytochemical constituents of the species for example thephenolic compound apigenin 7 is a well-known antibacterialagent [7 134] Apigenin 7 was shown to be highly activeagainst Vibrio cholera and E faecalis [161] while Basile et al[162] reported the inhibition of S typhi P mirabilis and Paeruginosa by the compound Therefore results from theseantibacterial evaluations of L javanica give credence to theuse of the speciesrsquo infusions against bacterial infections andother related diseases

Shikanga et al [126] investigated the antifungal activ-ities of leaf extracts and essential oil compounds isolatedfrom L javanica leafy extracts against a Guazatine-resistantstrain of Penicillium digitatumThemethanolic leafy extractsisoverbascoside 3 and verbascoside 2 compounds isolatedfrom L javanica inhibited fungal growth at concentrationsabove 06mgsdotmLminus1 causing significant inhibition of mycelialgrowth Verbascoside 2 is well-known for its antimicrobialproperties and has been found to inhibit viruses bacteriaand fungi [163] Similarly Samie et al [143] investigatedantifungal effects of acetone and hexane leaf extracts of Ljavanica against Candida albicans Candida krusei and Cneoformans isolated from AIDS patients using the microdi-lution method with nystatin Roche and DMSO as positiveand negative controls respectively Noteworthy moderateantifungal activities were recorded from C krusei with MICvalue of 188mgmL and other recordedMFCandMICvaluesfor other species ranged from 188mgmL to gt75mgmLsee Table 4 Thembo et al [76] investigated the antifungalactivity of aqueous and organic extracts of L javanica usinga serial microdilution assay Generally extracts of L javanicaexhibited weak activity see Table 4

47 Antimycobacterial Activity Mujovo et al [83] evaluatedL javanica compounds against a drug-sensitive strain ofMycobacterium tuberculosis using the radiometric respira-tory techniques Of all the isolated compounds only onetriterpenoid carboxylic acid euscaphic acid 172 exhibitedantimycobacterial activity with MIC value of 50120583gmLminus1against this strain In a similar study the leaf extract ofL javanica exhibited antimycobacterial activity against Msmegmatis in an evaluation which used microdilution assayand rifampicin as control [77] Acetone extract was thebest extractant with MIC value of 047mgmL it extractedantibacterial agents which was indicated by the lowest MICvalue [77] Masoko and Nxumalo [77] also evaluated thetotal activity ofL javanicawhich averaged 13mLg suggestingthat the extract prepared from one gram of L javanicacould be diluted to a volume of 13mL and will still inhibitM smegmatis efficiently According to Semenya and Maroyi[115] tuberculosis caused by M tuberculosis is a seriousdisease requiring effective strategies and tools to controland manage it Therefore preliminary evaluations done byMujovo et al [83] and Masoko and Nxumalo [77] serve asa scientific validation for the use of L javanica in traditionalmedicine for treatment of tuberculosis and other respiratoryailments in South Africa [24 27 115] and Uganda [43] as wellas their efficiency in tuberculosis drug discovery

48 Antiviral Activity Mujovo et al [83] found that (E)-2(3)-tagetenone epoxide 42 and piperitenone 162 inhibitedthe HIV-1 reverse transcriptase enzyme by 91 and 53respectively at 100 120583gmLminus1 based on a nonradioactive HIVRT colorimetric ELISA kit Little is known about the HIV RTactivity of L javanica extracts or compounds but flavonoidsare known to be active against viral RT and also as potentinhibitors of the cellular alpha and beta DNA polymerase[83] while luteolin 12 is active against HIV RT [164 165]Lippia javanica is traditionally used to treat HIVAIDSsymptoms in South Africa [65 66] and several viral andHIVAIDS opportunistic diseases and infections such asbronchitis [15 19ndash22] chicken pox [50] diarrhoea [17 3437 44 113] measles [14 20 38] pneumonia [14] shingles[15] and venereal diseases [44] Despite significant advancesin the utilization of L javanica in southern Africa overthe years for numerous viral diseases (Table 1) very littleantiviral evaluations have been done on crude extracts andpurified compounds of the species There is need thereforefor more pharmacological research as L javanica could beharbouring potent (RT) inhibitors which could be useful forthe development of new pharmaceutical products importantfor use against viral diseases and infections

49 Pesticidal Effects Magano et al [95] evaluated the repel-lent effects of hexane extracts of L javanica essential oilusing the in vitro tick climbing repellency bioassay on adultsof Hyalomma marginatum rufipes Koch ticks The authorsfound that 107mgmL caused repellency index of 100 at onehour and 30 minutes In a similar study by Madzimure et al[120] L javanica aqueous leaf extracts at 10 and 20 wvwere effective at controlling cattle ticks (Amblyomma species

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 17

Boophilus species Hyalomma species Rhipicephalus appen-diculatus and Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi) and were as goodas the positive control amitraz-based acaricide TrickbusterThese authors found no parasites on microscopic exami-nation of the Giemsa-stained thin blood smear collectedfrom treated cattle implying that the animals did not sufferfrom clinical tick-borne diseases Similarly Nyahangare etal [59] tested the pesticidal activity of L javanica waterextracts against cattle ticks The authors found no significantdifference between cattle treated with a commercial syntheticacaricide and those under L javanica treatment Martinez-Velazquez et al [166] evaluated pesticidal effects of twoessential oils namely 120574-terpinene 82 and 120588-cymene 99isolated from Lippia graveolens Kunth against 10-day-oldRhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini) tick larvaeusing the larval packet test bioassay The two essential oilsproduced highmortality ranging from90 to 100 in all testedconcentrations of 20 to 125 (vv)Therefore L javanica canprovide an effective tick control option where synthetic prod-ucts are unavailable or unaffordable particularly in remoterural areas in sub-Saharan Africa Lippia javanica is popularfor tick control and management among resource-poorsmallholder farmers in South Africa [58 95] and Zimbabwe[59 60 120] While these preliminary evaluations may serveas confirmation that L javanica has some bioactivities againstticks a comprehensive method of tick control is requiredfor the resource-constrained smallholder farmers based onethnopharmacological properties of L javanica

McGaw et al [146] screened L javanica for the anthel-mintic test systems using the free living nematodeCaenorhabditis elegans The crude ethanol and hexaneextracts showed some activity at a concentration of 2mgmLwith the 7-day incubation assay appearing to be moresensitive than the shorter assay Earlier research by Mwangiet al [1] indicated that L javanica was active against Aedesaegypti larvae and Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (maizeweevil) Katsvanga and Chigwiza [147] reported that Ljavanica is an effective natural pesticide which can be used tocontrol aphid species (Brevicoryne brassicae) In their studyKatsvanga and Chigwiza [147] found that 1 1 powderedaqueous leaf extract of L javanica reduced B brassicae by532 against 783 and 967 of two synthetic pesticidesAphid kill and Bexadust ldquoLrdquo respectively Chikukura etal [149] found L javanica powdered leaf extracts to haveinsecticidal properties with potential to control graindamage by 21ndash33 Mashela et al [148] reported that theapplication of ground L javanica leaves to soil in nematode-infested (Meloidogyne incognita) pots reduced the nematodenumbers by 79ndash92 and significantly increased fresh fruityield dry shoot mass plant height and stem diameter ofthe tomato plants as well as levels of potassium nitrogenand manganese in leaf tissue Muzemu et al [150] evaluatedwater extracts of L javanica leaf powder for pesticidal effectsagainst rape (Brassica napus L) aphids B brassicae andtomato (Solanum lycopersicum Lam) red spider mites andTetranychus evansi as alternatives to conventional pesticidesLippia javanica reduced B brassicae and Tetranychus evansiby 125 and 63 respectively [150]The study demonstratedthat L javanica has pesticidal effects on B brassicae and T

evansi The reduced number of B brassicae and T evansicould be due to L javanicarsquos extracts having repellent toxicand antifeedant effects since the species has essential oilswith pesticidal properties [2] Therefore these findingsindicate that L javanica has both nematicidal and plantgrowth-promoting properties

410 Toxicity and Cytotoxicity Activity Lippia javanica isknown to cause liver damage and photosensitisation in live-stock resulting in stock losses [167] Triterpenoids isolatedfrom the genus Lippia are icterogenic and cause jaundice asa result of liver damage [167] The characteristic swellingyellowing and later peeling of unpigmented skin are due tothe presence of phylloerythrin a photodynamic porphyrinthat reacts with sunlight and causes severe cell damage [167]The compound is normally formed when chlorophyll isbroken down by microorganisms in the rumen but it nowaccumulates in the liver as a result of the damage caused bytriterpenoids [167] In view of the known toxicity of Lippiaspecies the prolonged use of high doses of L javanica ispotentially harmful [167] Lippia javanica showed low toxicityafter 48 h exposure with the percentage of mortality below50 [74]

Ayuko et al [79] evaluated the toxicity of L javanicausing a brine shrimp cytotoxicity assay with LC

50value of

1138 plusmn 133 120583gmL Ayuko et al [79] found the cytotoxicity toantiplasmodial activity ratios for the methanolic extracts ofthe two tested strains to be 8430 and 6503 and since theseare greater than 100 it may be concluded that the extractsare of low toxicity Samie et al [73] demonstrated that apure compound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanicaessential oil has low cytotoxicity activity against intestinaladenocarcinoma cells (ie the HCT-8 monolayers with IC

50

of 2656 plusmn 53 120583gmL) Lukwa [64] evaluated the toxicity of Ljavanica aqueous leaf extracts using sexually mature BALBcmice with the placebo as control Within 48 hours all micefed with the L javanica leaf aqueous extract at 125ndash375 vvwere lethargic and the overall mortality was 375 Previousresearch byManenzhe et al [2] showed that hydrodistillationof L javanica leaves flowers and stems produced oil thatwas poisonous against P falciparumwhen diluted to 1 (vv)These findings imply that despite its apparent safety waterextracts of L javanica leaves may have deleterious healthimplications on humans and animals if consumed at veryhigh doses

Many compounds that have been isolated from L javan-ica including phenolic glycosides flavonoids and essentialoils are not known to have acute toxic properties withthe exception of icterogenin 173 Icterogenin 173 has beenshown to inhibit biliary excretion in rabbits [168] Reports inliterature indicate that the consumption of xanthine 22 hasresulted in mammalian toxicity According to Madzimure etal [64] xanthine 22 is a demethylated derivative of caffeinewith pharmacological actions such as central nervous system(CNS) stimulation relaxation of smooth muscle (especiallybronchial muscle) myocardial stimulation peripheral vaso-constriction and diuresis Considering the widespread useof L javanica as herbal tea and medicine it is important

18 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

to determine if any toxicological effects can occur from itschronic or subchronic usage

411 Other Activities Mpofu et al [169] determined the effectof inclusion of L javanica leaf meal in broiler diets ongrowth performance carcass characteristics and fatty acidprofiles The authors found that the L javanica fed broilershad higher total polyunsaturated fatty acids and n-3 fattyacidsThe findings from the study showed that inclusion of Ljavanica in broiler diets at 5 gkg feed has positive influenceson growth performance carcass characteristics and fattyacid profiles of broiler meat and therefore L javanica haspotential as growth-promoting feed additive in broilersSamie et al [73] evaluated antiamoebic activity of a purecompound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica essen-tial oil against Entamoeba histolytica using microdilutionmethod with metronidazole as the positive control diluents(ie culture medium with an appropriate concentration ofdimethyl sulphoxide as the negative control) and a blank(ie culture medium without dimethyl sulphoxide) Samieet al [73] demonstrated that piperitenone 162 had markedantiamoebic activity with IC

50value of 25 120583gmL More

research is required as L javanica could be harbouring potentantiamoebic properties which could be useful for managingamoebiasis an infection that remains a significant cause ofmorbidity and mortality worldwide

5 Conclusion

Lippia javanica has been used in African and Asian countriesas herbal tea and medicine for many centuries Utilization ofL javanica because of its flavour and medicinal propertiesforms the basis of the current demand for the plant speciesin central eastern and southern Africa Research on Ljavanica over the past decade on health promoting propertieshas greatly contributed to the increased consumption ofthe species as herbal or recreational tea The focus of thisresearch has been on phytochemical compounds particularlyphenolic content and antioxidant and free radical scavengingactivities Phenolic compounds present in L javanica arelargely responsible for the antioxidant properties possessedby the species More research in this regard is required andfuture research should focus on more comprehensive chem-ical characterization of both crude and pure extracts andevaluate potential for commercialization and developmentof nutraceutical products based on traditional uses of Ljavanica Most of the pharmacological researches conductedon L javanica so far have focused on the phytochemistryand biological properties of leaves and little or no researchhas been done on roots and other plant parts Thereforefuture research on the species should focus on other plantparts for example flowers roots and stems as well asorgan-to-organ age and seasonal variation evaluations in thephytochemical content and pharmacological activities of thespecies

The recent increase in the demand for L javanica prod-ucts may partly be ascribed to growing body of scientific evi-dence indicating important health benefits Lippia javanica

is widely sold as herbal tea in Botswana South Africa andZimbabwe Leaves and stems of L javanica are also sold asherbal medicines in the medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquo marketsin South Africa [35 170] For local people who rely onherbal medicines as part of their primary healthcare aswell as cultural beliefs they prefer L javanica harvestedfrom the wild and unprocessed plant parts sold in informalmedicinal ldquomuthirdquo markets [170] In the past there were norecords of overexploitation of L javanica wild populationsin southern Africa resulting in Raimondo et al [171] listingthe species as Least Concern (LC) under the IUCN RedList Categories and Criteria version 31 of threatened species(httpwwwiucnredlistorg) Recently signs of overharvest-ing have been noted where local people or plant traders haveuprooted whole plants to supply medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquomarkets or use the plants as herbal medicines brooms orherbal tea Therefore large-scale commercial utilization of Ljavanica is not sustainable if the species is harvested fromthe wild Currently L javanica is cultivated on a commercialscale in Kenya [28] and South Africa [117] for essential oilproduction for the mosquito-repellent candles and perfumeindustry Cultivation of L javanica is therefore a solutionto the sustainability problems associated with harvesting ofthe species from the wild and this option is also necessaryfor establishing commercial scale medicinal production andprocessing and trade enterprises The success of commercialcultivation of L javanica will depend on how the species ismarketed as herbal tea and medicine and source of essentialoil and health care products and as a source of functionalfoods

Significant research has been made in the past 50 yearsinto the chemistry and pharmacology of L javanica Thesestudies have shown L javanica to display various chemicaland different biological activities some of which justify itsethnopharmacological utilization in variety of cultures Inthe light of the evidence that L javanica is combined withother plant species in traditional medicine it will be valuableto investigate the possibility of synergistic effects of thedifferent extracts Deep phytochemical studies of L javanicaand its phytochemical properties especially the mechanismsof action of its bioactive constituents to illustrate the cor-relation between ethnomedicinal uses and pharmacologicalactivities should be the focus of further research on thespecies There is need for extensive in vivo experiments tovalidate the existing pharmacological activities Howeverbecause L javanica contains potentially toxic compoundsits toxicological properties need to be properly establishedvia proper quality control of product development to ensurethat potentially toxic components are kept below tolerancelevels

Appendix

A Chemical Compounds Isolated andCharacterized from Lippia javanica

See Table 5

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 19

Table 5

Chemical compound Reference(s)Phenolic compoundsCoumarin 1 [4]Verbascoside 2 [81]Isoverbascoside 3 [81]Theveside-Na 4 [82]Theveridoside 5 [82]4-ethylnonacosane 6 [83]Apigenin 7 [64 83]Cirsimaritin 8 [64 83]6-Methoxy luteolin41015840-methyl ether 9 [83]

6-Methoxy luteolin31015840410158407-trimethyl ether 10 [83]

Crassifolioside 11 [64]Luteolin 12 [64]Diosmetin 13 [64]Chrysoeriol 14 [64]Tricin 15 [64]Isothymusin 16 [64]Eupatorin 17 [64]5-Dimethyl noboletin 18 [64]Genkwanin 19 [64]Salvigenin 20 [64]Lippialactone 21 [84]AlkaloidXanthine 22 [64]Amino acids120572-Aminobutyric acid 23 [85 86]Valine 24 [86]Isoleucine 25 [86]Asparagine 26 [86]Phenylalanine 27 [86]120572-Aminoadipic acid 28 [86]Lysine 29 [86]Histidine 30 [86]Tyrosine 31 [86]Tryptophan 32 [86]Alanine 33 [85]Glycine 34 [85]Proline 35 [85]Serine 36 [85]Glutamine acid 37 [85]120573-Alanine 38 [85]Glutamine 39 [85]120573-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [85]4-hydroxyproline 41 [85]Essential oil(E)-2(3)-tagetenoneepoxide 42 [83]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]120572-Pinene 44 [3ndash5 87ndash91]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4](+)-2-Carene 46 [4]3-Carene 47 [4]Eucalyptol 48 [4]18 myrcene 49 [87]Ipsdienone 50 [87]Caryophyllene 51 [85]Geranial 52 [5 92 93]26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [92]Geraniol 54 [92]Octen-3-one 55 [5]6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]120588-Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]Artemisia ketone 58 [5]Linalool oxide 59 [5]Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5](Z)-120573-Ocimenone 61 [5](E)-120573-Ocimenone 62 [5]Carvyl acetate 63 [5]120572-Cubebene 64 [5]Sesquithujene 65 [5]Acora-35-diene 66 [5]120573-Bergamotene 67 [5]Trans-calamenene 68 [5]120573-Alaskene 69 [5]120574-Cadinene 70 [5]120575-Cadinene 71 [3 88 89 91]Cis-calamenene 72 [5]Nerolidol 73 [5](E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 88 89]Spathulenol 75 [5]Epi-120572-muurolol 76 [5]120572-Longipinene 77 [90]Chrysanthenone 78 [90]120572-Terpineol 79 [3 5 90 91]120572-Amorphene 80 [90]120572-Thujene 81 [91]120574-Terpinene 82 [91]120572-Cubebene 83 [91]Linalool acetate 84 [91]Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [91]Camphene 86 [3 5 88ndash91]120573-Pinene 87 [3 5 91]Sabinene 88 [3 5 87 90 91]Myrcene 89 [3 5 87ndash89 91ndash95]120572-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 88 89]2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]Limonene 92 [3 5 88ndash94]18-Cineole 93 [3 5 90 91 95]120573-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 88 89 91]

20 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3](Z)-120573-Ocimene 96 [3 5 88 89 91](E)-120573-Ocimene 97 [3 5 88 89 91]Isomyrcenol 98 [3]p-Cymene 99 [3 5 85 88ndash91]2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]Terpinolene 101 [3]Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 88 89 91 95]Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 88 89](Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]Nonanal 106 [3]Perillene 107 [3 91]Ipsenone 108 [3 87ndash89 95]Trans-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 88ndash90]1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 88 89]Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]Ttrans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]cis-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 88ndash90]120572-Copaene 114 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetone 115 [3 88 89]Trans-tagetone 116 [3 88 89]Camphor 117 [3 5 88ndash90 93 94]120573-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 91]Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 85 88ndash90 92 93]

Trans-120572-bergamotene 121 [3]120572-Cedrene 122 [3 5]Myrcenone 123 [3 5 83 91]120573-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 87ndash91 93 94]2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 88 89](Z)-120573-Farnesene 129 [3](E)-120573-Farnesene 130 [3 5](EE)-120572-Farnesene 131 [3 88 89]Ipsdienol 132 [3](Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]Isovaleric acid 134 [3]120572-Humulene 135 [3 5 88 89 91]120572-Acoradiene 136 [3]120573-Acoradiene 137 [3]120574-Muurolene 138 [3 5 88 89]120572-Muurolene 139 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]Borneol 142 [3 5 88ndash90]Verbenone 143 [3 91]Germacrene-D 144 [3 87ndash89 93]120573-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]120574-Bisabolene 146 [3]Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]Carvone 148 [3 5 91]Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 88 89 91]120573-Curcumene 150 [3]Ar-curcumene 151 [3]Cis-piperitol 152 [3]2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol156 [3 88 89]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]Calamenene 158 [3]Carvone oxide 159 [3]Isopiperitenone 160 [3]Cis-carveol 161 [3]Piperitenone 162 [2 3 73 83]Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 88 89]Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3ndash5 88ndash90]Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 88 89]Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]Spathulenol 167 [3]Eugenol 168 [3 5]Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120573-ol(=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120572-ol(=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [83]Icterogenin 173 [96]

B Chemical Structures ofPhenolic Compounds Alkaloids AminoAcids and Essential Oils Isolated fromLippia javanica

See Figure 4

Competing Interests

The author declares that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 21

O

OO

OO O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

C CH CHO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

COOH

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

Me

OMe

OMe

OMe

MeO

Me

HOOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OMe

OMe

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

（2 （2

（2

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

（3CO

（3CO

Coumarin 1 [4]

Verbascoside 2 [89]

Isoverbascoside 3 [89]

Theveside-Na 4 [90]

Theveridoside 5 [90]

4-Ethylnonacosane 6 [91]

Apigenin 7 [120 91]

Cirsimaritin 8 [120 91]

Crassifolioside 11 [120]

Luteolin 12 [120]

Diosmetin 13 [120]

Chrysoeriol 14 [120]

Tricin 15 [120]

Isothymusin 16 [120]

Eupatorin 17 [120]

6-Methoxyluteolin 3 47-trimethyl ether 10 [91]

6-Methoxyluteolin 4-methyl ether 9 [91]

Figure 4 Continued

22 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

N

NH

HN

HO

NH

O

NH

O

O

O

O

HN

N N

N

H

H

OAc

OAcOAc

OO

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

（3CO

（2

（2

（2

（2 （2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3N

（2N

（2N

（2N

（2N

minus

+

+

5-Desmethylnoboletin 18 [120]

Genkwanin 19 [120]

Salvigenin 20 [120]

Lippialactone 21 [92]

Xanthine 22 [120]

Valine 24 [94]

Isoleucine 25 [94]

Asparagine 26 [94]

Phenylalanine 27 [94]

Lysine 29 [94]

Histidine 30 [94]

Tyrosine 31 [94]

Tryptophan 32 [94]

Alanine 33 [93]

Glycine 34 [93]

Proline 35 [93]

Serine 36 [93]

Glutamine acid 37 [93]

Glutamine 39 [93]

4-Hydroxyproline 41 [93]

(E)-2(3)-Tagetenone epoxide 42 [91]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]

-Alanine 38 [93]

-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [93]

-Aminoadipic acid 28 [94]

-Aminobutyric acid 23 [93 94]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 23

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

H

H

HH

H

O

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

HO

OH

O

O

O

O

OH（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4]

3-Carene 47 [4]

Eucalyptol 48 [4]

18 myrcene 49 [123]

Ipsdienone 50 [123]

Caryophyllene 51 [93]

Geranial 52 [5 100 101]

26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [100]

Geraniol 54 [100]

Octen-3-one 55 [5]

6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]

Artemisia ketone 58 [5]

Linalool oxide 59 [5]

Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5]

Carvyl acetate 63 [5]

Sesquithujene 65 [5]

Acora-35-diene 66 [5]

-Pinene 44 [3-5 123 96 97 98 99] -Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]

(+)-2-Carene 46 [4]

-Bergamotene 67 [5]

-Cubebene 64 [5]

(Z)--Ocimenone 61 [5]

(E)--Ocimenone 62 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

24 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OH

H

H

H

H

O

OHO

HO

H

HH H

H

H

HH

H

HO

HO

O

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

Trans-calamenene 68 [5]

Cis-calamenene 72 [5]

Nerolidol 73 [5]

(E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 96 97]

Spathulenol 75 [5]

Chrysanthenone 78 [98]

Linalool acetate 84 [99]

Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [99]

Camphene 86 [3 5 96 97 98 99]

Sabinene 88 [3 5 123 98 99]

Myrcene 89 [3 5 123 100 101 96 97 99 102 103]

-Alaskene 69 [5]

-Terpineol 79 [3 5 98 99]

-Amorphene 80 [98]

-Cadinene 70 [45]-Thujene 81 [99]

-Cadinene 71 [3 96 97 99] -Terpinene 82 [99]

-Cubebene 83 [99]

-Pinene 87 [3 5 99]

-Longipinene 77 [98]

-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 96 97]

Epi--muurolol 76 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 25

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O

OH

OH

H

H

H

H

H

HOO

OH

O

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（3(（2)3（2

（3(（2)6（2

2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]

Limonene 92 [3 5 100 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3]

Isomyrcenol 98 [3]

p-Cymene 99 [3 5 93 96 97 98 99]

2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]

Terpinolene 101 [3]

Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 96 97 99 103]

Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 96 97]

(Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]

67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]

Nonanal 106 [3]

Perillene 107 [3 99]

Ipsenone 108 [3 123 96 97 103]

Trans-linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 96 97 98]

1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 96 97]

Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]

Trans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]

Cis-linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 96 97 98]

Cis-tagetone 115 [3 96 97]

Trans-tagetone 116 [3 96 97]

-Copaene 114 [3 5 96 97 98]

18-Cineole (=eucalyptol) 93 [3 5 98 99 103]

-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 96 97 99]

(Z)--Ocimene 96 [3 5 96 97 99]

(E)--Ocimene 97 [3 5 96 97 99]

Camphor 117 [3 5 101 96 97 98 102]

Figure 4 Continued

26 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

HH

H

H

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 93 100 101 96 97 98]

Myrcenone 123 [3 5 91 99]

2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol 125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]

Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 96 97]

Ipsdienol 132 [3]

(Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]

Isovaleric acid 134 [3]

Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]

Borneol 142 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 99]

Trans--bergamotene 121 [3]

-Cedrene 122 [3 5]

-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 123 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)--Farnesene 129 [3]

(E)--Farnesene 130 [3 5]

-Muurolene 139 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Muurolene 138 [3 5 96 97]

-Acoradiene 136 [3]

-Acoradiene 137 [3]

-Humulene 135 [3 5 96 97 99]

(EE)--Farnesene 131 [3 96 97]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O O

HO

O

H

H

H

HO

HO

OH

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3CO（3

Verbenone 143 [3 99]

Germacrene-D 144 [3 123 101 96 97]

Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]

Carvone 148 [3 5 99]

Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 96 97 99]

Ar-curcumene 151 [3]

Cis-piperitol 152 [3]

2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]

26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol 156 [3 96 97]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]

Calamenene 158 [3]

Carvone oxide 159 [3]

Isopiperitenone 160 [3]

Cis-carveol 161 [3]

Piperitenone 162 [2 3 91 81]

Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 96 97]

-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]

-Bisabolene 146 [3]

-Curcumene 150 [3]

Figure 4 Continued

28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

OO

O

O

H

H

H

H

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

H

H

HCH

HH

HO

（3

（2

（2C

（3C（3C

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C O（3

Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3-5 96 97 98]

Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 96 97]

Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]

Spathulenol 167 [3]

Eugenol 168 [3 5]

Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [91]

Icterogenin 173 [104]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Figure 4

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to the NationalResearch Foundation (NRF) and GovanMbeki Research andDevelopment Centre (GMRDC) University of Fort Hare forfinancial support to conduct this research

References

[1] JWMwangi I Addae-Mensah RMMunavu andW LwandeldquoEssential oils of Kenyan Lippia species Part IIIrdquo Flavour andFragrance Journal vol 6 no 3 pp 221ndash224 1991

[2] N J Manenzhe N Potgieter and T Van Ree ldquoCompositionand antimicrobial activities of volatile components of Lippiajavanicardquo Phytochemistry vol 65 no 16 pp 2333ndash2336 2004

[3] A M Viljoen S Subramoney S F V Vuuren K H C Baserand B Demirci ldquoThe composition geographical variation andantimicrobial activity of Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae) leafessential oilsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 96 no 1-2 pp271ndash277 2005

[4] N Lukwa P Moslashlgaard P Furu and C Boslashgh ldquoLippia javanica(Burm f) Spreng its general constituents and bioactivity onmosquitoesrdquoTropical Biomedicine vol 26 no 1 pp 85ndash91 2009

[5] L S Chagonda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssential oil compositionof Lippia javanica (Burmf) spreng chemotype from WesternZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants vol 18 no 2pp 482ndash485 2015

[6] W Kipkore B Wanjohi H Rono and G Kigen ldquoA study of themedicinal plants used by the Marakwet Community in KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 242014

[7] E A Shikanga S Combrinck and T Regnier ldquoSouth AfricanLippia herbal infusions total phenolic content antioxidant andantibacterial activitiesrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76no 3 pp 567ndash571 2010

[8] N T Parrant ldquoThe potential of non-timber forest products ofBotswanardquo Botswana Notes Records vol 28 no 1 pp 203ndash2181996

[9] D M Motlhanka and S W Makhabu ldquoMedicinal and ediblewild fruit plants of Botswana as emerging new crop opportu-nitiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plants Research vol 5 no 10 pp1836ndash1842 2011

[10] M Bhebhe T N Fuller B Chipurura and M MuchuwetildquoEffect of solvent type on total phenolic content and free radicalscavenging activity of black tea and herbal infusionsrdquo FoodAnalytical Methods vol 9 no 4 pp 1060ndash1067 2016

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29

[11] M Bhebhe B Chipurura and M Muchuweti ldquoDeterminationand comparison of phenolic compound content and antioxidantactivity of selected local Zimbabwean herbal teas with exoticAspalathus linearisrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 100no 1 pp 213ndash218 2015

[12] B Patiri and A Borah Wild Edible Plants of Assam GeetakhiPrinters Guwahati India 2007

[13] H Narzary and A Basumatary ldquoProximate and vitamin Canalysis of wild edible plants consumed by Bodos of AssamIndiardquo Journal of Molecular Pathophysiology vol 4 no 4 pp128ndash133 2015

[14] M Gelfand S Mavi R B Drummond and B Ndemera TheTraditional Medical Practitioners in Zimbabwe His Principles ofPractice and Pharmacopoeia Mambo Press Gweru Zimbabwe1985

[15] D Davids Materia medica and care a study of the uses ofmedicinal herbs and remedies as a form of treatment andnegotiating social relationships in cape town and surroundings[MS dissertation] University of theWestern Cape Cape TownSouth Africa 2012

[16] A Maroyi and G K E Mosina ldquoMedicinal plants and tradi-tional practices in peri-urban domestic gardens of the Limpopoprovince South africardquo Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledgevol 13 no 4 pp 665ndash672 2014

[17] A Samie C L Obi P O Bessong and L Namrita ldquoActivityprofiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Vendacommunities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterialspeciesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 4 no 12 pp1443ndash1451 2005

[18] T York An ethnopharmacological study of plants used fortreating respiratory infections in rural Maputaland [MS disser-tation] University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa South Africa2012

[19] D Davids T Blouws O Aboyade et al ldquoTraditional healthpractitionersrsquo perceptions herbal treatment andmanagement ofHIV and related opportunistic infectionsrdquo Journal of Ethnobiol-ogy and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 77 2014

[20] A Hutchings A H Scott G Lewis and A CunninghamZulu Medicinal Plants An Inventory University of Natal PressPietermarizburg South Africa 1996

[21] RM Coopoosamy andK K Naidoo ldquoAn ethnobotanical studyofmedicinal plants used by traditional healers inDurban SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 6no 11 pp 818ndash823 2012

[22] I Hedberg and F Staugard Traditional Medicinal Plants inBotswana Ipeleng Gaborone Botswana 1989

[23] H Shahriar A S M H K Chowdhury S Rahman et al ldquoSci-entific validation of medicinal plants used by a folk medicinalpractitioner of Chuadanga District BangladeshrdquoWorld Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 11 pp 13ndash24 2014

[24] S S Semenya M J Potgieter and M P Tshisikhawe ldquoUseconservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinalplants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 12 no 18 pp2392ndash2405 2013

[25] M Roberts Indigenous Healing Plants Southern Book Publish-ers Halfway House Johannesburg South Africa 1990

[26] T Birhanu D Abera and E Ejeta ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas westernEthiopiardquo Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare vol 5no 1 pp 83ndash93 2015

[27] N T Mahlangeni R Moodley and S B Jonnalagadda ldquoEle-mental composition of Cyrtanthus obliquus and Lippia javanicaused in South African herbal tonic Imbizardquo Arabian Journal ofChemistry 2013

[28] W Musila D Kisangau and J Muema ldquoConservation statusand use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitionersin Machakos District Kenyardquo in Indigenous Knowledge Con-ference Proceedings Pennsylvania State University May 27ndash292004 2004

[29] G N Njoroge and R W Bussmann ldquoTraditional managementof ear nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 542006

[30] P Chigora R Masocha and F Mutenheri ldquoThe role of indige-nous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailmentsin rural Zimbabwe the case of Mutirikwi communal landsrdquoJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol 9 no 2 pp26ndash43 2007

[31] R W Bussmann G G Gilbreath J Solio et al ldquoPlant use ofthe Maasai of Sekenani Valley Maasai Mara Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 22 2006

[32] D Motlhanka and G P Nthoiwa ldquoEthnobotanical Survey ofmedicinal plants of Tswapong North in Eastern Botswana acase of plants from Mosweu and Seolwane Villagesrdquo EuropeanJournal of Medicinal Plants vol 3 no 1 pp 10ndash24 2013

[33] A Vhurumuku ldquoKnowledge use and attitudes towardsmedici-nal plants of pre-service teachers at a South African UniversityrdquoGlobal Advanced Research Journal in Environmental Science andToxicology vol 4 no 2 pp 15ndash24 2015

[34] M N Nkwanyana An ethnobotanical and antidiarrhoeal inves-tigation of plants used traditionally in the maputaland areahomesteads [MS dissertation] University of Zululand KwaD-langezwa South Africa 2013

[35] T E Moeng An investigation into the trade of medicinal plantsbymuthi shops and street vendors in the Limpopo Province SouthAfrica [MS thesis] University of Limpopo Gauteng SouthAfrica 2010

[36] S Bandeira A M Manjate and O Filipe ldquoAn EcologicalAssessment of the Health of the Chibuto-Missavene Wetlandin the Dry Season Mozambique Emphasis on ResourcesAssessment Utilization and Sustainability Analysisrdquo reportto Challenge Program for Water and Food InternationalWater Management Institute Pretoria South Africa 2006httpscgspacecgiarorgbitstreamhandle105682160421604pdfsequence=1

[37] M C Palgrave R B Drummond and E J Moll Trees ofSouthern Africa Struik Cape Town South Africa 2003

[38] M O Nanyingi J M Mbaria A L Lanyasunya et alldquoEthnopharmacological survey of Samburu district KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4 article 142008

[39] J G J P Sankar and K B Satapathy ldquoWeed diversity of Rabicrops and their ethnomedicinal uses in Kendrapara districtof Odisha Indiardquo International Research Journal of BiologicalSciences vol 4 no 3 pp 33ndash38 2015

[40] D E N Mabogo The ethnobotany of the vhavenda [MSdissertation] University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa1990

[41] B-E van Wyk B van Oudtshoorn and N Gericke MedicinalPlants of South Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2013

[42] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used forthe treatment of tuberculosis by Bapedi traditional healers

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

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OncologyJournal of

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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

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Research and TreatmentAIDS

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 9: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9

[40] In Zimbabwe leaf decoction is taken orally as remedyfor fever [14]

Lippia javanica is also cultivated on a commercial scale bya rural community in Giyani the Limpopo province SouthAfrica for the production of mosquito-repellent candles[117] Clinical studies using human volunteers showed thatL javanica repels no less than 95 of mosquitos whereasmost mosquito repellents repel only 42 of them [118]Based on these findings the Council for Scientific andIndustrial Research (CSIR) South Africa signed a benefitsharing agreement with traditional healers allowing for thecommercial cultivation of L javanica aimed at establishingan indigenous oil industry for rural development and large-scale production of antimosquito candles and other insectrepellents The mosquito repellent is registered as a patentunder the Fertilisers Farm Feeds and Stock Remedies Act(Act 36 of 1947) as a pest repellent [119] These findings andthe establishment of a large-scale production of antimosquitocandles and other insect repellents strengthen the view thatL javanica is a potential source of antipesticidal agentsand to some extent validate the traditional use of the plantspecies for insect pest control Pesticidal plants such as Ljavanica are increasingly being used as alternatives wheresynthetic products are unaffordable or are not available or areineffective A number of studies have indicated that the use ofL javanica as a pesticide is a long-standing tradition passeddown from generation to generation [120]

25 Wounds Injuries Pain and Skin Infections Lippia javan-ica is used as remedy for a variety of skin infections andinjuries in Kenya South Africa Swaziland and ZimbabweIn SouthAfrica leaf infusions are used to treat skin disorderssuch as boils chicken pox febrile rashes heat rashesmeaslesscabies scratches and stings [20 21 40 50 54] In Kenyaabout 50 g of fresh leaves is wrapped around a fresh woundto enhance healing [57] and in South Africa leaf infusionsare taken orally as remedy for wounds [54] In SouthAfrica powder from burnt roots of L javanica is appliedto scarifications made around sprained joints to facilitatehealing [20] In Kenya and Zimbabwe leaf infusion is takenorally to treatmeasles or a patient is washedwith leaf infusion[14 38] The Zulu people in South Africa take a mixtureof chopped handful leaves of L javanica with the sameamount of bark of A burkeiO engleri S birrea S cordatumand T elegans boiled in two litres of water as an enemafor the treatment of sores [56] In Swaziland about 30 g ofL javanica leaves and similar amount of Acanthospermumaustrale Kuntze are boiled in 5 litres of water and decoctionis taken as remedy for sores [55] In Zimbabwe root ashesof L javanica mixed with fat are applied to the skin ofa patient with scabies [14] Wound healing is a processwhich involves distinct overlapping phases of coagulationinflammation proliferation and tissue remodelling [121]The same authors argued that a set of complex biochemicalevents takes place in a closely orchestrated cascade to repairthe wound and any errors in the wound healing processcan lead to delayed healing or formation of hypertrophicscars Abubakar [122] argued that colonization of woundsby opportunistic microorganisms usually delays the wound

healing process andor may lead to infectious conditionTherefore application of L javanica on wounds and skininfections leads to disinfection debridement and provisionof a suitable environment for aiding the wound healingprocess Lippia javanica has potential for therapeutic use inwound and skin diseases management but there is needfor research on the safety phytochemistry and biologicalproperties of the species

26 EthnoveterinaryUses The leaves stems twigs andwholeplants of L javanica are used as ethnoveterinary medicinein India Kenya South Africa and Zimbabwe The Xhosapeople in the Eastern Cape province South Africa use Ljavanica leaves for the disinfection of meat that has beeninfected with anthrax [20] In Kenya the stem of L javanicais used to preserve milk by applying it to the gourd beforemilk fermentation [62] In India whole plants are used aslice repellants while in South Africa and Zimbabwe crushedleaves mixed with water are used to get rid of ticks and twigsare used as bedding in fowl runs to get rid of ectoparasites[58ndash60]

27 Other Uses Lippia javanica is used as a good luck charmto treat persons experiencing bad dreams to ward off evilspirits to protect one from lightening and to protect thehome (Table 1) In Zimbabwe L javanica leaves are preparedas an infusion to treat persons experiencing nightmares [64]In both South Africa and Zimbabwe evil spirits are cleansedby washing the body of an affected person by leaf infusion ofL javanica [14 123] In Swaziland 50 g leaves of L javanicaand C molle are ground into a powder and 5 litres of wateris added and face and hands are washed to remove badluck when exposed to a corpse [71] In South Africa thewhole plant is placed on a patientrsquos bed after the circumcisionceremony [58] to prevent odours and freshen surroundingair A mixture of L javanica leaves and roots is used toclean tools and hands before and after funerals the stemsand leaves are used as brooms to sweep grave sites and theentire plant is also used when coming from the mortuaryto remove bad spirits [58 124] The corpse is washed withL javanica infusion after death to prevent odours formingor if the corpse has an odour women place pieces of Ljavanica in the nostrils of the corpse and sweep the roomwith twigs where the person was sleeping [58] In KwaZuluNatal South Africa if the meat started to smell it will beboiled with L javanica leaves to take away the smell [58]TheXhosa people in the Eastern Cape province South Africa useL javanica leaves for the disinfection of meat that has beeninfected with anthrax [20] In KwaZulu Natal South Africaleaves are sprinkled in toilets to prevent odours [58] Leavesof L javanica are sprinkled in houses for pleasant smell inthe Limpopo province South Africa [35] and Kenya [31] InKwaZulu Natal South Africa it is believed that a person canrepel snakes by placing a small stem with leaves on his orher head [58] In Malawi Swaziland and Zimbabwe peopleshowing sign of mental disorder madness or hystericaloutbursts are required towash their bodies with leaf infusions[14 67 68 71]

10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 2 Nutritional composition of Lippia javanica leaves

Caloric and nutritional composition Values ReferenceAsh 160 plusmn 0001 g [13]Calorific value 5064 plusmn 563 kcal [13]Crude fat 016 plusmn 0001 g [13]Crude fibre 263 plusmn 0002 g [13]Crude protein 122 plusmn 00004 g [13]Dry matter 1546 plusmn 140 g [13]Moisture 9044 plusmn 026 g [13]Total carbohydrate 655 plusmn 026 g [13]Vitamin C 2242 plusmn 0001mg [13]Ca 2856ndash9225 120583g gminus1 [27]Mg 1598ndash5619 120583g gminus1 [27]Fe 75ndash750 120583g gminus1 [27]Mn 401 plusmn 116 120583g gminus1 [27]Zn 156ndash273 120583g gminus1 [27]Cu 30ndash85 120583g gminus1 [27]Cr 0ndash27 120583g gminus1 [27]Se 257 plusmn 019 120583g gminus1 [27]Pb 038ndash119 120583g gminus1 [27]Cd 053 plusmn 005 120583g gminus1 [27]Co 019 plusmn 001 120583g gminus1 [27]

3 Phytochemical Constituents and NutritionalComposition of Lippia javanica

Multiple classes of phytochemicals including volatile andnonvolatile secondary metabolites such as alkaloids aminoacids flavonoids iridoids and triterpenes as well as severalminerals have been identified from L javanica [1ndash5 7 13 2773 78 81 83ndash86 88ndash94 120 123 125ndash127] Leaves flowersand twigs of L javanica have a wide variety of the so-calledclassic nutrients such as minerals carbohydrates proteinsfats and vitamins (Table 2) Lippia javanica leaves are a goodsource of minerals such as cadmium calcium chromiumcobalt copper iron magnesium manganese selenium andzinc [27] These authors assessed the levels of the elementsin L javanica leaves and found the elements to be in thedecreasing order of Ca gt Mg gt Fe gt Zn gt Mn gt Cu gt Se gtCr gt Pb gt Co gt Cd for total concentrations and Ca gt Mggt Fe gt Zn gt Cu gt Cr gt Pb for water extractable forms Theseresults corroborate an observation made by Sedaghathooret al [128] that Ca and Mg are among the most abundantelements in tea plants These mineral elements are importantin human nutrition since L javanica is used as herbaltea and food additive (Table 1) Calcium magnesium ironmanganese and zinc play a major role in activating someenzymes and regulating many responses of cells to stimuli[129] Some of the mineral elements identified from Ljavanica leaves are required by the human body for repair ofworn out cell tissues and strong bones and teeth and buildingof red blood cells and other related tissuesTherefore since Ljavanica has appreciable concentrations of mineral elementssuch as calcium magnesium iron manganese and zinc

(Table 2) which are essential for enzyme metabolism thesemineral elements could enhance the nutritional and curativeproperties of the species

Bhebhe et al [10] determined the total phenolic and tan-nin content and radical scavenging activities of L javanicacomparing it with Aspalathus linearis (Burmf) R Dahlgren(Rooibos) a commercial South African herbal tea andother popular herbal teas in Zimbabwe (Table 3) Adansoniadigitata L Fadogia ancylantha Schweinf Ficus sycomorus Land Myrothamnus flabellifolius Welw are indigenous herbalteas consumed in Zimbabwe The tannin content of Ljavanica is very low when compared to A linearis (Rooibos)(Table 3) Lippia javanica has higher radical scavenging activ-ity than A linearis (Table 3) which is probably due to highertotal phenolic content in comparison to A linearis which is apopular herbal tea consumed by 10 of the global herbal teamarket [10] In another study Bhebhe et al [11] determinedand compared the effect of several solvents namely hotwater 50 methanol ethanol 50 ethanol acetone 50acetone and ethyl acetate on phenolic composition and freeradical scavenging activity in common black tea C sinensisand five other well-known herbal teas including L javanicaIn all the seven solvents used L javanica had higher totalphenolic content than C sinensis implying that L javanicais competitive to the black tea in terms of phenolic contentShikanga et al [7] found leaf extracts of L javanica to havehigher phenolic content of 148 mgg gallic acid equivalentof dry weight than flowers (99mgg) and twigs (83mgg)Phenolic compounds found in plants are known to play animportant role as antioxidants in exhibiting the medicinalproperties such as antibiotic anti-inflammatory anticancerand antiallergic properties [10 66 130 131]

The compounds isolated from L javanica are docu-mented and listed in Appendix A and their structures arepresented in Appendix B Simple phenolic compounds andcaffeic acid and its derivatives are some of the compoundsthat have been identified in L javanica and examplesinclude coumarin 1 34-dihydroxy-120573-phenylethoxy-O-[410158401015840-120573-caffeoyl-120572-rhamnopyranosyl-(1101584010158401015840310158401015840)-O-120573-glucopyrano-side] commonly referred to as verbascoside 2 and 34-dihydroxy-120573-phenylethoxy-O-[610158401015840-120573-caffeoyl-120572-rhamnopy-ranosyl-(1101584010158401015840310158401015840)-O-120573-glucopyranoside] commonly referredto as isoverbascoside 3 isolated by Olivier et al [81] from theaerial parts of the species Nonvolatile diterpenes known asiridoid-glycosides have also been isolated from L javanicaby Rimpler and Sauerbier [82] represented by theveside-Na4 and theveridoside 5 Mujovo et al [83] isolated a longchain alkane ldquo4-ethylnonacosanerdquo 6 and four flavanonesapigenin 7 cirsimaritin 8 6-methoxyluteolin 41015840-methylether 9 and 6-methoxyluteolin 31015840410158407-trimethyl ether 10from ethanolic extracts of L javanica leaves Madzimureet al [120] identified an array of phenolic glycosides andflavonoids which include crassifolioside 11 luteolin 12diosmetin 13 chrysoeriol 14 tricin 15 isothymusin 16eupatorin 17 5-dimethyl noboletin 18 genkwanin 19salvigenin 20 and an alkaloid xanthine 22 Ludere et al[84] isolated lippialactone 21 from the ethyl acetate extractof aerial parts of L javanica Neidlein and Staehle [85] andDlamini [86] isolated 19 amino acids compounds 23 to

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11

Table 3 Total phenolic content (TPC) as gallic acid equivalents (GAE) and tannin content as leucocyanidin equivalents (LE) and free radicalscavenging activity (FRSA) of herbal tea extracts (after Bhebhe et al [10])

Plant species TPC g GAE100 g Tannin content of LE100 g Percentage FRSA IC50gmL

Lippia javanica 1246 plusmn 431 012 plusmn 001 8377 plusmn 08 0016Aspalathus linearis 669 plusmn 083 094 plusmn 004 6727 plusmn 025 0053Adansonia digitata 079 plusmn 028 169 plusmn 001 4307 plusmn 10 0132Fadogia ancylantha 288 plusmn 048 020 plusmn 012 700 plusmn 040 0051Ficus sycamores 1402 plusmn 001 198 plusmn 012 8613 plusmn 085 0009Myrothamnus flabellifolius 475 plusmn 033 104 plusmn 001 8093 plusmn 075 0019

41 in Appendix A from L javanica At least 131 differentclasses of essential oil compounds (compounds 42ndash172 inAppendices A and B) have been isolated from L javanica byseveral researchers [3ndash5 83 85 86 88ndash94 123] Hutchingsand van Staden [96] isolated a toxic triterpenoid saponinicterogenin 173 from L javanica leaves These differentclasses of essential oil compounds have been associatedwith various therapeutic activities such as anaestheticanalgesic anti-inflammatory antimicrobial cardiovasculardecongestant digestive expectorant hepatoprotective andsedative activities as well as stimulant of nervous systemand tonifying effects [132] Meanwhile flavonoids possessseveral pharmacological properties including antibacterialanticancer anti-inflammatory antioxidant antiviral andhepatoprotective effects [133] which play important rolesin human health Flavonoid such as apigenin 7 is reportedto possess antibacterial [134] and hepatoprotective [135]properties Apigenin 7 and luteolin 12 are reported to possessanti-inflammatory and analgesic effects [133] affecting thefunction of enzyme systems involved in the generation ofinflammatory processes especially tyrosine and serine-threonine protein kinases [136 137] It has also been reportedthat apigenin 7 prevents HIV-1 activation via a novelmechanism that involves inhibition of viral transcription[138] and luteolin 12 demonstrated synergistic effects withanother flavonoid kaempferol against herpes simplex virus[133] Kamiya [139] documented the importance of essentialamino acids such as lysine valine isoleucine and histidinein terms of the risks to health if they are deficientThe authoralso documented their biological effects which includemuscle protein maintenance potentiation of immunefunction tissue repair acceleration after burn or traumaprotecting liver from toxic agents lowering blood pressuremodulating cholesterol metabolism and stimulating insulinor growth hormone secretion Therefore L javanica leavesand other plant parts which have shown to be rich inflavonoid and polyphenolic compounds amino acids andessential oil could play an important role in the treatmentand management of diseases such as hypertension andinflammation listed in Table 1

4 Pharmacological Activities

Scientific studies on L javanica indicate that it has a widerange of pharmacological activities (Table 4) which include

anticancer [140] antidiabetic [141] antimalarial [4 49 142]antimicrobial [2 3 7 17 73ndash75 77 83 84 126 143]antioxidant [7 10 11 75 77 125] antiplasmodial [2 7980 84 144 145] and pesticidal effects [1 2 59 95 120146ndash150] and cytotoxicity [2 73 79 120] activities Table 4summarizes some of the pharmacological studies undertakenon L javanica extracts aimed at evaluating some of theethnomedicinal uses of the species documented throughoutits distributional range (see Table 1) Some of the listedpharmacological activities may not relate directly to thedocumented ethnomedicinal uses of the species but mayprovide some insight into the speciesrsquo potential therapeuticvalue and bioactive properties and application

41 Anticancer Activity Fouche et al [140] reported anti-cancer activity of dichloromethane root extract of L javanicaagainst three human cells exhibiting TGI value of 182120583gmLfor breast MDA-MB-435 186 120583gmL for breast MDA-N and209 120583gmL for melanoma MALME-3M Based on literaturea couple of terpenoid compounds that have been isolatedfrom L javanica are known to have antitumor propertiesFor example linalool 120 is known to have antitumoractivity which plays a protective role against hepatotoxicityand the compound has anti-inflammatory activities as well[151] Research by Yang et al [152] showed limonene 92 tohave inhibitory effect on pancreatic and mammary tumorsAnother terpenoid compound 120572-pinene 44 is known toinhibit translocation of NF-120581B or p65 protein into nuclei ofLPS-stimulated THP-1 cells [153] These findings serve as ascientific validation for the use of L javanica as a componentof a herbal concoction known in KwaZulu Natal province asldquoimbizardquo prepared by mixing L javanica with C obliquus asherbal medicine for cancer [27]

42 Antidiabetic Activity Arika et al [141] determined the invivo antidiabetic activity of aqueous leaf extracts of L javan-ica in white male alloxan-induced albino mice The aqueousleaf extracts of L javanica at all dose levels significantlylowered the blood glucose levels in both oral and intraperi-toneal routes The antidiabetic effect of L javanica couldhave been due to the observed presence of flavonoids Thepolyhydroxylated flavonol enhances lipogenesis and glucoseuptake in the adipocytes and flavanoids have demonstratedinsulinmimetic properties as the compound is known to beeffective at controlling blood sugar levels These findings

12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table4Summaryof

pharmacologicalactiv

ities

ofthee

xtractsisolated

from

different

partso

fLippiajavanica

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Antiamoebic

Piperitenon

e162

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f25120583

gmLagainstE

histolytica

[73]

Antibacteria

lPiperitenon

e162

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f50120583

gmLagainstA

calcoaceticu

sMkristin

ae(50120583

gmL)Styphi(25120583

gmL)and

Saureus

(12120583

gmL)

[73]

Antibacteria

l(Antiproteus)

Methano

lLeaves

Disc

diffu

sion

assay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f313120583gmLagainstPm

irabilis

and926120583

gmL

againstPvulgaris

[74]

Water

Leaves

Disc

diffu

sion

assay

Exhibitedweakactiv

ityagainstPm

irabilis

with

MIC

valueo

f1873120583gmLand1768120583gmLagainstPvulgaris

[74]

Antibacteria

l

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

coliwith

MIC

valueo

f064m

gmLE

faecalis(064)P

aeruginosa

(032

)andSaureus

(064)Totalactiv

ityMIC

values

werea

sfollo

wsE

coli(127

mgmL)E

faecalis

(127

mgmL)Paeruginosa

(253

mgmL)and

Saureus

(127

mgmL)

[75]

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

valueo

f3mgmLBa

cillusp

umilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(gt12mgmL)Saureus(12mgmL)E

faecalis

(6mgmL)E

cloacae

(6mgmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pantoea

agglo

meran

s(12mgmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Shigella

flexneri

(15mgmL)A

erom

onas

hydrophila(12m

gmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae(12mgmL)Salmonellacholeraesuis

(6mgmL)and

Serratiamarcescens(gt12mgmL)

[17]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

valueo

f12m

gmLB

pumilu

s(12m

gmL)B

subtilis(12m

gmL)Saureus(6m

gmL)E

faecalis

(12m

gmL)E

cloacae

(12m

gmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(12m

gmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(6

mgmL)A

hydrophila(12m

gmL)Pm

irabilis

(12m

gmL)K

pneum

oniae

(12m

gmL)Scholeraesuis(6

mgmL)and

antia

moebice

ffect

(12m

gmL)

[17]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

values

of15

mgmLB

pumilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(gt12mgmL)Saureus(12mgmL)E

faecalis

(3mgmL)E

cloacae

(6mgmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(12m

gmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(15mgmL)A

hydrophila(6

mgmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae

(12m

gmL)Scholeraesuis(6

mgmL)and

Smarcescens(12mgmL)

[17]

Essentialoil

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

values

of6m

gmLB

pumilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(3mgmL)Saureus(15

mgmL)E

faecalis

(3mgmL)E

cloacae

(12m

gmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(6

mgmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(3mgmL)A

hydrophila(3mgmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae

(3mgmL)Scholeraesuis(15mgmL)and

Smarcescens(gt12mgmL)

[17]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 13

Table4Con

tinued

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

faecaliswith

MIC

valueo

f014

mgmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

coliwith

MIC

valueo

f031

mgmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPaeruginosa

with

MIC

valueo

f042m

gmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstSaureus

with

MIC

valueo

f013

mgmL

[7]

Antifu

ngal

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

albicans

with

MIC

valueo

fgt75m

gmLC

krusei

(188m

gmL)and

Cneoforman

s(gt75

mgmL)

[7]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

albicans

with

MIC

valueo

fgt375

mgmLC

krusei

(375m

gmL)and

Cneoforman

s(gt75

mgmL)

[7]

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

kruseiwith

MFC

valueo

f75mgmL

[7]

Dichlorom

ethane

Aeria

lparts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFu

sariu

mproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f014

mgmLand

Fusariu

mverticillioides(019mgmL)

[76]

Hexane

Aeria

lparts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f023m

gmLandF

verticillioides(045

mgmL)

[76]

Methano

lAe

rialp

arts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f177m

gmLandF

verticillioides(043

mgmL)

[76]

Methano

lAe

rialp

arts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

fgt250

mgmLandF

verticillioides(gt250

mgmL)

[76]

Antim

ycob

acteria

l

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f047m

gmLandtotalactivity

of10mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Dichlorom

ethane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f125m

gmLandtotalactivity

of23

mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f062m

gmLandtotalactivity

of13mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f125m

gmLandtotalactivity

of7m

Lgagainst

Msmegmatis

[77]

14 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table4Con

tinued

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Antioxidant

Water

Leaves

DPP

Hassay

Exhibitedactiv

itywith

EC50valueo

f358120583gmL

[7]

Water

Leaves

mdashEx

hibitedactiv

itywith

209ascorbicacid

equivalent

(mggdryweight)

[7]

Water

Leaves

ABT

Sassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f15mmol10

0g[78]

Water

Leaves

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f146254

mmol10

0g[78]

Water

Leaves

FRAPassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f238m

mol10

0g[78]

Antiplasm

odial

Hexanechloroform

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f1225plusmn072120583gmL

[79]

Ethylacetate

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f1212plusmn079120583gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f135plusmn006120583gmL

[79]

Hexanechloroform

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f1859plusmn026120583gmL

[79]

Ethylacetate

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f1580plusmn026120583gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f175plusmn017120583gmL

[79]

Dichlorom

ethane

Roots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f38120583gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethanem

ethano

lRo

ots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f27120583

gmL

[80]

Methano

lRo

ots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f24120583

gmL

[80]

Water

Roots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

fgt100120583

gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethane

Stem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f45120583gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethanem

ethano

lStem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f218120583gmL

[80]

Methano

lStem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f298120583gmL

[80]

Water

Stem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

fgt100120583

gmL

[80]

Free

radicalscaveng

ing

activ

ity

Water

mdashDPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0059plusmn002

gmL

[11]

50methano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f004plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Ethano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0025plusmn0001gmL

[11]

50ethano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0027plusmn0005gmL

[11]

Aceton

emdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0057plusmn0004gmL

[11]

50aceton

emdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0022plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Ethylacetate

mdashDPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0066plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Toxicity

Methano

lLeaf

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

40mortalityrecorded

after

48hexpo

sure

towards

Artemianauplii

[74]

Methano

lRo

ots

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f8430120583

gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f6503120583

gmL

[79]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 15

strengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantidiabetic agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species mixed with C obliquus to form aherbal concoction known in KwaZulu Natal province SouthAfrica as ldquoimbizardquo used against diabetes [27]

43 Antimalarial Activity Govere et al [142] found thattopical application of L javanica alcohol extract leads to767 protection against Anopheles arabiensis for 4 hoursLippia javanica has been used as a mosquito repellent by therural communities in Zimbabwe for a long time and previousstudies have shown that essential oils from the species havevery strong and lasting repellent activity against female Aarabiensis [64] Research by Lukwa et al [4] revealed thattopical application of 5mgcm2 of L javanica leads to 100protection againstAnopheles aegypti for 8 hoursMavundza etal [154] screened dichloromethane and ethanol leaf extractsof L javanica for adulticidal activity againstA arabiensisTheauthors observed dichloromethane and ethanol activities of45 and 55mosquitomortality respectivelyThese findingsstrengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantimalarial agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species as mosquito repellent in India [47]South Africa [34 49 58] and Zimbabwe [4 48]

44 Antioxidant Activity Leaf infusions of L javanica exhib-ited antioxidant activity with EC

50value of 358120583gmL and

contained 148mgmL of dry weight gallic acid equivalentphenolic compounds [7] The EC

50value of 358 120583gmL

obtained for L javanica by Shikanga et al [7] compareswell to those of many commercial teas including antioxidantcapacity of Rooibos Fresh Pack herbal teas (A linearis)with the best antioxidant activity of 333 120583gmL The highantioxidant activities displayed by L javanica infusions canbe partially attributed to the high levels of verbascoside 2(15mgg dry weight) reported by Olivier et al [81] in theleaf extract of the species Earlier research by Muchuwetiet al [125] reported 744 inhibition of the DPPH radicalby an ethanolic leaf extract of L javanica Lekganyane etal [75] reported antioxidant activity in L javanica and theacetone extracts of the species displayed antioxidant activityon BEA chromatogram [77] Bhebhe et al [10] reported theantioxidant activities of L javanica based on the DPPHreducing power and inhibition of phospholipid peroxidationassays Free radical scavenging activity of L javanica isattributed to phenolic compounds since these compoundshave an ideal structural chemistry for free radical scavengingactivity [155] Bhebhe et al [11] determined the effect ofseveral solvents on the free radical scavenging activity ofL javanica using the DPPH assay Free radical scavengingactivity expressed as IC

50ranged from 0022 plusmn 0001 gmL to

0066 plusmn 0001 gmL see Table 4

45 Antiplasmodial Activity Prozesky et al [144] evaluatedL javanica leaf acetone extract for in vitro antiplasmodialactivity using PfUP1 a chloroquine resistant strain of themalaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum by means of theflow cytometric test The IC

50value for L javanica was

426 120583gmL Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil

piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica for antiplasmodialactivity using chloroquine diphosphate as positive controland found it active against a chloroquine sensitive strainof P falciparum in micromolar concentrations with IC

50of

8 120583gmL Clarkson et al [80] evaluated L javanica rootsand stems extracts for in vitro activity against P falciparumusing the parasite lactase dehydrogenase (pLDH) assay andchloroquine diphosphate (Sigma) as the positive controlThedichloromethane methane and water extracts showed IC

50

values ranging from 38 to gt100 120583gmL see Table 4 Omolo etal [145] screened the essential oil of L javanica for fumiganttoxicity to Anopheles gambiae which exhibited LD

50of 43 times

10minus3mg cmminus3 Ayuko et al [79] showed that L javanica rootextracts have antiplasmodial activity against P falciparumwith IC

50ranging from 135 to 1859 120583gmL see Table 4

Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity againstthe chloroquine sensitive D10 strain of P falciparum withan IC

50value of 91 120583gmL and is also mildly cytotoxic [84]

Compared to chloroquine the compound is approximately2000 times less active against the D10 strain of P falciparum[84]

46 Antimicrobial Activities Lippia javanica is widely usedin the treatment of a wide range of infectious diseasescaused by microorganisms Viljoen et al [3] determined theantimicrobial properties of L javanica by evaluating the timekill studies of the speciesrsquo essential oil using the disc diffusionassay on three respiratory pathogens Klebsiella pneumoniaeCryptococcus neoformans and Bacillus cereus This studyshowed that the killing rate was greatest for K pneumoniaefollowed by C neoformans and very little reduction of micro-bial populations was observed for B cereus The efficacy of Ljavanica oil for K pneumoniae showed a killing rate within30 minutes for the concentrations 025 05 075 and 1C neoformans showed a killing rate for concentrations 05075 and 1 within 1 hour and the lowest concentration of025 took 8 hours before a bactericidal effect was notedwhile B cereus showed some reduction in colonies [3] Thepositive antimicrobial activity of L javanica as revealed bythe time kill study could be attributed to linalool 120 whichaverages between 65 and 70 in yield [3 5 88 90] and hasknown antimicrobial properties [93 156ndash159]These findingssomehow corroborate the traditional use of L javanica asherbal medicine for a wide range of bacterial and fungalrespiratory ailments indicated in Table 1

Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil piperitenone162 isolated from L javanica for antibacterial activityon cultures of Bacillus subtilis Staphylococcus aureus andEscherichia coli using imipenem cefazolin and ampicillinas positive controls The authors found piperitenone 162to inhibit S aureus and E coli at 1 dilution Acetonehexane and methanol leaf extracts and essential oil isolatedfrom L javanica showed some activity against fifteen Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria with MIC values rang-ing from 15 to gt12mgmL [60] see Table 4 In a similarstudy Samie et al [73] demonstrated that a pure compoundpiperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica has antibacte-rial activities against Acinetobacter calcoaceticus Micrococcus

16 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

kristinae Salmonella typhi and S aureus using dimethylsulphoxide and kanamycin as controls with MIC valuesranging from 12 to 50 120583gmL see Table 4 Shikanga et al [7]evaluated the antibacterial activity of L javanica methanolicleaf extract against S aureus Enterococcus faecalis E coliand Pseudomonas aeruginosa using the serial microdilutionmethod with gentamycin (Virbac) and acetone as positiveand negative controls respectively Lippia javanica displayedantibacterial activities with MIC values ranging from 013to 042mgmL against all four pathogens see Table 4 Theobtained minimum inhibitory concentrations are promisingsince natural products with MIC values below 1mgmLare generally considered to be noteworthy findings [160]Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity against theE coli and S aureus at a concentration of 10mgmL [84]Lekganyane et al [75] reported antibacterial activity of Ljavanica acetone leaf extracts against E coli E faecalis Paeruginosa and S aureus with MIC values ranging from 032to 064mgmL and total activity of the same species rangingfrom 127 to 253mgmL see Table 4 Methanol and water leafextracts of L javanica exhibited some antiproteus activityagainstProteusmirabilis andProteus vulgariswithMICvalueslt2000120583gmL with standard discs of ampicillin (2120583g) andchloramphenicol (10 120583g) as positive controls [74] Some of theantibacterial properties of L javanica can be attributed to thephytochemical constituents of the species for example thephenolic compound apigenin 7 is a well-known antibacterialagent [7 134] Apigenin 7 was shown to be highly activeagainst Vibrio cholera and E faecalis [161] while Basile et al[162] reported the inhibition of S typhi P mirabilis and Paeruginosa by the compound Therefore results from theseantibacterial evaluations of L javanica give credence to theuse of the speciesrsquo infusions against bacterial infections andother related diseases

Shikanga et al [126] investigated the antifungal activ-ities of leaf extracts and essential oil compounds isolatedfrom L javanica leafy extracts against a Guazatine-resistantstrain of Penicillium digitatumThemethanolic leafy extractsisoverbascoside 3 and verbascoside 2 compounds isolatedfrom L javanica inhibited fungal growth at concentrationsabove 06mgsdotmLminus1 causing significant inhibition of mycelialgrowth Verbascoside 2 is well-known for its antimicrobialproperties and has been found to inhibit viruses bacteriaand fungi [163] Similarly Samie et al [143] investigatedantifungal effects of acetone and hexane leaf extracts of Ljavanica against Candida albicans Candida krusei and Cneoformans isolated from AIDS patients using the microdi-lution method with nystatin Roche and DMSO as positiveand negative controls respectively Noteworthy moderateantifungal activities were recorded from C krusei with MICvalue of 188mgmL and other recordedMFCandMICvaluesfor other species ranged from 188mgmL to gt75mgmLsee Table 4 Thembo et al [76] investigated the antifungalactivity of aqueous and organic extracts of L javanica usinga serial microdilution assay Generally extracts of L javanicaexhibited weak activity see Table 4

47 Antimycobacterial Activity Mujovo et al [83] evaluatedL javanica compounds against a drug-sensitive strain ofMycobacterium tuberculosis using the radiometric respira-tory techniques Of all the isolated compounds only onetriterpenoid carboxylic acid euscaphic acid 172 exhibitedantimycobacterial activity with MIC value of 50120583gmLminus1against this strain In a similar study the leaf extract ofL javanica exhibited antimycobacterial activity against Msmegmatis in an evaluation which used microdilution assayand rifampicin as control [77] Acetone extract was thebest extractant with MIC value of 047mgmL it extractedantibacterial agents which was indicated by the lowest MICvalue [77] Masoko and Nxumalo [77] also evaluated thetotal activity ofL javanicawhich averaged 13mLg suggestingthat the extract prepared from one gram of L javanicacould be diluted to a volume of 13mL and will still inhibitM smegmatis efficiently According to Semenya and Maroyi[115] tuberculosis caused by M tuberculosis is a seriousdisease requiring effective strategies and tools to controland manage it Therefore preliminary evaluations done byMujovo et al [83] and Masoko and Nxumalo [77] serve asa scientific validation for the use of L javanica in traditionalmedicine for treatment of tuberculosis and other respiratoryailments in South Africa [24 27 115] and Uganda [43] as wellas their efficiency in tuberculosis drug discovery

48 Antiviral Activity Mujovo et al [83] found that (E)-2(3)-tagetenone epoxide 42 and piperitenone 162 inhibitedthe HIV-1 reverse transcriptase enzyme by 91 and 53respectively at 100 120583gmLminus1 based on a nonradioactive HIVRT colorimetric ELISA kit Little is known about the HIV RTactivity of L javanica extracts or compounds but flavonoidsare known to be active against viral RT and also as potentinhibitors of the cellular alpha and beta DNA polymerase[83] while luteolin 12 is active against HIV RT [164 165]Lippia javanica is traditionally used to treat HIVAIDSsymptoms in South Africa [65 66] and several viral andHIVAIDS opportunistic diseases and infections such asbronchitis [15 19ndash22] chicken pox [50] diarrhoea [17 3437 44 113] measles [14 20 38] pneumonia [14] shingles[15] and venereal diseases [44] Despite significant advancesin the utilization of L javanica in southern Africa overthe years for numerous viral diseases (Table 1) very littleantiviral evaluations have been done on crude extracts andpurified compounds of the species There is need thereforefor more pharmacological research as L javanica could beharbouring potent (RT) inhibitors which could be useful forthe development of new pharmaceutical products importantfor use against viral diseases and infections

49 Pesticidal Effects Magano et al [95] evaluated the repel-lent effects of hexane extracts of L javanica essential oilusing the in vitro tick climbing repellency bioassay on adultsof Hyalomma marginatum rufipes Koch ticks The authorsfound that 107mgmL caused repellency index of 100 at onehour and 30 minutes In a similar study by Madzimure et al[120] L javanica aqueous leaf extracts at 10 and 20 wvwere effective at controlling cattle ticks (Amblyomma species

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 17

Boophilus species Hyalomma species Rhipicephalus appen-diculatus and Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi) and were as goodas the positive control amitraz-based acaricide TrickbusterThese authors found no parasites on microscopic exami-nation of the Giemsa-stained thin blood smear collectedfrom treated cattle implying that the animals did not sufferfrom clinical tick-borne diseases Similarly Nyahangare etal [59] tested the pesticidal activity of L javanica waterextracts against cattle ticks The authors found no significantdifference between cattle treated with a commercial syntheticacaricide and those under L javanica treatment Martinez-Velazquez et al [166] evaluated pesticidal effects of twoessential oils namely 120574-terpinene 82 and 120588-cymene 99isolated from Lippia graveolens Kunth against 10-day-oldRhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini) tick larvaeusing the larval packet test bioassay The two essential oilsproduced highmortality ranging from90 to 100 in all testedconcentrations of 20 to 125 (vv)Therefore L javanica canprovide an effective tick control option where synthetic prod-ucts are unavailable or unaffordable particularly in remoterural areas in sub-Saharan Africa Lippia javanica is popularfor tick control and management among resource-poorsmallholder farmers in South Africa [58 95] and Zimbabwe[59 60 120] While these preliminary evaluations may serveas confirmation that L javanica has some bioactivities againstticks a comprehensive method of tick control is requiredfor the resource-constrained smallholder farmers based onethnopharmacological properties of L javanica

McGaw et al [146] screened L javanica for the anthel-mintic test systems using the free living nematodeCaenorhabditis elegans The crude ethanol and hexaneextracts showed some activity at a concentration of 2mgmLwith the 7-day incubation assay appearing to be moresensitive than the shorter assay Earlier research by Mwangiet al [1] indicated that L javanica was active against Aedesaegypti larvae and Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (maizeweevil) Katsvanga and Chigwiza [147] reported that Ljavanica is an effective natural pesticide which can be used tocontrol aphid species (Brevicoryne brassicae) In their studyKatsvanga and Chigwiza [147] found that 1 1 powderedaqueous leaf extract of L javanica reduced B brassicae by532 against 783 and 967 of two synthetic pesticidesAphid kill and Bexadust ldquoLrdquo respectively Chikukura etal [149] found L javanica powdered leaf extracts to haveinsecticidal properties with potential to control graindamage by 21ndash33 Mashela et al [148] reported that theapplication of ground L javanica leaves to soil in nematode-infested (Meloidogyne incognita) pots reduced the nematodenumbers by 79ndash92 and significantly increased fresh fruityield dry shoot mass plant height and stem diameter ofthe tomato plants as well as levels of potassium nitrogenand manganese in leaf tissue Muzemu et al [150] evaluatedwater extracts of L javanica leaf powder for pesticidal effectsagainst rape (Brassica napus L) aphids B brassicae andtomato (Solanum lycopersicum Lam) red spider mites andTetranychus evansi as alternatives to conventional pesticidesLippia javanica reduced B brassicae and Tetranychus evansiby 125 and 63 respectively [150]The study demonstratedthat L javanica has pesticidal effects on B brassicae and T

evansi The reduced number of B brassicae and T evansicould be due to L javanicarsquos extracts having repellent toxicand antifeedant effects since the species has essential oilswith pesticidal properties [2] Therefore these findingsindicate that L javanica has both nematicidal and plantgrowth-promoting properties

410 Toxicity and Cytotoxicity Activity Lippia javanica isknown to cause liver damage and photosensitisation in live-stock resulting in stock losses [167] Triterpenoids isolatedfrom the genus Lippia are icterogenic and cause jaundice asa result of liver damage [167] The characteristic swellingyellowing and later peeling of unpigmented skin are due tothe presence of phylloerythrin a photodynamic porphyrinthat reacts with sunlight and causes severe cell damage [167]The compound is normally formed when chlorophyll isbroken down by microorganisms in the rumen but it nowaccumulates in the liver as a result of the damage caused bytriterpenoids [167] In view of the known toxicity of Lippiaspecies the prolonged use of high doses of L javanica ispotentially harmful [167] Lippia javanica showed low toxicityafter 48 h exposure with the percentage of mortality below50 [74]

Ayuko et al [79] evaluated the toxicity of L javanicausing a brine shrimp cytotoxicity assay with LC

50value of

1138 plusmn 133 120583gmL Ayuko et al [79] found the cytotoxicity toantiplasmodial activity ratios for the methanolic extracts ofthe two tested strains to be 8430 and 6503 and since theseare greater than 100 it may be concluded that the extractsare of low toxicity Samie et al [73] demonstrated that apure compound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanicaessential oil has low cytotoxicity activity against intestinaladenocarcinoma cells (ie the HCT-8 monolayers with IC

50

of 2656 plusmn 53 120583gmL) Lukwa [64] evaluated the toxicity of Ljavanica aqueous leaf extracts using sexually mature BALBcmice with the placebo as control Within 48 hours all micefed with the L javanica leaf aqueous extract at 125ndash375 vvwere lethargic and the overall mortality was 375 Previousresearch byManenzhe et al [2] showed that hydrodistillationof L javanica leaves flowers and stems produced oil thatwas poisonous against P falciparumwhen diluted to 1 (vv)These findings imply that despite its apparent safety waterextracts of L javanica leaves may have deleterious healthimplications on humans and animals if consumed at veryhigh doses

Many compounds that have been isolated from L javan-ica including phenolic glycosides flavonoids and essentialoils are not known to have acute toxic properties withthe exception of icterogenin 173 Icterogenin 173 has beenshown to inhibit biliary excretion in rabbits [168] Reports inliterature indicate that the consumption of xanthine 22 hasresulted in mammalian toxicity According to Madzimure etal [64] xanthine 22 is a demethylated derivative of caffeinewith pharmacological actions such as central nervous system(CNS) stimulation relaxation of smooth muscle (especiallybronchial muscle) myocardial stimulation peripheral vaso-constriction and diuresis Considering the widespread useof L javanica as herbal tea and medicine it is important

18 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

to determine if any toxicological effects can occur from itschronic or subchronic usage

411 Other Activities Mpofu et al [169] determined the effectof inclusion of L javanica leaf meal in broiler diets ongrowth performance carcass characteristics and fatty acidprofiles The authors found that the L javanica fed broilershad higher total polyunsaturated fatty acids and n-3 fattyacidsThe findings from the study showed that inclusion of Ljavanica in broiler diets at 5 gkg feed has positive influenceson growth performance carcass characteristics and fattyacid profiles of broiler meat and therefore L javanica haspotential as growth-promoting feed additive in broilersSamie et al [73] evaluated antiamoebic activity of a purecompound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica essen-tial oil against Entamoeba histolytica using microdilutionmethod with metronidazole as the positive control diluents(ie culture medium with an appropriate concentration ofdimethyl sulphoxide as the negative control) and a blank(ie culture medium without dimethyl sulphoxide) Samieet al [73] demonstrated that piperitenone 162 had markedantiamoebic activity with IC

50value of 25 120583gmL More

research is required as L javanica could be harbouring potentantiamoebic properties which could be useful for managingamoebiasis an infection that remains a significant cause ofmorbidity and mortality worldwide

5 Conclusion

Lippia javanica has been used in African and Asian countriesas herbal tea and medicine for many centuries Utilization ofL javanica because of its flavour and medicinal propertiesforms the basis of the current demand for the plant speciesin central eastern and southern Africa Research on Ljavanica over the past decade on health promoting propertieshas greatly contributed to the increased consumption ofthe species as herbal or recreational tea The focus of thisresearch has been on phytochemical compounds particularlyphenolic content and antioxidant and free radical scavengingactivities Phenolic compounds present in L javanica arelargely responsible for the antioxidant properties possessedby the species More research in this regard is required andfuture research should focus on more comprehensive chem-ical characterization of both crude and pure extracts andevaluate potential for commercialization and developmentof nutraceutical products based on traditional uses of Ljavanica Most of the pharmacological researches conductedon L javanica so far have focused on the phytochemistryand biological properties of leaves and little or no researchhas been done on roots and other plant parts Thereforefuture research on the species should focus on other plantparts for example flowers roots and stems as well asorgan-to-organ age and seasonal variation evaluations in thephytochemical content and pharmacological activities of thespecies

The recent increase in the demand for L javanica prod-ucts may partly be ascribed to growing body of scientific evi-dence indicating important health benefits Lippia javanica

is widely sold as herbal tea in Botswana South Africa andZimbabwe Leaves and stems of L javanica are also sold asherbal medicines in the medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquo marketsin South Africa [35 170] For local people who rely onherbal medicines as part of their primary healthcare aswell as cultural beliefs they prefer L javanica harvestedfrom the wild and unprocessed plant parts sold in informalmedicinal ldquomuthirdquo markets [170] In the past there were norecords of overexploitation of L javanica wild populationsin southern Africa resulting in Raimondo et al [171] listingthe species as Least Concern (LC) under the IUCN RedList Categories and Criteria version 31 of threatened species(httpwwwiucnredlistorg) Recently signs of overharvest-ing have been noted where local people or plant traders haveuprooted whole plants to supply medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquomarkets or use the plants as herbal medicines brooms orherbal tea Therefore large-scale commercial utilization of Ljavanica is not sustainable if the species is harvested fromthe wild Currently L javanica is cultivated on a commercialscale in Kenya [28] and South Africa [117] for essential oilproduction for the mosquito-repellent candles and perfumeindustry Cultivation of L javanica is therefore a solutionto the sustainability problems associated with harvesting ofthe species from the wild and this option is also necessaryfor establishing commercial scale medicinal production andprocessing and trade enterprises The success of commercialcultivation of L javanica will depend on how the species ismarketed as herbal tea and medicine and source of essentialoil and health care products and as a source of functionalfoods

Significant research has been made in the past 50 yearsinto the chemistry and pharmacology of L javanica Thesestudies have shown L javanica to display various chemicaland different biological activities some of which justify itsethnopharmacological utilization in variety of cultures Inthe light of the evidence that L javanica is combined withother plant species in traditional medicine it will be valuableto investigate the possibility of synergistic effects of thedifferent extracts Deep phytochemical studies of L javanicaand its phytochemical properties especially the mechanismsof action of its bioactive constituents to illustrate the cor-relation between ethnomedicinal uses and pharmacologicalactivities should be the focus of further research on thespecies There is need for extensive in vivo experiments tovalidate the existing pharmacological activities Howeverbecause L javanica contains potentially toxic compoundsits toxicological properties need to be properly establishedvia proper quality control of product development to ensurethat potentially toxic components are kept below tolerancelevels

Appendix

A Chemical Compounds Isolated andCharacterized from Lippia javanica

See Table 5

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 19

Table 5

Chemical compound Reference(s)Phenolic compoundsCoumarin 1 [4]Verbascoside 2 [81]Isoverbascoside 3 [81]Theveside-Na 4 [82]Theveridoside 5 [82]4-ethylnonacosane 6 [83]Apigenin 7 [64 83]Cirsimaritin 8 [64 83]6-Methoxy luteolin41015840-methyl ether 9 [83]

6-Methoxy luteolin31015840410158407-trimethyl ether 10 [83]

Crassifolioside 11 [64]Luteolin 12 [64]Diosmetin 13 [64]Chrysoeriol 14 [64]Tricin 15 [64]Isothymusin 16 [64]Eupatorin 17 [64]5-Dimethyl noboletin 18 [64]Genkwanin 19 [64]Salvigenin 20 [64]Lippialactone 21 [84]AlkaloidXanthine 22 [64]Amino acids120572-Aminobutyric acid 23 [85 86]Valine 24 [86]Isoleucine 25 [86]Asparagine 26 [86]Phenylalanine 27 [86]120572-Aminoadipic acid 28 [86]Lysine 29 [86]Histidine 30 [86]Tyrosine 31 [86]Tryptophan 32 [86]Alanine 33 [85]Glycine 34 [85]Proline 35 [85]Serine 36 [85]Glutamine acid 37 [85]120573-Alanine 38 [85]Glutamine 39 [85]120573-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [85]4-hydroxyproline 41 [85]Essential oil(E)-2(3)-tagetenoneepoxide 42 [83]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]120572-Pinene 44 [3ndash5 87ndash91]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4](+)-2-Carene 46 [4]3-Carene 47 [4]Eucalyptol 48 [4]18 myrcene 49 [87]Ipsdienone 50 [87]Caryophyllene 51 [85]Geranial 52 [5 92 93]26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [92]Geraniol 54 [92]Octen-3-one 55 [5]6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]120588-Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]Artemisia ketone 58 [5]Linalool oxide 59 [5]Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5](Z)-120573-Ocimenone 61 [5](E)-120573-Ocimenone 62 [5]Carvyl acetate 63 [5]120572-Cubebene 64 [5]Sesquithujene 65 [5]Acora-35-diene 66 [5]120573-Bergamotene 67 [5]Trans-calamenene 68 [5]120573-Alaskene 69 [5]120574-Cadinene 70 [5]120575-Cadinene 71 [3 88 89 91]Cis-calamenene 72 [5]Nerolidol 73 [5](E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 88 89]Spathulenol 75 [5]Epi-120572-muurolol 76 [5]120572-Longipinene 77 [90]Chrysanthenone 78 [90]120572-Terpineol 79 [3 5 90 91]120572-Amorphene 80 [90]120572-Thujene 81 [91]120574-Terpinene 82 [91]120572-Cubebene 83 [91]Linalool acetate 84 [91]Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [91]Camphene 86 [3 5 88ndash91]120573-Pinene 87 [3 5 91]Sabinene 88 [3 5 87 90 91]Myrcene 89 [3 5 87ndash89 91ndash95]120572-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 88 89]2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]Limonene 92 [3 5 88ndash94]18-Cineole 93 [3 5 90 91 95]120573-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 88 89 91]

20 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3](Z)-120573-Ocimene 96 [3 5 88 89 91](E)-120573-Ocimene 97 [3 5 88 89 91]Isomyrcenol 98 [3]p-Cymene 99 [3 5 85 88ndash91]2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]Terpinolene 101 [3]Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 88 89 91 95]Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 88 89](Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]Nonanal 106 [3]Perillene 107 [3 91]Ipsenone 108 [3 87ndash89 95]Trans-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 88ndash90]1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 88 89]Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]Ttrans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]cis-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 88ndash90]120572-Copaene 114 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetone 115 [3 88 89]Trans-tagetone 116 [3 88 89]Camphor 117 [3 5 88ndash90 93 94]120573-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 91]Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 85 88ndash90 92 93]

Trans-120572-bergamotene 121 [3]120572-Cedrene 122 [3 5]Myrcenone 123 [3 5 83 91]120573-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 87ndash91 93 94]2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 88 89](Z)-120573-Farnesene 129 [3](E)-120573-Farnesene 130 [3 5](EE)-120572-Farnesene 131 [3 88 89]Ipsdienol 132 [3](Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]Isovaleric acid 134 [3]120572-Humulene 135 [3 5 88 89 91]120572-Acoradiene 136 [3]120573-Acoradiene 137 [3]120574-Muurolene 138 [3 5 88 89]120572-Muurolene 139 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]Borneol 142 [3 5 88ndash90]Verbenone 143 [3 91]Germacrene-D 144 [3 87ndash89 93]120573-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]120574-Bisabolene 146 [3]Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]Carvone 148 [3 5 91]Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 88 89 91]120573-Curcumene 150 [3]Ar-curcumene 151 [3]Cis-piperitol 152 [3]2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol156 [3 88 89]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]Calamenene 158 [3]Carvone oxide 159 [3]Isopiperitenone 160 [3]Cis-carveol 161 [3]Piperitenone 162 [2 3 73 83]Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 88 89]Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3ndash5 88ndash90]Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 88 89]Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]Spathulenol 167 [3]Eugenol 168 [3 5]Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120573-ol(=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120572-ol(=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [83]Icterogenin 173 [96]

B Chemical Structures ofPhenolic Compounds Alkaloids AminoAcids and Essential Oils Isolated fromLippia javanica

See Figure 4

Competing Interests

The author declares that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 21

O

OO

OO O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

C CH CHO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

COOH

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

Me

OMe

OMe

OMe

MeO

Me

HOOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OMe

OMe

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

（2 （2

（2

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

（3CO

（3CO

Coumarin 1 [4]

Verbascoside 2 [89]

Isoverbascoside 3 [89]

Theveside-Na 4 [90]

Theveridoside 5 [90]

4-Ethylnonacosane 6 [91]

Apigenin 7 [120 91]

Cirsimaritin 8 [120 91]

Crassifolioside 11 [120]

Luteolin 12 [120]

Diosmetin 13 [120]

Chrysoeriol 14 [120]

Tricin 15 [120]

Isothymusin 16 [120]

Eupatorin 17 [120]

6-Methoxyluteolin 3 47-trimethyl ether 10 [91]

6-Methoxyluteolin 4-methyl ether 9 [91]

Figure 4 Continued

22 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

N

NH

HN

HO

NH

O

NH

O

O

O

O

HN

N N

N

H

H

OAc

OAcOAc

OO

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

（3CO

（2

（2

（2

（2 （2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3N

（2N

（2N

（2N

（2N

minus

+

+

5-Desmethylnoboletin 18 [120]

Genkwanin 19 [120]

Salvigenin 20 [120]

Lippialactone 21 [92]

Xanthine 22 [120]

Valine 24 [94]

Isoleucine 25 [94]

Asparagine 26 [94]

Phenylalanine 27 [94]

Lysine 29 [94]

Histidine 30 [94]

Tyrosine 31 [94]

Tryptophan 32 [94]

Alanine 33 [93]

Glycine 34 [93]

Proline 35 [93]

Serine 36 [93]

Glutamine acid 37 [93]

Glutamine 39 [93]

4-Hydroxyproline 41 [93]

(E)-2(3)-Tagetenone epoxide 42 [91]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]

-Alanine 38 [93]

-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [93]

-Aminoadipic acid 28 [94]

-Aminobutyric acid 23 [93 94]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 23

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

H

H

HH

H

O

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

HO

OH

O

O

O

O

OH（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4]

3-Carene 47 [4]

Eucalyptol 48 [4]

18 myrcene 49 [123]

Ipsdienone 50 [123]

Caryophyllene 51 [93]

Geranial 52 [5 100 101]

26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [100]

Geraniol 54 [100]

Octen-3-one 55 [5]

6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]

Artemisia ketone 58 [5]

Linalool oxide 59 [5]

Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5]

Carvyl acetate 63 [5]

Sesquithujene 65 [5]

Acora-35-diene 66 [5]

-Pinene 44 [3-5 123 96 97 98 99] -Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]

(+)-2-Carene 46 [4]

-Bergamotene 67 [5]

-Cubebene 64 [5]

(Z)--Ocimenone 61 [5]

(E)--Ocimenone 62 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

24 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OH

H

H

H

H

O

OHO

HO

H

HH H

H

H

HH

H

HO

HO

O

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

Trans-calamenene 68 [5]

Cis-calamenene 72 [5]

Nerolidol 73 [5]

(E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 96 97]

Spathulenol 75 [5]

Chrysanthenone 78 [98]

Linalool acetate 84 [99]

Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [99]

Camphene 86 [3 5 96 97 98 99]

Sabinene 88 [3 5 123 98 99]

Myrcene 89 [3 5 123 100 101 96 97 99 102 103]

-Alaskene 69 [5]

-Terpineol 79 [3 5 98 99]

-Amorphene 80 [98]

-Cadinene 70 [45]-Thujene 81 [99]

-Cadinene 71 [3 96 97 99] -Terpinene 82 [99]

-Cubebene 83 [99]

-Pinene 87 [3 5 99]

-Longipinene 77 [98]

-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 96 97]

Epi--muurolol 76 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 25

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O

OH

OH

H

H

H

H

H

HOO

OH

O

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（3(（2)3（2

（3(（2)6（2

2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]

Limonene 92 [3 5 100 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3]

Isomyrcenol 98 [3]

p-Cymene 99 [3 5 93 96 97 98 99]

2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]

Terpinolene 101 [3]

Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 96 97 99 103]

Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 96 97]

(Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]

67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]

Nonanal 106 [3]

Perillene 107 [3 99]

Ipsenone 108 [3 123 96 97 103]

Trans-linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 96 97 98]

1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 96 97]

Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]

Trans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]

Cis-linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 96 97 98]

Cis-tagetone 115 [3 96 97]

Trans-tagetone 116 [3 96 97]

-Copaene 114 [3 5 96 97 98]

18-Cineole (=eucalyptol) 93 [3 5 98 99 103]

-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 96 97 99]

(Z)--Ocimene 96 [3 5 96 97 99]

(E)--Ocimene 97 [3 5 96 97 99]

Camphor 117 [3 5 101 96 97 98 102]

Figure 4 Continued

26 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

HH

H

H

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 93 100 101 96 97 98]

Myrcenone 123 [3 5 91 99]

2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol 125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]

Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 96 97]

Ipsdienol 132 [3]

(Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]

Isovaleric acid 134 [3]

Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]

Borneol 142 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 99]

Trans--bergamotene 121 [3]

-Cedrene 122 [3 5]

-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 123 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)--Farnesene 129 [3]

(E)--Farnesene 130 [3 5]

-Muurolene 139 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Muurolene 138 [3 5 96 97]

-Acoradiene 136 [3]

-Acoradiene 137 [3]

-Humulene 135 [3 5 96 97 99]

(EE)--Farnesene 131 [3 96 97]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O O

HO

O

H

H

H

HO

HO

OH

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3CO（3

Verbenone 143 [3 99]

Germacrene-D 144 [3 123 101 96 97]

Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]

Carvone 148 [3 5 99]

Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 96 97 99]

Ar-curcumene 151 [3]

Cis-piperitol 152 [3]

2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]

26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol 156 [3 96 97]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]

Calamenene 158 [3]

Carvone oxide 159 [3]

Isopiperitenone 160 [3]

Cis-carveol 161 [3]

Piperitenone 162 [2 3 91 81]

Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 96 97]

-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]

-Bisabolene 146 [3]

-Curcumene 150 [3]

Figure 4 Continued

28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

OO

O

O

H

H

H

H

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

H

H

HCH

HH

HO

（3

（2

（2C

（3C（3C

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C O（3

Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3-5 96 97 98]

Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 96 97]

Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]

Spathulenol 167 [3]

Eugenol 168 [3 5]

Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [91]

Icterogenin 173 [104]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Figure 4

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to the NationalResearch Foundation (NRF) and GovanMbeki Research andDevelopment Centre (GMRDC) University of Fort Hare forfinancial support to conduct this research

References

[1] JWMwangi I Addae-Mensah RMMunavu andW LwandeldquoEssential oils of Kenyan Lippia species Part IIIrdquo Flavour andFragrance Journal vol 6 no 3 pp 221ndash224 1991

[2] N J Manenzhe N Potgieter and T Van Ree ldquoCompositionand antimicrobial activities of volatile components of Lippiajavanicardquo Phytochemistry vol 65 no 16 pp 2333ndash2336 2004

[3] A M Viljoen S Subramoney S F V Vuuren K H C Baserand B Demirci ldquoThe composition geographical variation andantimicrobial activity of Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae) leafessential oilsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 96 no 1-2 pp271ndash277 2005

[4] N Lukwa P Moslashlgaard P Furu and C Boslashgh ldquoLippia javanica(Burm f) Spreng its general constituents and bioactivity onmosquitoesrdquoTropical Biomedicine vol 26 no 1 pp 85ndash91 2009

[5] L S Chagonda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssential oil compositionof Lippia javanica (Burmf) spreng chemotype from WesternZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants vol 18 no 2pp 482ndash485 2015

[6] W Kipkore B Wanjohi H Rono and G Kigen ldquoA study of themedicinal plants used by the Marakwet Community in KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 242014

[7] E A Shikanga S Combrinck and T Regnier ldquoSouth AfricanLippia herbal infusions total phenolic content antioxidant andantibacterial activitiesrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76no 3 pp 567ndash571 2010

[8] N T Parrant ldquoThe potential of non-timber forest products ofBotswanardquo Botswana Notes Records vol 28 no 1 pp 203ndash2181996

[9] D M Motlhanka and S W Makhabu ldquoMedicinal and ediblewild fruit plants of Botswana as emerging new crop opportu-nitiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plants Research vol 5 no 10 pp1836ndash1842 2011

[10] M Bhebhe T N Fuller B Chipurura and M MuchuwetildquoEffect of solvent type on total phenolic content and free radicalscavenging activity of black tea and herbal infusionsrdquo FoodAnalytical Methods vol 9 no 4 pp 1060ndash1067 2016

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29

[11] M Bhebhe B Chipurura and M Muchuweti ldquoDeterminationand comparison of phenolic compound content and antioxidantactivity of selected local Zimbabwean herbal teas with exoticAspalathus linearisrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 100no 1 pp 213ndash218 2015

[12] B Patiri and A Borah Wild Edible Plants of Assam GeetakhiPrinters Guwahati India 2007

[13] H Narzary and A Basumatary ldquoProximate and vitamin Canalysis of wild edible plants consumed by Bodos of AssamIndiardquo Journal of Molecular Pathophysiology vol 4 no 4 pp128ndash133 2015

[14] M Gelfand S Mavi R B Drummond and B Ndemera TheTraditional Medical Practitioners in Zimbabwe His Principles ofPractice and Pharmacopoeia Mambo Press Gweru Zimbabwe1985

[15] D Davids Materia medica and care a study of the uses ofmedicinal herbs and remedies as a form of treatment andnegotiating social relationships in cape town and surroundings[MS dissertation] University of theWestern Cape Cape TownSouth Africa 2012

[16] A Maroyi and G K E Mosina ldquoMedicinal plants and tradi-tional practices in peri-urban domestic gardens of the Limpopoprovince South africardquo Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledgevol 13 no 4 pp 665ndash672 2014

[17] A Samie C L Obi P O Bessong and L Namrita ldquoActivityprofiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Vendacommunities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterialspeciesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 4 no 12 pp1443ndash1451 2005

[18] T York An ethnopharmacological study of plants used fortreating respiratory infections in rural Maputaland [MS disser-tation] University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa South Africa2012

[19] D Davids T Blouws O Aboyade et al ldquoTraditional healthpractitionersrsquo perceptions herbal treatment andmanagement ofHIV and related opportunistic infectionsrdquo Journal of Ethnobiol-ogy and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 77 2014

[20] A Hutchings A H Scott G Lewis and A CunninghamZulu Medicinal Plants An Inventory University of Natal PressPietermarizburg South Africa 1996

[21] RM Coopoosamy andK K Naidoo ldquoAn ethnobotanical studyofmedicinal plants used by traditional healers inDurban SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 6no 11 pp 818ndash823 2012

[22] I Hedberg and F Staugard Traditional Medicinal Plants inBotswana Ipeleng Gaborone Botswana 1989

[23] H Shahriar A S M H K Chowdhury S Rahman et al ldquoSci-entific validation of medicinal plants used by a folk medicinalpractitioner of Chuadanga District BangladeshrdquoWorld Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 11 pp 13ndash24 2014

[24] S S Semenya M J Potgieter and M P Tshisikhawe ldquoUseconservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinalplants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 12 no 18 pp2392ndash2405 2013

[25] M Roberts Indigenous Healing Plants Southern Book Publish-ers Halfway House Johannesburg South Africa 1990

[26] T Birhanu D Abera and E Ejeta ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas westernEthiopiardquo Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare vol 5no 1 pp 83ndash93 2015

[27] N T Mahlangeni R Moodley and S B Jonnalagadda ldquoEle-mental composition of Cyrtanthus obliquus and Lippia javanicaused in South African herbal tonic Imbizardquo Arabian Journal ofChemistry 2013

[28] W Musila D Kisangau and J Muema ldquoConservation statusand use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitionersin Machakos District Kenyardquo in Indigenous Knowledge Con-ference Proceedings Pennsylvania State University May 27ndash292004 2004

[29] G N Njoroge and R W Bussmann ldquoTraditional managementof ear nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 542006

[30] P Chigora R Masocha and F Mutenheri ldquoThe role of indige-nous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailmentsin rural Zimbabwe the case of Mutirikwi communal landsrdquoJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol 9 no 2 pp26ndash43 2007

[31] R W Bussmann G G Gilbreath J Solio et al ldquoPlant use ofthe Maasai of Sekenani Valley Maasai Mara Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 22 2006

[32] D Motlhanka and G P Nthoiwa ldquoEthnobotanical Survey ofmedicinal plants of Tswapong North in Eastern Botswana acase of plants from Mosweu and Seolwane Villagesrdquo EuropeanJournal of Medicinal Plants vol 3 no 1 pp 10ndash24 2013

[33] A Vhurumuku ldquoKnowledge use and attitudes towardsmedici-nal plants of pre-service teachers at a South African UniversityrdquoGlobal Advanced Research Journal in Environmental Science andToxicology vol 4 no 2 pp 15ndash24 2015

[34] M N Nkwanyana An ethnobotanical and antidiarrhoeal inves-tigation of plants used traditionally in the maputaland areahomesteads [MS dissertation] University of Zululand KwaD-langezwa South Africa 2013

[35] T E Moeng An investigation into the trade of medicinal plantsbymuthi shops and street vendors in the Limpopo Province SouthAfrica [MS thesis] University of Limpopo Gauteng SouthAfrica 2010

[36] S Bandeira A M Manjate and O Filipe ldquoAn EcologicalAssessment of the Health of the Chibuto-Missavene Wetlandin the Dry Season Mozambique Emphasis on ResourcesAssessment Utilization and Sustainability Analysisrdquo reportto Challenge Program for Water and Food InternationalWater Management Institute Pretoria South Africa 2006httpscgspacecgiarorgbitstreamhandle105682160421604pdfsequence=1

[37] M C Palgrave R B Drummond and E J Moll Trees ofSouthern Africa Struik Cape Town South Africa 2003

[38] M O Nanyingi J M Mbaria A L Lanyasunya et alldquoEthnopharmacological survey of Samburu district KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4 article 142008

[39] J G J P Sankar and K B Satapathy ldquoWeed diversity of Rabicrops and their ethnomedicinal uses in Kendrapara districtof Odisha Indiardquo International Research Journal of BiologicalSciences vol 4 no 3 pp 33ndash38 2015

[40] D E N Mabogo The ethnobotany of the vhavenda [MSdissertation] University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa1990

[41] B-E van Wyk B van Oudtshoorn and N Gericke MedicinalPlants of South Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2013

[42] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used forthe treatment of tuberculosis by Bapedi traditional healers

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

OphthalmologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Diabetes ResearchJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Research and TreatmentAIDS

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 10: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 2 Nutritional composition of Lippia javanica leaves

Caloric and nutritional composition Values ReferenceAsh 160 plusmn 0001 g [13]Calorific value 5064 plusmn 563 kcal [13]Crude fat 016 plusmn 0001 g [13]Crude fibre 263 plusmn 0002 g [13]Crude protein 122 plusmn 00004 g [13]Dry matter 1546 plusmn 140 g [13]Moisture 9044 plusmn 026 g [13]Total carbohydrate 655 plusmn 026 g [13]Vitamin C 2242 plusmn 0001mg [13]Ca 2856ndash9225 120583g gminus1 [27]Mg 1598ndash5619 120583g gminus1 [27]Fe 75ndash750 120583g gminus1 [27]Mn 401 plusmn 116 120583g gminus1 [27]Zn 156ndash273 120583g gminus1 [27]Cu 30ndash85 120583g gminus1 [27]Cr 0ndash27 120583g gminus1 [27]Se 257 plusmn 019 120583g gminus1 [27]Pb 038ndash119 120583g gminus1 [27]Cd 053 plusmn 005 120583g gminus1 [27]Co 019 plusmn 001 120583g gminus1 [27]

3 Phytochemical Constituents and NutritionalComposition of Lippia javanica

Multiple classes of phytochemicals including volatile andnonvolatile secondary metabolites such as alkaloids aminoacids flavonoids iridoids and triterpenes as well as severalminerals have been identified from L javanica [1ndash5 7 13 2773 78 81 83ndash86 88ndash94 120 123 125ndash127] Leaves flowersand twigs of L javanica have a wide variety of the so-calledclassic nutrients such as minerals carbohydrates proteinsfats and vitamins (Table 2) Lippia javanica leaves are a goodsource of minerals such as cadmium calcium chromiumcobalt copper iron magnesium manganese selenium andzinc [27] These authors assessed the levels of the elementsin L javanica leaves and found the elements to be in thedecreasing order of Ca gt Mg gt Fe gt Zn gt Mn gt Cu gt Se gtCr gt Pb gt Co gt Cd for total concentrations and Ca gt Mggt Fe gt Zn gt Cu gt Cr gt Pb for water extractable forms Theseresults corroborate an observation made by Sedaghathooret al [128] that Ca and Mg are among the most abundantelements in tea plants These mineral elements are importantin human nutrition since L javanica is used as herbaltea and food additive (Table 1) Calcium magnesium ironmanganese and zinc play a major role in activating someenzymes and regulating many responses of cells to stimuli[129] Some of the mineral elements identified from Ljavanica leaves are required by the human body for repair ofworn out cell tissues and strong bones and teeth and buildingof red blood cells and other related tissuesTherefore since Ljavanica has appreciable concentrations of mineral elementssuch as calcium magnesium iron manganese and zinc

(Table 2) which are essential for enzyme metabolism thesemineral elements could enhance the nutritional and curativeproperties of the species

Bhebhe et al [10] determined the total phenolic and tan-nin content and radical scavenging activities of L javanicacomparing it with Aspalathus linearis (Burmf) R Dahlgren(Rooibos) a commercial South African herbal tea andother popular herbal teas in Zimbabwe (Table 3) Adansoniadigitata L Fadogia ancylantha Schweinf Ficus sycomorus Land Myrothamnus flabellifolius Welw are indigenous herbalteas consumed in Zimbabwe The tannin content of Ljavanica is very low when compared to A linearis (Rooibos)(Table 3) Lippia javanica has higher radical scavenging activ-ity than A linearis (Table 3) which is probably due to highertotal phenolic content in comparison to A linearis which is apopular herbal tea consumed by 10 of the global herbal teamarket [10] In another study Bhebhe et al [11] determinedand compared the effect of several solvents namely hotwater 50 methanol ethanol 50 ethanol acetone 50acetone and ethyl acetate on phenolic composition and freeradical scavenging activity in common black tea C sinensisand five other well-known herbal teas including L javanicaIn all the seven solvents used L javanica had higher totalphenolic content than C sinensis implying that L javanicais competitive to the black tea in terms of phenolic contentShikanga et al [7] found leaf extracts of L javanica to havehigher phenolic content of 148 mgg gallic acid equivalentof dry weight than flowers (99mgg) and twigs (83mgg)Phenolic compounds found in plants are known to play animportant role as antioxidants in exhibiting the medicinalproperties such as antibiotic anti-inflammatory anticancerand antiallergic properties [10 66 130 131]

The compounds isolated from L javanica are docu-mented and listed in Appendix A and their structures arepresented in Appendix B Simple phenolic compounds andcaffeic acid and its derivatives are some of the compoundsthat have been identified in L javanica and examplesinclude coumarin 1 34-dihydroxy-120573-phenylethoxy-O-[410158401015840-120573-caffeoyl-120572-rhamnopyranosyl-(1101584010158401015840310158401015840)-O-120573-glucopyrano-side] commonly referred to as verbascoside 2 and 34-dihydroxy-120573-phenylethoxy-O-[610158401015840-120573-caffeoyl-120572-rhamnopy-ranosyl-(1101584010158401015840310158401015840)-O-120573-glucopyranoside] commonly referredto as isoverbascoside 3 isolated by Olivier et al [81] from theaerial parts of the species Nonvolatile diterpenes known asiridoid-glycosides have also been isolated from L javanicaby Rimpler and Sauerbier [82] represented by theveside-Na4 and theveridoside 5 Mujovo et al [83] isolated a longchain alkane ldquo4-ethylnonacosanerdquo 6 and four flavanonesapigenin 7 cirsimaritin 8 6-methoxyluteolin 41015840-methylether 9 and 6-methoxyluteolin 31015840410158407-trimethyl ether 10from ethanolic extracts of L javanica leaves Madzimureet al [120] identified an array of phenolic glycosides andflavonoids which include crassifolioside 11 luteolin 12diosmetin 13 chrysoeriol 14 tricin 15 isothymusin 16eupatorin 17 5-dimethyl noboletin 18 genkwanin 19salvigenin 20 and an alkaloid xanthine 22 Ludere et al[84] isolated lippialactone 21 from the ethyl acetate extractof aerial parts of L javanica Neidlein and Staehle [85] andDlamini [86] isolated 19 amino acids compounds 23 to

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11

Table 3 Total phenolic content (TPC) as gallic acid equivalents (GAE) and tannin content as leucocyanidin equivalents (LE) and free radicalscavenging activity (FRSA) of herbal tea extracts (after Bhebhe et al [10])

Plant species TPC g GAE100 g Tannin content of LE100 g Percentage FRSA IC50gmL

Lippia javanica 1246 plusmn 431 012 plusmn 001 8377 plusmn 08 0016Aspalathus linearis 669 plusmn 083 094 plusmn 004 6727 plusmn 025 0053Adansonia digitata 079 plusmn 028 169 plusmn 001 4307 plusmn 10 0132Fadogia ancylantha 288 plusmn 048 020 plusmn 012 700 plusmn 040 0051Ficus sycamores 1402 plusmn 001 198 plusmn 012 8613 plusmn 085 0009Myrothamnus flabellifolius 475 plusmn 033 104 plusmn 001 8093 plusmn 075 0019

41 in Appendix A from L javanica At least 131 differentclasses of essential oil compounds (compounds 42ndash172 inAppendices A and B) have been isolated from L javanica byseveral researchers [3ndash5 83 85 86 88ndash94 123] Hutchingsand van Staden [96] isolated a toxic triterpenoid saponinicterogenin 173 from L javanica leaves These differentclasses of essential oil compounds have been associatedwith various therapeutic activities such as anaestheticanalgesic anti-inflammatory antimicrobial cardiovasculardecongestant digestive expectorant hepatoprotective andsedative activities as well as stimulant of nervous systemand tonifying effects [132] Meanwhile flavonoids possessseveral pharmacological properties including antibacterialanticancer anti-inflammatory antioxidant antiviral andhepatoprotective effects [133] which play important rolesin human health Flavonoid such as apigenin 7 is reportedto possess antibacterial [134] and hepatoprotective [135]properties Apigenin 7 and luteolin 12 are reported to possessanti-inflammatory and analgesic effects [133] affecting thefunction of enzyme systems involved in the generation ofinflammatory processes especially tyrosine and serine-threonine protein kinases [136 137] It has also been reportedthat apigenin 7 prevents HIV-1 activation via a novelmechanism that involves inhibition of viral transcription[138] and luteolin 12 demonstrated synergistic effects withanother flavonoid kaempferol against herpes simplex virus[133] Kamiya [139] documented the importance of essentialamino acids such as lysine valine isoleucine and histidinein terms of the risks to health if they are deficientThe authoralso documented their biological effects which includemuscle protein maintenance potentiation of immunefunction tissue repair acceleration after burn or traumaprotecting liver from toxic agents lowering blood pressuremodulating cholesterol metabolism and stimulating insulinor growth hormone secretion Therefore L javanica leavesand other plant parts which have shown to be rich inflavonoid and polyphenolic compounds amino acids andessential oil could play an important role in the treatmentand management of diseases such as hypertension andinflammation listed in Table 1

4 Pharmacological Activities

Scientific studies on L javanica indicate that it has a widerange of pharmacological activities (Table 4) which include

anticancer [140] antidiabetic [141] antimalarial [4 49 142]antimicrobial [2 3 7 17 73ndash75 77 83 84 126 143]antioxidant [7 10 11 75 77 125] antiplasmodial [2 7980 84 144 145] and pesticidal effects [1 2 59 95 120146ndash150] and cytotoxicity [2 73 79 120] activities Table 4summarizes some of the pharmacological studies undertakenon L javanica extracts aimed at evaluating some of theethnomedicinal uses of the species documented throughoutits distributional range (see Table 1) Some of the listedpharmacological activities may not relate directly to thedocumented ethnomedicinal uses of the species but mayprovide some insight into the speciesrsquo potential therapeuticvalue and bioactive properties and application

41 Anticancer Activity Fouche et al [140] reported anti-cancer activity of dichloromethane root extract of L javanicaagainst three human cells exhibiting TGI value of 182120583gmLfor breast MDA-MB-435 186 120583gmL for breast MDA-N and209 120583gmL for melanoma MALME-3M Based on literaturea couple of terpenoid compounds that have been isolatedfrom L javanica are known to have antitumor propertiesFor example linalool 120 is known to have antitumoractivity which plays a protective role against hepatotoxicityand the compound has anti-inflammatory activities as well[151] Research by Yang et al [152] showed limonene 92 tohave inhibitory effect on pancreatic and mammary tumorsAnother terpenoid compound 120572-pinene 44 is known toinhibit translocation of NF-120581B or p65 protein into nuclei ofLPS-stimulated THP-1 cells [153] These findings serve as ascientific validation for the use of L javanica as a componentof a herbal concoction known in KwaZulu Natal province asldquoimbizardquo prepared by mixing L javanica with C obliquus asherbal medicine for cancer [27]

42 Antidiabetic Activity Arika et al [141] determined the invivo antidiabetic activity of aqueous leaf extracts of L javan-ica in white male alloxan-induced albino mice The aqueousleaf extracts of L javanica at all dose levels significantlylowered the blood glucose levels in both oral and intraperi-toneal routes The antidiabetic effect of L javanica couldhave been due to the observed presence of flavonoids Thepolyhydroxylated flavonol enhances lipogenesis and glucoseuptake in the adipocytes and flavanoids have demonstratedinsulinmimetic properties as the compound is known to beeffective at controlling blood sugar levels These findings

12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table4Summaryof

pharmacologicalactiv

ities

ofthee

xtractsisolated

from

different

partso

fLippiajavanica

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Antiamoebic

Piperitenon

e162

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f25120583

gmLagainstE

histolytica

[73]

Antibacteria

lPiperitenon

e162

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f50120583

gmLagainstA

calcoaceticu

sMkristin

ae(50120583

gmL)Styphi(25120583

gmL)and

Saureus

(12120583

gmL)

[73]

Antibacteria

l(Antiproteus)

Methano

lLeaves

Disc

diffu

sion

assay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f313120583gmLagainstPm

irabilis

and926120583

gmL

againstPvulgaris

[74]

Water

Leaves

Disc

diffu

sion

assay

Exhibitedweakactiv

ityagainstPm

irabilis

with

MIC

valueo

f1873120583gmLand1768120583gmLagainstPvulgaris

[74]

Antibacteria

l

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

coliwith

MIC

valueo

f064m

gmLE

faecalis(064)P

aeruginosa

(032

)andSaureus

(064)Totalactiv

ityMIC

values

werea

sfollo

wsE

coli(127

mgmL)E

faecalis

(127

mgmL)Paeruginosa

(253

mgmL)and

Saureus

(127

mgmL)

[75]

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

valueo

f3mgmLBa

cillusp

umilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(gt12mgmL)Saureus(12mgmL)E

faecalis

(6mgmL)E

cloacae

(6mgmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pantoea

agglo

meran

s(12mgmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Shigella

flexneri

(15mgmL)A

erom

onas

hydrophila(12m

gmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae(12mgmL)Salmonellacholeraesuis

(6mgmL)and

Serratiamarcescens(gt12mgmL)

[17]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

valueo

f12m

gmLB

pumilu

s(12m

gmL)B

subtilis(12m

gmL)Saureus(6m

gmL)E

faecalis

(12m

gmL)E

cloacae

(12m

gmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(12m

gmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(6

mgmL)A

hydrophila(12m

gmL)Pm

irabilis

(12m

gmL)K

pneum

oniae

(12m

gmL)Scholeraesuis(6

mgmL)and

antia

moebice

ffect

(12m

gmL)

[17]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

values

of15

mgmLB

pumilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(gt12mgmL)Saureus(12mgmL)E

faecalis

(3mgmL)E

cloacae

(6mgmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(12m

gmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(15mgmL)A

hydrophila(6

mgmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae

(12m

gmL)Scholeraesuis(6

mgmL)and

Smarcescens(12mgmL)

[17]

Essentialoil

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

values

of6m

gmLB

pumilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(3mgmL)Saureus(15

mgmL)E

faecalis

(3mgmL)E

cloacae

(12m

gmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(6

mgmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(3mgmL)A

hydrophila(3mgmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae

(3mgmL)Scholeraesuis(15mgmL)and

Smarcescens(gt12mgmL)

[17]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 13

Table4Con

tinued

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

faecaliswith

MIC

valueo

f014

mgmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

coliwith

MIC

valueo

f031

mgmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPaeruginosa

with

MIC

valueo

f042m

gmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstSaureus

with

MIC

valueo

f013

mgmL

[7]

Antifu

ngal

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

albicans

with

MIC

valueo

fgt75m

gmLC

krusei

(188m

gmL)and

Cneoforman

s(gt75

mgmL)

[7]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

albicans

with

MIC

valueo

fgt375

mgmLC

krusei

(375m

gmL)and

Cneoforman

s(gt75

mgmL)

[7]

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

kruseiwith

MFC

valueo

f75mgmL

[7]

Dichlorom

ethane

Aeria

lparts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFu

sariu

mproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f014

mgmLand

Fusariu

mverticillioides(019mgmL)

[76]

Hexane

Aeria

lparts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f023m

gmLandF

verticillioides(045

mgmL)

[76]

Methano

lAe

rialp

arts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f177m

gmLandF

verticillioides(043

mgmL)

[76]

Methano

lAe

rialp

arts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

fgt250

mgmLandF

verticillioides(gt250

mgmL)

[76]

Antim

ycob

acteria

l

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f047m

gmLandtotalactivity

of10mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Dichlorom

ethane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f125m

gmLandtotalactivity

of23

mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f062m

gmLandtotalactivity

of13mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f125m

gmLandtotalactivity

of7m

Lgagainst

Msmegmatis

[77]

14 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table4Con

tinued

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Antioxidant

Water

Leaves

DPP

Hassay

Exhibitedactiv

itywith

EC50valueo

f358120583gmL

[7]

Water

Leaves

mdashEx

hibitedactiv

itywith

209ascorbicacid

equivalent

(mggdryweight)

[7]

Water

Leaves

ABT

Sassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f15mmol10

0g[78]

Water

Leaves

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f146254

mmol10

0g[78]

Water

Leaves

FRAPassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f238m

mol10

0g[78]

Antiplasm

odial

Hexanechloroform

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f1225plusmn072120583gmL

[79]

Ethylacetate

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f1212plusmn079120583gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f135plusmn006120583gmL

[79]

Hexanechloroform

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f1859plusmn026120583gmL

[79]

Ethylacetate

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f1580plusmn026120583gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f175plusmn017120583gmL

[79]

Dichlorom

ethane

Roots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f38120583gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethanem

ethano

lRo

ots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f27120583

gmL

[80]

Methano

lRo

ots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f24120583

gmL

[80]

Water

Roots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

fgt100120583

gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethane

Stem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f45120583gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethanem

ethano

lStem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f218120583gmL

[80]

Methano

lStem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f298120583gmL

[80]

Water

Stem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

fgt100120583

gmL

[80]

Free

radicalscaveng

ing

activ

ity

Water

mdashDPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0059plusmn002

gmL

[11]

50methano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f004plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Ethano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0025plusmn0001gmL

[11]

50ethano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0027plusmn0005gmL

[11]

Aceton

emdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0057plusmn0004gmL

[11]

50aceton

emdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0022plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Ethylacetate

mdashDPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0066plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Toxicity

Methano

lLeaf

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

40mortalityrecorded

after

48hexpo

sure

towards

Artemianauplii

[74]

Methano

lRo

ots

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f8430120583

gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f6503120583

gmL

[79]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 15

strengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantidiabetic agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species mixed with C obliquus to form aherbal concoction known in KwaZulu Natal province SouthAfrica as ldquoimbizardquo used against diabetes [27]

43 Antimalarial Activity Govere et al [142] found thattopical application of L javanica alcohol extract leads to767 protection against Anopheles arabiensis for 4 hoursLippia javanica has been used as a mosquito repellent by therural communities in Zimbabwe for a long time and previousstudies have shown that essential oils from the species havevery strong and lasting repellent activity against female Aarabiensis [64] Research by Lukwa et al [4] revealed thattopical application of 5mgcm2 of L javanica leads to 100protection againstAnopheles aegypti for 8 hoursMavundza etal [154] screened dichloromethane and ethanol leaf extractsof L javanica for adulticidal activity againstA arabiensisTheauthors observed dichloromethane and ethanol activities of45 and 55mosquitomortality respectivelyThese findingsstrengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantimalarial agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species as mosquito repellent in India [47]South Africa [34 49 58] and Zimbabwe [4 48]

44 Antioxidant Activity Leaf infusions of L javanica exhib-ited antioxidant activity with EC

50value of 358120583gmL and

contained 148mgmL of dry weight gallic acid equivalentphenolic compounds [7] The EC

50value of 358 120583gmL

obtained for L javanica by Shikanga et al [7] compareswell to those of many commercial teas including antioxidantcapacity of Rooibos Fresh Pack herbal teas (A linearis)with the best antioxidant activity of 333 120583gmL The highantioxidant activities displayed by L javanica infusions canbe partially attributed to the high levels of verbascoside 2(15mgg dry weight) reported by Olivier et al [81] in theleaf extract of the species Earlier research by Muchuwetiet al [125] reported 744 inhibition of the DPPH radicalby an ethanolic leaf extract of L javanica Lekganyane etal [75] reported antioxidant activity in L javanica and theacetone extracts of the species displayed antioxidant activityon BEA chromatogram [77] Bhebhe et al [10] reported theantioxidant activities of L javanica based on the DPPHreducing power and inhibition of phospholipid peroxidationassays Free radical scavenging activity of L javanica isattributed to phenolic compounds since these compoundshave an ideal structural chemistry for free radical scavengingactivity [155] Bhebhe et al [11] determined the effect ofseveral solvents on the free radical scavenging activity ofL javanica using the DPPH assay Free radical scavengingactivity expressed as IC

50ranged from 0022 plusmn 0001 gmL to

0066 plusmn 0001 gmL see Table 4

45 Antiplasmodial Activity Prozesky et al [144] evaluatedL javanica leaf acetone extract for in vitro antiplasmodialactivity using PfUP1 a chloroquine resistant strain of themalaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum by means of theflow cytometric test The IC

50value for L javanica was

426 120583gmL Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil

piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica for antiplasmodialactivity using chloroquine diphosphate as positive controland found it active against a chloroquine sensitive strainof P falciparum in micromolar concentrations with IC

50of

8 120583gmL Clarkson et al [80] evaluated L javanica rootsand stems extracts for in vitro activity against P falciparumusing the parasite lactase dehydrogenase (pLDH) assay andchloroquine diphosphate (Sigma) as the positive controlThedichloromethane methane and water extracts showed IC

50

values ranging from 38 to gt100 120583gmL see Table 4 Omolo etal [145] screened the essential oil of L javanica for fumiganttoxicity to Anopheles gambiae which exhibited LD

50of 43 times

10minus3mg cmminus3 Ayuko et al [79] showed that L javanica rootextracts have antiplasmodial activity against P falciparumwith IC

50ranging from 135 to 1859 120583gmL see Table 4

Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity againstthe chloroquine sensitive D10 strain of P falciparum withan IC

50value of 91 120583gmL and is also mildly cytotoxic [84]

Compared to chloroquine the compound is approximately2000 times less active against the D10 strain of P falciparum[84]

46 Antimicrobial Activities Lippia javanica is widely usedin the treatment of a wide range of infectious diseasescaused by microorganisms Viljoen et al [3] determined theantimicrobial properties of L javanica by evaluating the timekill studies of the speciesrsquo essential oil using the disc diffusionassay on three respiratory pathogens Klebsiella pneumoniaeCryptococcus neoformans and Bacillus cereus This studyshowed that the killing rate was greatest for K pneumoniaefollowed by C neoformans and very little reduction of micro-bial populations was observed for B cereus The efficacy of Ljavanica oil for K pneumoniae showed a killing rate within30 minutes for the concentrations 025 05 075 and 1C neoformans showed a killing rate for concentrations 05075 and 1 within 1 hour and the lowest concentration of025 took 8 hours before a bactericidal effect was notedwhile B cereus showed some reduction in colonies [3] Thepositive antimicrobial activity of L javanica as revealed bythe time kill study could be attributed to linalool 120 whichaverages between 65 and 70 in yield [3 5 88 90] and hasknown antimicrobial properties [93 156ndash159]These findingssomehow corroborate the traditional use of L javanica asherbal medicine for a wide range of bacterial and fungalrespiratory ailments indicated in Table 1

Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil piperitenone162 isolated from L javanica for antibacterial activityon cultures of Bacillus subtilis Staphylococcus aureus andEscherichia coli using imipenem cefazolin and ampicillinas positive controls The authors found piperitenone 162to inhibit S aureus and E coli at 1 dilution Acetonehexane and methanol leaf extracts and essential oil isolatedfrom L javanica showed some activity against fifteen Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria with MIC values rang-ing from 15 to gt12mgmL [60] see Table 4 In a similarstudy Samie et al [73] demonstrated that a pure compoundpiperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica has antibacte-rial activities against Acinetobacter calcoaceticus Micrococcus

16 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

kristinae Salmonella typhi and S aureus using dimethylsulphoxide and kanamycin as controls with MIC valuesranging from 12 to 50 120583gmL see Table 4 Shikanga et al [7]evaluated the antibacterial activity of L javanica methanolicleaf extract against S aureus Enterococcus faecalis E coliand Pseudomonas aeruginosa using the serial microdilutionmethod with gentamycin (Virbac) and acetone as positiveand negative controls respectively Lippia javanica displayedantibacterial activities with MIC values ranging from 013to 042mgmL against all four pathogens see Table 4 Theobtained minimum inhibitory concentrations are promisingsince natural products with MIC values below 1mgmLare generally considered to be noteworthy findings [160]Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity against theE coli and S aureus at a concentration of 10mgmL [84]Lekganyane et al [75] reported antibacterial activity of Ljavanica acetone leaf extracts against E coli E faecalis Paeruginosa and S aureus with MIC values ranging from 032to 064mgmL and total activity of the same species rangingfrom 127 to 253mgmL see Table 4 Methanol and water leafextracts of L javanica exhibited some antiproteus activityagainstProteusmirabilis andProteus vulgariswithMICvalueslt2000120583gmL with standard discs of ampicillin (2120583g) andchloramphenicol (10 120583g) as positive controls [74] Some of theantibacterial properties of L javanica can be attributed to thephytochemical constituents of the species for example thephenolic compound apigenin 7 is a well-known antibacterialagent [7 134] Apigenin 7 was shown to be highly activeagainst Vibrio cholera and E faecalis [161] while Basile et al[162] reported the inhibition of S typhi P mirabilis and Paeruginosa by the compound Therefore results from theseantibacterial evaluations of L javanica give credence to theuse of the speciesrsquo infusions against bacterial infections andother related diseases

Shikanga et al [126] investigated the antifungal activ-ities of leaf extracts and essential oil compounds isolatedfrom L javanica leafy extracts against a Guazatine-resistantstrain of Penicillium digitatumThemethanolic leafy extractsisoverbascoside 3 and verbascoside 2 compounds isolatedfrom L javanica inhibited fungal growth at concentrationsabove 06mgsdotmLminus1 causing significant inhibition of mycelialgrowth Verbascoside 2 is well-known for its antimicrobialproperties and has been found to inhibit viruses bacteriaand fungi [163] Similarly Samie et al [143] investigatedantifungal effects of acetone and hexane leaf extracts of Ljavanica against Candida albicans Candida krusei and Cneoformans isolated from AIDS patients using the microdi-lution method with nystatin Roche and DMSO as positiveand negative controls respectively Noteworthy moderateantifungal activities were recorded from C krusei with MICvalue of 188mgmL and other recordedMFCandMICvaluesfor other species ranged from 188mgmL to gt75mgmLsee Table 4 Thembo et al [76] investigated the antifungalactivity of aqueous and organic extracts of L javanica usinga serial microdilution assay Generally extracts of L javanicaexhibited weak activity see Table 4

47 Antimycobacterial Activity Mujovo et al [83] evaluatedL javanica compounds against a drug-sensitive strain ofMycobacterium tuberculosis using the radiometric respira-tory techniques Of all the isolated compounds only onetriterpenoid carboxylic acid euscaphic acid 172 exhibitedantimycobacterial activity with MIC value of 50120583gmLminus1against this strain In a similar study the leaf extract ofL javanica exhibited antimycobacterial activity against Msmegmatis in an evaluation which used microdilution assayand rifampicin as control [77] Acetone extract was thebest extractant with MIC value of 047mgmL it extractedantibacterial agents which was indicated by the lowest MICvalue [77] Masoko and Nxumalo [77] also evaluated thetotal activity ofL javanicawhich averaged 13mLg suggestingthat the extract prepared from one gram of L javanicacould be diluted to a volume of 13mL and will still inhibitM smegmatis efficiently According to Semenya and Maroyi[115] tuberculosis caused by M tuberculosis is a seriousdisease requiring effective strategies and tools to controland manage it Therefore preliminary evaluations done byMujovo et al [83] and Masoko and Nxumalo [77] serve asa scientific validation for the use of L javanica in traditionalmedicine for treatment of tuberculosis and other respiratoryailments in South Africa [24 27 115] and Uganda [43] as wellas their efficiency in tuberculosis drug discovery

48 Antiviral Activity Mujovo et al [83] found that (E)-2(3)-tagetenone epoxide 42 and piperitenone 162 inhibitedthe HIV-1 reverse transcriptase enzyme by 91 and 53respectively at 100 120583gmLminus1 based on a nonradioactive HIVRT colorimetric ELISA kit Little is known about the HIV RTactivity of L javanica extracts or compounds but flavonoidsare known to be active against viral RT and also as potentinhibitors of the cellular alpha and beta DNA polymerase[83] while luteolin 12 is active against HIV RT [164 165]Lippia javanica is traditionally used to treat HIVAIDSsymptoms in South Africa [65 66] and several viral andHIVAIDS opportunistic diseases and infections such asbronchitis [15 19ndash22] chicken pox [50] diarrhoea [17 3437 44 113] measles [14 20 38] pneumonia [14] shingles[15] and venereal diseases [44] Despite significant advancesin the utilization of L javanica in southern Africa overthe years for numerous viral diseases (Table 1) very littleantiviral evaluations have been done on crude extracts andpurified compounds of the species There is need thereforefor more pharmacological research as L javanica could beharbouring potent (RT) inhibitors which could be useful forthe development of new pharmaceutical products importantfor use against viral diseases and infections

49 Pesticidal Effects Magano et al [95] evaluated the repel-lent effects of hexane extracts of L javanica essential oilusing the in vitro tick climbing repellency bioassay on adultsof Hyalomma marginatum rufipes Koch ticks The authorsfound that 107mgmL caused repellency index of 100 at onehour and 30 minutes In a similar study by Madzimure et al[120] L javanica aqueous leaf extracts at 10 and 20 wvwere effective at controlling cattle ticks (Amblyomma species

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 17

Boophilus species Hyalomma species Rhipicephalus appen-diculatus and Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi) and were as goodas the positive control amitraz-based acaricide TrickbusterThese authors found no parasites on microscopic exami-nation of the Giemsa-stained thin blood smear collectedfrom treated cattle implying that the animals did not sufferfrom clinical tick-borne diseases Similarly Nyahangare etal [59] tested the pesticidal activity of L javanica waterextracts against cattle ticks The authors found no significantdifference between cattle treated with a commercial syntheticacaricide and those under L javanica treatment Martinez-Velazquez et al [166] evaluated pesticidal effects of twoessential oils namely 120574-terpinene 82 and 120588-cymene 99isolated from Lippia graveolens Kunth against 10-day-oldRhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini) tick larvaeusing the larval packet test bioassay The two essential oilsproduced highmortality ranging from90 to 100 in all testedconcentrations of 20 to 125 (vv)Therefore L javanica canprovide an effective tick control option where synthetic prod-ucts are unavailable or unaffordable particularly in remoterural areas in sub-Saharan Africa Lippia javanica is popularfor tick control and management among resource-poorsmallholder farmers in South Africa [58 95] and Zimbabwe[59 60 120] While these preliminary evaluations may serveas confirmation that L javanica has some bioactivities againstticks a comprehensive method of tick control is requiredfor the resource-constrained smallholder farmers based onethnopharmacological properties of L javanica

McGaw et al [146] screened L javanica for the anthel-mintic test systems using the free living nematodeCaenorhabditis elegans The crude ethanol and hexaneextracts showed some activity at a concentration of 2mgmLwith the 7-day incubation assay appearing to be moresensitive than the shorter assay Earlier research by Mwangiet al [1] indicated that L javanica was active against Aedesaegypti larvae and Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (maizeweevil) Katsvanga and Chigwiza [147] reported that Ljavanica is an effective natural pesticide which can be used tocontrol aphid species (Brevicoryne brassicae) In their studyKatsvanga and Chigwiza [147] found that 1 1 powderedaqueous leaf extract of L javanica reduced B brassicae by532 against 783 and 967 of two synthetic pesticidesAphid kill and Bexadust ldquoLrdquo respectively Chikukura etal [149] found L javanica powdered leaf extracts to haveinsecticidal properties with potential to control graindamage by 21ndash33 Mashela et al [148] reported that theapplication of ground L javanica leaves to soil in nematode-infested (Meloidogyne incognita) pots reduced the nematodenumbers by 79ndash92 and significantly increased fresh fruityield dry shoot mass plant height and stem diameter ofthe tomato plants as well as levels of potassium nitrogenand manganese in leaf tissue Muzemu et al [150] evaluatedwater extracts of L javanica leaf powder for pesticidal effectsagainst rape (Brassica napus L) aphids B brassicae andtomato (Solanum lycopersicum Lam) red spider mites andTetranychus evansi as alternatives to conventional pesticidesLippia javanica reduced B brassicae and Tetranychus evansiby 125 and 63 respectively [150]The study demonstratedthat L javanica has pesticidal effects on B brassicae and T

evansi The reduced number of B brassicae and T evansicould be due to L javanicarsquos extracts having repellent toxicand antifeedant effects since the species has essential oilswith pesticidal properties [2] Therefore these findingsindicate that L javanica has both nematicidal and plantgrowth-promoting properties

410 Toxicity and Cytotoxicity Activity Lippia javanica isknown to cause liver damage and photosensitisation in live-stock resulting in stock losses [167] Triterpenoids isolatedfrom the genus Lippia are icterogenic and cause jaundice asa result of liver damage [167] The characteristic swellingyellowing and later peeling of unpigmented skin are due tothe presence of phylloerythrin a photodynamic porphyrinthat reacts with sunlight and causes severe cell damage [167]The compound is normally formed when chlorophyll isbroken down by microorganisms in the rumen but it nowaccumulates in the liver as a result of the damage caused bytriterpenoids [167] In view of the known toxicity of Lippiaspecies the prolonged use of high doses of L javanica ispotentially harmful [167] Lippia javanica showed low toxicityafter 48 h exposure with the percentage of mortality below50 [74]

Ayuko et al [79] evaluated the toxicity of L javanicausing a brine shrimp cytotoxicity assay with LC

50value of

1138 plusmn 133 120583gmL Ayuko et al [79] found the cytotoxicity toantiplasmodial activity ratios for the methanolic extracts ofthe two tested strains to be 8430 and 6503 and since theseare greater than 100 it may be concluded that the extractsare of low toxicity Samie et al [73] demonstrated that apure compound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanicaessential oil has low cytotoxicity activity against intestinaladenocarcinoma cells (ie the HCT-8 monolayers with IC

50

of 2656 plusmn 53 120583gmL) Lukwa [64] evaluated the toxicity of Ljavanica aqueous leaf extracts using sexually mature BALBcmice with the placebo as control Within 48 hours all micefed with the L javanica leaf aqueous extract at 125ndash375 vvwere lethargic and the overall mortality was 375 Previousresearch byManenzhe et al [2] showed that hydrodistillationof L javanica leaves flowers and stems produced oil thatwas poisonous against P falciparumwhen diluted to 1 (vv)These findings imply that despite its apparent safety waterextracts of L javanica leaves may have deleterious healthimplications on humans and animals if consumed at veryhigh doses

Many compounds that have been isolated from L javan-ica including phenolic glycosides flavonoids and essentialoils are not known to have acute toxic properties withthe exception of icterogenin 173 Icterogenin 173 has beenshown to inhibit biliary excretion in rabbits [168] Reports inliterature indicate that the consumption of xanthine 22 hasresulted in mammalian toxicity According to Madzimure etal [64] xanthine 22 is a demethylated derivative of caffeinewith pharmacological actions such as central nervous system(CNS) stimulation relaxation of smooth muscle (especiallybronchial muscle) myocardial stimulation peripheral vaso-constriction and diuresis Considering the widespread useof L javanica as herbal tea and medicine it is important

18 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

to determine if any toxicological effects can occur from itschronic or subchronic usage

411 Other Activities Mpofu et al [169] determined the effectof inclusion of L javanica leaf meal in broiler diets ongrowth performance carcass characteristics and fatty acidprofiles The authors found that the L javanica fed broilershad higher total polyunsaturated fatty acids and n-3 fattyacidsThe findings from the study showed that inclusion of Ljavanica in broiler diets at 5 gkg feed has positive influenceson growth performance carcass characteristics and fattyacid profiles of broiler meat and therefore L javanica haspotential as growth-promoting feed additive in broilersSamie et al [73] evaluated antiamoebic activity of a purecompound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica essen-tial oil against Entamoeba histolytica using microdilutionmethod with metronidazole as the positive control diluents(ie culture medium with an appropriate concentration ofdimethyl sulphoxide as the negative control) and a blank(ie culture medium without dimethyl sulphoxide) Samieet al [73] demonstrated that piperitenone 162 had markedantiamoebic activity with IC

50value of 25 120583gmL More

research is required as L javanica could be harbouring potentantiamoebic properties which could be useful for managingamoebiasis an infection that remains a significant cause ofmorbidity and mortality worldwide

5 Conclusion

Lippia javanica has been used in African and Asian countriesas herbal tea and medicine for many centuries Utilization ofL javanica because of its flavour and medicinal propertiesforms the basis of the current demand for the plant speciesin central eastern and southern Africa Research on Ljavanica over the past decade on health promoting propertieshas greatly contributed to the increased consumption ofthe species as herbal or recreational tea The focus of thisresearch has been on phytochemical compounds particularlyphenolic content and antioxidant and free radical scavengingactivities Phenolic compounds present in L javanica arelargely responsible for the antioxidant properties possessedby the species More research in this regard is required andfuture research should focus on more comprehensive chem-ical characterization of both crude and pure extracts andevaluate potential for commercialization and developmentof nutraceutical products based on traditional uses of Ljavanica Most of the pharmacological researches conductedon L javanica so far have focused on the phytochemistryand biological properties of leaves and little or no researchhas been done on roots and other plant parts Thereforefuture research on the species should focus on other plantparts for example flowers roots and stems as well asorgan-to-organ age and seasonal variation evaluations in thephytochemical content and pharmacological activities of thespecies

The recent increase in the demand for L javanica prod-ucts may partly be ascribed to growing body of scientific evi-dence indicating important health benefits Lippia javanica

is widely sold as herbal tea in Botswana South Africa andZimbabwe Leaves and stems of L javanica are also sold asherbal medicines in the medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquo marketsin South Africa [35 170] For local people who rely onherbal medicines as part of their primary healthcare aswell as cultural beliefs they prefer L javanica harvestedfrom the wild and unprocessed plant parts sold in informalmedicinal ldquomuthirdquo markets [170] In the past there were norecords of overexploitation of L javanica wild populationsin southern Africa resulting in Raimondo et al [171] listingthe species as Least Concern (LC) under the IUCN RedList Categories and Criteria version 31 of threatened species(httpwwwiucnredlistorg) Recently signs of overharvest-ing have been noted where local people or plant traders haveuprooted whole plants to supply medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquomarkets or use the plants as herbal medicines brooms orherbal tea Therefore large-scale commercial utilization of Ljavanica is not sustainable if the species is harvested fromthe wild Currently L javanica is cultivated on a commercialscale in Kenya [28] and South Africa [117] for essential oilproduction for the mosquito-repellent candles and perfumeindustry Cultivation of L javanica is therefore a solutionto the sustainability problems associated with harvesting ofthe species from the wild and this option is also necessaryfor establishing commercial scale medicinal production andprocessing and trade enterprises The success of commercialcultivation of L javanica will depend on how the species ismarketed as herbal tea and medicine and source of essentialoil and health care products and as a source of functionalfoods

Significant research has been made in the past 50 yearsinto the chemistry and pharmacology of L javanica Thesestudies have shown L javanica to display various chemicaland different biological activities some of which justify itsethnopharmacological utilization in variety of cultures Inthe light of the evidence that L javanica is combined withother plant species in traditional medicine it will be valuableto investigate the possibility of synergistic effects of thedifferent extracts Deep phytochemical studies of L javanicaand its phytochemical properties especially the mechanismsof action of its bioactive constituents to illustrate the cor-relation between ethnomedicinal uses and pharmacologicalactivities should be the focus of further research on thespecies There is need for extensive in vivo experiments tovalidate the existing pharmacological activities Howeverbecause L javanica contains potentially toxic compoundsits toxicological properties need to be properly establishedvia proper quality control of product development to ensurethat potentially toxic components are kept below tolerancelevels

Appendix

A Chemical Compounds Isolated andCharacterized from Lippia javanica

See Table 5

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 19

Table 5

Chemical compound Reference(s)Phenolic compoundsCoumarin 1 [4]Verbascoside 2 [81]Isoverbascoside 3 [81]Theveside-Na 4 [82]Theveridoside 5 [82]4-ethylnonacosane 6 [83]Apigenin 7 [64 83]Cirsimaritin 8 [64 83]6-Methoxy luteolin41015840-methyl ether 9 [83]

6-Methoxy luteolin31015840410158407-trimethyl ether 10 [83]

Crassifolioside 11 [64]Luteolin 12 [64]Diosmetin 13 [64]Chrysoeriol 14 [64]Tricin 15 [64]Isothymusin 16 [64]Eupatorin 17 [64]5-Dimethyl noboletin 18 [64]Genkwanin 19 [64]Salvigenin 20 [64]Lippialactone 21 [84]AlkaloidXanthine 22 [64]Amino acids120572-Aminobutyric acid 23 [85 86]Valine 24 [86]Isoleucine 25 [86]Asparagine 26 [86]Phenylalanine 27 [86]120572-Aminoadipic acid 28 [86]Lysine 29 [86]Histidine 30 [86]Tyrosine 31 [86]Tryptophan 32 [86]Alanine 33 [85]Glycine 34 [85]Proline 35 [85]Serine 36 [85]Glutamine acid 37 [85]120573-Alanine 38 [85]Glutamine 39 [85]120573-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [85]4-hydroxyproline 41 [85]Essential oil(E)-2(3)-tagetenoneepoxide 42 [83]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]120572-Pinene 44 [3ndash5 87ndash91]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4](+)-2-Carene 46 [4]3-Carene 47 [4]Eucalyptol 48 [4]18 myrcene 49 [87]Ipsdienone 50 [87]Caryophyllene 51 [85]Geranial 52 [5 92 93]26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [92]Geraniol 54 [92]Octen-3-one 55 [5]6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]120588-Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]Artemisia ketone 58 [5]Linalool oxide 59 [5]Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5](Z)-120573-Ocimenone 61 [5](E)-120573-Ocimenone 62 [5]Carvyl acetate 63 [5]120572-Cubebene 64 [5]Sesquithujene 65 [5]Acora-35-diene 66 [5]120573-Bergamotene 67 [5]Trans-calamenene 68 [5]120573-Alaskene 69 [5]120574-Cadinene 70 [5]120575-Cadinene 71 [3 88 89 91]Cis-calamenene 72 [5]Nerolidol 73 [5](E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 88 89]Spathulenol 75 [5]Epi-120572-muurolol 76 [5]120572-Longipinene 77 [90]Chrysanthenone 78 [90]120572-Terpineol 79 [3 5 90 91]120572-Amorphene 80 [90]120572-Thujene 81 [91]120574-Terpinene 82 [91]120572-Cubebene 83 [91]Linalool acetate 84 [91]Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [91]Camphene 86 [3 5 88ndash91]120573-Pinene 87 [3 5 91]Sabinene 88 [3 5 87 90 91]Myrcene 89 [3 5 87ndash89 91ndash95]120572-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 88 89]2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]Limonene 92 [3 5 88ndash94]18-Cineole 93 [3 5 90 91 95]120573-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 88 89 91]

20 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3](Z)-120573-Ocimene 96 [3 5 88 89 91](E)-120573-Ocimene 97 [3 5 88 89 91]Isomyrcenol 98 [3]p-Cymene 99 [3 5 85 88ndash91]2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]Terpinolene 101 [3]Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 88 89 91 95]Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 88 89](Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]Nonanal 106 [3]Perillene 107 [3 91]Ipsenone 108 [3 87ndash89 95]Trans-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 88ndash90]1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 88 89]Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]Ttrans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]cis-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 88ndash90]120572-Copaene 114 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetone 115 [3 88 89]Trans-tagetone 116 [3 88 89]Camphor 117 [3 5 88ndash90 93 94]120573-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 91]Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 85 88ndash90 92 93]

Trans-120572-bergamotene 121 [3]120572-Cedrene 122 [3 5]Myrcenone 123 [3 5 83 91]120573-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 87ndash91 93 94]2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 88 89](Z)-120573-Farnesene 129 [3](E)-120573-Farnesene 130 [3 5](EE)-120572-Farnesene 131 [3 88 89]Ipsdienol 132 [3](Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]Isovaleric acid 134 [3]120572-Humulene 135 [3 5 88 89 91]120572-Acoradiene 136 [3]120573-Acoradiene 137 [3]120574-Muurolene 138 [3 5 88 89]120572-Muurolene 139 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]Borneol 142 [3 5 88ndash90]Verbenone 143 [3 91]Germacrene-D 144 [3 87ndash89 93]120573-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]120574-Bisabolene 146 [3]Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]Carvone 148 [3 5 91]Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 88 89 91]120573-Curcumene 150 [3]Ar-curcumene 151 [3]Cis-piperitol 152 [3]2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol156 [3 88 89]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]Calamenene 158 [3]Carvone oxide 159 [3]Isopiperitenone 160 [3]Cis-carveol 161 [3]Piperitenone 162 [2 3 73 83]Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 88 89]Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3ndash5 88ndash90]Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 88 89]Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]Spathulenol 167 [3]Eugenol 168 [3 5]Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120573-ol(=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120572-ol(=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [83]Icterogenin 173 [96]

B Chemical Structures ofPhenolic Compounds Alkaloids AminoAcids and Essential Oils Isolated fromLippia javanica

See Figure 4

Competing Interests

The author declares that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 21

O

OO

OO O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

C CH CHO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

COOH

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

Me

OMe

OMe

OMe

MeO

Me

HOOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OMe

OMe

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

（2 （2

（2

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

（3CO

（3CO

Coumarin 1 [4]

Verbascoside 2 [89]

Isoverbascoside 3 [89]

Theveside-Na 4 [90]

Theveridoside 5 [90]

4-Ethylnonacosane 6 [91]

Apigenin 7 [120 91]

Cirsimaritin 8 [120 91]

Crassifolioside 11 [120]

Luteolin 12 [120]

Diosmetin 13 [120]

Chrysoeriol 14 [120]

Tricin 15 [120]

Isothymusin 16 [120]

Eupatorin 17 [120]

6-Methoxyluteolin 3 47-trimethyl ether 10 [91]

6-Methoxyluteolin 4-methyl ether 9 [91]

Figure 4 Continued

22 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

N

NH

HN

HO

NH

O

NH

O

O

O

O

HN

N N

N

H

H

OAc

OAcOAc

OO

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

（3CO

（2

（2

（2

（2 （2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3N

（2N

（2N

（2N

（2N

minus

+

+

5-Desmethylnoboletin 18 [120]

Genkwanin 19 [120]

Salvigenin 20 [120]

Lippialactone 21 [92]

Xanthine 22 [120]

Valine 24 [94]

Isoleucine 25 [94]

Asparagine 26 [94]

Phenylalanine 27 [94]

Lysine 29 [94]

Histidine 30 [94]

Tyrosine 31 [94]

Tryptophan 32 [94]

Alanine 33 [93]

Glycine 34 [93]

Proline 35 [93]

Serine 36 [93]

Glutamine acid 37 [93]

Glutamine 39 [93]

4-Hydroxyproline 41 [93]

(E)-2(3)-Tagetenone epoxide 42 [91]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]

-Alanine 38 [93]

-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [93]

-Aminoadipic acid 28 [94]

-Aminobutyric acid 23 [93 94]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 23

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

H

H

HH

H

O

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

HO

OH

O

O

O

O

OH（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4]

3-Carene 47 [4]

Eucalyptol 48 [4]

18 myrcene 49 [123]

Ipsdienone 50 [123]

Caryophyllene 51 [93]

Geranial 52 [5 100 101]

26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [100]

Geraniol 54 [100]

Octen-3-one 55 [5]

6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]

Artemisia ketone 58 [5]

Linalool oxide 59 [5]

Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5]

Carvyl acetate 63 [5]

Sesquithujene 65 [5]

Acora-35-diene 66 [5]

-Pinene 44 [3-5 123 96 97 98 99] -Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]

(+)-2-Carene 46 [4]

-Bergamotene 67 [5]

-Cubebene 64 [5]

(Z)--Ocimenone 61 [5]

(E)--Ocimenone 62 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

24 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OH

H

H

H

H

O

OHO

HO

H

HH H

H

H

HH

H

HO

HO

O

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

Trans-calamenene 68 [5]

Cis-calamenene 72 [5]

Nerolidol 73 [5]

(E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 96 97]

Spathulenol 75 [5]

Chrysanthenone 78 [98]

Linalool acetate 84 [99]

Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [99]

Camphene 86 [3 5 96 97 98 99]

Sabinene 88 [3 5 123 98 99]

Myrcene 89 [3 5 123 100 101 96 97 99 102 103]

-Alaskene 69 [5]

-Terpineol 79 [3 5 98 99]

-Amorphene 80 [98]

-Cadinene 70 [45]-Thujene 81 [99]

-Cadinene 71 [3 96 97 99] -Terpinene 82 [99]

-Cubebene 83 [99]

-Pinene 87 [3 5 99]

-Longipinene 77 [98]

-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 96 97]

Epi--muurolol 76 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 25

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O

OH

OH

H

H

H

H

H

HOO

OH

O

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（3(（2)3（2

（3(（2)6（2

2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]

Limonene 92 [3 5 100 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3]

Isomyrcenol 98 [3]

p-Cymene 99 [3 5 93 96 97 98 99]

2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]

Terpinolene 101 [3]

Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 96 97 99 103]

Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 96 97]

(Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]

67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]

Nonanal 106 [3]

Perillene 107 [3 99]

Ipsenone 108 [3 123 96 97 103]

Trans-linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 96 97 98]

1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 96 97]

Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]

Trans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]

Cis-linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 96 97 98]

Cis-tagetone 115 [3 96 97]

Trans-tagetone 116 [3 96 97]

-Copaene 114 [3 5 96 97 98]

18-Cineole (=eucalyptol) 93 [3 5 98 99 103]

-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 96 97 99]

(Z)--Ocimene 96 [3 5 96 97 99]

(E)--Ocimene 97 [3 5 96 97 99]

Camphor 117 [3 5 101 96 97 98 102]

Figure 4 Continued

26 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

HH

H

H

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 93 100 101 96 97 98]

Myrcenone 123 [3 5 91 99]

2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol 125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]

Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 96 97]

Ipsdienol 132 [3]

(Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]

Isovaleric acid 134 [3]

Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]

Borneol 142 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 99]

Trans--bergamotene 121 [3]

-Cedrene 122 [3 5]

-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 123 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)--Farnesene 129 [3]

(E)--Farnesene 130 [3 5]

-Muurolene 139 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Muurolene 138 [3 5 96 97]

-Acoradiene 136 [3]

-Acoradiene 137 [3]

-Humulene 135 [3 5 96 97 99]

(EE)--Farnesene 131 [3 96 97]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O O

HO

O

H

H

H

HO

HO

OH

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3CO（3

Verbenone 143 [3 99]

Germacrene-D 144 [3 123 101 96 97]

Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]

Carvone 148 [3 5 99]

Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 96 97 99]

Ar-curcumene 151 [3]

Cis-piperitol 152 [3]

2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]

26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol 156 [3 96 97]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]

Calamenene 158 [3]

Carvone oxide 159 [3]

Isopiperitenone 160 [3]

Cis-carveol 161 [3]

Piperitenone 162 [2 3 91 81]

Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 96 97]

-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]

-Bisabolene 146 [3]

-Curcumene 150 [3]

Figure 4 Continued

28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

OO

O

O

H

H

H

H

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

H

H

HCH

HH

HO

（3

（2

（2C

（3C（3C

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C O（3

Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3-5 96 97 98]

Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 96 97]

Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]

Spathulenol 167 [3]

Eugenol 168 [3 5]

Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [91]

Icterogenin 173 [104]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Figure 4

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to the NationalResearch Foundation (NRF) and GovanMbeki Research andDevelopment Centre (GMRDC) University of Fort Hare forfinancial support to conduct this research

References

[1] JWMwangi I Addae-Mensah RMMunavu andW LwandeldquoEssential oils of Kenyan Lippia species Part IIIrdquo Flavour andFragrance Journal vol 6 no 3 pp 221ndash224 1991

[2] N J Manenzhe N Potgieter and T Van Ree ldquoCompositionand antimicrobial activities of volatile components of Lippiajavanicardquo Phytochemistry vol 65 no 16 pp 2333ndash2336 2004

[3] A M Viljoen S Subramoney S F V Vuuren K H C Baserand B Demirci ldquoThe composition geographical variation andantimicrobial activity of Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae) leafessential oilsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 96 no 1-2 pp271ndash277 2005

[4] N Lukwa P Moslashlgaard P Furu and C Boslashgh ldquoLippia javanica(Burm f) Spreng its general constituents and bioactivity onmosquitoesrdquoTropical Biomedicine vol 26 no 1 pp 85ndash91 2009

[5] L S Chagonda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssential oil compositionof Lippia javanica (Burmf) spreng chemotype from WesternZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants vol 18 no 2pp 482ndash485 2015

[6] W Kipkore B Wanjohi H Rono and G Kigen ldquoA study of themedicinal plants used by the Marakwet Community in KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 242014

[7] E A Shikanga S Combrinck and T Regnier ldquoSouth AfricanLippia herbal infusions total phenolic content antioxidant andantibacterial activitiesrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76no 3 pp 567ndash571 2010

[8] N T Parrant ldquoThe potential of non-timber forest products ofBotswanardquo Botswana Notes Records vol 28 no 1 pp 203ndash2181996

[9] D M Motlhanka and S W Makhabu ldquoMedicinal and ediblewild fruit plants of Botswana as emerging new crop opportu-nitiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plants Research vol 5 no 10 pp1836ndash1842 2011

[10] M Bhebhe T N Fuller B Chipurura and M MuchuwetildquoEffect of solvent type on total phenolic content and free radicalscavenging activity of black tea and herbal infusionsrdquo FoodAnalytical Methods vol 9 no 4 pp 1060ndash1067 2016

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29

[11] M Bhebhe B Chipurura and M Muchuweti ldquoDeterminationand comparison of phenolic compound content and antioxidantactivity of selected local Zimbabwean herbal teas with exoticAspalathus linearisrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 100no 1 pp 213ndash218 2015

[12] B Patiri and A Borah Wild Edible Plants of Assam GeetakhiPrinters Guwahati India 2007

[13] H Narzary and A Basumatary ldquoProximate and vitamin Canalysis of wild edible plants consumed by Bodos of AssamIndiardquo Journal of Molecular Pathophysiology vol 4 no 4 pp128ndash133 2015

[14] M Gelfand S Mavi R B Drummond and B Ndemera TheTraditional Medical Practitioners in Zimbabwe His Principles ofPractice and Pharmacopoeia Mambo Press Gweru Zimbabwe1985

[15] D Davids Materia medica and care a study of the uses ofmedicinal herbs and remedies as a form of treatment andnegotiating social relationships in cape town and surroundings[MS dissertation] University of theWestern Cape Cape TownSouth Africa 2012

[16] A Maroyi and G K E Mosina ldquoMedicinal plants and tradi-tional practices in peri-urban domestic gardens of the Limpopoprovince South africardquo Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledgevol 13 no 4 pp 665ndash672 2014

[17] A Samie C L Obi P O Bessong and L Namrita ldquoActivityprofiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Vendacommunities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterialspeciesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 4 no 12 pp1443ndash1451 2005

[18] T York An ethnopharmacological study of plants used fortreating respiratory infections in rural Maputaland [MS disser-tation] University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa South Africa2012

[19] D Davids T Blouws O Aboyade et al ldquoTraditional healthpractitionersrsquo perceptions herbal treatment andmanagement ofHIV and related opportunistic infectionsrdquo Journal of Ethnobiol-ogy and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 77 2014

[20] A Hutchings A H Scott G Lewis and A CunninghamZulu Medicinal Plants An Inventory University of Natal PressPietermarizburg South Africa 1996

[21] RM Coopoosamy andK K Naidoo ldquoAn ethnobotanical studyofmedicinal plants used by traditional healers inDurban SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 6no 11 pp 818ndash823 2012

[22] I Hedberg and F Staugard Traditional Medicinal Plants inBotswana Ipeleng Gaborone Botswana 1989

[23] H Shahriar A S M H K Chowdhury S Rahman et al ldquoSci-entific validation of medicinal plants used by a folk medicinalpractitioner of Chuadanga District BangladeshrdquoWorld Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 11 pp 13ndash24 2014

[24] S S Semenya M J Potgieter and M P Tshisikhawe ldquoUseconservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinalplants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 12 no 18 pp2392ndash2405 2013

[25] M Roberts Indigenous Healing Plants Southern Book Publish-ers Halfway House Johannesburg South Africa 1990

[26] T Birhanu D Abera and E Ejeta ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas westernEthiopiardquo Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare vol 5no 1 pp 83ndash93 2015

[27] N T Mahlangeni R Moodley and S B Jonnalagadda ldquoEle-mental composition of Cyrtanthus obliquus and Lippia javanicaused in South African herbal tonic Imbizardquo Arabian Journal ofChemistry 2013

[28] W Musila D Kisangau and J Muema ldquoConservation statusand use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitionersin Machakos District Kenyardquo in Indigenous Knowledge Con-ference Proceedings Pennsylvania State University May 27ndash292004 2004

[29] G N Njoroge and R W Bussmann ldquoTraditional managementof ear nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 542006

[30] P Chigora R Masocha and F Mutenheri ldquoThe role of indige-nous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailmentsin rural Zimbabwe the case of Mutirikwi communal landsrdquoJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol 9 no 2 pp26ndash43 2007

[31] R W Bussmann G G Gilbreath J Solio et al ldquoPlant use ofthe Maasai of Sekenani Valley Maasai Mara Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 22 2006

[32] D Motlhanka and G P Nthoiwa ldquoEthnobotanical Survey ofmedicinal plants of Tswapong North in Eastern Botswana acase of plants from Mosweu and Seolwane Villagesrdquo EuropeanJournal of Medicinal Plants vol 3 no 1 pp 10ndash24 2013

[33] A Vhurumuku ldquoKnowledge use and attitudes towardsmedici-nal plants of pre-service teachers at a South African UniversityrdquoGlobal Advanced Research Journal in Environmental Science andToxicology vol 4 no 2 pp 15ndash24 2015

[34] M N Nkwanyana An ethnobotanical and antidiarrhoeal inves-tigation of plants used traditionally in the maputaland areahomesteads [MS dissertation] University of Zululand KwaD-langezwa South Africa 2013

[35] T E Moeng An investigation into the trade of medicinal plantsbymuthi shops and street vendors in the Limpopo Province SouthAfrica [MS thesis] University of Limpopo Gauteng SouthAfrica 2010

[36] S Bandeira A M Manjate and O Filipe ldquoAn EcologicalAssessment of the Health of the Chibuto-Missavene Wetlandin the Dry Season Mozambique Emphasis on ResourcesAssessment Utilization and Sustainability Analysisrdquo reportto Challenge Program for Water and Food InternationalWater Management Institute Pretoria South Africa 2006httpscgspacecgiarorgbitstreamhandle105682160421604pdfsequence=1

[37] M C Palgrave R B Drummond and E J Moll Trees ofSouthern Africa Struik Cape Town South Africa 2003

[38] M O Nanyingi J M Mbaria A L Lanyasunya et alldquoEthnopharmacological survey of Samburu district KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4 article 142008

[39] J G J P Sankar and K B Satapathy ldquoWeed diversity of Rabicrops and their ethnomedicinal uses in Kendrapara districtof Odisha Indiardquo International Research Journal of BiologicalSciences vol 4 no 3 pp 33ndash38 2015

[40] D E N Mabogo The ethnobotany of the vhavenda [MSdissertation] University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa1990

[41] B-E van Wyk B van Oudtshoorn and N Gericke MedicinalPlants of South Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2013

[42] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used forthe treatment of tuberculosis by Bapedi traditional healers

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

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OncologyJournal of

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Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

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The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

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ObesityJournal of

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Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

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Research and TreatmentAIDS

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 11: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11

Table 3 Total phenolic content (TPC) as gallic acid equivalents (GAE) and tannin content as leucocyanidin equivalents (LE) and free radicalscavenging activity (FRSA) of herbal tea extracts (after Bhebhe et al [10])

Plant species TPC g GAE100 g Tannin content of LE100 g Percentage FRSA IC50gmL

Lippia javanica 1246 plusmn 431 012 plusmn 001 8377 plusmn 08 0016Aspalathus linearis 669 plusmn 083 094 plusmn 004 6727 plusmn 025 0053Adansonia digitata 079 plusmn 028 169 plusmn 001 4307 plusmn 10 0132Fadogia ancylantha 288 plusmn 048 020 plusmn 012 700 plusmn 040 0051Ficus sycamores 1402 plusmn 001 198 plusmn 012 8613 plusmn 085 0009Myrothamnus flabellifolius 475 plusmn 033 104 plusmn 001 8093 plusmn 075 0019

41 in Appendix A from L javanica At least 131 differentclasses of essential oil compounds (compounds 42ndash172 inAppendices A and B) have been isolated from L javanica byseveral researchers [3ndash5 83 85 86 88ndash94 123] Hutchingsand van Staden [96] isolated a toxic triterpenoid saponinicterogenin 173 from L javanica leaves These differentclasses of essential oil compounds have been associatedwith various therapeutic activities such as anaestheticanalgesic anti-inflammatory antimicrobial cardiovasculardecongestant digestive expectorant hepatoprotective andsedative activities as well as stimulant of nervous systemand tonifying effects [132] Meanwhile flavonoids possessseveral pharmacological properties including antibacterialanticancer anti-inflammatory antioxidant antiviral andhepatoprotective effects [133] which play important rolesin human health Flavonoid such as apigenin 7 is reportedto possess antibacterial [134] and hepatoprotective [135]properties Apigenin 7 and luteolin 12 are reported to possessanti-inflammatory and analgesic effects [133] affecting thefunction of enzyme systems involved in the generation ofinflammatory processes especially tyrosine and serine-threonine protein kinases [136 137] It has also been reportedthat apigenin 7 prevents HIV-1 activation via a novelmechanism that involves inhibition of viral transcription[138] and luteolin 12 demonstrated synergistic effects withanother flavonoid kaempferol against herpes simplex virus[133] Kamiya [139] documented the importance of essentialamino acids such as lysine valine isoleucine and histidinein terms of the risks to health if they are deficientThe authoralso documented their biological effects which includemuscle protein maintenance potentiation of immunefunction tissue repair acceleration after burn or traumaprotecting liver from toxic agents lowering blood pressuremodulating cholesterol metabolism and stimulating insulinor growth hormone secretion Therefore L javanica leavesand other plant parts which have shown to be rich inflavonoid and polyphenolic compounds amino acids andessential oil could play an important role in the treatmentand management of diseases such as hypertension andinflammation listed in Table 1

4 Pharmacological Activities

Scientific studies on L javanica indicate that it has a widerange of pharmacological activities (Table 4) which include

anticancer [140] antidiabetic [141] antimalarial [4 49 142]antimicrobial [2 3 7 17 73ndash75 77 83 84 126 143]antioxidant [7 10 11 75 77 125] antiplasmodial [2 7980 84 144 145] and pesticidal effects [1 2 59 95 120146ndash150] and cytotoxicity [2 73 79 120] activities Table 4summarizes some of the pharmacological studies undertakenon L javanica extracts aimed at evaluating some of theethnomedicinal uses of the species documented throughoutits distributional range (see Table 1) Some of the listedpharmacological activities may not relate directly to thedocumented ethnomedicinal uses of the species but mayprovide some insight into the speciesrsquo potential therapeuticvalue and bioactive properties and application

41 Anticancer Activity Fouche et al [140] reported anti-cancer activity of dichloromethane root extract of L javanicaagainst three human cells exhibiting TGI value of 182120583gmLfor breast MDA-MB-435 186 120583gmL for breast MDA-N and209 120583gmL for melanoma MALME-3M Based on literaturea couple of terpenoid compounds that have been isolatedfrom L javanica are known to have antitumor propertiesFor example linalool 120 is known to have antitumoractivity which plays a protective role against hepatotoxicityand the compound has anti-inflammatory activities as well[151] Research by Yang et al [152] showed limonene 92 tohave inhibitory effect on pancreatic and mammary tumorsAnother terpenoid compound 120572-pinene 44 is known toinhibit translocation of NF-120581B or p65 protein into nuclei ofLPS-stimulated THP-1 cells [153] These findings serve as ascientific validation for the use of L javanica as a componentof a herbal concoction known in KwaZulu Natal province asldquoimbizardquo prepared by mixing L javanica with C obliquus asherbal medicine for cancer [27]

42 Antidiabetic Activity Arika et al [141] determined the invivo antidiabetic activity of aqueous leaf extracts of L javan-ica in white male alloxan-induced albino mice The aqueousleaf extracts of L javanica at all dose levels significantlylowered the blood glucose levels in both oral and intraperi-toneal routes The antidiabetic effect of L javanica couldhave been due to the observed presence of flavonoids Thepolyhydroxylated flavonol enhances lipogenesis and glucoseuptake in the adipocytes and flavanoids have demonstratedinsulinmimetic properties as the compound is known to beeffective at controlling blood sugar levels These findings

12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table4Summaryof

pharmacologicalactiv

ities

ofthee

xtractsisolated

from

different

partso

fLippiajavanica

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Antiamoebic

Piperitenon

e162

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f25120583

gmLagainstE

histolytica

[73]

Antibacteria

lPiperitenon

e162

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f50120583

gmLagainstA

calcoaceticu

sMkristin

ae(50120583

gmL)Styphi(25120583

gmL)and

Saureus

(12120583

gmL)

[73]

Antibacteria

l(Antiproteus)

Methano

lLeaves

Disc

diffu

sion

assay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f313120583gmLagainstPm

irabilis

and926120583

gmL

againstPvulgaris

[74]

Water

Leaves

Disc

diffu

sion

assay

Exhibitedweakactiv

ityagainstPm

irabilis

with

MIC

valueo

f1873120583gmLand1768120583gmLagainstPvulgaris

[74]

Antibacteria

l

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

coliwith

MIC

valueo

f064m

gmLE

faecalis(064)P

aeruginosa

(032

)andSaureus

(064)Totalactiv

ityMIC

values

werea

sfollo

wsE

coli(127

mgmL)E

faecalis

(127

mgmL)Paeruginosa

(253

mgmL)and

Saureus

(127

mgmL)

[75]

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

valueo

f3mgmLBa

cillusp

umilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(gt12mgmL)Saureus(12mgmL)E

faecalis

(6mgmL)E

cloacae

(6mgmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pantoea

agglo

meran

s(12mgmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Shigella

flexneri

(15mgmL)A

erom

onas

hydrophila(12m

gmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae(12mgmL)Salmonellacholeraesuis

(6mgmL)and

Serratiamarcescens(gt12mgmL)

[17]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

valueo

f12m

gmLB

pumilu

s(12m

gmL)B

subtilis(12m

gmL)Saureus(6m

gmL)E

faecalis

(12m

gmL)E

cloacae

(12m

gmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(12m

gmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(6

mgmL)A

hydrophila(12m

gmL)Pm

irabilis

(12m

gmL)K

pneum

oniae

(12m

gmL)Scholeraesuis(6

mgmL)and

antia

moebice

ffect

(12m

gmL)

[17]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

values

of15

mgmLB

pumilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(gt12mgmL)Saureus(12mgmL)E

faecalis

(3mgmL)E

cloacae

(6mgmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(12m

gmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(15mgmL)A

hydrophila(6

mgmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae

(12m

gmL)Scholeraesuis(6

mgmL)and

Smarcescens(12mgmL)

[17]

Essentialoil

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

values

of6m

gmLB

pumilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(3mgmL)Saureus(15

mgmL)E

faecalis

(3mgmL)E

cloacae

(12m

gmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(6

mgmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(3mgmL)A

hydrophila(3mgmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae

(3mgmL)Scholeraesuis(15mgmL)and

Smarcescens(gt12mgmL)

[17]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 13

Table4Con

tinued

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

faecaliswith

MIC

valueo

f014

mgmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

coliwith

MIC

valueo

f031

mgmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPaeruginosa

with

MIC

valueo

f042m

gmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstSaureus

with

MIC

valueo

f013

mgmL

[7]

Antifu

ngal

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

albicans

with

MIC

valueo

fgt75m

gmLC

krusei

(188m

gmL)and

Cneoforman

s(gt75

mgmL)

[7]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

albicans

with

MIC

valueo

fgt375

mgmLC

krusei

(375m

gmL)and

Cneoforman

s(gt75

mgmL)

[7]

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

kruseiwith

MFC

valueo

f75mgmL

[7]

Dichlorom

ethane

Aeria

lparts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFu

sariu

mproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f014

mgmLand

Fusariu

mverticillioides(019mgmL)

[76]

Hexane

Aeria

lparts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f023m

gmLandF

verticillioides(045

mgmL)

[76]

Methano

lAe

rialp

arts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f177m

gmLandF

verticillioides(043

mgmL)

[76]

Methano

lAe

rialp

arts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

fgt250

mgmLandF

verticillioides(gt250

mgmL)

[76]

Antim

ycob

acteria

l

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f047m

gmLandtotalactivity

of10mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Dichlorom

ethane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f125m

gmLandtotalactivity

of23

mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f062m

gmLandtotalactivity

of13mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f125m

gmLandtotalactivity

of7m

Lgagainst

Msmegmatis

[77]

14 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table4Con

tinued

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Antioxidant

Water

Leaves

DPP

Hassay

Exhibitedactiv

itywith

EC50valueo

f358120583gmL

[7]

Water

Leaves

mdashEx

hibitedactiv

itywith

209ascorbicacid

equivalent

(mggdryweight)

[7]

Water

Leaves

ABT

Sassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f15mmol10

0g[78]

Water

Leaves

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f146254

mmol10

0g[78]

Water

Leaves

FRAPassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f238m

mol10

0g[78]

Antiplasm

odial

Hexanechloroform

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f1225plusmn072120583gmL

[79]

Ethylacetate

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f1212plusmn079120583gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f135plusmn006120583gmL

[79]

Hexanechloroform

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f1859plusmn026120583gmL

[79]

Ethylacetate

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f1580plusmn026120583gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f175plusmn017120583gmL

[79]

Dichlorom

ethane

Roots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f38120583gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethanem

ethano

lRo

ots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f27120583

gmL

[80]

Methano

lRo

ots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f24120583

gmL

[80]

Water

Roots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

fgt100120583

gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethane

Stem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f45120583gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethanem

ethano

lStem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f218120583gmL

[80]

Methano

lStem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f298120583gmL

[80]

Water

Stem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

fgt100120583

gmL

[80]

Free

radicalscaveng

ing

activ

ity

Water

mdashDPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0059plusmn002

gmL

[11]

50methano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f004plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Ethano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0025plusmn0001gmL

[11]

50ethano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0027plusmn0005gmL

[11]

Aceton

emdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0057plusmn0004gmL

[11]

50aceton

emdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0022plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Ethylacetate

mdashDPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0066plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Toxicity

Methano

lLeaf

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

40mortalityrecorded

after

48hexpo

sure

towards

Artemianauplii

[74]

Methano

lRo

ots

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f8430120583

gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f6503120583

gmL

[79]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 15

strengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantidiabetic agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species mixed with C obliquus to form aherbal concoction known in KwaZulu Natal province SouthAfrica as ldquoimbizardquo used against diabetes [27]

43 Antimalarial Activity Govere et al [142] found thattopical application of L javanica alcohol extract leads to767 protection against Anopheles arabiensis for 4 hoursLippia javanica has been used as a mosquito repellent by therural communities in Zimbabwe for a long time and previousstudies have shown that essential oils from the species havevery strong and lasting repellent activity against female Aarabiensis [64] Research by Lukwa et al [4] revealed thattopical application of 5mgcm2 of L javanica leads to 100protection againstAnopheles aegypti for 8 hoursMavundza etal [154] screened dichloromethane and ethanol leaf extractsof L javanica for adulticidal activity againstA arabiensisTheauthors observed dichloromethane and ethanol activities of45 and 55mosquitomortality respectivelyThese findingsstrengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantimalarial agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species as mosquito repellent in India [47]South Africa [34 49 58] and Zimbabwe [4 48]

44 Antioxidant Activity Leaf infusions of L javanica exhib-ited antioxidant activity with EC

50value of 358120583gmL and

contained 148mgmL of dry weight gallic acid equivalentphenolic compounds [7] The EC

50value of 358 120583gmL

obtained for L javanica by Shikanga et al [7] compareswell to those of many commercial teas including antioxidantcapacity of Rooibos Fresh Pack herbal teas (A linearis)with the best antioxidant activity of 333 120583gmL The highantioxidant activities displayed by L javanica infusions canbe partially attributed to the high levels of verbascoside 2(15mgg dry weight) reported by Olivier et al [81] in theleaf extract of the species Earlier research by Muchuwetiet al [125] reported 744 inhibition of the DPPH radicalby an ethanolic leaf extract of L javanica Lekganyane etal [75] reported antioxidant activity in L javanica and theacetone extracts of the species displayed antioxidant activityon BEA chromatogram [77] Bhebhe et al [10] reported theantioxidant activities of L javanica based on the DPPHreducing power and inhibition of phospholipid peroxidationassays Free radical scavenging activity of L javanica isattributed to phenolic compounds since these compoundshave an ideal structural chemistry for free radical scavengingactivity [155] Bhebhe et al [11] determined the effect ofseveral solvents on the free radical scavenging activity ofL javanica using the DPPH assay Free radical scavengingactivity expressed as IC

50ranged from 0022 plusmn 0001 gmL to

0066 plusmn 0001 gmL see Table 4

45 Antiplasmodial Activity Prozesky et al [144] evaluatedL javanica leaf acetone extract for in vitro antiplasmodialactivity using PfUP1 a chloroquine resistant strain of themalaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum by means of theflow cytometric test The IC

50value for L javanica was

426 120583gmL Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil

piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica for antiplasmodialactivity using chloroquine diphosphate as positive controland found it active against a chloroquine sensitive strainof P falciparum in micromolar concentrations with IC

50of

8 120583gmL Clarkson et al [80] evaluated L javanica rootsand stems extracts for in vitro activity against P falciparumusing the parasite lactase dehydrogenase (pLDH) assay andchloroquine diphosphate (Sigma) as the positive controlThedichloromethane methane and water extracts showed IC

50

values ranging from 38 to gt100 120583gmL see Table 4 Omolo etal [145] screened the essential oil of L javanica for fumiganttoxicity to Anopheles gambiae which exhibited LD

50of 43 times

10minus3mg cmminus3 Ayuko et al [79] showed that L javanica rootextracts have antiplasmodial activity against P falciparumwith IC

50ranging from 135 to 1859 120583gmL see Table 4

Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity againstthe chloroquine sensitive D10 strain of P falciparum withan IC

50value of 91 120583gmL and is also mildly cytotoxic [84]

Compared to chloroquine the compound is approximately2000 times less active against the D10 strain of P falciparum[84]

46 Antimicrobial Activities Lippia javanica is widely usedin the treatment of a wide range of infectious diseasescaused by microorganisms Viljoen et al [3] determined theantimicrobial properties of L javanica by evaluating the timekill studies of the speciesrsquo essential oil using the disc diffusionassay on three respiratory pathogens Klebsiella pneumoniaeCryptococcus neoformans and Bacillus cereus This studyshowed that the killing rate was greatest for K pneumoniaefollowed by C neoformans and very little reduction of micro-bial populations was observed for B cereus The efficacy of Ljavanica oil for K pneumoniae showed a killing rate within30 minutes for the concentrations 025 05 075 and 1C neoformans showed a killing rate for concentrations 05075 and 1 within 1 hour and the lowest concentration of025 took 8 hours before a bactericidal effect was notedwhile B cereus showed some reduction in colonies [3] Thepositive antimicrobial activity of L javanica as revealed bythe time kill study could be attributed to linalool 120 whichaverages between 65 and 70 in yield [3 5 88 90] and hasknown antimicrobial properties [93 156ndash159]These findingssomehow corroborate the traditional use of L javanica asherbal medicine for a wide range of bacterial and fungalrespiratory ailments indicated in Table 1

Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil piperitenone162 isolated from L javanica for antibacterial activityon cultures of Bacillus subtilis Staphylococcus aureus andEscherichia coli using imipenem cefazolin and ampicillinas positive controls The authors found piperitenone 162to inhibit S aureus and E coli at 1 dilution Acetonehexane and methanol leaf extracts and essential oil isolatedfrom L javanica showed some activity against fifteen Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria with MIC values rang-ing from 15 to gt12mgmL [60] see Table 4 In a similarstudy Samie et al [73] demonstrated that a pure compoundpiperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica has antibacte-rial activities against Acinetobacter calcoaceticus Micrococcus

16 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

kristinae Salmonella typhi and S aureus using dimethylsulphoxide and kanamycin as controls with MIC valuesranging from 12 to 50 120583gmL see Table 4 Shikanga et al [7]evaluated the antibacterial activity of L javanica methanolicleaf extract against S aureus Enterococcus faecalis E coliand Pseudomonas aeruginosa using the serial microdilutionmethod with gentamycin (Virbac) and acetone as positiveand negative controls respectively Lippia javanica displayedantibacterial activities with MIC values ranging from 013to 042mgmL against all four pathogens see Table 4 Theobtained minimum inhibitory concentrations are promisingsince natural products with MIC values below 1mgmLare generally considered to be noteworthy findings [160]Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity against theE coli and S aureus at a concentration of 10mgmL [84]Lekganyane et al [75] reported antibacterial activity of Ljavanica acetone leaf extracts against E coli E faecalis Paeruginosa and S aureus with MIC values ranging from 032to 064mgmL and total activity of the same species rangingfrom 127 to 253mgmL see Table 4 Methanol and water leafextracts of L javanica exhibited some antiproteus activityagainstProteusmirabilis andProteus vulgariswithMICvalueslt2000120583gmL with standard discs of ampicillin (2120583g) andchloramphenicol (10 120583g) as positive controls [74] Some of theantibacterial properties of L javanica can be attributed to thephytochemical constituents of the species for example thephenolic compound apigenin 7 is a well-known antibacterialagent [7 134] Apigenin 7 was shown to be highly activeagainst Vibrio cholera and E faecalis [161] while Basile et al[162] reported the inhibition of S typhi P mirabilis and Paeruginosa by the compound Therefore results from theseantibacterial evaluations of L javanica give credence to theuse of the speciesrsquo infusions against bacterial infections andother related diseases

Shikanga et al [126] investigated the antifungal activ-ities of leaf extracts and essential oil compounds isolatedfrom L javanica leafy extracts against a Guazatine-resistantstrain of Penicillium digitatumThemethanolic leafy extractsisoverbascoside 3 and verbascoside 2 compounds isolatedfrom L javanica inhibited fungal growth at concentrationsabove 06mgsdotmLminus1 causing significant inhibition of mycelialgrowth Verbascoside 2 is well-known for its antimicrobialproperties and has been found to inhibit viruses bacteriaand fungi [163] Similarly Samie et al [143] investigatedantifungal effects of acetone and hexane leaf extracts of Ljavanica against Candida albicans Candida krusei and Cneoformans isolated from AIDS patients using the microdi-lution method with nystatin Roche and DMSO as positiveand negative controls respectively Noteworthy moderateantifungal activities were recorded from C krusei with MICvalue of 188mgmL and other recordedMFCandMICvaluesfor other species ranged from 188mgmL to gt75mgmLsee Table 4 Thembo et al [76] investigated the antifungalactivity of aqueous and organic extracts of L javanica usinga serial microdilution assay Generally extracts of L javanicaexhibited weak activity see Table 4

47 Antimycobacterial Activity Mujovo et al [83] evaluatedL javanica compounds against a drug-sensitive strain ofMycobacterium tuberculosis using the radiometric respira-tory techniques Of all the isolated compounds only onetriterpenoid carboxylic acid euscaphic acid 172 exhibitedantimycobacterial activity with MIC value of 50120583gmLminus1against this strain In a similar study the leaf extract ofL javanica exhibited antimycobacterial activity against Msmegmatis in an evaluation which used microdilution assayand rifampicin as control [77] Acetone extract was thebest extractant with MIC value of 047mgmL it extractedantibacterial agents which was indicated by the lowest MICvalue [77] Masoko and Nxumalo [77] also evaluated thetotal activity ofL javanicawhich averaged 13mLg suggestingthat the extract prepared from one gram of L javanicacould be diluted to a volume of 13mL and will still inhibitM smegmatis efficiently According to Semenya and Maroyi[115] tuberculosis caused by M tuberculosis is a seriousdisease requiring effective strategies and tools to controland manage it Therefore preliminary evaluations done byMujovo et al [83] and Masoko and Nxumalo [77] serve asa scientific validation for the use of L javanica in traditionalmedicine for treatment of tuberculosis and other respiratoryailments in South Africa [24 27 115] and Uganda [43] as wellas their efficiency in tuberculosis drug discovery

48 Antiviral Activity Mujovo et al [83] found that (E)-2(3)-tagetenone epoxide 42 and piperitenone 162 inhibitedthe HIV-1 reverse transcriptase enzyme by 91 and 53respectively at 100 120583gmLminus1 based on a nonradioactive HIVRT colorimetric ELISA kit Little is known about the HIV RTactivity of L javanica extracts or compounds but flavonoidsare known to be active against viral RT and also as potentinhibitors of the cellular alpha and beta DNA polymerase[83] while luteolin 12 is active against HIV RT [164 165]Lippia javanica is traditionally used to treat HIVAIDSsymptoms in South Africa [65 66] and several viral andHIVAIDS opportunistic diseases and infections such asbronchitis [15 19ndash22] chicken pox [50] diarrhoea [17 3437 44 113] measles [14 20 38] pneumonia [14] shingles[15] and venereal diseases [44] Despite significant advancesin the utilization of L javanica in southern Africa overthe years for numerous viral diseases (Table 1) very littleantiviral evaluations have been done on crude extracts andpurified compounds of the species There is need thereforefor more pharmacological research as L javanica could beharbouring potent (RT) inhibitors which could be useful forthe development of new pharmaceutical products importantfor use against viral diseases and infections

49 Pesticidal Effects Magano et al [95] evaluated the repel-lent effects of hexane extracts of L javanica essential oilusing the in vitro tick climbing repellency bioassay on adultsof Hyalomma marginatum rufipes Koch ticks The authorsfound that 107mgmL caused repellency index of 100 at onehour and 30 minutes In a similar study by Madzimure et al[120] L javanica aqueous leaf extracts at 10 and 20 wvwere effective at controlling cattle ticks (Amblyomma species

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 17

Boophilus species Hyalomma species Rhipicephalus appen-diculatus and Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi) and were as goodas the positive control amitraz-based acaricide TrickbusterThese authors found no parasites on microscopic exami-nation of the Giemsa-stained thin blood smear collectedfrom treated cattle implying that the animals did not sufferfrom clinical tick-borne diseases Similarly Nyahangare etal [59] tested the pesticidal activity of L javanica waterextracts against cattle ticks The authors found no significantdifference between cattle treated with a commercial syntheticacaricide and those under L javanica treatment Martinez-Velazquez et al [166] evaluated pesticidal effects of twoessential oils namely 120574-terpinene 82 and 120588-cymene 99isolated from Lippia graveolens Kunth against 10-day-oldRhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini) tick larvaeusing the larval packet test bioassay The two essential oilsproduced highmortality ranging from90 to 100 in all testedconcentrations of 20 to 125 (vv)Therefore L javanica canprovide an effective tick control option where synthetic prod-ucts are unavailable or unaffordable particularly in remoterural areas in sub-Saharan Africa Lippia javanica is popularfor tick control and management among resource-poorsmallholder farmers in South Africa [58 95] and Zimbabwe[59 60 120] While these preliminary evaluations may serveas confirmation that L javanica has some bioactivities againstticks a comprehensive method of tick control is requiredfor the resource-constrained smallholder farmers based onethnopharmacological properties of L javanica

McGaw et al [146] screened L javanica for the anthel-mintic test systems using the free living nematodeCaenorhabditis elegans The crude ethanol and hexaneextracts showed some activity at a concentration of 2mgmLwith the 7-day incubation assay appearing to be moresensitive than the shorter assay Earlier research by Mwangiet al [1] indicated that L javanica was active against Aedesaegypti larvae and Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (maizeweevil) Katsvanga and Chigwiza [147] reported that Ljavanica is an effective natural pesticide which can be used tocontrol aphid species (Brevicoryne brassicae) In their studyKatsvanga and Chigwiza [147] found that 1 1 powderedaqueous leaf extract of L javanica reduced B brassicae by532 against 783 and 967 of two synthetic pesticidesAphid kill and Bexadust ldquoLrdquo respectively Chikukura etal [149] found L javanica powdered leaf extracts to haveinsecticidal properties with potential to control graindamage by 21ndash33 Mashela et al [148] reported that theapplication of ground L javanica leaves to soil in nematode-infested (Meloidogyne incognita) pots reduced the nematodenumbers by 79ndash92 and significantly increased fresh fruityield dry shoot mass plant height and stem diameter ofthe tomato plants as well as levels of potassium nitrogenand manganese in leaf tissue Muzemu et al [150] evaluatedwater extracts of L javanica leaf powder for pesticidal effectsagainst rape (Brassica napus L) aphids B brassicae andtomato (Solanum lycopersicum Lam) red spider mites andTetranychus evansi as alternatives to conventional pesticidesLippia javanica reduced B brassicae and Tetranychus evansiby 125 and 63 respectively [150]The study demonstratedthat L javanica has pesticidal effects on B brassicae and T

evansi The reduced number of B brassicae and T evansicould be due to L javanicarsquos extracts having repellent toxicand antifeedant effects since the species has essential oilswith pesticidal properties [2] Therefore these findingsindicate that L javanica has both nematicidal and plantgrowth-promoting properties

410 Toxicity and Cytotoxicity Activity Lippia javanica isknown to cause liver damage and photosensitisation in live-stock resulting in stock losses [167] Triterpenoids isolatedfrom the genus Lippia are icterogenic and cause jaundice asa result of liver damage [167] The characteristic swellingyellowing and later peeling of unpigmented skin are due tothe presence of phylloerythrin a photodynamic porphyrinthat reacts with sunlight and causes severe cell damage [167]The compound is normally formed when chlorophyll isbroken down by microorganisms in the rumen but it nowaccumulates in the liver as a result of the damage caused bytriterpenoids [167] In view of the known toxicity of Lippiaspecies the prolonged use of high doses of L javanica ispotentially harmful [167] Lippia javanica showed low toxicityafter 48 h exposure with the percentage of mortality below50 [74]

Ayuko et al [79] evaluated the toxicity of L javanicausing a brine shrimp cytotoxicity assay with LC

50value of

1138 plusmn 133 120583gmL Ayuko et al [79] found the cytotoxicity toantiplasmodial activity ratios for the methanolic extracts ofthe two tested strains to be 8430 and 6503 and since theseare greater than 100 it may be concluded that the extractsare of low toxicity Samie et al [73] demonstrated that apure compound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanicaessential oil has low cytotoxicity activity against intestinaladenocarcinoma cells (ie the HCT-8 monolayers with IC

50

of 2656 plusmn 53 120583gmL) Lukwa [64] evaluated the toxicity of Ljavanica aqueous leaf extracts using sexually mature BALBcmice with the placebo as control Within 48 hours all micefed with the L javanica leaf aqueous extract at 125ndash375 vvwere lethargic and the overall mortality was 375 Previousresearch byManenzhe et al [2] showed that hydrodistillationof L javanica leaves flowers and stems produced oil thatwas poisonous against P falciparumwhen diluted to 1 (vv)These findings imply that despite its apparent safety waterextracts of L javanica leaves may have deleterious healthimplications on humans and animals if consumed at veryhigh doses

Many compounds that have been isolated from L javan-ica including phenolic glycosides flavonoids and essentialoils are not known to have acute toxic properties withthe exception of icterogenin 173 Icterogenin 173 has beenshown to inhibit biliary excretion in rabbits [168] Reports inliterature indicate that the consumption of xanthine 22 hasresulted in mammalian toxicity According to Madzimure etal [64] xanthine 22 is a demethylated derivative of caffeinewith pharmacological actions such as central nervous system(CNS) stimulation relaxation of smooth muscle (especiallybronchial muscle) myocardial stimulation peripheral vaso-constriction and diuresis Considering the widespread useof L javanica as herbal tea and medicine it is important

18 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

to determine if any toxicological effects can occur from itschronic or subchronic usage

411 Other Activities Mpofu et al [169] determined the effectof inclusion of L javanica leaf meal in broiler diets ongrowth performance carcass characteristics and fatty acidprofiles The authors found that the L javanica fed broilershad higher total polyunsaturated fatty acids and n-3 fattyacidsThe findings from the study showed that inclusion of Ljavanica in broiler diets at 5 gkg feed has positive influenceson growth performance carcass characteristics and fattyacid profiles of broiler meat and therefore L javanica haspotential as growth-promoting feed additive in broilersSamie et al [73] evaluated antiamoebic activity of a purecompound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica essen-tial oil against Entamoeba histolytica using microdilutionmethod with metronidazole as the positive control diluents(ie culture medium with an appropriate concentration ofdimethyl sulphoxide as the negative control) and a blank(ie culture medium without dimethyl sulphoxide) Samieet al [73] demonstrated that piperitenone 162 had markedantiamoebic activity with IC

50value of 25 120583gmL More

research is required as L javanica could be harbouring potentantiamoebic properties which could be useful for managingamoebiasis an infection that remains a significant cause ofmorbidity and mortality worldwide

5 Conclusion

Lippia javanica has been used in African and Asian countriesas herbal tea and medicine for many centuries Utilization ofL javanica because of its flavour and medicinal propertiesforms the basis of the current demand for the plant speciesin central eastern and southern Africa Research on Ljavanica over the past decade on health promoting propertieshas greatly contributed to the increased consumption ofthe species as herbal or recreational tea The focus of thisresearch has been on phytochemical compounds particularlyphenolic content and antioxidant and free radical scavengingactivities Phenolic compounds present in L javanica arelargely responsible for the antioxidant properties possessedby the species More research in this regard is required andfuture research should focus on more comprehensive chem-ical characterization of both crude and pure extracts andevaluate potential for commercialization and developmentof nutraceutical products based on traditional uses of Ljavanica Most of the pharmacological researches conductedon L javanica so far have focused on the phytochemistryand biological properties of leaves and little or no researchhas been done on roots and other plant parts Thereforefuture research on the species should focus on other plantparts for example flowers roots and stems as well asorgan-to-organ age and seasonal variation evaluations in thephytochemical content and pharmacological activities of thespecies

The recent increase in the demand for L javanica prod-ucts may partly be ascribed to growing body of scientific evi-dence indicating important health benefits Lippia javanica

is widely sold as herbal tea in Botswana South Africa andZimbabwe Leaves and stems of L javanica are also sold asherbal medicines in the medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquo marketsin South Africa [35 170] For local people who rely onherbal medicines as part of their primary healthcare aswell as cultural beliefs they prefer L javanica harvestedfrom the wild and unprocessed plant parts sold in informalmedicinal ldquomuthirdquo markets [170] In the past there were norecords of overexploitation of L javanica wild populationsin southern Africa resulting in Raimondo et al [171] listingthe species as Least Concern (LC) under the IUCN RedList Categories and Criteria version 31 of threatened species(httpwwwiucnredlistorg) Recently signs of overharvest-ing have been noted where local people or plant traders haveuprooted whole plants to supply medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquomarkets or use the plants as herbal medicines brooms orherbal tea Therefore large-scale commercial utilization of Ljavanica is not sustainable if the species is harvested fromthe wild Currently L javanica is cultivated on a commercialscale in Kenya [28] and South Africa [117] for essential oilproduction for the mosquito-repellent candles and perfumeindustry Cultivation of L javanica is therefore a solutionto the sustainability problems associated with harvesting ofthe species from the wild and this option is also necessaryfor establishing commercial scale medicinal production andprocessing and trade enterprises The success of commercialcultivation of L javanica will depend on how the species ismarketed as herbal tea and medicine and source of essentialoil and health care products and as a source of functionalfoods

Significant research has been made in the past 50 yearsinto the chemistry and pharmacology of L javanica Thesestudies have shown L javanica to display various chemicaland different biological activities some of which justify itsethnopharmacological utilization in variety of cultures Inthe light of the evidence that L javanica is combined withother plant species in traditional medicine it will be valuableto investigate the possibility of synergistic effects of thedifferent extracts Deep phytochemical studies of L javanicaand its phytochemical properties especially the mechanismsof action of its bioactive constituents to illustrate the cor-relation between ethnomedicinal uses and pharmacologicalactivities should be the focus of further research on thespecies There is need for extensive in vivo experiments tovalidate the existing pharmacological activities Howeverbecause L javanica contains potentially toxic compoundsits toxicological properties need to be properly establishedvia proper quality control of product development to ensurethat potentially toxic components are kept below tolerancelevels

Appendix

A Chemical Compounds Isolated andCharacterized from Lippia javanica

See Table 5

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 19

Table 5

Chemical compound Reference(s)Phenolic compoundsCoumarin 1 [4]Verbascoside 2 [81]Isoverbascoside 3 [81]Theveside-Na 4 [82]Theveridoside 5 [82]4-ethylnonacosane 6 [83]Apigenin 7 [64 83]Cirsimaritin 8 [64 83]6-Methoxy luteolin41015840-methyl ether 9 [83]

6-Methoxy luteolin31015840410158407-trimethyl ether 10 [83]

Crassifolioside 11 [64]Luteolin 12 [64]Diosmetin 13 [64]Chrysoeriol 14 [64]Tricin 15 [64]Isothymusin 16 [64]Eupatorin 17 [64]5-Dimethyl noboletin 18 [64]Genkwanin 19 [64]Salvigenin 20 [64]Lippialactone 21 [84]AlkaloidXanthine 22 [64]Amino acids120572-Aminobutyric acid 23 [85 86]Valine 24 [86]Isoleucine 25 [86]Asparagine 26 [86]Phenylalanine 27 [86]120572-Aminoadipic acid 28 [86]Lysine 29 [86]Histidine 30 [86]Tyrosine 31 [86]Tryptophan 32 [86]Alanine 33 [85]Glycine 34 [85]Proline 35 [85]Serine 36 [85]Glutamine acid 37 [85]120573-Alanine 38 [85]Glutamine 39 [85]120573-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [85]4-hydroxyproline 41 [85]Essential oil(E)-2(3)-tagetenoneepoxide 42 [83]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]120572-Pinene 44 [3ndash5 87ndash91]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4](+)-2-Carene 46 [4]3-Carene 47 [4]Eucalyptol 48 [4]18 myrcene 49 [87]Ipsdienone 50 [87]Caryophyllene 51 [85]Geranial 52 [5 92 93]26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [92]Geraniol 54 [92]Octen-3-one 55 [5]6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]120588-Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]Artemisia ketone 58 [5]Linalool oxide 59 [5]Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5](Z)-120573-Ocimenone 61 [5](E)-120573-Ocimenone 62 [5]Carvyl acetate 63 [5]120572-Cubebene 64 [5]Sesquithujene 65 [5]Acora-35-diene 66 [5]120573-Bergamotene 67 [5]Trans-calamenene 68 [5]120573-Alaskene 69 [5]120574-Cadinene 70 [5]120575-Cadinene 71 [3 88 89 91]Cis-calamenene 72 [5]Nerolidol 73 [5](E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 88 89]Spathulenol 75 [5]Epi-120572-muurolol 76 [5]120572-Longipinene 77 [90]Chrysanthenone 78 [90]120572-Terpineol 79 [3 5 90 91]120572-Amorphene 80 [90]120572-Thujene 81 [91]120574-Terpinene 82 [91]120572-Cubebene 83 [91]Linalool acetate 84 [91]Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [91]Camphene 86 [3 5 88ndash91]120573-Pinene 87 [3 5 91]Sabinene 88 [3 5 87 90 91]Myrcene 89 [3 5 87ndash89 91ndash95]120572-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 88 89]2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]Limonene 92 [3 5 88ndash94]18-Cineole 93 [3 5 90 91 95]120573-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 88 89 91]

20 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3](Z)-120573-Ocimene 96 [3 5 88 89 91](E)-120573-Ocimene 97 [3 5 88 89 91]Isomyrcenol 98 [3]p-Cymene 99 [3 5 85 88ndash91]2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]Terpinolene 101 [3]Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 88 89 91 95]Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 88 89](Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]Nonanal 106 [3]Perillene 107 [3 91]Ipsenone 108 [3 87ndash89 95]Trans-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 88ndash90]1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 88 89]Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]Ttrans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]cis-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 88ndash90]120572-Copaene 114 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetone 115 [3 88 89]Trans-tagetone 116 [3 88 89]Camphor 117 [3 5 88ndash90 93 94]120573-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 91]Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 85 88ndash90 92 93]

Trans-120572-bergamotene 121 [3]120572-Cedrene 122 [3 5]Myrcenone 123 [3 5 83 91]120573-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 87ndash91 93 94]2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 88 89](Z)-120573-Farnesene 129 [3](E)-120573-Farnesene 130 [3 5](EE)-120572-Farnesene 131 [3 88 89]Ipsdienol 132 [3](Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]Isovaleric acid 134 [3]120572-Humulene 135 [3 5 88 89 91]120572-Acoradiene 136 [3]120573-Acoradiene 137 [3]120574-Muurolene 138 [3 5 88 89]120572-Muurolene 139 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]Borneol 142 [3 5 88ndash90]Verbenone 143 [3 91]Germacrene-D 144 [3 87ndash89 93]120573-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]120574-Bisabolene 146 [3]Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]Carvone 148 [3 5 91]Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 88 89 91]120573-Curcumene 150 [3]Ar-curcumene 151 [3]Cis-piperitol 152 [3]2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol156 [3 88 89]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]Calamenene 158 [3]Carvone oxide 159 [3]Isopiperitenone 160 [3]Cis-carveol 161 [3]Piperitenone 162 [2 3 73 83]Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 88 89]Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3ndash5 88ndash90]Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 88 89]Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]Spathulenol 167 [3]Eugenol 168 [3 5]Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120573-ol(=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120572-ol(=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [83]Icterogenin 173 [96]

B Chemical Structures ofPhenolic Compounds Alkaloids AminoAcids and Essential Oils Isolated fromLippia javanica

See Figure 4

Competing Interests

The author declares that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 21

O

OO

OO O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

C CH CHO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

COOH

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

Me

OMe

OMe

OMe

MeO

Me

HOOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OMe

OMe

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

（2 （2

（2

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

（3CO

（3CO

Coumarin 1 [4]

Verbascoside 2 [89]

Isoverbascoside 3 [89]

Theveside-Na 4 [90]

Theveridoside 5 [90]

4-Ethylnonacosane 6 [91]

Apigenin 7 [120 91]

Cirsimaritin 8 [120 91]

Crassifolioside 11 [120]

Luteolin 12 [120]

Diosmetin 13 [120]

Chrysoeriol 14 [120]

Tricin 15 [120]

Isothymusin 16 [120]

Eupatorin 17 [120]

6-Methoxyluteolin 3 47-trimethyl ether 10 [91]

6-Methoxyluteolin 4-methyl ether 9 [91]

Figure 4 Continued

22 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

N

NH

HN

HO

NH

O

NH

O

O

O

O

HN

N N

N

H

H

OAc

OAcOAc

OO

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

（3CO

（2

（2

（2

（2 （2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3N

（2N

（2N

（2N

（2N

minus

+

+

5-Desmethylnoboletin 18 [120]

Genkwanin 19 [120]

Salvigenin 20 [120]

Lippialactone 21 [92]

Xanthine 22 [120]

Valine 24 [94]

Isoleucine 25 [94]

Asparagine 26 [94]

Phenylalanine 27 [94]

Lysine 29 [94]

Histidine 30 [94]

Tyrosine 31 [94]

Tryptophan 32 [94]

Alanine 33 [93]

Glycine 34 [93]

Proline 35 [93]

Serine 36 [93]

Glutamine acid 37 [93]

Glutamine 39 [93]

4-Hydroxyproline 41 [93]

(E)-2(3)-Tagetenone epoxide 42 [91]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]

-Alanine 38 [93]

-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [93]

-Aminoadipic acid 28 [94]

-Aminobutyric acid 23 [93 94]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 23

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

H

H

HH

H

O

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

HO

OH

O

O

O

O

OH（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4]

3-Carene 47 [4]

Eucalyptol 48 [4]

18 myrcene 49 [123]

Ipsdienone 50 [123]

Caryophyllene 51 [93]

Geranial 52 [5 100 101]

26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [100]

Geraniol 54 [100]

Octen-3-one 55 [5]

6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]

Artemisia ketone 58 [5]

Linalool oxide 59 [5]

Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5]

Carvyl acetate 63 [5]

Sesquithujene 65 [5]

Acora-35-diene 66 [5]

-Pinene 44 [3-5 123 96 97 98 99] -Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]

(+)-2-Carene 46 [4]

-Bergamotene 67 [5]

-Cubebene 64 [5]

(Z)--Ocimenone 61 [5]

(E)--Ocimenone 62 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

24 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OH

H

H

H

H

O

OHO

HO

H

HH H

H

H

HH

H

HO

HO

O

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

Trans-calamenene 68 [5]

Cis-calamenene 72 [5]

Nerolidol 73 [5]

(E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 96 97]

Spathulenol 75 [5]

Chrysanthenone 78 [98]

Linalool acetate 84 [99]

Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [99]

Camphene 86 [3 5 96 97 98 99]

Sabinene 88 [3 5 123 98 99]

Myrcene 89 [3 5 123 100 101 96 97 99 102 103]

-Alaskene 69 [5]

-Terpineol 79 [3 5 98 99]

-Amorphene 80 [98]

-Cadinene 70 [45]-Thujene 81 [99]

-Cadinene 71 [3 96 97 99] -Terpinene 82 [99]

-Cubebene 83 [99]

-Pinene 87 [3 5 99]

-Longipinene 77 [98]

-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 96 97]

Epi--muurolol 76 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 25

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O

OH

OH

H

H

H

H

H

HOO

OH

O

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（3(（2)3（2

（3(（2)6（2

2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]

Limonene 92 [3 5 100 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3]

Isomyrcenol 98 [3]

p-Cymene 99 [3 5 93 96 97 98 99]

2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]

Terpinolene 101 [3]

Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 96 97 99 103]

Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 96 97]

(Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]

67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]

Nonanal 106 [3]

Perillene 107 [3 99]

Ipsenone 108 [3 123 96 97 103]

Trans-linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 96 97 98]

1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 96 97]

Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]

Trans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]

Cis-linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 96 97 98]

Cis-tagetone 115 [3 96 97]

Trans-tagetone 116 [3 96 97]

-Copaene 114 [3 5 96 97 98]

18-Cineole (=eucalyptol) 93 [3 5 98 99 103]

-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 96 97 99]

(Z)--Ocimene 96 [3 5 96 97 99]

(E)--Ocimene 97 [3 5 96 97 99]

Camphor 117 [3 5 101 96 97 98 102]

Figure 4 Continued

26 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

HH

H

H

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 93 100 101 96 97 98]

Myrcenone 123 [3 5 91 99]

2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol 125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]

Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 96 97]

Ipsdienol 132 [3]

(Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]

Isovaleric acid 134 [3]

Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]

Borneol 142 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 99]

Trans--bergamotene 121 [3]

-Cedrene 122 [3 5]

-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 123 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)--Farnesene 129 [3]

(E)--Farnesene 130 [3 5]

-Muurolene 139 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Muurolene 138 [3 5 96 97]

-Acoradiene 136 [3]

-Acoradiene 137 [3]

-Humulene 135 [3 5 96 97 99]

(EE)--Farnesene 131 [3 96 97]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O O

HO

O

H

H

H

HO

HO

OH

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3CO（3

Verbenone 143 [3 99]

Germacrene-D 144 [3 123 101 96 97]

Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]

Carvone 148 [3 5 99]

Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 96 97 99]

Ar-curcumene 151 [3]

Cis-piperitol 152 [3]

2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]

26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol 156 [3 96 97]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]

Calamenene 158 [3]

Carvone oxide 159 [3]

Isopiperitenone 160 [3]

Cis-carveol 161 [3]

Piperitenone 162 [2 3 91 81]

Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 96 97]

-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]

-Bisabolene 146 [3]

-Curcumene 150 [3]

Figure 4 Continued

28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

OO

O

O

H

H

H

H

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

H

H

HCH

HH

HO

（3

（2

（2C

（3C（3C

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C O（3

Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3-5 96 97 98]

Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 96 97]

Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]

Spathulenol 167 [3]

Eugenol 168 [3 5]

Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [91]

Icterogenin 173 [104]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Figure 4

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to the NationalResearch Foundation (NRF) and GovanMbeki Research andDevelopment Centre (GMRDC) University of Fort Hare forfinancial support to conduct this research

References

[1] JWMwangi I Addae-Mensah RMMunavu andW LwandeldquoEssential oils of Kenyan Lippia species Part IIIrdquo Flavour andFragrance Journal vol 6 no 3 pp 221ndash224 1991

[2] N J Manenzhe N Potgieter and T Van Ree ldquoCompositionand antimicrobial activities of volatile components of Lippiajavanicardquo Phytochemistry vol 65 no 16 pp 2333ndash2336 2004

[3] A M Viljoen S Subramoney S F V Vuuren K H C Baserand B Demirci ldquoThe composition geographical variation andantimicrobial activity of Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae) leafessential oilsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 96 no 1-2 pp271ndash277 2005

[4] N Lukwa P Moslashlgaard P Furu and C Boslashgh ldquoLippia javanica(Burm f) Spreng its general constituents and bioactivity onmosquitoesrdquoTropical Biomedicine vol 26 no 1 pp 85ndash91 2009

[5] L S Chagonda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssential oil compositionof Lippia javanica (Burmf) spreng chemotype from WesternZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants vol 18 no 2pp 482ndash485 2015

[6] W Kipkore B Wanjohi H Rono and G Kigen ldquoA study of themedicinal plants used by the Marakwet Community in KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 242014

[7] E A Shikanga S Combrinck and T Regnier ldquoSouth AfricanLippia herbal infusions total phenolic content antioxidant andantibacterial activitiesrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76no 3 pp 567ndash571 2010

[8] N T Parrant ldquoThe potential of non-timber forest products ofBotswanardquo Botswana Notes Records vol 28 no 1 pp 203ndash2181996

[9] D M Motlhanka and S W Makhabu ldquoMedicinal and ediblewild fruit plants of Botswana as emerging new crop opportu-nitiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plants Research vol 5 no 10 pp1836ndash1842 2011

[10] M Bhebhe T N Fuller B Chipurura and M MuchuwetildquoEffect of solvent type on total phenolic content and free radicalscavenging activity of black tea and herbal infusionsrdquo FoodAnalytical Methods vol 9 no 4 pp 1060ndash1067 2016

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29

[11] M Bhebhe B Chipurura and M Muchuweti ldquoDeterminationand comparison of phenolic compound content and antioxidantactivity of selected local Zimbabwean herbal teas with exoticAspalathus linearisrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 100no 1 pp 213ndash218 2015

[12] B Patiri and A Borah Wild Edible Plants of Assam GeetakhiPrinters Guwahati India 2007

[13] H Narzary and A Basumatary ldquoProximate and vitamin Canalysis of wild edible plants consumed by Bodos of AssamIndiardquo Journal of Molecular Pathophysiology vol 4 no 4 pp128ndash133 2015

[14] M Gelfand S Mavi R B Drummond and B Ndemera TheTraditional Medical Practitioners in Zimbabwe His Principles ofPractice and Pharmacopoeia Mambo Press Gweru Zimbabwe1985

[15] D Davids Materia medica and care a study of the uses ofmedicinal herbs and remedies as a form of treatment andnegotiating social relationships in cape town and surroundings[MS dissertation] University of theWestern Cape Cape TownSouth Africa 2012

[16] A Maroyi and G K E Mosina ldquoMedicinal plants and tradi-tional practices in peri-urban domestic gardens of the Limpopoprovince South africardquo Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledgevol 13 no 4 pp 665ndash672 2014

[17] A Samie C L Obi P O Bessong and L Namrita ldquoActivityprofiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Vendacommunities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterialspeciesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 4 no 12 pp1443ndash1451 2005

[18] T York An ethnopharmacological study of plants used fortreating respiratory infections in rural Maputaland [MS disser-tation] University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa South Africa2012

[19] D Davids T Blouws O Aboyade et al ldquoTraditional healthpractitionersrsquo perceptions herbal treatment andmanagement ofHIV and related opportunistic infectionsrdquo Journal of Ethnobiol-ogy and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 77 2014

[20] A Hutchings A H Scott G Lewis and A CunninghamZulu Medicinal Plants An Inventory University of Natal PressPietermarizburg South Africa 1996

[21] RM Coopoosamy andK K Naidoo ldquoAn ethnobotanical studyofmedicinal plants used by traditional healers inDurban SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 6no 11 pp 818ndash823 2012

[22] I Hedberg and F Staugard Traditional Medicinal Plants inBotswana Ipeleng Gaborone Botswana 1989

[23] H Shahriar A S M H K Chowdhury S Rahman et al ldquoSci-entific validation of medicinal plants used by a folk medicinalpractitioner of Chuadanga District BangladeshrdquoWorld Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 11 pp 13ndash24 2014

[24] S S Semenya M J Potgieter and M P Tshisikhawe ldquoUseconservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinalplants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 12 no 18 pp2392ndash2405 2013

[25] M Roberts Indigenous Healing Plants Southern Book Publish-ers Halfway House Johannesburg South Africa 1990

[26] T Birhanu D Abera and E Ejeta ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas westernEthiopiardquo Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare vol 5no 1 pp 83ndash93 2015

[27] N T Mahlangeni R Moodley and S B Jonnalagadda ldquoEle-mental composition of Cyrtanthus obliquus and Lippia javanicaused in South African herbal tonic Imbizardquo Arabian Journal ofChemistry 2013

[28] W Musila D Kisangau and J Muema ldquoConservation statusand use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitionersin Machakos District Kenyardquo in Indigenous Knowledge Con-ference Proceedings Pennsylvania State University May 27ndash292004 2004

[29] G N Njoroge and R W Bussmann ldquoTraditional managementof ear nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 542006

[30] P Chigora R Masocha and F Mutenheri ldquoThe role of indige-nous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailmentsin rural Zimbabwe the case of Mutirikwi communal landsrdquoJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol 9 no 2 pp26ndash43 2007

[31] R W Bussmann G G Gilbreath J Solio et al ldquoPlant use ofthe Maasai of Sekenani Valley Maasai Mara Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 22 2006

[32] D Motlhanka and G P Nthoiwa ldquoEthnobotanical Survey ofmedicinal plants of Tswapong North in Eastern Botswana acase of plants from Mosweu and Seolwane Villagesrdquo EuropeanJournal of Medicinal Plants vol 3 no 1 pp 10ndash24 2013

[33] A Vhurumuku ldquoKnowledge use and attitudes towardsmedici-nal plants of pre-service teachers at a South African UniversityrdquoGlobal Advanced Research Journal in Environmental Science andToxicology vol 4 no 2 pp 15ndash24 2015

[34] M N Nkwanyana An ethnobotanical and antidiarrhoeal inves-tigation of plants used traditionally in the maputaland areahomesteads [MS dissertation] University of Zululand KwaD-langezwa South Africa 2013

[35] T E Moeng An investigation into the trade of medicinal plantsbymuthi shops and street vendors in the Limpopo Province SouthAfrica [MS thesis] University of Limpopo Gauteng SouthAfrica 2010

[36] S Bandeira A M Manjate and O Filipe ldquoAn EcologicalAssessment of the Health of the Chibuto-Missavene Wetlandin the Dry Season Mozambique Emphasis on ResourcesAssessment Utilization and Sustainability Analysisrdquo reportto Challenge Program for Water and Food InternationalWater Management Institute Pretoria South Africa 2006httpscgspacecgiarorgbitstreamhandle105682160421604pdfsequence=1

[37] M C Palgrave R B Drummond and E J Moll Trees ofSouthern Africa Struik Cape Town South Africa 2003

[38] M O Nanyingi J M Mbaria A L Lanyasunya et alldquoEthnopharmacological survey of Samburu district KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4 article 142008

[39] J G J P Sankar and K B Satapathy ldquoWeed diversity of Rabicrops and their ethnomedicinal uses in Kendrapara districtof Odisha Indiardquo International Research Journal of BiologicalSciences vol 4 no 3 pp 33ndash38 2015

[40] D E N Mabogo The ethnobotany of the vhavenda [MSdissertation] University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa1990

[41] B-E van Wyk B van Oudtshoorn and N Gericke MedicinalPlants of South Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2013

[42] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used forthe treatment of tuberculosis by Bapedi traditional healers

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

OphthalmologyJournal of

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Research and TreatmentAIDS

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 12: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table4Summaryof

pharmacologicalactiv

ities

ofthee

xtractsisolated

from

different

partso

fLippiajavanica

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Antiamoebic

Piperitenon

e162

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f25120583

gmLagainstE

histolytica

[73]

Antibacteria

lPiperitenon

e162

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f50120583

gmLagainstA

calcoaceticu

sMkristin

ae(50120583

gmL)Styphi(25120583

gmL)and

Saureus

(12120583

gmL)

[73]

Antibacteria

l(Antiproteus)

Methano

lLeaves

Disc

diffu

sion

assay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f313120583gmLagainstPm

irabilis

and926120583

gmL

againstPvulgaris

[74]

Water

Leaves

Disc

diffu

sion

assay

Exhibitedweakactiv

ityagainstPm

irabilis

with

MIC

valueo

f1873120583gmLand1768120583gmLagainstPvulgaris

[74]

Antibacteria

l

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

coliwith

MIC

valueo

f064m

gmLE

faecalis(064)P

aeruginosa

(032

)andSaureus

(064)Totalactiv

ityMIC

values

werea

sfollo

wsE

coli(127

mgmL)E

faecalis

(127

mgmL)Paeruginosa

(253

mgmL)and

Saureus

(127

mgmL)

[75]

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

valueo

f3mgmLBa

cillusp

umilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(gt12mgmL)Saureus(12mgmL)E

faecalis

(6mgmL)E

cloacae

(6mgmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pantoea

agglo

meran

s(12mgmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Shigella

flexneri

(15mgmL)A

erom

onas

hydrophila(12m

gmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae(12mgmL)Salmonellacholeraesuis

(6mgmL)and

Serratiamarcescens(gt12mgmL)

[17]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

valueo

f12m

gmLB

pumilu

s(12m

gmL)B

subtilis(12m

gmL)Saureus(6m

gmL)E

faecalis

(12m

gmL)E

cloacae

(12m

gmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(12m

gmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(6

mgmL)A

hydrophila(12m

gmL)Pm

irabilis

(12m

gmL)K

pneum

oniae

(12m

gmL)Scholeraesuis(6

mgmL)and

antia

moebice

ffect

(12m

gmL)

[17]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

values

of15

mgmLB

pumilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(gt12mgmL)Saureus(12mgmL)E

faecalis

(3mgmL)E

cloacae

(6mgmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(12m

gmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(15mgmL)A

hydrophila(6

mgmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae

(12m

gmL)Scholeraesuis(6

mgmL)and

Smarcescens(12mgmL)

[17]

Essentialoil

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstB

cereus

with

MIC

values

of6m

gmLB

pumilu

s(6

mgmL)B

subtilis(3mgmL)Saureus(15

mgmL)E

faecalis

(3mgmL)E

cloacae

(12m

gmL)E

coli(6m

gmL)Pagglomeran

s(6

mgmL)Paeruginosa(12m

gmL)Sflexneri(3mgmL)A

hydrophila(3mgmL)Pm

irabilis

(gt12mgmL)K

pneum

oniae

(3mgmL)Scholeraesuis(15mgmL)and

Smarcescens(gt12mgmL)

[17]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 13

Table4Con

tinued

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

faecaliswith

MIC

valueo

f014

mgmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

coliwith

MIC

valueo

f031

mgmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPaeruginosa

with

MIC

valueo

f042m

gmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstSaureus

with

MIC

valueo

f013

mgmL

[7]

Antifu

ngal

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

albicans

with

MIC

valueo

fgt75m

gmLC

krusei

(188m

gmL)and

Cneoforman

s(gt75

mgmL)

[7]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

albicans

with

MIC

valueo

fgt375

mgmLC

krusei

(375m

gmL)and

Cneoforman

s(gt75

mgmL)

[7]

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

kruseiwith

MFC

valueo

f75mgmL

[7]

Dichlorom

ethane

Aeria

lparts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFu

sariu

mproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f014

mgmLand

Fusariu

mverticillioides(019mgmL)

[76]

Hexane

Aeria

lparts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f023m

gmLandF

verticillioides(045

mgmL)

[76]

Methano

lAe

rialp

arts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f177m

gmLandF

verticillioides(043

mgmL)

[76]

Methano

lAe

rialp

arts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

fgt250

mgmLandF

verticillioides(gt250

mgmL)

[76]

Antim

ycob

acteria

l

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f047m

gmLandtotalactivity

of10mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Dichlorom

ethane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f125m

gmLandtotalactivity

of23

mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f062m

gmLandtotalactivity

of13mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f125m

gmLandtotalactivity

of7m

Lgagainst

Msmegmatis

[77]

14 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table4Con

tinued

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Antioxidant

Water

Leaves

DPP

Hassay

Exhibitedactiv

itywith

EC50valueo

f358120583gmL

[7]

Water

Leaves

mdashEx

hibitedactiv

itywith

209ascorbicacid

equivalent

(mggdryweight)

[7]

Water

Leaves

ABT

Sassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f15mmol10

0g[78]

Water

Leaves

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f146254

mmol10

0g[78]

Water

Leaves

FRAPassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f238m

mol10

0g[78]

Antiplasm

odial

Hexanechloroform

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f1225plusmn072120583gmL

[79]

Ethylacetate

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f1212plusmn079120583gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f135plusmn006120583gmL

[79]

Hexanechloroform

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f1859plusmn026120583gmL

[79]

Ethylacetate

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f1580plusmn026120583gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f175plusmn017120583gmL

[79]

Dichlorom

ethane

Roots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f38120583gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethanem

ethano

lRo

ots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f27120583

gmL

[80]

Methano

lRo

ots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f24120583

gmL

[80]

Water

Roots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

fgt100120583

gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethane

Stem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f45120583gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethanem

ethano

lStem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f218120583gmL

[80]

Methano

lStem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f298120583gmL

[80]

Water

Stem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

fgt100120583

gmL

[80]

Free

radicalscaveng

ing

activ

ity

Water

mdashDPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0059plusmn002

gmL

[11]

50methano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f004plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Ethano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0025plusmn0001gmL

[11]

50ethano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0027plusmn0005gmL

[11]

Aceton

emdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0057plusmn0004gmL

[11]

50aceton

emdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0022plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Ethylacetate

mdashDPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0066plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Toxicity

Methano

lLeaf

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

40mortalityrecorded

after

48hexpo

sure

towards

Artemianauplii

[74]

Methano

lRo

ots

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f8430120583

gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f6503120583

gmL

[79]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 15

strengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantidiabetic agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species mixed with C obliquus to form aherbal concoction known in KwaZulu Natal province SouthAfrica as ldquoimbizardquo used against diabetes [27]

43 Antimalarial Activity Govere et al [142] found thattopical application of L javanica alcohol extract leads to767 protection against Anopheles arabiensis for 4 hoursLippia javanica has been used as a mosquito repellent by therural communities in Zimbabwe for a long time and previousstudies have shown that essential oils from the species havevery strong and lasting repellent activity against female Aarabiensis [64] Research by Lukwa et al [4] revealed thattopical application of 5mgcm2 of L javanica leads to 100protection againstAnopheles aegypti for 8 hoursMavundza etal [154] screened dichloromethane and ethanol leaf extractsof L javanica for adulticidal activity againstA arabiensisTheauthors observed dichloromethane and ethanol activities of45 and 55mosquitomortality respectivelyThese findingsstrengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantimalarial agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species as mosquito repellent in India [47]South Africa [34 49 58] and Zimbabwe [4 48]

44 Antioxidant Activity Leaf infusions of L javanica exhib-ited antioxidant activity with EC

50value of 358120583gmL and

contained 148mgmL of dry weight gallic acid equivalentphenolic compounds [7] The EC

50value of 358 120583gmL

obtained for L javanica by Shikanga et al [7] compareswell to those of many commercial teas including antioxidantcapacity of Rooibos Fresh Pack herbal teas (A linearis)with the best antioxidant activity of 333 120583gmL The highantioxidant activities displayed by L javanica infusions canbe partially attributed to the high levels of verbascoside 2(15mgg dry weight) reported by Olivier et al [81] in theleaf extract of the species Earlier research by Muchuwetiet al [125] reported 744 inhibition of the DPPH radicalby an ethanolic leaf extract of L javanica Lekganyane etal [75] reported antioxidant activity in L javanica and theacetone extracts of the species displayed antioxidant activityon BEA chromatogram [77] Bhebhe et al [10] reported theantioxidant activities of L javanica based on the DPPHreducing power and inhibition of phospholipid peroxidationassays Free radical scavenging activity of L javanica isattributed to phenolic compounds since these compoundshave an ideal structural chemistry for free radical scavengingactivity [155] Bhebhe et al [11] determined the effect ofseveral solvents on the free radical scavenging activity ofL javanica using the DPPH assay Free radical scavengingactivity expressed as IC

50ranged from 0022 plusmn 0001 gmL to

0066 plusmn 0001 gmL see Table 4

45 Antiplasmodial Activity Prozesky et al [144] evaluatedL javanica leaf acetone extract for in vitro antiplasmodialactivity using PfUP1 a chloroquine resistant strain of themalaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum by means of theflow cytometric test The IC

50value for L javanica was

426 120583gmL Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil

piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica for antiplasmodialactivity using chloroquine diphosphate as positive controland found it active against a chloroquine sensitive strainof P falciparum in micromolar concentrations with IC

50of

8 120583gmL Clarkson et al [80] evaluated L javanica rootsand stems extracts for in vitro activity against P falciparumusing the parasite lactase dehydrogenase (pLDH) assay andchloroquine diphosphate (Sigma) as the positive controlThedichloromethane methane and water extracts showed IC

50

values ranging from 38 to gt100 120583gmL see Table 4 Omolo etal [145] screened the essential oil of L javanica for fumiganttoxicity to Anopheles gambiae which exhibited LD

50of 43 times

10minus3mg cmminus3 Ayuko et al [79] showed that L javanica rootextracts have antiplasmodial activity against P falciparumwith IC

50ranging from 135 to 1859 120583gmL see Table 4

Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity againstthe chloroquine sensitive D10 strain of P falciparum withan IC

50value of 91 120583gmL and is also mildly cytotoxic [84]

Compared to chloroquine the compound is approximately2000 times less active against the D10 strain of P falciparum[84]

46 Antimicrobial Activities Lippia javanica is widely usedin the treatment of a wide range of infectious diseasescaused by microorganisms Viljoen et al [3] determined theantimicrobial properties of L javanica by evaluating the timekill studies of the speciesrsquo essential oil using the disc diffusionassay on three respiratory pathogens Klebsiella pneumoniaeCryptococcus neoformans and Bacillus cereus This studyshowed that the killing rate was greatest for K pneumoniaefollowed by C neoformans and very little reduction of micro-bial populations was observed for B cereus The efficacy of Ljavanica oil for K pneumoniae showed a killing rate within30 minutes for the concentrations 025 05 075 and 1C neoformans showed a killing rate for concentrations 05075 and 1 within 1 hour and the lowest concentration of025 took 8 hours before a bactericidal effect was notedwhile B cereus showed some reduction in colonies [3] Thepositive antimicrobial activity of L javanica as revealed bythe time kill study could be attributed to linalool 120 whichaverages between 65 and 70 in yield [3 5 88 90] and hasknown antimicrobial properties [93 156ndash159]These findingssomehow corroborate the traditional use of L javanica asherbal medicine for a wide range of bacterial and fungalrespiratory ailments indicated in Table 1

Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil piperitenone162 isolated from L javanica for antibacterial activityon cultures of Bacillus subtilis Staphylococcus aureus andEscherichia coli using imipenem cefazolin and ampicillinas positive controls The authors found piperitenone 162to inhibit S aureus and E coli at 1 dilution Acetonehexane and methanol leaf extracts and essential oil isolatedfrom L javanica showed some activity against fifteen Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria with MIC values rang-ing from 15 to gt12mgmL [60] see Table 4 In a similarstudy Samie et al [73] demonstrated that a pure compoundpiperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica has antibacte-rial activities against Acinetobacter calcoaceticus Micrococcus

16 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

kristinae Salmonella typhi and S aureus using dimethylsulphoxide and kanamycin as controls with MIC valuesranging from 12 to 50 120583gmL see Table 4 Shikanga et al [7]evaluated the antibacterial activity of L javanica methanolicleaf extract against S aureus Enterococcus faecalis E coliand Pseudomonas aeruginosa using the serial microdilutionmethod with gentamycin (Virbac) and acetone as positiveand negative controls respectively Lippia javanica displayedantibacterial activities with MIC values ranging from 013to 042mgmL against all four pathogens see Table 4 Theobtained minimum inhibitory concentrations are promisingsince natural products with MIC values below 1mgmLare generally considered to be noteworthy findings [160]Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity against theE coli and S aureus at a concentration of 10mgmL [84]Lekganyane et al [75] reported antibacterial activity of Ljavanica acetone leaf extracts against E coli E faecalis Paeruginosa and S aureus with MIC values ranging from 032to 064mgmL and total activity of the same species rangingfrom 127 to 253mgmL see Table 4 Methanol and water leafextracts of L javanica exhibited some antiproteus activityagainstProteusmirabilis andProteus vulgariswithMICvalueslt2000120583gmL with standard discs of ampicillin (2120583g) andchloramphenicol (10 120583g) as positive controls [74] Some of theantibacterial properties of L javanica can be attributed to thephytochemical constituents of the species for example thephenolic compound apigenin 7 is a well-known antibacterialagent [7 134] Apigenin 7 was shown to be highly activeagainst Vibrio cholera and E faecalis [161] while Basile et al[162] reported the inhibition of S typhi P mirabilis and Paeruginosa by the compound Therefore results from theseantibacterial evaluations of L javanica give credence to theuse of the speciesrsquo infusions against bacterial infections andother related diseases

Shikanga et al [126] investigated the antifungal activ-ities of leaf extracts and essential oil compounds isolatedfrom L javanica leafy extracts against a Guazatine-resistantstrain of Penicillium digitatumThemethanolic leafy extractsisoverbascoside 3 and verbascoside 2 compounds isolatedfrom L javanica inhibited fungal growth at concentrationsabove 06mgsdotmLminus1 causing significant inhibition of mycelialgrowth Verbascoside 2 is well-known for its antimicrobialproperties and has been found to inhibit viruses bacteriaand fungi [163] Similarly Samie et al [143] investigatedantifungal effects of acetone and hexane leaf extracts of Ljavanica against Candida albicans Candida krusei and Cneoformans isolated from AIDS patients using the microdi-lution method with nystatin Roche and DMSO as positiveand negative controls respectively Noteworthy moderateantifungal activities were recorded from C krusei with MICvalue of 188mgmL and other recordedMFCandMICvaluesfor other species ranged from 188mgmL to gt75mgmLsee Table 4 Thembo et al [76] investigated the antifungalactivity of aqueous and organic extracts of L javanica usinga serial microdilution assay Generally extracts of L javanicaexhibited weak activity see Table 4

47 Antimycobacterial Activity Mujovo et al [83] evaluatedL javanica compounds against a drug-sensitive strain ofMycobacterium tuberculosis using the radiometric respira-tory techniques Of all the isolated compounds only onetriterpenoid carboxylic acid euscaphic acid 172 exhibitedantimycobacterial activity with MIC value of 50120583gmLminus1against this strain In a similar study the leaf extract ofL javanica exhibited antimycobacterial activity against Msmegmatis in an evaluation which used microdilution assayand rifampicin as control [77] Acetone extract was thebest extractant with MIC value of 047mgmL it extractedantibacterial agents which was indicated by the lowest MICvalue [77] Masoko and Nxumalo [77] also evaluated thetotal activity ofL javanicawhich averaged 13mLg suggestingthat the extract prepared from one gram of L javanicacould be diluted to a volume of 13mL and will still inhibitM smegmatis efficiently According to Semenya and Maroyi[115] tuberculosis caused by M tuberculosis is a seriousdisease requiring effective strategies and tools to controland manage it Therefore preliminary evaluations done byMujovo et al [83] and Masoko and Nxumalo [77] serve asa scientific validation for the use of L javanica in traditionalmedicine for treatment of tuberculosis and other respiratoryailments in South Africa [24 27 115] and Uganda [43] as wellas their efficiency in tuberculosis drug discovery

48 Antiviral Activity Mujovo et al [83] found that (E)-2(3)-tagetenone epoxide 42 and piperitenone 162 inhibitedthe HIV-1 reverse transcriptase enzyme by 91 and 53respectively at 100 120583gmLminus1 based on a nonradioactive HIVRT colorimetric ELISA kit Little is known about the HIV RTactivity of L javanica extracts or compounds but flavonoidsare known to be active against viral RT and also as potentinhibitors of the cellular alpha and beta DNA polymerase[83] while luteolin 12 is active against HIV RT [164 165]Lippia javanica is traditionally used to treat HIVAIDSsymptoms in South Africa [65 66] and several viral andHIVAIDS opportunistic diseases and infections such asbronchitis [15 19ndash22] chicken pox [50] diarrhoea [17 3437 44 113] measles [14 20 38] pneumonia [14] shingles[15] and venereal diseases [44] Despite significant advancesin the utilization of L javanica in southern Africa overthe years for numerous viral diseases (Table 1) very littleantiviral evaluations have been done on crude extracts andpurified compounds of the species There is need thereforefor more pharmacological research as L javanica could beharbouring potent (RT) inhibitors which could be useful forthe development of new pharmaceutical products importantfor use against viral diseases and infections

49 Pesticidal Effects Magano et al [95] evaluated the repel-lent effects of hexane extracts of L javanica essential oilusing the in vitro tick climbing repellency bioassay on adultsof Hyalomma marginatum rufipes Koch ticks The authorsfound that 107mgmL caused repellency index of 100 at onehour and 30 minutes In a similar study by Madzimure et al[120] L javanica aqueous leaf extracts at 10 and 20 wvwere effective at controlling cattle ticks (Amblyomma species

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 17

Boophilus species Hyalomma species Rhipicephalus appen-diculatus and Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi) and were as goodas the positive control amitraz-based acaricide TrickbusterThese authors found no parasites on microscopic exami-nation of the Giemsa-stained thin blood smear collectedfrom treated cattle implying that the animals did not sufferfrom clinical tick-borne diseases Similarly Nyahangare etal [59] tested the pesticidal activity of L javanica waterextracts against cattle ticks The authors found no significantdifference between cattle treated with a commercial syntheticacaricide and those under L javanica treatment Martinez-Velazquez et al [166] evaluated pesticidal effects of twoessential oils namely 120574-terpinene 82 and 120588-cymene 99isolated from Lippia graveolens Kunth against 10-day-oldRhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini) tick larvaeusing the larval packet test bioassay The two essential oilsproduced highmortality ranging from90 to 100 in all testedconcentrations of 20 to 125 (vv)Therefore L javanica canprovide an effective tick control option where synthetic prod-ucts are unavailable or unaffordable particularly in remoterural areas in sub-Saharan Africa Lippia javanica is popularfor tick control and management among resource-poorsmallholder farmers in South Africa [58 95] and Zimbabwe[59 60 120] While these preliminary evaluations may serveas confirmation that L javanica has some bioactivities againstticks a comprehensive method of tick control is requiredfor the resource-constrained smallholder farmers based onethnopharmacological properties of L javanica

McGaw et al [146] screened L javanica for the anthel-mintic test systems using the free living nematodeCaenorhabditis elegans The crude ethanol and hexaneextracts showed some activity at a concentration of 2mgmLwith the 7-day incubation assay appearing to be moresensitive than the shorter assay Earlier research by Mwangiet al [1] indicated that L javanica was active against Aedesaegypti larvae and Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (maizeweevil) Katsvanga and Chigwiza [147] reported that Ljavanica is an effective natural pesticide which can be used tocontrol aphid species (Brevicoryne brassicae) In their studyKatsvanga and Chigwiza [147] found that 1 1 powderedaqueous leaf extract of L javanica reduced B brassicae by532 against 783 and 967 of two synthetic pesticidesAphid kill and Bexadust ldquoLrdquo respectively Chikukura etal [149] found L javanica powdered leaf extracts to haveinsecticidal properties with potential to control graindamage by 21ndash33 Mashela et al [148] reported that theapplication of ground L javanica leaves to soil in nematode-infested (Meloidogyne incognita) pots reduced the nematodenumbers by 79ndash92 and significantly increased fresh fruityield dry shoot mass plant height and stem diameter ofthe tomato plants as well as levels of potassium nitrogenand manganese in leaf tissue Muzemu et al [150] evaluatedwater extracts of L javanica leaf powder for pesticidal effectsagainst rape (Brassica napus L) aphids B brassicae andtomato (Solanum lycopersicum Lam) red spider mites andTetranychus evansi as alternatives to conventional pesticidesLippia javanica reduced B brassicae and Tetranychus evansiby 125 and 63 respectively [150]The study demonstratedthat L javanica has pesticidal effects on B brassicae and T

evansi The reduced number of B brassicae and T evansicould be due to L javanicarsquos extracts having repellent toxicand antifeedant effects since the species has essential oilswith pesticidal properties [2] Therefore these findingsindicate that L javanica has both nematicidal and plantgrowth-promoting properties

410 Toxicity and Cytotoxicity Activity Lippia javanica isknown to cause liver damage and photosensitisation in live-stock resulting in stock losses [167] Triterpenoids isolatedfrom the genus Lippia are icterogenic and cause jaundice asa result of liver damage [167] The characteristic swellingyellowing and later peeling of unpigmented skin are due tothe presence of phylloerythrin a photodynamic porphyrinthat reacts with sunlight and causes severe cell damage [167]The compound is normally formed when chlorophyll isbroken down by microorganisms in the rumen but it nowaccumulates in the liver as a result of the damage caused bytriterpenoids [167] In view of the known toxicity of Lippiaspecies the prolonged use of high doses of L javanica ispotentially harmful [167] Lippia javanica showed low toxicityafter 48 h exposure with the percentage of mortality below50 [74]

Ayuko et al [79] evaluated the toxicity of L javanicausing a brine shrimp cytotoxicity assay with LC

50value of

1138 plusmn 133 120583gmL Ayuko et al [79] found the cytotoxicity toantiplasmodial activity ratios for the methanolic extracts ofthe two tested strains to be 8430 and 6503 and since theseare greater than 100 it may be concluded that the extractsare of low toxicity Samie et al [73] demonstrated that apure compound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanicaessential oil has low cytotoxicity activity against intestinaladenocarcinoma cells (ie the HCT-8 monolayers with IC

50

of 2656 plusmn 53 120583gmL) Lukwa [64] evaluated the toxicity of Ljavanica aqueous leaf extracts using sexually mature BALBcmice with the placebo as control Within 48 hours all micefed with the L javanica leaf aqueous extract at 125ndash375 vvwere lethargic and the overall mortality was 375 Previousresearch byManenzhe et al [2] showed that hydrodistillationof L javanica leaves flowers and stems produced oil thatwas poisonous against P falciparumwhen diluted to 1 (vv)These findings imply that despite its apparent safety waterextracts of L javanica leaves may have deleterious healthimplications on humans and animals if consumed at veryhigh doses

Many compounds that have been isolated from L javan-ica including phenolic glycosides flavonoids and essentialoils are not known to have acute toxic properties withthe exception of icterogenin 173 Icterogenin 173 has beenshown to inhibit biliary excretion in rabbits [168] Reports inliterature indicate that the consumption of xanthine 22 hasresulted in mammalian toxicity According to Madzimure etal [64] xanthine 22 is a demethylated derivative of caffeinewith pharmacological actions such as central nervous system(CNS) stimulation relaxation of smooth muscle (especiallybronchial muscle) myocardial stimulation peripheral vaso-constriction and diuresis Considering the widespread useof L javanica as herbal tea and medicine it is important

18 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

to determine if any toxicological effects can occur from itschronic or subchronic usage

411 Other Activities Mpofu et al [169] determined the effectof inclusion of L javanica leaf meal in broiler diets ongrowth performance carcass characteristics and fatty acidprofiles The authors found that the L javanica fed broilershad higher total polyunsaturated fatty acids and n-3 fattyacidsThe findings from the study showed that inclusion of Ljavanica in broiler diets at 5 gkg feed has positive influenceson growth performance carcass characteristics and fattyacid profiles of broiler meat and therefore L javanica haspotential as growth-promoting feed additive in broilersSamie et al [73] evaluated antiamoebic activity of a purecompound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica essen-tial oil against Entamoeba histolytica using microdilutionmethod with metronidazole as the positive control diluents(ie culture medium with an appropriate concentration ofdimethyl sulphoxide as the negative control) and a blank(ie culture medium without dimethyl sulphoxide) Samieet al [73] demonstrated that piperitenone 162 had markedantiamoebic activity with IC

50value of 25 120583gmL More

research is required as L javanica could be harbouring potentantiamoebic properties which could be useful for managingamoebiasis an infection that remains a significant cause ofmorbidity and mortality worldwide

5 Conclusion

Lippia javanica has been used in African and Asian countriesas herbal tea and medicine for many centuries Utilization ofL javanica because of its flavour and medicinal propertiesforms the basis of the current demand for the plant speciesin central eastern and southern Africa Research on Ljavanica over the past decade on health promoting propertieshas greatly contributed to the increased consumption ofthe species as herbal or recreational tea The focus of thisresearch has been on phytochemical compounds particularlyphenolic content and antioxidant and free radical scavengingactivities Phenolic compounds present in L javanica arelargely responsible for the antioxidant properties possessedby the species More research in this regard is required andfuture research should focus on more comprehensive chem-ical characterization of both crude and pure extracts andevaluate potential for commercialization and developmentof nutraceutical products based on traditional uses of Ljavanica Most of the pharmacological researches conductedon L javanica so far have focused on the phytochemistryand biological properties of leaves and little or no researchhas been done on roots and other plant parts Thereforefuture research on the species should focus on other plantparts for example flowers roots and stems as well asorgan-to-organ age and seasonal variation evaluations in thephytochemical content and pharmacological activities of thespecies

The recent increase in the demand for L javanica prod-ucts may partly be ascribed to growing body of scientific evi-dence indicating important health benefits Lippia javanica

is widely sold as herbal tea in Botswana South Africa andZimbabwe Leaves and stems of L javanica are also sold asherbal medicines in the medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquo marketsin South Africa [35 170] For local people who rely onherbal medicines as part of their primary healthcare aswell as cultural beliefs they prefer L javanica harvestedfrom the wild and unprocessed plant parts sold in informalmedicinal ldquomuthirdquo markets [170] In the past there were norecords of overexploitation of L javanica wild populationsin southern Africa resulting in Raimondo et al [171] listingthe species as Least Concern (LC) under the IUCN RedList Categories and Criteria version 31 of threatened species(httpwwwiucnredlistorg) Recently signs of overharvest-ing have been noted where local people or plant traders haveuprooted whole plants to supply medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquomarkets or use the plants as herbal medicines brooms orherbal tea Therefore large-scale commercial utilization of Ljavanica is not sustainable if the species is harvested fromthe wild Currently L javanica is cultivated on a commercialscale in Kenya [28] and South Africa [117] for essential oilproduction for the mosquito-repellent candles and perfumeindustry Cultivation of L javanica is therefore a solutionto the sustainability problems associated with harvesting ofthe species from the wild and this option is also necessaryfor establishing commercial scale medicinal production andprocessing and trade enterprises The success of commercialcultivation of L javanica will depend on how the species ismarketed as herbal tea and medicine and source of essentialoil and health care products and as a source of functionalfoods

Significant research has been made in the past 50 yearsinto the chemistry and pharmacology of L javanica Thesestudies have shown L javanica to display various chemicaland different biological activities some of which justify itsethnopharmacological utilization in variety of cultures Inthe light of the evidence that L javanica is combined withother plant species in traditional medicine it will be valuableto investigate the possibility of synergistic effects of thedifferent extracts Deep phytochemical studies of L javanicaand its phytochemical properties especially the mechanismsof action of its bioactive constituents to illustrate the cor-relation between ethnomedicinal uses and pharmacologicalactivities should be the focus of further research on thespecies There is need for extensive in vivo experiments tovalidate the existing pharmacological activities Howeverbecause L javanica contains potentially toxic compoundsits toxicological properties need to be properly establishedvia proper quality control of product development to ensurethat potentially toxic components are kept below tolerancelevels

Appendix

A Chemical Compounds Isolated andCharacterized from Lippia javanica

See Table 5

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 19

Table 5

Chemical compound Reference(s)Phenolic compoundsCoumarin 1 [4]Verbascoside 2 [81]Isoverbascoside 3 [81]Theveside-Na 4 [82]Theveridoside 5 [82]4-ethylnonacosane 6 [83]Apigenin 7 [64 83]Cirsimaritin 8 [64 83]6-Methoxy luteolin41015840-methyl ether 9 [83]

6-Methoxy luteolin31015840410158407-trimethyl ether 10 [83]

Crassifolioside 11 [64]Luteolin 12 [64]Diosmetin 13 [64]Chrysoeriol 14 [64]Tricin 15 [64]Isothymusin 16 [64]Eupatorin 17 [64]5-Dimethyl noboletin 18 [64]Genkwanin 19 [64]Salvigenin 20 [64]Lippialactone 21 [84]AlkaloidXanthine 22 [64]Amino acids120572-Aminobutyric acid 23 [85 86]Valine 24 [86]Isoleucine 25 [86]Asparagine 26 [86]Phenylalanine 27 [86]120572-Aminoadipic acid 28 [86]Lysine 29 [86]Histidine 30 [86]Tyrosine 31 [86]Tryptophan 32 [86]Alanine 33 [85]Glycine 34 [85]Proline 35 [85]Serine 36 [85]Glutamine acid 37 [85]120573-Alanine 38 [85]Glutamine 39 [85]120573-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [85]4-hydroxyproline 41 [85]Essential oil(E)-2(3)-tagetenoneepoxide 42 [83]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]120572-Pinene 44 [3ndash5 87ndash91]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4](+)-2-Carene 46 [4]3-Carene 47 [4]Eucalyptol 48 [4]18 myrcene 49 [87]Ipsdienone 50 [87]Caryophyllene 51 [85]Geranial 52 [5 92 93]26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [92]Geraniol 54 [92]Octen-3-one 55 [5]6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]120588-Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]Artemisia ketone 58 [5]Linalool oxide 59 [5]Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5](Z)-120573-Ocimenone 61 [5](E)-120573-Ocimenone 62 [5]Carvyl acetate 63 [5]120572-Cubebene 64 [5]Sesquithujene 65 [5]Acora-35-diene 66 [5]120573-Bergamotene 67 [5]Trans-calamenene 68 [5]120573-Alaskene 69 [5]120574-Cadinene 70 [5]120575-Cadinene 71 [3 88 89 91]Cis-calamenene 72 [5]Nerolidol 73 [5](E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 88 89]Spathulenol 75 [5]Epi-120572-muurolol 76 [5]120572-Longipinene 77 [90]Chrysanthenone 78 [90]120572-Terpineol 79 [3 5 90 91]120572-Amorphene 80 [90]120572-Thujene 81 [91]120574-Terpinene 82 [91]120572-Cubebene 83 [91]Linalool acetate 84 [91]Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [91]Camphene 86 [3 5 88ndash91]120573-Pinene 87 [3 5 91]Sabinene 88 [3 5 87 90 91]Myrcene 89 [3 5 87ndash89 91ndash95]120572-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 88 89]2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]Limonene 92 [3 5 88ndash94]18-Cineole 93 [3 5 90 91 95]120573-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 88 89 91]

20 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3](Z)-120573-Ocimene 96 [3 5 88 89 91](E)-120573-Ocimene 97 [3 5 88 89 91]Isomyrcenol 98 [3]p-Cymene 99 [3 5 85 88ndash91]2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]Terpinolene 101 [3]Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 88 89 91 95]Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 88 89](Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]Nonanal 106 [3]Perillene 107 [3 91]Ipsenone 108 [3 87ndash89 95]Trans-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 88ndash90]1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 88 89]Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]Ttrans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]cis-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 88ndash90]120572-Copaene 114 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetone 115 [3 88 89]Trans-tagetone 116 [3 88 89]Camphor 117 [3 5 88ndash90 93 94]120573-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 91]Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 85 88ndash90 92 93]

Trans-120572-bergamotene 121 [3]120572-Cedrene 122 [3 5]Myrcenone 123 [3 5 83 91]120573-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 87ndash91 93 94]2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 88 89](Z)-120573-Farnesene 129 [3](E)-120573-Farnesene 130 [3 5](EE)-120572-Farnesene 131 [3 88 89]Ipsdienol 132 [3](Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]Isovaleric acid 134 [3]120572-Humulene 135 [3 5 88 89 91]120572-Acoradiene 136 [3]120573-Acoradiene 137 [3]120574-Muurolene 138 [3 5 88 89]120572-Muurolene 139 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]Borneol 142 [3 5 88ndash90]Verbenone 143 [3 91]Germacrene-D 144 [3 87ndash89 93]120573-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]120574-Bisabolene 146 [3]Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]Carvone 148 [3 5 91]Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 88 89 91]120573-Curcumene 150 [3]Ar-curcumene 151 [3]Cis-piperitol 152 [3]2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol156 [3 88 89]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]Calamenene 158 [3]Carvone oxide 159 [3]Isopiperitenone 160 [3]Cis-carveol 161 [3]Piperitenone 162 [2 3 73 83]Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 88 89]Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3ndash5 88ndash90]Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 88 89]Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]Spathulenol 167 [3]Eugenol 168 [3 5]Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120573-ol(=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120572-ol(=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [83]Icterogenin 173 [96]

B Chemical Structures ofPhenolic Compounds Alkaloids AminoAcids and Essential Oils Isolated fromLippia javanica

See Figure 4

Competing Interests

The author declares that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 21

O

OO

OO O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

C CH CHO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

COOH

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

Me

OMe

OMe

OMe

MeO

Me

HOOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OMe

OMe

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

（2 （2

（2

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

（3CO

（3CO

Coumarin 1 [4]

Verbascoside 2 [89]

Isoverbascoside 3 [89]

Theveside-Na 4 [90]

Theveridoside 5 [90]

4-Ethylnonacosane 6 [91]

Apigenin 7 [120 91]

Cirsimaritin 8 [120 91]

Crassifolioside 11 [120]

Luteolin 12 [120]

Diosmetin 13 [120]

Chrysoeriol 14 [120]

Tricin 15 [120]

Isothymusin 16 [120]

Eupatorin 17 [120]

6-Methoxyluteolin 3 47-trimethyl ether 10 [91]

6-Methoxyluteolin 4-methyl ether 9 [91]

Figure 4 Continued

22 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

N

NH

HN

HO

NH

O

NH

O

O

O

O

HN

N N

N

H

H

OAc

OAcOAc

OO

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

（3CO

（2

（2

（2

（2 （2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3N

（2N

（2N

（2N

（2N

minus

+

+

5-Desmethylnoboletin 18 [120]

Genkwanin 19 [120]

Salvigenin 20 [120]

Lippialactone 21 [92]

Xanthine 22 [120]

Valine 24 [94]

Isoleucine 25 [94]

Asparagine 26 [94]

Phenylalanine 27 [94]

Lysine 29 [94]

Histidine 30 [94]

Tyrosine 31 [94]

Tryptophan 32 [94]

Alanine 33 [93]

Glycine 34 [93]

Proline 35 [93]

Serine 36 [93]

Glutamine acid 37 [93]

Glutamine 39 [93]

4-Hydroxyproline 41 [93]

(E)-2(3)-Tagetenone epoxide 42 [91]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]

-Alanine 38 [93]

-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [93]

-Aminoadipic acid 28 [94]

-Aminobutyric acid 23 [93 94]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 23

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

H

H

HH

H

O

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

HO

OH

O

O

O

O

OH（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4]

3-Carene 47 [4]

Eucalyptol 48 [4]

18 myrcene 49 [123]

Ipsdienone 50 [123]

Caryophyllene 51 [93]

Geranial 52 [5 100 101]

26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [100]

Geraniol 54 [100]

Octen-3-one 55 [5]

6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]

Artemisia ketone 58 [5]

Linalool oxide 59 [5]

Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5]

Carvyl acetate 63 [5]

Sesquithujene 65 [5]

Acora-35-diene 66 [5]

-Pinene 44 [3-5 123 96 97 98 99] -Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]

(+)-2-Carene 46 [4]

-Bergamotene 67 [5]

-Cubebene 64 [5]

(Z)--Ocimenone 61 [5]

(E)--Ocimenone 62 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

24 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OH

H

H

H

H

O

OHO

HO

H

HH H

H

H

HH

H

HO

HO

O

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

Trans-calamenene 68 [5]

Cis-calamenene 72 [5]

Nerolidol 73 [5]

(E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 96 97]

Spathulenol 75 [5]

Chrysanthenone 78 [98]

Linalool acetate 84 [99]

Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [99]

Camphene 86 [3 5 96 97 98 99]

Sabinene 88 [3 5 123 98 99]

Myrcene 89 [3 5 123 100 101 96 97 99 102 103]

-Alaskene 69 [5]

-Terpineol 79 [3 5 98 99]

-Amorphene 80 [98]

-Cadinene 70 [45]-Thujene 81 [99]

-Cadinene 71 [3 96 97 99] -Terpinene 82 [99]

-Cubebene 83 [99]

-Pinene 87 [3 5 99]

-Longipinene 77 [98]

-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 96 97]

Epi--muurolol 76 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 25

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O

OH

OH

H

H

H

H

H

HOO

OH

O

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（3(（2)3（2

（3(（2)6（2

2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]

Limonene 92 [3 5 100 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3]

Isomyrcenol 98 [3]

p-Cymene 99 [3 5 93 96 97 98 99]

2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]

Terpinolene 101 [3]

Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 96 97 99 103]

Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 96 97]

(Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]

67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]

Nonanal 106 [3]

Perillene 107 [3 99]

Ipsenone 108 [3 123 96 97 103]

Trans-linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 96 97 98]

1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 96 97]

Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]

Trans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]

Cis-linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 96 97 98]

Cis-tagetone 115 [3 96 97]

Trans-tagetone 116 [3 96 97]

-Copaene 114 [3 5 96 97 98]

18-Cineole (=eucalyptol) 93 [3 5 98 99 103]

-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 96 97 99]

(Z)--Ocimene 96 [3 5 96 97 99]

(E)--Ocimene 97 [3 5 96 97 99]

Camphor 117 [3 5 101 96 97 98 102]

Figure 4 Continued

26 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

HH

H

H

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 93 100 101 96 97 98]

Myrcenone 123 [3 5 91 99]

2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol 125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]

Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 96 97]

Ipsdienol 132 [3]

(Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]

Isovaleric acid 134 [3]

Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]

Borneol 142 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 99]

Trans--bergamotene 121 [3]

-Cedrene 122 [3 5]

-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 123 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)--Farnesene 129 [3]

(E)--Farnesene 130 [3 5]

-Muurolene 139 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Muurolene 138 [3 5 96 97]

-Acoradiene 136 [3]

-Acoradiene 137 [3]

-Humulene 135 [3 5 96 97 99]

(EE)--Farnesene 131 [3 96 97]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O O

HO

O

H

H

H

HO

HO

OH

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3CO（3

Verbenone 143 [3 99]

Germacrene-D 144 [3 123 101 96 97]

Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]

Carvone 148 [3 5 99]

Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 96 97 99]

Ar-curcumene 151 [3]

Cis-piperitol 152 [3]

2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]

26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol 156 [3 96 97]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]

Calamenene 158 [3]

Carvone oxide 159 [3]

Isopiperitenone 160 [3]

Cis-carveol 161 [3]

Piperitenone 162 [2 3 91 81]

Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 96 97]

-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]

-Bisabolene 146 [3]

-Curcumene 150 [3]

Figure 4 Continued

28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

OO

O

O

H

H

H

H

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

H

H

HCH

HH

HO

（3

（2

（2C

（3C（3C

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C O（3

Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3-5 96 97 98]

Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 96 97]

Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]

Spathulenol 167 [3]

Eugenol 168 [3 5]

Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [91]

Icterogenin 173 [104]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Figure 4

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to the NationalResearch Foundation (NRF) and GovanMbeki Research andDevelopment Centre (GMRDC) University of Fort Hare forfinancial support to conduct this research

References

[1] JWMwangi I Addae-Mensah RMMunavu andW LwandeldquoEssential oils of Kenyan Lippia species Part IIIrdquo Flavour andFragrance Journal vol 6 no 3 pp 221ndash224 1991

[2] N J Manenzhe N Potgieter and T Van Ree ldquoCompositionand antimicrobial activities of volatile components of Lippiajavanicardquo Phytochemistry vol 65 no 16 pp 2333ndash2336 2004

[3] A M Viljoen S Subramoney S F V Vuuren K H C Baserand B Demirci ldquoThe composition geographical variation andantimicrobial activity of Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae) leafessential oilsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 96 no 1-2 pp271ndash277 2005

[4] N Lukwa P Moslashlgaard P Furu and C Boslashgh ldquoLippia javanica(Burm f) Spreng its general constituents and bioactivity onmosquitoesrdquoTropical Biomedicine vol 26 no 1 pp 85ndash91 2009

[5] L S Chagonda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssential oil compositionof Lippia javanica (Burmf) spreng chemotype from WesternZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants vol 18 no 2pp 482ndash485 2015

[6] W Kipkore B Wanjohi H Rono and G Kigen ldquoA study of themedicinal plants used by the Marakwet Community in KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 242014

[7] E A Shikanga S Combrinck and T Regnier ldquoSouth AfricanLippia herbal infusions total phenolic content antioxidant andantibacterial activitiesrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76no 3 pp 567ndash571 2010

[8] N T Parrant ldquoThe potential of non-timber forest products ofBotswanardquo Botswana Notes Records vol 28 no 1 pp 203ndash2181996

[9] D M Motlhanka and S W Makhabu ldquoMedicinal and ediblewild fruit plants of Botswana as emerging new crop opportu-nitiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plants Research vol 5 no 10 pp1836ndash1842 2011

[10] M Bhebhe T N Fuller B Chipurura and M MuchuwetildquoEffect of solvent type on total phenolic content and free radicalscavenging activity of black tea and herbal infusionsrdquo FoodAnalytical Methods vol 9 no 4 pp 1060ndash1067 2016

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29

[11] M Bhebhe B Chipurura and M Muchuweti ldquoDeterminationand comparison of phenolic compound content and antioxidantactivity of selected local Zimbabwean herbal teas with exoticAspalathus linearisrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 100no 1 pp 213ndash218 2015

[12] B Patiri and A Borah Wild Edible Plants of Assam GeetakhiPrinters Guwahati India 2007

[13] H Narzary and A Basumatary ldquoProximate and vitamin Canalysis of wild edible plants consumed by Bodos of AssamIndiardquo Journal of Molecular Pathophysiology vol 4 no 4 pp128ndash133 2015

[14] M Gelfand S Mavi R B Drummond and B Ndemera TheTraditional Medical Practitioners in Zimbabwe His Principles ofPractice and Pharmacopoeia Mambo Press Gweru Zimbabwe1985

[15] D Davids Materia medica and care a study of the uses ofmedicinal herbs and remedies as a form of treatment andnegotiating social relationships in cape town and surroundings[MS dissertation] University of theWestern Cape Cape TownSouth Africa 2012

[16] A Maroyi and G K E Mosina ldquoMedicinal plants and tradi-tional practices in peri-urban domestic gardens of the Limpopoprovince South africardquo Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledgevol 13 no 4 pp 665ndash672 2014

[17] A Samie C L Obi P O Bessong and L Namrita ldquoActivityprofiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Vendacommunities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterialspeciesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 4 no 12 pp1443ndash1451 2005

[18] T York An ethnopharmacological study of plants used fortreating respiratory infections in rural Maputaland [MS disser-tation] University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa South Africa2012

[19] D Davids T Blouws O Aboyade et al ldquoTraditional healthpractitionersrsquo perceptions herbal treatment andmanagement ofHIV and related opportunistic infectionsrdquo Journal of Ethnobiol-ogy and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 77 2014

[20] A Hutchings A H Scott G Lewis and A CunninghamZulu Medicinal Plants An Inventory University of Natal PressPietermarizburg South Africa 1996

[21] RM Coopoosamy andK K Naidoo ldquoAn ethnobotanical studyofmedicinal plants used by traditional healers inDurban SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 6no 11 pp 818ndash823 2012

[22] I Hedberg and F Staugard Traditional Medicinal Plants inBotswana Ipeleng Gaborone Botswana 1989

[23] H Shahriar A S M H K Chowdhury S Rahman et al ldquoSci-entific validation of medicinal plants used by a folk medicinalpractitioner of Chuadanga District BangladeshrdquoWorld Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 11 pp 13ndash24 2014

[24] S S Semenya M J Potgieter and M P Tshisikhawe ldquoUseconservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinalplants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 12 no 18 pp2392ndash2405 2013

[25] M Roberts Indigenous Healing Plants Southern Book Publish-ers Halfway House Johannesburg South Africa 1990

[26] T Birhanu D Abera and E Ejeta ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas westernEthiopiardquo Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare vol 5no 1 pp 83ndash93 2015

[27] N T Mahlangeni R Moodley and S B Jonnalagadda ldquoEle-mental composition of Cyrtanthus obliquus and Lippia javanicaused in South African herbal tonic Imbizardquo Arabian Journal ofChemistry 2013

[28] W Musila D Kisangau and J Muema ldquoConservation statusand use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitionersin Machakos District Kenyardquo in Indigenous Knowledge Con-ference Proceedings Pennsylvania State University May 27ndash292004 2004

[29] G N Njoroge and R W Bussmann ldquoTraditional managementof ear nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 542006

[30] P Chigora R Masocha and F Mutenheri ldquoThe role of indige-nous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailmentsin rural Zimbabwe the case of Mutirikwi communal landsrdquoJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol 9 no 2 pp26ndash43 2007

[31] R W Bussmann G G Gilbreath J Solio et al ldquoPlant use ofthe Maasai of Sekenani Valley Maasai Mara Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 22 2006

[32] D Motlhanka and G P Nthoiwa ldquoEthnobotanical Survey ofmedicinal plants of Tswapong North in Eastern Botswana acase of plants from Mosweu and Seolwane Villagesrdquo EuropeanJournal of Medicinal Plants vol 3 no 1 pp 10ndash24 2013

[33] A Vhurumuku ldquoKnowledge use and attitudes towardsmedici-nal plants of pre-service teachers at a South African UniversityrdquoGlobal Advanced Research Journal in Environmental Science andToxicology vol 4 no 2 pp 15ndash24 2015

[34] M N Nkwanyana An ethnobotanical and antidiarrhoeal inves-tigation of plants used traditionally in the maputaland areahomesteads [MS dissertation] University of Zululand KwaD-langezwa South Africa 2013

[35] T E Moeng An investigation into the trade of medicinal plantsbymuthi shops and street vendors in the Limpopo Province SouthAfrica [MS thesis] University of Limpopo Gauteng SouthAfrica 2010

[36] S Bandeira A M Manjate and O Filipe ldquoAn EcologicalAssessment of the Health of the Chibuto-Missavene Wetlandin the Dry Season Mozambique Emphasis on ResourcesAssessment Utilization and Sustainability Analysisrdquo reportto Challenge Program for Water and Food InternationalWater Management Institute Pretoria South Africa 2006httpscgspacecgiarorgbitstreamhandle105682160421604pdfsequence=1

[37] M C Palgrave R B Drummond and E J Moll Trees ofSouthern Africa Struik Cape Town South Africa 2003

[38] M O Nanyingi J M Mbaria A L Lanyasunya et alldquoEthnopharmacological survey of Samburu district KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4 article 142008

[39] J G J P Sankar and K B Satapathy ldquoWeed diversity of Rabicrops and their ethnomedicinal uses in Kendrapara districtof Odisha Indiardquo International Research Journal of BiologicalSciences vol 4 no 3 pp 33ndash38 2015

[40] D E N Mabogo The ethnobotany of the vhavenda [MSdissertation] University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa1990

[41] B-E van Wyk B van Oudtshoorn and N Gericke MedicinalPlants of South Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2013

[42] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used forthe treatment of tuberculosis by Bapedi traditional healers

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

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OncologyJournal of

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Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

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The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

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Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

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Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 13: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 13

Table4Con

tinued

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

faecaliswith

MIC

valueo

f014

mgmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstE

coliwith

MIC

valueo

f031

mgmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPaeruginosa

with

MIC

valueo

f042m

gmL

[7]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstSaureus

with

MIC

valueo

f013

mgmL

[7]

Antifu

ngal

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

albicans

with

MIC

valueo

fgt75m

gmLC

krusei

(188m

gmL)and

Cneoforman

s(gt75

mgmL)

[7]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

albicans

with

MIC

valueo

fgt375

mgmLC

krusei

(375m

gmL)and

Cneoforman

s(gt75

mgmL)

[7]

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstC

kruseiwith

MFC

valueo

f75mgmL

[7]

Dichlorom

ethane

Aeria

lparts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFu

sariu

mproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f014

mgmLand

Fusariu

mverticillioides(019mgmL)

[76]

Hexane

Aeria

lparts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f023m

gmLandF

verticillioides(045

mgmL)

[76]

Methano

lAe

rialp

arts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

f177m

gmLandF

verticillioides(043

mgmL)

[76]

Methano

lAe

rialp

arts

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstFproliferatum

with

MIC

valueo

fgt250

mgmLandF

verticillioides(gt250

mgmL)

[76]

Antim

ycob

acteria

l

Aceton

eLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f047m

gmLandtotalactivity

of10mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Dichlorom

ethane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f125m

gmLandtotalactivity

of23

mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Hexane

Leaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f062m

gmLandtotalactivity

of13mLg

againstM

smegmatis

[77]

Methano

lLeaves

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

ewith

MIC

valueo

f125m

gmLandtotalactivity

of7m

Lgagainst

Msmegmatis

[77]

14 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table4Con

tinued

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Antioxidant

Water

Leaves

DPP

Hassay

Exhibitedactiv

itywith

EC50valueo

f358120583gmL

[7]

Water

Leaves

mdashEx

hibitedactiv

itywith

209ascorbicacid

equivalent

(mggdryweight)

[7]

Water

Leaves

ABT

Sassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f15mmol10

0g[78]

Water

Leaves

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f146254

mmol10

0g[78]

Water

Leaves

FRAPassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f238m

mol10

0g[78]

Antiplasm

odial

Hexanechloroform

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f1225plusmn072120583gmL

[79]

Ethylacetate

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f1212plusmn079120583gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f135plusmn006120583gmL

[79]

Hexanechloroform

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f1859plusmn026120583gmL

[79]

Ethylacetate

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f1580plusmn026120583gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f175plusmn017120583gmL

[79]

Dichlorom

ethane

Roots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f38120583gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethanem

ethano

lRo

ots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f27120583

gmL

[80]

Methano

lRo

ots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f24120583

gmL

[80]

Water

Roots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

fgt100120583

gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethane

Stem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f45120583gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethanem

ethano

lStem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f218120583gmL

[80]

Methano

lStem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f298120583gmL

[80]

Water

Stem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

fgt100120583

gmL

[80]

Free

radicalscaveng

ing

activ

ity

Water

mdashDPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0059plusmn002

gmL

[11]

50methano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f004plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Ethano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0025plusmn0001gmL

[11]

50ethano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0027plusmn0005gmL

[11]

Aceton

emdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0057plusmn0004gmL

[11]

50aceton

emdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0022plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Ethylacetate

mdashDPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0066plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Toxicity

Methano

lLeaf

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

40mortalityrecorded

after

48hexpo

sure

towards

Artemianauplii

[74]

Methano

lRo

ots

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f8430120583

gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f6503120583

gmL

[79]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 15

strengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantidiabetic agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species mixed with C obliquus to form aherbal concoction known in KwaZulu Natal province SouthAfrica as ldquoimbizardquo used against diabetes [27]

43 Antimalarial Activity Govere et al [142] found thattopical application of L javanica alcohol extract leads to767 protection against Anopheles arabiensis for 4 hoursLippia javanica has been used as a mosquito repellent by therural communities in Zimbabwe for a long time and previousstudies have shown that essential oils from the species havevery strong and lasting repellent activity against female Aarabiensis [64] Research by Lukwa et al [4] revealed thattopical application of 5mgcm2 of L javanica leads to 100protection againstAnopheles aegypti for 8 hoursMavundza etal [154] screened dichloromethane and ethanol leaf extractsof L javanica for adulticidal activity againstA arabiensisTheauthors observed dichloromethane and ethanol activities of45 and 55mosquitomortality respectivelyThese findingsstrengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantimalarial agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species as mosquito repellent in India [47]South Africa [34 49 58] and Zimbabwe [4 48]

44 Antioxidant Activity Leaf infusions of L javanica exhib-ited antioxidant activity with EC

50value of 358120583gmL and

contained 148mgmL of dry weight gallic acid equivalentphenolic compounds [7] The EC

50value of 358 120583gmL

obtained for L javanica by Shikanga et al [7] compareswell to those of many commercial teas including antioxidantcapacity of Rooibos Fresh Pack herbal teas (A linearis)with the best antioxidant activity of 333 120583gmL The highantioxidant activities displayed by L javanica infusions canbe partially attributed to the high levels of verbascoside 2(15mgg dry weight) reported by Olivier et al [81] in theleaf extract of the species Earlier research by Muchuwetiet al [125] reported 744 inhibition of the DPPH radicalby an ethanolic leaf extract of L javanica Lekganyane etal [75] reported antioxidant activity in L javanica and theacetone extracts of the species displayed antioxidant activityon BEA chromatogram [77] Bhebhe et al [10] reported theantioxidant activities of L javanica based on the DPPHreducing power and inhibition of phospholipid peroxidationassays Free radical scavenging activity of L javanica isattributed to phenolic compounds since these compoundshave an ideal structural chemistry for free radical scavengingactivity [155] Bhebhe et al [11] determined the effect ofseveral solvents on the free radical scavenging activity ofL javanica using the DPPH assay Free radical scavengingactivity expressed as IC

50ranged from 0022 plusmn 0001 gmL to

0066 plusmn 0001 gmL see Table 4

45 Antiplasmodial Activity Prozesky et al [144] evaluatedL javanica leaf acetone extract for in vitro antiplasmodialactivity using PfUP1 a chloroquine resistant strain of themalaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum by means of theflow cytometric test The IC

50value for L javanica was

426 120583gmL Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil

piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica for antiplasmodialactivity using chloroquine diphosphate as positive controland found it active against a chloroquine sensitive strainof P falciparum in micromolar concentrations with IC

50of

8 120583gmL Clarkson et al [80] evaluated L javanica rootsand stems extracts for in vitro activity against P falciparumusing the parasite lactase dehydrogenase (pLDH) assay andchloroquine diphosphate (Sigma) as the positive controlThedichloromethane methane and water extracts showed IC

50

values ranging from 38 to gt100 120583gmL see Table 4 Omolo etal [145] screened the essential oil of L javanica for fumiganttoxicity to Anopheles gambiae which exhibited LD

50of 43 times

10minus3mg cmminus3 Ayuko et al [79] showed that L javanica rootextracts have antiplasmodial activity against P falciparumwith IC

50ranging from 135 to 1859 120583gmL see Table 4

Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity againstthe chloroquine sensitive D10 strain of P falciparum withan IC

50value of 91 120583gmL and is also mildly cytotoxic [84]

Compared to chloroquine the compound is approximately2000 times less active against the D10 strain of P falciparum[84]

46 Antimicrobial Activities Lippia javanica is widely usedin the treatment of a wide range of infectious diseasescaused by microorganisms Viljoen et al [3] determined theantimicrobial properties of L javanica by evaluating the timekill studies of the speciesrsquo essential oil using the disc diffusionassay on three respiratory pathogens Klebsiella pneumoniaeCryptococcus neoformans and Bacillus cereus This studyshowed that the killing rate was greatest for K pneumoniaefollowed by C neoformans and very little reduction of micro-bial populations was observed for B cereus The efficacy of Ljavanica oil for K pneumoniae showed a killing rate within30 minutes for the concentrations 025 05 075 and 1C neoformans showed a killing rate for concentrations 05075 and 1 within 1 hour and the lowest concentration of025 took 8 hours before a bactericidal effect was notedwhile B cereus showed some reduction in colonies [3] Thepositive antimicrobial activity of L javanica as revealed bythe time kill study could be attributed to linalool 120 whichaverages between 65 and 70 in yield [3 5 88 90] and hasknown antimicrobial properties [93 156ndash159]These findingssomehow corroborate the traditional use of L javanica asherbal medicine for a wide range of bacterial and fungalrespiratory ailments indicated in Table 1

Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil piperitenone162 isolated from L javanica for antibacterial activityon cultures of Bacillus subtilis Staphylococcus aureus andEscherichia coli using imipenem cefazolin and ampicillinas positive controls The authors found piperitenone 162to inhibit S aureus and E coli at 1 dilution Acetonehexane and methanol leaf extracts and essential oil isolatedfrom L javanica showed some activity against fifteen Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria with MIC values rang-ing from 15 to gt12mgmL [60] see Table 4 In a similarstudy Samie et al [73] demonstrated that a pure compoundpiperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica has antibacte-rial activities against Acinetobacter calcoaceticus Micrococcus

16 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

kristinae Salmonella typhi and S aureus using dimethylsulphoxide and kanamycin as controls with MIC valuesranging from 12 to 50 120583gmL see Table 4 Shikanga et al [7]evaluated the antibacterial activity of L javanica methanolicleaf extract against S aureus Enterococcus faecalis E coliand Pseudomonas aeruginosa using the serial microdilutionmethod with gentamycin (Virbac) and acetone as positiveand negative controls respectively Lippia javanica displayedantibacterial activities with MIC values ranging from 013to 042mgmL against all four pathogens see Table 4 Theobtained minimum inhibitory concentrations are promisingsince natural products with MIC values below 1mgmLare generally considered to be noteworthy findings [160]Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity against theE coli and S aureus at a concentration of 10mgmL [84]Lekganyane et al [75] reported antibacterial activity of Ljavanica acetone leaf extracts against E coli E faecalis Paeruginosa and S aureus with MIC values ranging from 032to 064mgmL and total activity of the same species rangingfrom 127 to 253mgmL see Table 4 Methanol and water leafextracts of L javanica exhibited some antiproteus activityagainstProteusmirabilis andProteus vulgariswithMICvalueslt2000120583gmL with standard discs of ampicillin (2120583g) andchloramphenicol (10 120583g) as positive controls [74] Some of theantibacterial properties of L javanica can be attributed to thephytochemical constituents of the species for example thephenolic compound apigenin 7 is a well-known antibacterialagent [7 134] Apigenin 7 was shown to be highly activeagainst Vibrio cholera and E faecalis [161] while Basile et al[162] reported the inhibition of S typhi P mirabilis and Paeruginosa by the compound Therefore results from theseantibacterial evaluations of L javanica give credence to theuse of the speciesrsquo infusions against bacterial infections andother related diseases

Shikanga et al [126] investigated the antifungal activ-ities of leaf extracts and essential oil compounds isolatedfrom L javanica leafy extracts against a Guazatine-resistantstrain of Penicillium digitatumThemethanolic leafy extractsisoverbascoside 3 and verbascoside 2 compounds isolatedfrom L javanica inhibited fungal growth at concentrationsabove 06mgsdotmLminus1 causing significant inhibition of mycelialgrowth Verbascoside 2 is well-known for its antimicrobialproperties and has been found to inhibit viruses bacteriaand fungi [163] Similarly Samie et al [143] investigatedantifungal effects of acetone and hexane leaf extracts of Ljavanica against Candida albicans Candida krusei and Cneoformans isolated from AIDS patients using the microdi-lution method with nystatin Roche and DMSO as positiveand negative controls respectively Noteworthy moderateantifungal activities were recorded from C krusei with MICvalue of 188mgmL and other recordedMFCandMICvaluesfor other species ranged from 188mgmL to gt75mgmLsee Table 4 Thembo et al [76] investigated the antifungalactivity of aqueous and organic extracts of L javanica usinga serial microdilution assay Generally extracts of L javanicaexhibited weak activity see Table 4

47 Antimycobacterial Activity Mujovo et al [83] evaluatedL javanica compounds against a drug-sensitive strain ofMycobacterium tuberculosis using the radiometric respira-tory techniques Of all the isolated compounds only onetriterpenoid carboxylic acid euscaphic acid 172 exhibitedantimycobacterial activity with MIC value of 50120583gmLminus1against this strain In a similar study the leaf extract ofL javanica exhibited antimycobacterial activity against Msmegmatis in an evaluation which used microdilution assayand rifampicin as control [77] Acetone extract was thebest extractant with MIC value of 047mgmL it extractedantibacterial agents which was indicated by the lowest MICvalue [77] Masoko and Nxumalo [77] also evaluated thetotal activity ofL javanicawhich averaged 13mLg suggestingthat the extract prepared from one gram of L javanicacould be diluted to a volume of 13mL and will still inhibitM smegmatis efficiently According to Semenya and Maroyi[115] tuberculosis caused by M tuberculosis is a seriousdisease requiring effective strategies and tools to controland manage it Therefore preliminary evaluations done byMujovo et al [83] and Masoko and Nxumalo [77] serve asa scientific validation for the use of L javanica in traditionalmedicine for treatment of tuberculosis and other respiratoryailments in South Africa [24 27 115] and Uganda [43] as wellas their efficiency in tuberculosis drug discovery

48 Antiviral Activity Mujovo et al [83] found that (E)-2(3)-tagetenone epoxide 42 and piperitenone 162 inhibitedthe HIV-1 reverse transcriptase enzyme by 91 and 53respectively at 100 120583gmLminus1 based on a nonradioactive HIVRT colorimetric ELISA kit Little is known about the HIV RTactivity of L javanica extracts or compounds but flavonoidsare known to be active against viral RT and also as potentinhibitors of the cellular alpha and beta DNA polymerase[83] while luteolin 12 is active against HIV RT [164 165]Lippia javanica is traditionally used to treat HIVAIDSsymptoms in South Africa [65 66] and several viral andHIVAIDS opportunistic diseases and infections such asbronchitis [15 19ndash22] chicken pox [50] diarrhoea [17 3437 44 113] measles [14 20 38] pneumonia [14] shingles[15] and venereal diseases [44] Despite significant advancesin the utilization of L javanica in southern Africa overthe years for numerous viral diseases (Table 1) very littleantiviral evaluations have been done on crude extracts andpurified compounds of the species There is need thereforefor more pharmacological research as L javanica could beharbouring potent (RT) inhibitors which could be useful forthe development of new pharmaceutical products importantfor use against viral diseases and infections

49 Pesticidal Effects Magano et al [95] evaluated the repel-lent effects of hexane extracts of L javanica essential oilusing the in vitro tick climbing repellency bioassay on adultsof Hyalomma marginatum rufipes Koch ticks The authorsfound that 107mgmL caused repellency index of 100 at onehour and 30 minutes In a similar study by Madzimure et al[120] L javanica aqueous leaf extracts at 10 and 20 wvwere effective at controlling cattle ticks (Amblyomma species

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 17

Boophilus species Hyalomma species Rhipicephalus appen-diculatus and Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi) and were as goodas the positive control amitraz-based acaricide TrickbusterThese authors found no parasites on microscopic exami-nation of the Giemsa-stained thin blood smear collectedfrom treated cattle implying that the animals did not sufferfrom clinical tick-borne diseases Similarly Nyahangare etal [59] tested the pesticidal activity of L javanica waterextracts against cattle ticks The authors found no significantdifference between cattle treated with a commercial syntheticacaricide and those under L javanica treatment Martinez-Velazquez et al [166] evaluated pesticidal effects of twoessential oils namely 120574-terpinene 82 and 120588-cymene 99isolated from Lippia graveolens Kunth against 10-day-oldRhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini) tick larvaeusing the larval packet test bioassay The two essential oilsproduced highmortality ranging from90 to 100 in all testedconcentrations of 20 to 125 (vv)Therefore L javanica canprovide an effective tick control option where synthetic prod-ucts are unavailable or unaffordable particularly in remoterural areas in sub-Saharan Africa Lippia javanica is popularfor tick control and management among resource-poorsmallholder farmers in South Africa [58 95] and Zimbabwe[59 60 120] While these preliminary evaluations may serveas confirmation that L javanica has some bioactivities againstticks a comprehensive method of tick control is requiredfor the resource-constrained smallholder farmers based onethnopharmacological properties of L javanica

McGaw et al [146] screened L javanica for the anthel-mintic test systems using the free living nematodeCaenorhabditis elegans The crude ethanol and hexaneextracts showed some activity at a concentration of 2mgmLwith the 7-day incubation assay appearing to be moresensitive than the shorter assay Earlier research by Mwangiet al [1] indicated that L javanica was active against Aedesaegypti larvae and Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (maizeweevil) Katsvanga and Chigwiza [147] reported that Ljavanica is an effective natural pesticide which can be used tocontrol aphid species (Brevicoryne brassicae) In their studyKatsvanga and Chigwiza [147] found that 1 1 powderedaqueous leaf extract of L javanica reduced B brassicae by532 against 783 and 967 of two synthetic pesticidesAphid kill and Bexadust ldquoLrdquo respectively Chikukura etal [149] found L javanica powdered leaf extracts to haveinsecticidal properties with potential to control graindamage by 21ndash33 Mashela et al [148] reported that theapplication of ground L javanica leaves to soil in nematode-infested (Meloidogyne incognita) pots reduced the nematodenumbers by 79ndash92 and significantly increased fresh fruityield dry shoot mass plant height and stem diameter ofthe tomato plants as well as levels of potassium nitrogenand manganese in leaf tissue Muzemu et al [150] evaluatedwater extracts of L javanica leaf powder for pesticidal effectsagainst rape (Brassica napus L) aphids B brassicae andtomato (Solanum lycopersicum Lam) red spider mites andTetranychus evansi as alternatives to conventional pesticidesLippia javanica reduced B brassicae and Tetranychus evansiby 125 and 63 respectively [150]The study demonstratedthat L javanica has pesticidal effects on B brassicae and T

evansi The reduced number of B brassicae and T evansicould be due to L javanicarsquos extracts having repellent toxicand antifeedant effects since the species has essential oilswith pesticidal properties [2] Therefore these findingsindicate that L javanica has both nematicidal and plantgrowth-promoting properties

410 Toxicity and Cytotoxicity Activity Lippia javanica isknown to cause liver damage and photosensitisation in live-stock resulting in stock losses [167] Triterpenoids isolatedfrom the genus Lippia are icterogenic and cause jaundice asa result of liver damage [167] The characteristic swellingyellowing and later peeling of unpigmented skin are due tothe presence of phylloerythrin a photodynamic porphyrinthat reacts with sunlight and causes severe cell damage [167]The compound is normally formed when chlorophyll isbroken down by microorganisms in the rumen but it nowaccumulates in the liver as a result of the damage caused bytriterpenoids [167] In view of the known toxicity of Lippiaspecies the prolonged use of high doses of L javanica ispotentially harmful [167] Lippia javanica showed low toxicityafter 48 h exposure with the percentage of mortality below50 [74]

Ayuko et al [79] evaluated the toxicity of L javanicausing a brine shrimp cytotoxicity assay with LC

50value of

1138 plusmn 133 120583gmL Ayuko et al [79] found the cytotoxicity toantiplasmodial activity ratios for the methanolic extracts ofthe two tested strains to be 8430 and 6503 and since theseare greater than 100 it may be concluded that the extractsare of low toxicity Samie et al [73] demonstrated that apure compound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanicaessential oil has low cytotoxicity activity against intestinaladenocarcinoma cells (ie the HCT-8 monolayers with IC

50

of 2656 plusmn 53 120583gmL) Lukwa [64] evaluated the toxicity of Ljavanica aqueous leaf extracts using sexually mature BALBcmice with the placebo as control Within 48 hours all micefed with the L javanica leaf aqueous extract at 125ndash375 vvwere lethargic and the overall mortality was 375 Previousresearch byManenzhe et al [2] showed that hydrodistillationof L javanica leaves flowers and stems produced oil thatwas poisonous against P falciparumwhen diluted to 1 (vv)These findings imply that despite its apparent safety waterextracts of L javanica leaves may have deleterious healthimplications on humans and animals if consumed at veryhigh doses

Many compounds that have been isolated from L javan-ica including phenolic glycosides flavonoids and essentialoils are not known to have acute toxic properties withthe exception of icterogenin 173 Icterogenin 173 has beenshown to inhibit biliary excretion in rabbits [168] Reports inliterature indicate that the consumption of xanthine 22 hasresulted in mammalian toxicity According to Madzimure etal [64] xanthine 22 is a demethylated derivative of caffeinewith pharmacological actions such as central nervous system(CNS) stimulation relaxation of smooth muscle (especiallybronchial muscle) myocardial stimulation peripheral vaso-constriction and diuresis Considering the widespread useof L javanica as herbal tea and medicine it is important

18 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

to determine if any toxicological effects can occur from itschronic or subchronic usage

411 Other Activities Mpofu et al [169] determined the effectof inclusion of L javanica leaf meal in broiler diets ongrowth performance carcass characteristics and fatty acidprofiles The authors found that the L javanica fed broilershad higher total polyunsaturated fatty acids and n-3 fattyacidsThe findings from the study showed that inclusion of Ljavanica in broiler diets at 5 gkg feed has positive influenceson growth performance carcass characteristics and fattyacid profiles of broiler meat and therefore L javanica haspotential as growth-promoting feed additive in broilersSamie et al [73] evaluated antiamoebic activity of a purecompound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica essen-tial oil against Entamoeba histolytica using microdilutionmethod with metronidazole as the positive control diluents(ie culture medium with an appropriate concentration ofdimethyl sulphoxide as the negative control) and a blank(ie culture medium without dimethyl sulphoxide) Samieet al [73] demonstrated that piperitenone 162 had markedantiamoebic activity with IC

50value of 25 120583gmL More

research is required as L javanica could be harbouring potentantiamoebic properties which could be useful for managingamoebiasis an infection that remains a significant cause ofmorbidity and mortality worldwide

5 Conclusion

Lippia javanica has been used in African and Asian countriesas herbal tea and medicine for many centuries Utilization ofL javanica because of its flavour and medicinal propertiesforms the basis of the current demand for the plant speciesin central eastern and southern Africa Research on Ljavanica over the past decade on health promoting propertieshas greatly contributed to the increased consumption ofthe species as herbal or recreational tea The focus of thisresearch has been on phytochemical compounds particularlyphenolic content and antioxidant and free radical scavengingactivities Phenolic compounds present in L javanica arelargely responsible for the antioxidant properties possessedby the species More research in this regard is required andfuture research should focus on more comprehensive chem-ical characterization of both crude and pure extracts andevaluate potential for commercialization and developmentof nutraceutical products based on traditional uses of Ljavanica Most of the pharmacological researches conductedon L javanica so far have focused on the phytochemistryand biological properties of leaves and little or no researchhas been done on roots and other plant parts Thereforefuture research on the species should focus on other plantparts for example flowers roots and stems as well asorgan-to-organ age and seasonal variation evaluations in thephytochemical content and pharmacological activities of thespecies

The recent increase in the demand for L javanica prod-ucts may partly be ascribed to growing body of scientific evi-dence indicating important health benefits Lippia javanica

is widely sold as herbal tea in Botswana South Africa andZimbabwe Leaves and stems of L javanica are also sold asherbal medicines in the medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquo marketsin South Africa [35 170] For local people who rely onherbal medicines as part of their primary healthcare aswell as cultural beliefs they prefer L javanica harvestedfrom the wild and unprocessed plant parts sold in informalmedicinal ldquomuthirdquo markets [170] In the past there were norecords of overexploitation of L javanica wild populationsin southern Africa resulting in Raimondo et al [171] listingthe species as Least Concern (LC) under the IUCN RedList Categories and Criteria version 31 of threatened species(httpwwwiucnredlistorg) Recently signs of overharvest-ing have been noted where local people or plant traders haveuprooted whole plants to supply medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquomarkets or use the plants as herbal medicines brooms orherbal tea Therefore large-scale commercial utilization of Ljavanica is not sustainable if the species is harvested fromthe wild Currently L javanica is cultivated on a commercialscale in Kenya [28] and South Africa [117] for essential oilproduction for the mosquito-repellent candles and perfumeindustry Cultivation of L javanica is therefore a solutionto the sustainability problems associated with harvesting ofthe species from the wild and this option is also necessaryfor establishing commercial scale medicinal production andprocessing and trade enterprises The success of commercialcultivation of L javanica will depend on how the species ismarketed as herbal tea and medicine and source of essentialoil and health care products and as a source of functionalfoods

Significant research has been made in the past 50 yearsinto the chemistry and pharmacology of L javanica Thesestudies have shown L javanica to display various chemicaland different biological activities some of which justify itsethnopharmacological utilization in variety of cultures Inthe light of the evidence that L javanica is combined withother plant species in traditional medicine it will be valuableto investigate the possibility of synergistic effects of thedifferent extracts Deep phytochemical studies of L javanicaand its phytochemical properties especially the mechanismsof action of its bioactive constituents to illustrate the cor-relation between ethnomedicinal uses and pharmacologicalactivities should be the focus of further research on thespecies There is need for extensive in vivo experiments tovalidate the existing pharmacological activities Howeverbecause L javanica contains potentially toxic compoundsits toxicological properties need to be properly establishedvia proper quality control of product development to ensurethat potentially toxic components are kept below tolerancelevels

Appendix

A Chemical Compounds Isolated andCharacterized from Lippia javanica

See Table 5

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 19

Table 5

Chemical compound Reference(s)Phenolic compoundsCoumarin 1 [4]Verbascoside 2 [81]Isoverbascoside 3 [81]Theveside-Na 4 [82]Theveridoside 5 [82]4-ethylnonacosane 6 [83]Apigenin 7 [64 83]Cirsimaritin 8 [64 83]6-Methoxy luteolin41015840-methyl ether 9 [83]

6-Methoxy luteolin31015840410158407-trimethyl ether 10 [83]

Crassifolioside 11 [64]Luteolin 12 [64]Diosmetin 13 [64]Chrysoeriol 14 [64]Tricin 15 [64]Isothymusin 16 [64]Eupatorin 17 [64]5-Dimethyl noboletin 18 [64]Genkwanin 19 [64]Salvigenin 20 [64]Lippialactone 21 [84]AlkaloidXanthine 22 [64]Amino acids120572-Aminobutyric acid 23 [85 86]Valine 24 [86]Isoleucine 25 [86]Asparagine 26 [86]Phenylalanine 27 [86]120572-Aminoadipic acid 28 [86]Lysine 29 [86]Histidine 30 [86]Tyrosine 31 [86]Tryptophan 32 [86]Alanine 33 [85]Glycine 34 [85]Proline 35 [85]Serine 36 [85]Glutamine acid 37 [85]120573-Alanine 38 [85]Glutamine 39 [85]120573-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [85]4-hydroxyproline 41 [85]Essential oil(E)-2(3)-tagetenoneepoxide 42 [83]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]120572-Pinene 44 [3ndash5 87ndash91]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4](+)-2-Carene 46 [4]3-Carene 47 [4]Eucalyptol 48 [4]18 myrcene 49 [87]Ipsdienone 50 [87]Caryophyllene 51 [85]Geranial 52 [5 92 93]26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [92]Geraniol 54 [92]Octen-3-one 55 [5]6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]120588-Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]Artemisia ketone 58 [5]Linalool oxide 59 [5]Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5](Z)-120573-Ocimenone 61 [5](E)-120573-Ocimenone 62 [5]Carvyl acetate 63 [5]120572-Cubebene 64 [5]Sesquithujene 65 [5]Acora-35-diene 66 [5]120573-Bergamotene 67 [5]Trans-calamenene 68 [5]120573-Alaskene 69 [5]120574-Cadinene 70 [5]120575-Cadinene 71 [3 88 89 91]Cis-calamenene 72 [5]Nerolidol 73 [5](E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 88 89]Spathulenol 75 [5]Epi-120572-muurolol 76 [5]120572-Longipinene 77 [90]Chrysanthenone 78 [90]120572-Terpineol 79 [3 5 90 91]120572-Amorphene 80 [90]120572-Thujene 81 [91]120574-Terpinene 82 [91]120572-Cubebene 83 [91]Linalool acetate 84 [91]Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [91]Camphene 86 [3 5 88ndash91]120573-Pinene 87 [3 5 91]Sabinene 88 [3 5 87 90 91]Myrcene 89 [3 5 87ndash89 91ndash95]120572-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 88 89]2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]Limonene 92 [3 5 88ndash94]18-Cineole 93 [3 5 90 91 95]120573-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 88 89 91]

20 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3](Z)-120573-Ocimene 96 [3 5 88 89 91](E)-120573-Ocimene 97 [3 5 88 89 91]Isomyrcenol 98 [3]p-Cymene 99 [3 5 85 88ndash91]2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]Terpinolene 101 [3]Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 88 89 91 95]Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 88 89](Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]Nonanal 106 [3]Perillene 107 [3 91]Ipsenone 108 [3 87ndash89 95]Trans-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 88ndash90]1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 88 89]Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]Ttrans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]cis-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 88ndash90]120572-Copaene 114 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetone 115 [3 88 89]Trans-tagetone 116 [3 88 89]Camphor 117 [3 5 88ndash90 93 94]120573-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 91]Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 85 88ndash90 92 93]

Trans-120572-bergamotene 121 [3]120572-Cedrene 122 [3 5]Myrcenone 123 [3 5 83 91]120573-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 87ndash91 93 94]2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 88 89](Z)-120573-Farnesene 129 [3](E)-120573-Farnesene 130 [3 5](EE)-120572-Farnesene 131 [3 88 89]Ipsdienol 132 [3](Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]Isovaleric acid 134 [3]120572-Humulene 135 [3 5 88 89 91]120572-Acoradiene 136 [3]120573-Acoradiene 137 [3]120574-Muurolene 138 [3 5 88 89]120572-Muurolene 139 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]Borneol 142 [3 5 88ndash90]Verbenone 143 [3 91]Germacrene-D 144 [3 87ndash89 93]120573-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]120574-Bisabolene 146 [3]Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]Carvone 148 [3 5 91]Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 88 89 91]120573-Curcumene 150 [3]Ar-curcumene 151 [3]Cis-piperitol 152 [3]2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol156 [3 88 89]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]Calamenene 158 [3]Carvone oxide 159 [3]Isopiperitenone 160 [3]Cis-carveol 161 [3]Piperitenone 162 [2 3 73 83]Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 88 89]Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3ndash5 88ndash90]Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 88 89]Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]Spathulenol 167 [3]Eugenol 168 [3 5]Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120573-ol(=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120572-ol(=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [83]Icterogenin 173 [96]

B Chemical Structures ofPhenolic Compounds Alkaloids AminoAcids and Essential Oils Isolated fromLippia javanica

See Figure 4

Competing Interests

The author declares that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 21

O

OO

OO O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

C CH CHO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

COOH

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

Me

OMe

OMe

OMe

MeO

Me

HOOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OMe

OMe

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

（2 （2

（2

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

（3CO

（3CO

Coumarin 1 [4]

Verbascoside 2 [89]

Isoverbascoside 3 [89]

Theveside-Na 4 [90]

Theveridoside 5 [90]

4-Ethylnonacosane 6 [91]

Apigenin 7 [120 91]

Cirsimaritin 8 [120 91]

Crassifolioside 11 [120]

Luteolin 12 [120]

Diosmetin 13 [120]

Chrysoeriol 14 [120]

Tricin 15 [120]

Isothymusin 16 [120]

Eupatorin 17 [120]

6-Methoxyluteolin 3 47-trimethyl ether 10 [91]

6-Methoxyluteolin 4-methyl ether 9 [91]

Figure 4 Continued

22 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

N

NH

HN

HO

NH

O

NH

O

O

O

O

HN

N N

N

H

H

OAc

OAcOAc

OO

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

（3CO

（2

（2

（2

（2 （2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3N

（2N

（2N

（2N

（2N

minus

+

+

5-Desmethylnoboletin 18 [120]

Genkwanin 19 [120]

Salvigenin 20 [120]

Lippialactone 21 [92]

Xanthine 22 [120]

Valine 24 [94]

Isoleucine 25 [94]

Asparagine 26 [94]

Phenylalanine 27 [94]

Lysine 29 [94]

Histidine 30 [94]

Tyrosine 31 [94]

Tryptophan 32 [94]

Alanine 33 [93]

Glycine 34 [93]

Proline 35 [93]

Serine 36 [93]

Glutamine acid 37 [93]

Glutamine 39 [93]

4-Hydroxyproline 41 [93]

(E)-2(3)-Tagetenone epoxide 42 [91]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]

-Alanine 38 [93]

-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [93]

-Aminoadipic acid 28 [94]

-Aminobutyric acid 23 [93 94]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 23

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

H

H

HH

H

O

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

HO

OH

O

O

O

O

OH（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4]

3-Carene 47 [4]

Eucalyptol 48 [4]

18 myrcene 49 [123]

Ipsdienone 50 [123]

Caryophyllene 51 [93]

Geranial 52 [5 100 101]

26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [100]

Geraniol 54 [100]

Octen-3-one 55 [5]

6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]

Artemisia ketone 58 [5]

Linalool oxide 59 [5]

Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5]

Carvyl acetate 63 [5]

Sesquithujene 65 [5]

Acora-35-diene 66 [5]

-Pinene 44 [3-5 123 96 97 98 99] -Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]

(+)-2-Carene 46 [4]

-Bergamotene 67 [5]

-Cubebene 64 [5]

(Z)--Ocimenone 61 [5]

(E)--Ocimenone 62 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

24 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OH

H

H

H

H

O

OHO

HO

H

HH H

H

H

HH

H

HO

HO

O

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

Trans-calamenene 68 [5]

Cis-calamenene 72 [5]

Nerolidol 73 [5]

(E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 96 97]

Spathulenol 75 [5]

Chrysanthenone 78 [98]

Linalool acetate 84 [99]

Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [99]

Camphene 86 [3 5 96 97 98 99]

Sabinene 88 [3 5 123 98 99]

Myrcene 89 [3 5 123 100 101 96 97 99 102 103]

-Alaskene 69 [5]

-Terpineol 79 [3 5 98 99]

-Amorphene 80 [98]

-Cadinene 70 [45]-Thujene 81 [99]

-Cadinene 71 [3 96 97 99] -Terpinene 82 [99]

-Cubebene 83 [99]

-Pinene 87 [3 5 99]

-Longipinene 77 [98]

-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 96 97]

Epi--muurolol 76 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 25

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O

OH

OH

H

H

H

H

H

HOO

OH

O

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（3(（2)3（2

（3(（2)6（2

2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]

Limonene 92 [3 5 100 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3]

Isomyrcenol 98 [3]

p-Cymene 99 [3 5 93 96 97 98 99]

2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]

Terpinolene 101 [3]

Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 96 97 99 103]

Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 96 97]

(Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]

67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]

Nonanal 106 [3]

Perillene 107 [3 99]

Ipsenone 108 [3 123 96 97 103]

Trans-linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 96 97 98]

1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 96 97]

Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]

Trans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]

Cis-linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 96 97 98]

Cis-tagetone 115 [3 96 97]

Trans-tagetone 116 [3 96 97]

-Copaene 114 [3 5 96 97 98]

18-Cineole (=eucalyptol) 93 [3 5 98 99 103]

-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 96 97 99]

(Z)--Ocimene 96 [3 5 96 97 99]

(E)--Ocimene 97 [3 5 96 97 99]

Camphor 117 [3 5 101 96 97 98 102]

Figure 4 Continued

26 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

HH

H

H

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 93 100 101 96 97 98]

Myrcenone 123 [3 5 91 99]

2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol 125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]

Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 96 97]

Ipsdienol 132 [3]

(Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]

Isovaleric acid 134 [3]

Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]

Borneol 142 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 99]

Trans--bergamotene 121 [3]

-Cedrene 122 [3 5]

-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 123 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)--Farnesene 129 [3]

(E)--Farnesene 130 [3 5]

-Muurolene 139 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Muurolene 138 [3 5 96 97]

-Acoradiene 136 [3]

-Acoradiene 137 [3]

-Humulene 135 [3 5 96 97 99]

(EE)--Farnesene 131 [3 96 97]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O O

HO

O

H

H

H

HO

HO

OH

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3CO（3

Verbenone 143 [3 99]

Germacrene-D 144 [3 123 101 96 97]

Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]

Carvone 148 [3 5 99]

Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 96 97 99]

Ar-curcumene 151 [3]

Cis-piperitol 152 [3]

2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]

26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol 156 [3 96 97]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]

Calamenene 158 [3]

Carvone oxide 159 [3]

Isopiperitenone 160 [3]

Cis-carveol 161 [3]

Piperitenone 162 [2 3 91 81]

Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 96 97]

-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]

-Bisabolene 146 [3]

-Curcumene 150 [3]

Figure 4 Continued

28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

OO

O

O

H

H

H

H

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

H

H

HCH

HH

HO

（3

（2

（2C

（3C（3C

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C O（3

Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3-5 96 97 98]

Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 96 97]

Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]

Spathulenol 167 [3]

Eugenol 168 [3 5]

Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [91]

Icterogenin 173 [104]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Figure 4

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to the NationalResearch Foundation (NRF) and GovanMbeki Research andDevelopment Centre (GMRDC) University of Fort Hare forfinancial support to conduct this research

References

[1] JWMwangi I Addae-Mensah RMMunavu andW LwandeldquoEssential oils of Kenyan Lippia species Part IIIrdquo Flavour andFragrance Journal vol 6 no 3 pp 221ndash224 1991

[2] N J Manenzhe N Potgieter and T Van Ree ldquoCompositionand antimicrobial activities of volatile components of Lippiajavanicardquo Phytochemistry vol 65 no 16 pp 2333ndash2336 2004

[3] A M Viljoen S Subramoney S F V Vuuren K H C Baserand B Demirci ldquoThe composition geographical variation andantimicrobial activity of Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae) leafessential oilsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 96 no 1-2 pp271ndash277 2005

[4] N Lukwa P Moslashlgaard P Furu and C Boslashgh ldquoLippia javanica(Burm f) Spreng its general constituents and bioactivity onmosquitoesrdquoTropical Biomedicine vol 26 no 1 pp 85ndash91 2009

[5] L S Chagonda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssential oil compositionof Lippia javanica (Burmf) spreng chemotype from WesternZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants vol 18 no 2pp 482ndash485 2015

[6] W Kipkore B Wanjohi H Rono and G Kigen ldquoA study of themedicinal plants used by the Marakwet Community in KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 242014

[7] E A Shikanga S Combrinck and T Regnier ldquoSouth AfricanLippia herbal infusions total phenolic content antioxidant andantibacterial activitiesrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76no 3 pp 567ndash571 2010

[8] N T Parrant ldquoThe potential of non-timber forest products ofBotswanardquo Botswana Notes Records vol 28 no 1 pp 203ndash2181996

[9] D M Motlhanka and S W Makhabu ldquoMedicinal and ediblewild fruit plants of Botswana as emerging new crop opportu-nitiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plants Research vol 5 no 10 pp1836ndash1842 2011

[10] M Bhebhe T N Fuller B Chipurura and M MuchuwetildquoEffect of solvent type on total phenolic content and free radicalscavenging activity of black tea and herbal infusionsrdquo FoodAnalytical Methods vol 9 no 4 pp 1060ndash1067 2016

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29

[11] M Bhebhe B Chipurura and M Muchuweti ldquoDeterminationand comparison of phenolic compound content and antioxidantactivity of selected local Zimbabwean herbal teas with exoticAspalathus linearisrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 100no 1 pp 213ndash218 2015

[12] B Patiri and A Borah Wild Edible Plants of Assam GeetakhiPrinters Guwahati India 2007

[13] H Narzary and A Basumatary ldquoProximate and vitamin Canalysis of wild edible plants consumed by Bodos of AssamIndiardquo Journal of Molecular Pathophysiology vol 4 no 4 pp128ndash133 2015

[14] M Gelfand S Mavi R B Drummond and B Ndemera TheTraditional Medical Practitioners in Zimbabwe His Principles ofPractice and Pharmacopoeia Mambo Press Gweru Zimbabwe1985

[15] D Davids Materia medica and care a study of the uses ofmedicinal herbs and remedies as a form of treatment andnegotiating social relationships in cape town and surroundings[MS dissertation] University of theWestern Cape Cape TownSouth Africa 2012

[16] A Maroyi and G K E Mosina ldquoMedicinal plants and tradi-tional practices in peri-urban domestic gardens of the Limpopoprovince South africardquo Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledgevol 13 no 4 pp 665ndash672 2014

[17] A Samie C L Obi P O Bessong and L Namrita ldquoActivityprofiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Vendacommunities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterialspeciesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 4 no 12 pp1443ndash1451 2005

[18] T York An ethnopharmacological study of plants used fortreating respiratory infections in rural Maputaland [MS disser-tation] University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa South Africa2012

[19] D Davids T Blouws O Aboyade et al ldquoTraditional healthpractitionersrsquo perceptions herbal treatment andmanagement ofHIV and related opportunistic infectionsrdquo Journal of Ethnobiol-ogy and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 77 2014

[20] A Hutchings A H Scott G Lewis and A CunninghamZulu Medicinal Plants An Inventory University of Natal PressPietermarizburg South Africa 1996

[21] RM Coopoosamy andK K Naidoo ldquoAn ethnobotanical studyofmedicinal plants used by traditional healers inDurban SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 6no 11 pp 818ndash823 2012

[22] I Hedberg and F Staugard Traditional Medicinal Plants inBotswana Ipeleng Gaborone Botswana 1989

[23] H Shahriar A S M H K Chowdhury S Rahman et al ldquoSci-entific validation of medicinal plants used by a folk medicinalpractitioner of Chuadanga District BangladeshrdquoWorld Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 11 pp 13ndash24 2014

[24] S S Semenya M J Potgieter and M P Tshisikhawe ldquoUseconservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinalplants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 12 no 18 pp2392ndash2405 2013

[25] M Roberts Indigenous Healing Plants Southern Book Publish-ers Halfway House Johannesburg South Africa 1990

[26] T Birhanu D Abera and E Ejeta ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas westernEthiopiardquo Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare vol 5no 1 pp 83ndash93 2015

[27] N T Mahlangeni R Moodley and S B Jonnalagadda ldquoEle-mental composition of Cyrtanthus obliquus and Lippia javanicaused in South African herbal tonic Imbizardquo Arabian Journal ofChemistry 2013

[28] W Musila D Kisangau and J Muema ldquoConservation statusand use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitionersin Machakos District Kenyardquo in Indigenous Knowledge Con-ference Proceedings Pennsylvania State University May 27ndash292004 2004

[29] G N Njoroge and R W Bussmann ldquoTraditional managementof ear nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 542006

[30] P Chigora R Masocha and F Mutenheri ldquoThe role of indige-nous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailmentsin rural Zimbabwe the case of Mutirikwi communal landsrdquoJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol 9 no 2 pp26ndash43 2007

[31] R W Bussmann G G Gilbreath J Solio et al ldquoPlant use ofthe Maasai of Sekenani Valley Maasai Mara Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 22 2006

[32] D Motlhanka and G P Nthoiwa ldquoEthnobotanical Survey ofmedicinal plants of Tswapong North in Eastern Botswana acase of plants from Mosweu and Seolwane Villagesrdquo EuropeanJournal of Medicinal Plants vol 3 no 1 pp 10ndash24 2013

[33] A Vhurumuku ldquoKnowledge use and attitudes towardsmedici-nal plants of pre-service teachers at a South African UniversityrdquoGlobal Advanced Research Journal in Environmental Science andToxicology vol 4 no 2 pp 15ndash24 2015

[34] M N Nkwanyana An ethnobotanical and antidiarrhoeal inves-tigation of plants used traditionally in the maputaland areahomesteads [MS dissertation] University of Zululand KwaD-langezwa South Africa 2013

[35] T E Moeng An investigation into the trade of medicinal plantsbymuthi shops and street vendors in the Limpopo Province SouthAfrica [MS thesis] University of Limpopo Gauteng SouthAfrica 2010

[36] S Bandeira A M Manjate and O Filipe ldquoAn EcologicalAssessment of the Health of the Chibuto-Missavene Wetlandin the Dry Season Mozambique Emphasis on ResourcesAssessment Utilization and Sustainability Analysisrdquo reportto Challenge Program for Water and Food InternationalWater Management Institute Pretoria South Africa 2006httpscgspacecgiarorgbitstreamhandle105682160421604pdfsequence=1

[37] M C Palgrave R B Drummond and E J Moll Trees ofSouthern Africa Struik Cape Town South Africa 2003

[38] M O Nanyingi J M Mbaria A L Lanyasunya et alldquoEthnopharmacological survey of Samburu district KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4 article 142008

[39] J G J P Sankar and K B Satapathy ldquoWeed diversity of Rabicrops and their ethnomedicinal uses in Kendrapara districtof Odisha Indiardquo International Research Journal of BiologicalSciences vol 4 no 3 pp 33ndash38 2015

[40] D E N Mabogo The ethnobotany of the vhavenda [MSdissertation] University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa1990

[41] B-E van Wyk B van Oudtshoorn and N Gericke MedicinalPlants of South Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2013

[42] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used forthe treatment of tuberculosis by Bapedi traditional healers

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

OphthalmologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Diabetes ResearchJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Research and TreatmentAIDS

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 14: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

14 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table4Con

tinued

Activ

ityteste

dEx

tract

Plantp

art

Mod

elEff

ect

Reference

Antioxidant

Water

Leaves

DPP

Hassay

Exhibitedactiv

itywith

EC50valueo

f358120583gmL

[7]

Water

Leaves

mdashEx

hibitedactiv

itywith

209ascorbicacid

equivalent

(mggdryweight)

[7]

Water

Leaves

ABT

Sassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f15mmol10

0g[78]

Water

Leaves

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f146254

mmol10

0g[78]

Water

Leaves

FRAPassay

Activ

ewith

TEAC

valueo

f238m

mol10

0g[78]

Antiplasm

odial

Hexanechloroform

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f1225plusmn072120583gmL

[79]

Ethylacetate

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f1212plusmn079120583gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f135plusmn006120583gmL

[79]

Hexanechloroform

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f1859plusmn026120583gmL

[79]

Ethylacetate

Roots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f1580plusmn026120583gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Microdilutio

nassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f175plusmn017120583gmL

[79]

Dichlorom

ethane

Roots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f38120583gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethanem

ethano

lRo

ots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f27120583

gmL

[80]

Methano

lRo

ots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f24120583

gmL

[80]

Water

Roots

pLDHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

fgt100120583

gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethane

Stem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f45120583gmL

[80]

Dichlorom

ethanem

ethano

lStem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f218120583gmL

[80]

Methano

lStem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

f298120583gmL

[80]

Water

Stem

spL

DHassay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

with

IC50valueo

fgt100120583

gmL

[80]

Free

radicalscaveng

ing

activ

ity

Water

mdashDPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0059plusmn002

gmL

[11]

50methano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f004plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Ethano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0025plusmn0001gmL

[11]

50ethano

lmdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0027plusmn0005gmL

[11]

Aceton

emdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0057plusmn0004gmL

[11]

50aceton

emdash

DPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0022plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Ethylacetate

mdashDPP

Hassay

Activ

ewith

IC50valueo

f0066plusmn0001gmL

[11]

Toxicity

Methano

lLeaf

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

40mortalityrecorded

after

48hexpo

sure

towards

Artemianauplii

[74]

Methano

lRo

ots

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

ines

ensitivew

ithIC50valueo

f8430120583

gmL

[79]

Methano

lRo

ots

Brines

hrim

plethality

assay

Activ

eagainstPfalciparum

chloroqu

iner

esistantw

ithIC50valueo

f6503120583

gmL

[79]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 15

strengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantidiabetic agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species mixed with C obliquus to form aherbal concoction known in KwaZulu Natal province SouthAfrica as ldquoimbizardquo used against diabetes [27]

43 Antimalarial Activity Govere et al [142] found thattopical application of L javanica alcohol extract leads to767 protection against Anopheles arabiensis for 4 hoursLippia javanica has been used as a mosquito repellent by therural communities in Zimbabwe for a long time and previousstudies have shown that essential oils from the species havevery strong and lasting repellent activity against female Aarabiensis [64] Research by Lukwa et al [4] revealed thattopical application of 5mgcm2 of L javanica leads to 100protection againstAnopheles aegypti for 8 hoursMavundza etal [154] screened dichloromethane and ethanol leaf extractsof L javanica for adulticidal activity againstA arabiensisTheauthors observed dichloromethane and ethanol activities of45 and 55mosquitomortality respectivelyThese findingsstrengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantimalarial agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species as mosquito repellent in India [47]South Africa [34 49 58] and Zimbabwe [4 48]

44 Antioxidant Activity Leaf infusions of L javanica exhib-ited antioxidant activity with EC

50value of 358120583gmL and

contained 148mgmL of dry weight gallic acid equivalentphenolic compounds [7] The EC

50value of 358 120583gmL

obtained for L javanica by Shikanga et al [7] compareswell to those of many commercial teas including antioxidantcapacity of Rooibos Fresh Pack herbal teas (A linearis)with the best antioxidant activity of 333 120583gmL The highantioxidant activities displayed by L javanica infusions canbe partially attributed to the high levels of verbascoside 2(15mgg dry weight) reported by Olivier et al [81] in theleaf extract of the species Earlier research by Muchuwetiet al [125] reported 744 inhibition of the DPPH radicalby an ethanolic leaf extract of L javanica Lekganyane etal [75] reported antioxidant activity in L javanica and theacetone extracts of the species displayed antioxidant activityon BEA chromatogram [77] Bhebhe et al [10] reported theantioxidant activities of L javanica based on the DPPHreducing power and inhibition of phospholipid peroxidationassays Free radical scavenging activity of L javanica isattributed to phenolic compounds since these compoundshave an ideal structural chemistry for free radical scavengingactivity [155] Bhebhe et al [11] determined the effect ofseveral solvents on the free radical scavenging activity ofL javanica using the DPPH assay Free radical scavengingactivity expressed as IC

50ranged from 0022 plusmn 0001 gmL to

0066 plusmn 0001 gmL see Table 4

45 Antiplasmodial Activity Prozesky et al [144] evaluatedL javanica leaf acetone extract for in vitro antiplasmodialactivity using PfUP1 a chloroquine resistant strain of themalaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum by means of theflow cytometric test The IC

50value for L javanica was

426 120583gmL Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil

piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica for antiplasmodialactivity using chloroquine diphosphate as positive controland found it active against a chloroquine sensitive strainof P falciparum in micromolar concentrations with IC

50of

8 120583gmL Clarkson et al [80] evaluated L javanica rootsand stems extracts for in vitro activity against P falciparumusing the parasite lactase dehydrogenase (pLDH) assay andchloroquine diphosphate (Sigma) as the positive controlThedichloromethane methane and water extracts showed IC

50

values ranging from 38 to gt100 120583gmL see Table 4 Omolo etal [145] screened the essential oil of L javanica for fumiganttoxicity to Anopheles gambiae which exhibited LD

50of 43 times

10minus3mg cmminus3 Ayuko et al [79] showed that L javanica rootextracts have antiplasmodial activity against P falciparumwith IC

50ranging from 135 to 1859 120583gmL see Table 4

Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity againstthe chloroquine sensitive D10 strain of P falciparum withan IC

50value of 91 120583gmL and is also mildly cytotoxic [84]

Compared to chloroquine the compound is approximately2000 times less active against the D10 strain of P falciparum[84]

46 Antimicrobial Activities Lippia javanica is widely usedin the treatment of a wide range of infectious diseasescaused by microorganisms Viljoen et al [3] determined theantimicrobial properties of L javanica by evaluating the timekill studies of the speciesrsquo essential oil using the disc diffusionassay on three respiratory pathogens Klebsiella pneumoniaeCryptococcus neoformans and Bacillus cereus This studyshowed that the killing rate was greatest for K pneumoniaefollowed by C neoformans and very little reduction of micro-bial populations was observed for B cereus The efficacy of Ljavanica oil for K pneumoniae showed a killing rate within30 minutes for the concentrations 025 05 075 and 1C neoformans showed a killing rate for concentrations 05075 and 1 within 1 hour and the lowest concentration of025 took 8 hours before a bactericidal effect was notedwhile B cereus showed some reduction in colonies [3] Thepositive antimicrobial activity of L javanica as revealed bythe time kill study could be attributed to linalool 120 whichaverages between 65 and 70 in yield [3 5 88 90] and hasknown antimicrobial properties [93 156ndash159]These findingssomehow corroborate the traditional use of L javanica asherbal medicine for a wide range of bacterial and fungalrespiratory ailments indicated in Table 1

Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil piperitenone162 isolated from L javanica for antibacterial activityon cultures of Bacillus subtilis Staphylococcus aureus andEscherichia coli using imipenem cefazolin and ampicillinas positive controls The authors found piperitenone 162to inhibit S aureus and E coli at 1 dilution Acetonehexane and methanol leaf extracts and essential oil isolatedfrom L javanica showed some activity against fifteen Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria with MIC values rang-ing from 15 to gt12mgmL [60] see Table 4 In a similarstudy Samie et al [73] demonstrated that a pure compoundpiperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica has antibacte-rial activities against Acinetobacter calcoaceticus Micrococcus

16 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

kristinae Salmonella typhi and S aureus using dimethylsulphoxide and kanamycin as controls with MIC valuesranging from 12 to 50 120583gmL see Table 4 Shikanga et al [7]evaluated the antibacterial activity of L javanica methanolicleaf extract against S aureus Enterococcus faecalis E coliand Pseudomonas aeruginosa using the serial microdilutionmethod with gentamycin (Virbac) and acetone as positiveand negative controls respectively Lippia javanica displayedantibacterial activities with MIC values ranging from 013to 042mgmL against all four pathogens see Table 4 Theobtained minimum inhibitory concentrations are promisingsince natural products with MIC values below 1mgmLare generally considered to be noteworthy findings [160]Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity against theE coli and S aureus at a concentration of 10mgmL [84]Lekganyane et al [75] reported antibacterial activity of Ljavanica acetone leaf extracts against E coli E faecalis Paeruginosa and S aureus with MIC values ranging from 032to 064mgmL and total activity of the same species rangingfrom 127 to 253mgmL see Table 4 Methanol and water leafextracts of L javanica exhibited some antiproteus activityagainstProteusmirabilis andProteus vulgariswithMICvalueslt2000120583gmL with standard discs of ampicillin (2120583g) andchloramphenicol (10 120583g) as positive controls [74] Some of theantibacterial properties of L javanica can be attributed to thephytochemical constituents of the species for example thephenolic compound apigenin 7 is a well-known antibacterialagent [7 134] Apigenin 7 was shown to be highly activeagainst Vibrio cholera and E faecalis [161] while Basile et al[162] reported the inhibition of S typhi P mirabilis and Paeruginosa by the compound Therefore results from theseantibacterial evaluations of L javanica give credence to theuse of the speciesrsquo infusions against bacterial infections andother related diseases

Shikanga et al [126] investigated the antifungal activ-ities of leaf extracts and essential oil compounds isolatedfrom L javanica leafy extracts against a Guazatine-resistantstrain of Penicillium digitatumThemethanolic leafy extractsisoverbascoside 3 and verbascoside 2 compounds isolatedfrom L javanica inhibited fungal growth at concentrationsabove 06mgsdotmLminus1 causing significant inhibition of mycelialgrowth Verbascoside 2 is well-known for its antimicrobialproperties and has been found to inhibit viruses bacteriaand fungi [163] Similarly Samie et al [143] investigatedantifungal effects of acetone and hexane leaf extracts of Ljavanica against Candida albicans Candida krusei and Cneoformans isolated from AIDS patients using the microdi-lution method with nystatin Roche and DMSO as positiveand negative controls respectively Noteworthy moderateantifungal activities were recorded from C krusei with MICvalue of 188mgmL and other recordedMFCandMICvaluesfor other species ranged from 188mgmL to gt75mgmLsee Table 4 Thembo et al [76] investigated the antifungalactivity of aqueous and organic extracts of L javanica usinga serial microdilution assay Generally extracts of L javanicaexhibited weak activity see Table 4

47 Antimycobacterial Activity Mujovo et al [83] evaluatedL javanica compounds against a drug-sensitive strain ofMycobacterium tuberculosis using the radiometric respira-tory techniques Of all the isolated compounds only onetriterpenoid carboxylic acid euscaphic acid 172 exhibitedantimycobacterial activity with MIC value of 50120583gmLminus1against this strain In a similar study the leaf extract ofL javanica exhibited antimycobacterial activity against Msmegmatis in an evaluation which used microdilution assayand rifampicin as control [77] Acetone extract was thebest extractant with MIC value of 047mgmL it extractedantibacterial agents which was indicated by the lowest MICvalue [77] Masoko and Nxumalo [77] also evaluated thetotal activity ofL javanicawhich averaged 13mLg suggestingthat the extract prepared from one gram of L javanicacould be diluted to a volume of 13mL and will still inhibitM smegmatis efficiently According to Semenya and Maroyi[115] tuberculosis caused by M tuberculosis is a seriousdisease requiring effective strategies and tools to controland manage it Therefore preliminary evaluations done byMujovo et al [83] and Masoko and Nxumalo [77] serve asa scientific validation for the use of L javanica in traditionalmedicine for treatment of tuberculosis and other respiratoryailments in South Africa [24 27 115] and Uganda [43] as wellas their efficiency in tuberculosis drug discovery

48 Antiviral Activity Mujovo et al [83] found that (E)-2(3)-tagetenone epoxide 42 and piperitenone 162 inhibitedthe HIV-1 reverse transcriptase enzyme by 91 and 53respectively at 100 120583gmLminus1 based on a nonradioactive HIVRT colorimetric ELISA kit Little is known about the HIV RTactivity of L javanica extracts or compounds but flavonoidsare known to be active against viral RT and also as potentinhibitors of the cellular alpha and beta DNA polymerase[83] while luteolin 12 is active against HIV RT [164 165]Lippia javanica is traditionally used to treat HIVAIDSsymptoms in South Africa [65 66] and several viral andHIVAIDS opportunistic diseases and infections such asbronchitis [15 19ndash22] chicken pox [50] diarrhoea [17 3437 44 113] measles [14 20 38] pneumonia [14] shingles[15] and venereal diseases [44] Despite significant advancesin the utilization of L javanica in southern Africa overthe years for numerous viral diseases (Table 1) very littleantiviral evaluations have been done on crude extracts andpurified compounds of the species There is need thereforefor more pharmacological research as L javanica could beharbouring potent (RT) inhibitors which could be useful forthe development of new pharmaceutical products importantfor use against viral diseases and infections

49 Pesticidal Effects Magano et al [95] evaluated the repel-lent effects of hexane extracts of L javanica essential oilusing the in vitro tick climbing repellency bioassay on adultsof Hyalomma marginatum rufipes Koch ticks The authorsfound that 107mgmL caused repellency index of 100 at onehour and 30 minutes In a similar study by Madzimure et al[120] L javanica aqueous leaf extracts at 10 and 20 wvwere effective at controlling cattle ticks (Amblyomma species

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 17

Boophilus species Hyalomma species Rhipicephalus appen-diculatus and Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi) and were as goodas the positive control amitraz-based acaricide TrickbusterThese authors found no parasites on microscopic exami-nation of the Giemsa-stained thin blood smear collectedfrom treated cattle implying that the animals did not sufferfrom clinical tick-borne diseases Similarly Nyahangare etal [59] tested the pesticidal activity of L javanica waterextracts against cattle ticks The authors found no significantdifference between cattle treated with a commercial syntheticacaricide and those under L javanica treatment Martinez-Velazquez et al [166] evaluated pesticidal effects of twoessential oils namely 120574-terpinene 82 and 120588-cymene 99isolated from Lippia graveolens Kunth against 10-day-oldRhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini) tick larvaeusing the larval packet test bioassay The two essential oilsproduced highmortality ranging from90 to 100 in all testedconcentrations of 20 to 125 (vv)Therefore L javanica canprovide an effective tick control option where synthetic prod-ucts are unavailable or unaffordable particularly in remoterural areas in sub-Saharan Africa Lippia javanica is popularfor tick control and management among resource-poorsmallholder farmers in South Africa [58 95] and Zimbabwe[59 60 120] While these preliminary evaluations may serveas confirmation that L javanica has some bioactivities againstticks a comprehensive method of tick control is requiredfor the resource-constrained smallholder farmers based onethnopharmacological properties of L javanica

McGaw et al [146] screened L javanica for the anthel-mintic test systems using the free living nematodeCaenorhabditis elegans The crude ethanol and hexaneextracts showed some activity at a concentration of 2mgmLwith the 7-day incubation assay appearing to be moresensitive than the shorter assay Earlier research by Mwangiet al [1] indicated that L javanica was active against Aedesaegypti larvae and Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (maizeweevil) Katsvanga and Chigwiza [147] reported that Ljavanica is an effective natural pesticide which can be used tocontrol aphid species (Brevicoryne brassicae) In their studyKatsvanga and Chigwiza [147] found that 1 1 powderedaqueous leaf extract of L javanica reduced B brassicae by532 against 783 and 967 of two synthetic pesticidesAphid kill and Bexadust ldquoLrdquo respectively Chikukura etal [149] found L javanica powdered leaf extracts to haveinsecticidal properties with potential to control graindamage by 21ndash33 Mashela et al [148] reported that theapplication of ground L javanica leaves to soil in nematode-infested (Meloidogyne incognita) pots reduced the nematodenumbers by 79ndash92 and significantly increased fresh fruityield dry shoot mass plant height and stem diameter ofthe tomato plants as well as levels of potassium nitrogenand manganese in leaf tissue Muzemu et al [150] evaluatedwater extracts of L javanica leaf powder for pesticidal effectsagainst rape (Brassica napus L) aphids B brassicae andtomato (Solanum lycopersicum Lam) red spider mites andTetranychus evansi as alternatives to conventional pesticidesLippia javanica reduced B brassicae and Tetranychus evansiby 125 and 63 respectively [150]The study demonstratedthat L javanica has pesticidal effects on B brassicae and T

evansi The reduced number of B brassicae and T evansicould be due to L javanicarsquos extracts having repellent toxicand antifeedant effects since the species has essential oilswith pesticidal properties [2] Therefore these findingsindicate that L javanica has both nematicidal and plantgrowth-promoting properties

410 Toxicity and Cytotoxicity Activity Lippia javanica isknown to cause liver damage and photosensitisation in live-stock resulting in stock losses [167] Triterpenoids isolatedfrom the genus Lippia are icterogenic and cause jaundice asa result of liver damage [167] The characteristic swellingyellowing and later peeling of unpigmented skin are due tothe presence of phylloerythrin a photodynamic porphyrinthat reacts with sunlight and causes severe cell damage [167]The compound is normally formed when chlorophyll isbroken down by microorganisms in the rumen but it nowaccumulates in the liver as a result of the damage caused bytriterpenoids [167] In view of the known toxicity of Lippiaspecies the prolonged use of high doses of L javanica ispotentially harmful [167] Lippia javanica showed low toxicityafter 48 h exposure with the percentage of mortality below50 [74]

Ayuko et al [79] evaluated the toxicity of L javanicausing a brine shrimp cytotoxicity assay with LC

50value of

1138 plusmn 133 120583gmL Ayuko et al [79] found the cytotoxicity toantiplasmodial activity ratios for the methanolic extracts ofthe two tested strains to be 8430 and 6503 and since theseare greater than 100 it may be concluded that the extractsare of low toxicity Samie et al [73] demonstrated that apure compound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanicaessential oil has low cytotoxicity activity against intestinaladenocarcinoma cells (ie the HCT-8 monolayers with IC

50

of 2656 plusmn 53 120583gmL) Lukwa [64] evaluated the toxicity of Ljavanica aqueous leaf extracts using sexually mature BALBcmice with the placebo as control Within 48 hours all micefed with the L javanica leaf aqueous extract at 125ndash375 vvwere lethargic and the overall mortality was 375 Previousresearch byManenzhe et al [2] showed that hydrodistillationof L javanica leaves flowers and stems produced oil thatwas poisonous against P falciparumwhen diluted to 1 (vv)These findings imply that despite its apparent safety waterextracts of L javanica leaves may have deleterious healthimplications on humans and animals if consumed at veryhigh doses

Many compounds that have been isolated from L javan-ica including phenolic glycosides flavonoids and essentialoils are not known to have acute toxic properties withthe exception of icterogenin 173 Icterogenin 173 has beenshown to inhibit biliary excretion in rabbits [168] Reports inliterature indicate that the consumption of xanthine 22 hasresulted in mammalian toxicity According to Madzimure etal [64] xanthine 22 is a demethylated derivative of caffeinewith pharmacological actions such as central nervous system(CNS) stimulation relaxation of smooth muscle (especiallybronchial muscle) myocardial stimulation peripheral vaso-constriction and diuresis Considering the widespread useof L javanica as herbal tea and medicine it is important

18 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

to determine if any toxicological effects can occur from itschronic or subchronic usage

411 Other Activities Mpofu et al [169] determined the effectof inclusion of L javanica leaf meal in broiler diets ongrowth performance carcass characteristics and fatty acidprofiles The authors found that the L javanica fed broilershad higher total polyunsaturated fatty acids and n-3 fattyacidsThe findings from the study showed that inclusion of Ljavanica in broiler diets at 5 gkg feed has positive influenceson growth performance carcass characteristics and fattyacid profiles of broiler meat and therefore L javanica haspotential as growth-promoting feed additive in broilersSamie et al [73] evaluated antiamoebic activity of a purecompound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica essen-tial oil against Entamoeba histolytica using microdilutionmethod with metronidazole as the positive control diluents(ie culture medium with an appropriate concentration ofdimethyl sulphoxide as the negative control) and a blank(ie culture medium without dimethyl sulphoxide) Samieet al [73] demonstrated that piperitenone 162 had markedantiamoebic activity with IC

50value of 25 120583gmL More

research is required as L javanica could be harbouring potentantiamoebic properties which could be useful for managingamoebiasis an infection that remains a significant cause ofmorbidity and mortality worldwide

5 Conclusion

Lippia javanica has been used in African and Asian countriesas herbal tea and medicine for many centuries Utilization ofL javanica because of its flavour and medicinal propertiesforms the basis of the current demand for the plant speciesin central eastern and southern Africa Research on Ljavanica over the past decade on health promoting propertieshas greatly contributed to the increased consumption ofthe species as herbal or recreational tea The focus of thisresearch has been on phytochemical compounds particularlyphenolic content and antioxidant and free radical scavengingactivities Phenolic compounds present in L javanica arelargely responsible for the antioxidant properties possessedby the species More research in this regard is required andfuture research should focus on more comprehensive chem-ical characterization of both crude and pure extracts andevaluate potential for commercialization and developmentof nutraceutical products based on traditional uses of Ljavanica Most of the pharmacological researches conductedon L javanica so far have focused on the phytochemistryand biological properties of leaves and little or no researchhas been done on roots and other plant parts Thereforefuture research on the species should focus on other plantparts for example flowers roots and stems as well asorgan-to-organ age and seasonal variation evaluations in thephytochemical content and pharmacological activities of thespecies

The recent increase in the demand for L javanica prod-ucts may partly be ascribed to growing body of scientific evi-dence indicating important health benefits Lippia javanica

is widely sold as herbal tea in Botswana South Africa andZimbabwe Leaves and stems of L javanica are also sold asherbal medicines in the medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquo marketsin South Africa [35 170] For local people who rely onherbal medicines as part of their primary healthcare aswell as cultural beliefs they prefer L javanica harvestedfrom the wild and unprocessed plant parts sold in informalmedicinal ldquomuthirdquo markets [170] In the past there were norecords of overexploitation of L javanica wild populationsin southern Africa resulting in Raimondo et al [171] listingthe species as Least Concern (LC) under the IUCN RedList Categories and Criteria version 31 of threatened species(httpwwwiucnredlistorg) Recently signs of overharvest-ing have been noted where local people or plant traders haveuprooted whole plants to supply medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquomarkets or use the plants as herbal medicines brooms orherbal tea Therefore large-scale commercial utilization of Ljavanica is not sustainable if the species is harvested fromthe wild Currently L javanica is cultivated on a commercialscale in Kenya [28] and South Africa [117] for essential oilproduction for the mosquito-repellent candles and perfumeindustry Cultivation of L javanica is therefore a solutionto the sustainability problems associated with harvesting ofthe species from the wild and this option is also necessaryfor establishing commercial scale medicinal production andprocessing and trade enterprises The success of commercialcultivation of L javanica will depend on how the species ismarketed as herbal tea and medicine and source of essentialoil and health care products and as a source of functionalfoods

Significant research has been made in the past 50 yearsinto the chemistry and pharmacology of L javanica Thesestudies have shown L javanica to display various chemicaland different biological activities some of which justify itsethnopharmacological utilization in variety of cultures Inthe light of the evidence that L javanica is combined withother plant species in traditional medicine it will be valuableto investigate the possibility of synergistic effects of thedifferent extracts Deep phytochemical studies of L javanicaand its phytochemical properties especially the mechanismsof action of its bioactive constituents to illustrate the cor-relation between ethnomedicinal uses and pharmacologicalactivities should be the focus of further research on thespecies There is need for extensive in vivo experiments tovalidate the existing pharmacological activities Howeverbecause L javanica contains potentially toxic compoundsits toxicological properties need to be properly establishedvia proper quality control of product development to ensurethat potentially toxic components are kept below tolerancelevels

Appendix

A Chemical Compounds Isolated andCharacterized from Lippia javanica

See Table 5

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 19

Table 5

Chemical compound Reference(s)Phenolic compoundsCoumarin 1 [4]Verbascoside 2 [81]Isoverbascoside 3 [81]Theveside-Na 4 [82]Theveridoside 5 [82]4-ethylnonacosane 6 [83]Apigenin 7 [64 83]Cirsimaritin 8 [64 83]6-Methoxy luteolin41015840-methyl ether 9 [83]

6-Methoxy luteolin31015840410158407-trimethyl ether 10 [83]

Crassifolioside 11 [64]Luteolin 12 [64]Diosmetin 13 [64]Chrysoeriol 14 [64]Tricin 15 [64]Isothymusin 16 [64]Eupatorin 17 [64]5-Dimethyl noboletin 18 [64]Genkwanin 19 [64]Salvigenin 20 [64]Lippialactone 21 [84]AlkaloidXanthine 22 [64]Amino acids120572-Aminobutyric acid 23 [85 86]Valine 24 [86]Isoleucine 25 [86]Asparagine 26 [86]Phenylalanine 27 [86]120572-Aminoadipic acid 28 [86]Lysine 29 [86]Histidine 30 [86]Tyrosine 31 [86]Tryptophan 32 [86]Alanine 33 [85]Glycine 34 [85]Proline 35 [85]Serine 36 [85]Glutamine acid 37 [85]120573-Alanine 38 [85]Glutamine 39 [85]120573-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [85]4-hydroxyproline 41 [85]Essential oil(E)-2(3)-tagetenoneepoxide 42 [83]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]120572-Pinene 44 [3ndash5 87ndash91]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4](+)-2-Carene 46 [4]3-Carene 47 [4]Eucalyptol 48 [4]18 myrcene 49 [87]Ipsdienone 50 [87]Caryophyllene 51 [85]Geranial 52 [5 92 93]26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [92]Geraniol 54 [92]Octen-3-one 55 [5]6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]120588-Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]Artemisia ketone 58 [5]Linalool oxide 59 [5]Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5](Z)-120573-Ocimenone 61 [5](E)-120573-Ocimenone 62 [5]Carvyl acetate 63 [5]120572-Cubebene 64 [5]Sesquithujene 65 [5]Acora-35-diene 66 [5]120573-Bergamotene 67 [5]Trans-calamenene 68 [5]120573-Alaskene 69 [5]120574-Cadinene 70 [5]120575-Cadinene 71 [3 88 89 91]Cis-calamenene 72 [5]Nerolidol 73 [5](E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 88 89]Spathulenol 75 [5]Epi-120572-muurolol 76 [5]120572-Longipinene 77 [90]Chrysanthenone 78 [90]120572-Terpineol 79 [3 5 90 91]120572-Amorphene 80 [90]120572-Thujene 81 [91]120574-Terpinene 82 [91]120572-Cubebene 83 [91]Linalool acetate 84 [91]Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [91]Camphene 86 [3 5 88ndash91]120573-Pinene 87 [3 5 91]Sabinene 88 [3 5 87 90 91]Myrcene 89 [3 5 87ndash89 91ndash95]120572-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 88 89]2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]Limonene 92 [3 5 88ndash94]18-Cineole 93 [3 5 90 91 95]120573-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 88 89 91]

20 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3](Z)-120573-Ocimene 96 [3 5 88 89 91](E)-120573-Ocimene 97 [3 5 88 89 91]Isomyrcenol 98 [3]p-Cymene 99 [3 5 85 88ndash91]2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]Terpinolene 101 [3]Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 88 89 91 95]Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 88 89](Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]Nonanal 106 [3]Perillene 107 [3 91]Ipsenone 108 [3 87ndash89 95]Trans-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 88ndash90]1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 88 89]Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]Ttrans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]cis-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 88ndash90]120572-Copaene 114 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetone 115 [3 88 89]Trans-tagetone 116 [3 88 89]Camphor 117 [3 5 88ndash90 93 94]120573-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 91]Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 85 88ndash90 92 93]

Trans-120572-bergamotene 121 [3]120572-Cedrene 122 [3 5]Myrcenone 123 [3 5 83 91]120573-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 87ndash91 93 94]2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 88 89](Z)-120573-Farnesene 129 [3](E)-120573-Farnesene 130 [3 5](EE)-120572-Farnesene 131 [3 88 89]Ipsdienol 132 [3](Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]Isovaleric acid 134 [3]120572-Humulene 135 [3 5 88 89 91]120572-Acoradiene 136 [3]120573-Acoradiene 137 [3]120574-Muurolene 138 [3 5 88 89]120572-Muurolene 139 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]Borneol 142 [3 5 88ndash90]Verbenone 143 [3 91]Germacrene-D 144 [3 87ndash89 93]120573-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]120574-Bisabolene 146 [3]Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]Carvone 148 [3 5 91]Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 88 89 91]120573-Curcumene 150 [3]Ar-curcumene 151 [3]Cis-piperitol 152 [3]2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol156 [3 88 89]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]Calamenene 158 [3]Carvone oxide 159 [3]Isopiperitenone 160 [3]Cis-carveol 161 [3]Piperitenone 162 [2 3 73 83]Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 88 89]Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3ndash5 88ndash90]Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 88 89]Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]Spathulenol 167 [3]Eugenol 168 [3 5]Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120573-ol(=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120572-ol(=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [83]Icterogenin 173 [96]

B Chemical Structures ofPhenolic Compounds Alkaloids AminoAcids and Essential Oils Isolated fromLippia javanica

See Figure 4

Competing Interests

The author declares that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 21

O

OO

OO O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

C CH CHO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

COOH

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

Me

OMe

OMe

OMe

MeO

Me

HOOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OMe

OMe

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

（2 （2

（2

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

（3CO

（3CO

Coumarin 1 [4]

Verbascoside 2 [89]

Isoverbascoside 3 [89]

Theveside-Na 4 [90]

Theveridoside 5 [90]

4-Ethylnonacosane 6 [91]

Apigenin 7 [120 91]

Cirsimaritin 8 [120 91]

Crassifolioside 11 [120]

Luteolin 12 [120]

Diosmetin 13 [120]

Chrysoeriol 14 [120]

Tricin 15 [120]

Isothymusin 16 [120]

Eupatorin 17 [120]

6-Methoxyluteolin 3 47-trimethyl ether 10 [91]

6-Methoxyluteolin 4-methyl ether 9 [91]

Figure 4 Continued

22 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

N

NH

HN

HO

NH

O

NH

O

O

O

O

HN

N N

N

H

H

OAc

OAcOAc

OO

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

（3CO

（2

（2

（2

（2 （2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3N

（2N

（2N

（2N

（2N

minus

+

+

5-Desmethylnoboletin 18 [120]

Genkwanin 19 [120]

Salvigenin 20 [120]

Lippialactone 21 [92]

Xanthine 22 [120]

Valine 24 [94]

Isoleucine 25 [94]

Asparagine 26 [94]

Phenylalanine 27 [94]

Lysine 29 [94]

Histidine 30 [94]

Tyrosine 31 [94]

Tryptophan 32 [94]

Alanine 33 [93]

Glycine 34 [93]

Proline 35 [93]

Serine 36 [93]

Glutamine acid 37 [93]

Glutamine 39 [93]

4-Hydroxyproline 41 [93]

(E)-2(3)-Tagetenone epoxide 42 [91]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]

-Alanine 38 [93]

-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [93]

-Aminoadipic acid 28 [94]

-Aminobutyric acid 23 [93 94]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 23

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

H

H

HH

H

O

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

HO

OH

O

O

O

O

OH（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4]

3-Carene 47 [4]

Eucalyptol 48 [4]

18 myrcene 49 [123]

Ipsdienone 50 [123]

Caryophyllene 51 [93]

Geranial 52 [5 100 101]

26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [100]

Geraniol 54 [100]

Octen-3-one 55 [5]

6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]

Artemisia ketone 58 [5]

Linalool oxide 59 [5]

Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5]

Carvyl acetate 63 [5]

Sesquithujene 65 [5]

Acora-35-diene 66 [5]

-Pinene 44 [3-5 123 96 97 98 99] -Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]

(+)-2-Carene 46 [4]

-Bergamotene 67 [5]

-Cubebene 64 [5]

(Z)--Ocimenone 61 [5]

(E)--Ocimenone 62 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

24 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OH

H

H

H

H

O

OHO

HO

H

HH H

H

H

HH

H

HO

HO

O

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

Trans-calamenene 68 [5]

Cis-calamenene 72 [5]

Nerolidol 73 [5]

(E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 96 97]

Spathulenol 75 [5]

Chrysanthenone 78 [98]

Linalool acetate 84 [99]

Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [99]

Camphene 86 [3 5 96 97 98 99]

Sabinene 88 [3 5 123 98 99]

Myrcene 89 [3 5 123 100 101 96 97 99 102 103]

-Alaskene 69 [5]

-Terpineol 79 [3 5 98 99]

-Amorphene 80 [98]

-Cadinene 70 [45]-Thujene 81 [99]

-Cadinene 71 [3 96 97 99] -Terpinene 82 [99]

-Cubebene 83 [99]

-Pinene 87 [3 5 99]

-Longipinene 77 [98]

-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 96 97]

Epi--muurolol 76 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 25

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O

OH

OH

H

H

H

H

H

HOO

OH

O

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（3(（2)3（2

（3(（2)6（2

2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]

Limonene 92 [3 5 100 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3]

Isomyrcenol 98 [3]

p-Cymene 99 [3 5 93 96 97 98 99]

2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]

Terpinolene 101 [3]

Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 96 97 99 103]

Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 96 97]

(Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]

67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]

Nonanal 106 [3]

Perillene 107 [3 99]

Ipsenone 108 [3 123 96 97 103]

Trans-linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 96 97 98]

1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 96 97]

Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]

Trans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]

Cis-linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 96 97 98]

Cis-tagetone 115 [3 96 97]

Trans-tagetone 116 [3 96 97]

-Copaene 114 [3 5 96 97 98]

18-Cineole (=eucalyptol) 93 [3 5 98 99 103]

-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 96 97 99]

(Z)--Ocimene 96 [3 5 96 97 99]

(E)--Ocimene 97 [3 5 96 97 99]

Camphor 117 [3 5 101 96 97 98 102]

Figure 4 Continued

26 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

HH

H

H

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 93 100 101 96 97 98]

Myrcenone 123 [3 5 91 99]

2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol 125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]

Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 96 97]

Ipsdienol 132 [3]

(Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]

Isovaleric acid 134 [3]

Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]

Borneol 142 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 99]

Trans--bergamotene 121 [3]

-Cedrene 122 [3 5]

-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 123 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)--Farnesene 129 [3]

(E)--Farnesene 130 [3 5]

-Muurolene 139 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Muurolene 138 [3 5 96 97]

-Acoradiene 136 [3]

-Acoradiene 137 [3]

-Humulene 135 [3 5 96 97 99]

(EE)--Farnesene 131 [3 96 97]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O O

HO

O

H

H

H

HO

HO

OH

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3CO（3

Verbenone 143 [3 99]

Germacrene-D 144 [3 123 101 96 97]

Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]

Carvone 148 [3 5 99]

Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 96 97 99]

Ar-curcumene 151 [3]

Cis-piperitol 152 [3]

2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]

26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol 156 [3 96 97]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]

Calamenene 158 [3]

Carvone oxide 159 [3]

Isopiperitenone 160 [3]

Cis-carveol 161 [3]

Piperitenone 162 [2 3 91 81]

Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 96 97]

-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]

-Bisabolene 146 [3]

-Curcumene 150 [3]

Figure 4 Continued

28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

OO

O

O

H

H

H

H

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

H

H

HCH

HH

HO

（3

（2

（2C

（3C（3C

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C O（3

Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3-5 96 97 98]

Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 96 97]

Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]

Spathulenol 167 [3]

Eugenol 168 [3 5]

Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [91]

Icterogenin 173 [104]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Figure 4

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to the NationalResearch Foundation (NRF) and GovanMbeki Research andDevelopment Centre (GMRDC) University of Fort Hare forfinancial support to conduct this research

References

[1] JWMwangi I Addae-Mensah RMMunavu andW LwandeldquoEssential oils of Kenyan Lippia species Part IIIrdquo Flavour andFragrance Journal vol 6 no 3 pp 221ndash224 1991

[2] N J Manenzhe N Potgieter and T Van Ree ldquoCompositionand antimicrobial activities of volatile components of Lippiajavanicardquo Phytochemistry vol 65 no 16 pp 2333ndash2336 2004

[3] A M Viljoen S Subramoney S F V Vuuren K H C Baserand B Demirci ldquoThe composition geographical variation andantimicrobial activity of Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae) leafessential oilsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 96 no 1-2 pp271ndash277 2005

[4] N Lukwa P Moslashlgaard P Furu and C Boslashgh ldquoLippia javanica(Burm f) Spreng its general constituents and bioactivity onmosquitoesrdquoTropical Biomedicine vol 26 no 1 pp 85ndash91 2009

[5] L S Chagonda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssential oil compositionof Lippia javanica (Burmf) spreng chemotype from WesternZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants vol 18 no 2pp 482ndash485 2015

[6] W Kipkore B Wanjohi H Rono and G Kigen ldquoA study of themedicinal plants used by the Marakwet Community in KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 242014

[7] E A Shikanga S Combrinck and T Regnier ldquoSouth AfricanLippia herbal infusions total phenolic content antioxidant andantibacterial activitiesrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76no 3 pp 567ndash571 2010

[8] N T Parrant ldquoThe potential of non-timber forest products ofBotswanardquo Botswana Notes Records vol 28 no 1 pp 203ndash2181996

[9] D M Motlhanka and S W Makhabu ldquoMedicinal and ediblewild fruit plants of Botswana as emerging new crop opportu-nitiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plants Research vol 5 no 10 pp1836ndash1842 2011

[10] M Bhebhe T N Fuller B Chipurura and M MuchuwetildquoEffect of solvent type on total phenolic content and free radicalscavenging activity of black tea and herbal infusionsrdquo FoodAnalytical Methods vol 9 no 4 pp 1060ndash1067 2016

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29

[11] M Bhebhe B Chipurura and M Muchuweti ldquoDeterminationand comparison of phenolic compound content and antioxidantactivity of selected local Zimbabwean herbal teas with exoticAspalathus linearisrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 100no 1 pp 213ndash218 2015

[12] B Patiri and A Borah Wild Edible Plants of Assam GeetakhiPrinters Guwahati India 2007

[13] H Narzary and A Basumatary ldquoProximate and vitamin Canalysis of wild edible plants consumed by Bodos of AssamIndiardquo Journal of Molecular Pathophysiology vol 4 no 4 pp128ndash133 2015

[14] M Gelfand S Mavi R B Drummond and B Ndemera TheTraditional Medical Practitioners in Zimbabwe His Principles ofPractice and Pharmacopoeia Mambo Press Gweru Zimbabwe1985

[15] D Davids Materia medica and care a study of the uses ofmedicinal herbs and remedies as a form of treatment andnegotiating social relationships in cape town and surroundings[MS dissertation] University of theWestern Cape Cape TownSouth Africa 2012

[16] A Maroyi and G K E Mosina ldquoMedicinal plants and tradi-tional practices in peri-urban domestic gardens of the Limpopoprovince South africardquo Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledgevol 13 no 4 pp 665ndash672 2014

[17] A Samie C L Obi P O Bessong and L Namrita ldquoActivityprofiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Vendacommunities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterialspeciesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 4 no 12 pp1443ndash1451 2005

[18] T York An ethnopharmacological study of plants used fortreating respiratory infections in rural Maputaland [MS disser-tation] University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa South Africa2012

[19] D Davids T Blouws O Aboyade et al ldquoTraditional healthpractitionersrsquo perceptions herbal treatment andmanagement ofHIV and related opportunistic infectionsrdquo Journal of Ethnobiol-ogy and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 77 2014

[20] A Hutchings A H Scott G Lewis and A CunninghamZulu Medicinal Plants An Inventory University of Natal PressPietermarizburg South Africa 1996

[21] RM Coopoosamy andK K Naidoo ldquoAn ethnobotanical studyofmedicinal plants used by traditional healers inDurban SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 6no 11 pp 818ndash823 2012

[22] I Hedberg and F Staugard Traditional Medicinal Plants inBotswana Ipeleng Gaborone Botswana 1989

[23] H Shahriar A S M H K Chowdhury S Rahman et al ldquoSci-entific validation of medicinal plants used by a folk medicinalpractitioner of Chuadanga District BangladeshrdquoWorld Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 11 pp 13ndash24 2014

[24] S S Semenya M J Potgieter and M P Tshisikhawe ldquoUseconservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinalplants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 12 no 18 pp2392ndash2405 2013

[25] M Roberts Indigenous Healing Plants Southern Book Publish-ers Halfway House Johannesburg South Africa 1990

[26] T Birhanu D Abera and E Ejeta ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas westernEthiopiardquo Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare vol 5no 1 pp 83ndash93 2015

[27] N T Mahlangeni R Moodley and S B Jonnalagadda ldquoEle-mental composition of Cyrtanthus obliquus and Lippia javanicaused in South African herbal tonic Imbizardquo Arabian Journal ofChemistry 2013

[28] W Musila D Kisangau and J Muema ldquoConservation statusand use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitionersin Machakos District Kenyardquo in Indigenous Knowledge Con-ference Proceedings Pennsylvania State University May 27ndash292004 2004

[29] G N Njoroge and R W Bussmann ldquoTraditional managementof ear nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 542006

[30] P Chigora R Masocha and F Mutenheri ldquoThe role of indige-nous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailmentsin rural Zimbabwe the case of Mutirikwi communal landsrdquoJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol 9 no 2 pp26ndash43 2007

[31] R W Bussmann G G Gilbreath J Solio et al ldquoPlant use ofthe Maasai of Sekenani Valley Maasai Mara Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 22 2006

[32] D Motlhanka and G P Nthoiwa ldquoEthnobotanical Survey ofmedicinal plants of Tswapong North in Eastern Botswana acase of plants from Mosweu and Seolwane Villagesrdquo EuropeanJournal of Medicinal Plants vol 3 no 1 pp 10ndash24 2013

[33] A Vhurumuku ldquoKnowledge use and attitudes towardsmedici-nal plants of pre-service teachers at a South African UniversityrdquoGlobal Advanced Research Journal in Environmental Science andToxicology vol 4 no 2 pp 15ndash24 2015

[34] M N Nkwanyana An ethnobotanical and antidiarrhoeal inves-tigation of plants used traditionally in the maputaland areahomesteads [MS dissertation] University of Zululand KwaD-langezwa South Africa 2013

[35] T E Moeng An investigation into the trade of medicinal plantsbymuthi shops and street vendors in the Limpopo Province SouthAfrica [MS thesis] University of Limpopo Gauteng SouthAfrica 2010

[36] S Bandeira A M Manjate and O Filipe ldquoAn EcologicalAssessment of the Health of the Chibuto-Missavene Wetlandin the Dry Season Mozambique Emphasis on ResourcesAssessment Utilization and Sustainability Analysisrdquo reportto Challenge Program for Water and Food InternationalWater Management Institute Pretoria South Africa 2006httpscgspacecgiarorgbitstreamhandle105682160421604pdfsequence=1

[37] M C Palgrave R B Drummond and E J Moll Trees ofSouthern Africa Struik Cape Town South Africa 2003

[38] M O Nanyingi J M Mbaria A L Lanyasunya et alldquoEthnopharmacological survey of Samburu district KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4 article 142008

[39] J G J P Sankar and K B Satapathy ldquoWeed diversity of Rabicrops and their ethnomedicinal uses in Kendrapara districtof Odisha Indiardquo International Research Journal of BiologicalSciences vol 4 no 3 pp 33ndash38 2015

[40] D E N Mabogo The ethnobotany of the vhavenda [MSdissertation] University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa1990

[41] B-E van Wyk B van Oudtshoorn and N Gericke MedicinalPlants of South Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2013

[42] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used forthe treatment of tuberculosis by Bapedi traditional healers

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of

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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of

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Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

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Research and TreatmentAIDS

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 15: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 15

strengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantidiabetic agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species mixed with C obliquus to form aherbal concoction known in KwaZulu Natal province SouthAfrica as ldquoimbizardquo used against diabetes [27]

43 Antimalarial Activity Govere et al [142] found thattopical application of L javanica alcohol extract leads to767 protection against Anopheles arabiensis for 4 hoursLippia javanica has been used as a mosquito repellent by therural communities in Zimbabwe for a long time and previousstudies have shown that essential oils from the species havevery strong and lasting repellent activity against female Aarabiensis [64] Research by Lukwa et al [4] revealed thattopical application of 5mgcm2 of L javanica leads to 100protection againstAnopheles aegypti for 8 hoursMavundza etal [154] screened dichloromethane and ethanol leaf extractsof L javanica for adulticidal activity againstA arabiensisTheauthors observed dichloromethane and ethanol activities of45 and 55mosquitomortality respectivelyThese findingsstrengthen the view that L javanica is a potential source ofantimalarial agents and to some extent validate the traditionaluse of the plant species as mosquito repellent in India [47]South Africa [34 49 58] and Zimbabwe [4 48]

44 Antioxidant Activity Leaf infusions of L javanica exhib-ited antioxidant activity with EC

50value of 358120583gmL and

contained 148mgmL of dry weight gallic acid equivalentphenolic compounds [7] The EC

50value of 358 120583gmL

obtained for L javanica by Shikanga et al [7] compareswell to those of many commercial teas including antioxidantcapacity of Rooibos Fresh Pack herbal teas (A linearis)with the best antioxidant activity of 333 120583gmL The highantioxidant activities displayed by L javanica infusions canbe partially attributed to the high levels of verbascoside 2(15mgg dry weight) reported by Olivier et al [81] in theleaf extract of the species Earlier research by Muchuwetiet al [125] reported 744 inhibition of the DPPH radicalby an ethanolic leaf extract of L javanica Lekganyane etal [75] reported antioxidant activity in L javanica and theacetone extracts of the species displayed antioxidant activityon BEA chromatogram [77] Bhebhe et al [10] reported theantioxidant activities of L javanica based on the DPPHreducing power and inhibition of phospholipid peroxidationassays Free radical scavenging activity of L javanica isattributed to phenolic compounds since these compoundshave an ideal structural chemistry for free radical scavengingactivity [155] Bhebhe et al [11] determined the effect ofseveral solvents on the free radical scavenging activity ofL javanica using the DPPH assay Free radical scavengingactivity expressed as IC

50ranged from 0022 plusmn 0001 gmL to

0066 plusmn 0001 gmL see Table 4

45 Antiplasmodial Activity Prozesky et al [144] evaluatedL javanica leaf acetone extract for in vitro antiplasmodialactivity using PfUP1 a chloroquine resistant strain of themalaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum by means of theflow cytometric test The IC

50value for L javanica was

426 120583gmL Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil

piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica for antiplasmodialactivity using chloroquine diphosphate as positive controland found it active against a chloroquine sensitive strainof P falciparum in micromolar concentrations with IC

50of

8 120583gmL Clarkson et al [80] evaluated L javanica rootsand stems extracts for in vitro activity against P falciparumusing the parasite lactase dehydrogenase (pLDH) assay andchloroquine diphosphate (Sigma) as the positive controlThedichloromethane methane and water extracts showed IC

50

values ranging from 38 to gt100 120583gmL see Table 4 Omolo etal [145] screened the essential oil of L javanica for fumiganttoxicity to Anopheles gambiae which exhibited LD

50of 43 times

10minus3mg cmminus3 Ayuko et al [79] showed that L javanica rootextracts have antiplasmodial activity against P falciparumwith IC

50ranging from 135 to 1859 120583gmL see Table 4

Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity againstthe chloroquine sensitive D10 strain of P falciparum withan IC

50value of 91 120583gmL and is also mildly cytotoxic [84]

Compared to chloroquine the compound is approximately2000 times less active against the D10 strain of P falciparum[84]

46 Antimicrobial Activities Lippia javanica is widely usedin the treatment of a wide range of infectious diseasescaused by microorganisms Viljoen et al [3] determined theantimicrobial properties of L javanica by evaluating the timekill studies of the speciesrsquo essential oil using the disc diffusionassay on three respiratory pathogens Klebsiella pneumoniaeCryptococcus neoformans and Bacillus cereus This studyshowed that the killing rate was greatest for K pneumoniaefollowed by C neoformans and very little reduction of micro-bial populations was observed for B cereus The efficacy of Ljavanica oil for K pneumoniae showed a killing rate within30 minutes for the concentrations 025 05 075 and 1C neoformans showed a killing rate for concentrations 05075 and 1 within 1 hour and the lowest concentration of025 took 8 hours before a bactericidal effect was notedwhile B cereus showed some reduction in colonies [3] Thepositive antimicrobial activity of L javanica as revealed bythe time kill study could be attributed to linalool 120 whichaverages between 65 and 70 in yield [3 5 88 90] and hasknown antimicrobial properties [93 156ndash159]These findingssomehow corroborate the traditional use of L javanica asherbal medicine for a wide range of bacterial and fungalrespiratory ailments indicated in Table 1

Manenzhe et al [2] evaluated essential oil piperitenone162 isolated from L javanica for antibacterial activityon cultures of Bacillus subtilis Staphylococcus aureus andEscherichia coli using imipenem cefazolin and ampicillinas positive controls The authors found piperitenone 162to inhibit S aureus and E coli at 1 dilution Acetonehexane and methanol leaf extracts and essential oil isolatedfrom L javanica showed some activity against fifteen Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria with MIC values rang-ing from 15 to gt12mgmL [60] see Table 4 In a similarstudy Samie et al [73] demonstrated that a pure compoundpiperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica has antibacte-rial activities against Acinetobacter calcoaceticus Micrococcus

16 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

kristinae Salmonella typhi and S aureus using dimethylsulphoxide and kanamycin as controls with MIC valuesranging from 12 to 50 120583gmL see Table 4 Shikanga et al [7]evaluated the antibacterial activity of L javanica methanolicleaf extract against S aureus Enterococcus faecalis E coliand Pseudomonas aeruginosa using the serial microdilutionmethod with gentamycin (Virbac) and acetone as positiveand negative controls respectively Lippia javanica displayedantibacterial activities with MIC values ranging from 013to 042mgmL against all four pathogens see Table 4 Theobtained minimum inhibitory concentrations are promisingsince natural products with MIC values below 1mgmLare generally considered to be noteworthy findings [160]Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity against theE coli and S aureus at a concentration of 10mgmL [84]Lekganyane et al [75] reported antibacterial activity of Ljavanica acetone leaf extracts against E coli E faecalis Paeruginosa and S aureus with MIC values ranging from 032to 064mgmL and total activity of the same species rangingfrom 127 to 253mgmL see Table 4 Methanol and water leafextracts of L javanica exhibited some antiproteus activityagainstProteusmirabilis andProteus vulgariswithMICvalueslt2000120583gmL with standard discs of ampicillin (2120583g) andchloramphenicol (10 120583g) as positive controls [74] Some of theantibacterial properties of L javanica can be attributed to thephytochemical constituents of the species for example thephenolic compound apigenin 7 is a well-known antibacterialagent [7 134] Apigenin 7 was shown to be highly activeagainst Vibrio cholera and E faecalis [161] while Basile et al[162] reported the inhibition of S typhi P mirabilis and Paeruginosa by the compound Therefore results from theseantibacterial evaluations of L javanica give credence to theuse of the speciesrsquo infusions against bacterial infections andother related diseases

Shikanga et al [126] investigated the antifungal activ-ities of leaf extracts and essential oil compounds isolatedfrom L javanica leafy extracts against a Guazatine-resistantstrain of Penicillium digitatumThemethanolic leafy extractsisoverbascoside 3 and verbascoside 2 compounds isolatedfrom L javanica inhibited fungal growth at concentrationsabove 06mgsdotmLminus1 causing significant inhibition of mycelialgrowth Verbascoside 2 is well-known for its antimicrobialproperties and has been found to inhibit viruses bacteriaand fungi [163] Similarly Samie et al [143] investigatedantifungal effects of acetone and hexane leaf extracts of Ljavanica against Candida albicans Candida krusei and Cneoformans isolated from AIDS patients using the microdi-lution method with nystatin Roche and DMSO as positiveand negative controls respectively Noteworthy moderateantifungal activities were recorded from C krusei with MICvalue of 188mgmL and other recordedMFCandMICvaluesfor other species ranged from 188mgmL to gt75mgmLsee Table 4 Thembo et al [76] investigated the antifungalactivity of aqueous and organic extracts of L javanica usinga serial microdilution assay Generally extracts of L javanicaexhibited weak activity see Table 4

47 Antimycobacterial Activity Mujovo et al [83] evaluatedL javanica compounds against a drug-sensitive strain ofMycobacterium tuberculosis using the radiometric respira-tory techniques Of all the isolated compounds only onetriterpenoid carboxylic acid euscaphic acid 172 exhibitedantimycobacterial activity with MIC value of 50120583gmLminus1against this strain In a similar study the leaf extract ofL javanica exhibited antimycobacterial activity against Msmegmatis in an evaluation which used microdilution assayand rifampicin as control [77] Acetone extract was thebest extractant with MIC value of 047mgmL it extractedantibacterial agents which was indicated by the lowest MICvalue [77] Masoko and Nxumalo [77] also evaluated thetotal activity ofL javanicawhich averaged 13mLg suggestingthat the extract prepared from one gram of L javanicacould be diluted to a volume of 13mL and will still inhibitM smegmatis efficiently According to Semenya and Maroyi[115] tuberculosis caused by M tuberculosis is a seriousdisease requiring effective strategies and tools to controland manage it Therefore preliminary evaluations done byMujovo et al [83] and Masoko and Nxumalo [77] serve asa scientific validation for the use of L javanica in traditionalmedicine for treatment of tuberculosis and other respiratoryailments in South Africa [24 27 115] and Uganda [43] as wellas their efficiency in tuberculosis drug discovery

48 Antiviral Activity Mujovo et al [83] found that (E)-2(3)-tagetenone epoxide 42 and piperitenone 162 inhibitedthe HIV-1 reverse transcriptase enzyme by 91 and 53respectively at 100 120583gmLminus1 based on a nonradioactive HIVRT colorimetric ELISA kit Little is known about the HIV RTactivity of L javanica extracts or compounds but flavonoidsare known to be active against viral RT and also as potentinhibitors of the cellular alpha and beta DNA polymerase[83] while luteolin 12 is active against HIV RT [164 165]Lippia javanica is traditionally used to treat HIVAIDSsymptoms in South Africa [65 66] and several viral andHIVAIDS opportunistic diseases and infections such asbronchitis [15 19ndash22] chicken pox [50] diarrhoea [17 3437 44 113] measles [14 20 38] pneumonia [14] shingles[15] and venereal diseases [44] Despite significant advancesin the utilization of L javanica in southern Africa overthe years for numerous viral diseases (Table 1) very littleantiviral evaluations have been done on crude extracts andpurified compounds of the species There is need thereforefor more pharmacological research as L javanica could beharbouring potent (RT) inhibitors which could be useful forthe development of new pharmaceutical products importantfor use against viral diseases and infections

49 Pesticidal Effects Magano et al [95] evaluated the repel-lent effects of hexane extracts of L javanica essential oilusing the in vitro tick climbing repellency bioassay on adultsof Hyalomma marginatum rufipes Koch ticks The authorsfound that 107mgmL caused repellency index of 100 at onehour and 30 minutes In a similar study by Madzimure et al[120] L javanica aqueous leaf extracts at 10 and 20 wvwere effective at controlling cattle ticks (Amblyomma species

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 17

Boophilus species Hyalomma species Rhipicephalus appen-diculatus and Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi) and were as goodas the positive control amitraz-based acaricide TrickbusterThese authors found no parasites on microscopic exami-nation of the Giemsa-stained thin blood smear collectedfrom treated cattle implying that the animals did not sufferfrom clinical tick-borne diseases Similarly Nyahangare etal [59] tested the pesticidal activity of L javanica waterextracts against cattle ticks The authors found no significantdifference between cattle treated with a commercial syntheticacaricide and those under L javanica treatment Martinez-Velazquez et al [166] evaluated pesticidal effects of twoessential oils namely 120574-terpinene 82 and 120588-cymene 99isolated from Lippia graveolens Kunth against 10-day-oldRhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini) tick larvaeusing the larval packet test bioassay The two essential oilsproduced highmortality ranging from90 to 100 in all testedconcentrations of 20 to 125 (vv)Therefore L javanica canprovide an effective tick control option where synthetic prod-ucts are unavailable or unaffordable particularly in remoterural areas in sub-Saharan Africa Lippia javanica is popularfor tick control and management among resource-poorsmallholder farmers in South Africa [58 95] and Zimbabwe[59 60 120] While these preliminary evaluations may serveas confirmation that L javanica has some bioactivities againstticks a comprehensive method of tick control is requiredfor the resource-constrained smallholder farmers based onethnopharmacological properties of L javanica

McGaw et al [146] screened L javanica for the anthel-mintic test systems using the free living nematodeCaenorhabditis elegans The crude ethanol and hexaneextracts showed some activity at a concentration of 2mgmLwith the 7-day incubation assay appearing to be moresensitive than the shorter assay Earlier research by Mwangiet al [1] indicated that L javanica was active against Aedesaegypti larvae and Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (maizeweevil) Katsvanga and Chigwiza [147] reported that Ljavanica is an effective natural pesticide which can be used tocontrol aphid species (Brevicoryne brassicae) In their studyKatsvanga and Chigwiza [147] found that 1 1 powderedaqueous leaf extract of L javanica reduced B brassicae by532 against 783 and 967 of two synthetic pesticidesAphid kill and Bexadust ldquoLrdquo respectively Chikukura etal [149] found L javanica powdered leaf extracts to haveinsecticidal properties with potential to control graindamage by 21ndash33 Mashela et al [148] reported that theapplication of ground L javanica leaves to soil in nematode-infested (Meloidogyne incognita) pots reduced the nematodenumbers by 79ndash92 and significantly increased fresh fruityield dry shoot mass plant height and stem diameter ofthe tomato plants as well as levels of potassium nitrogenand manganese in leaf tissue Muzemu et al [150] evaluatedwater extracts of L javanica leaf powder for pesticidal effectsagainst rape (Brassica napus L) aphids B brassicae andtomato (Solanum lycopersicum Lam) red spider mites andTetranychus evansi as alternatives to conventional pesticidesLippia javanica reduced B brassicae and Tetranychus evansiby 125 and 63 respectively [150]The study demonstratedthat L javanica has pesticidal effects on B brassicae and T

evansi The reduced number of B brassicae and T evansicould be due to L javanicarsquos extracts having repellent toxicand antifeedant effects since the species has essential oilswith pesticidal properties [2] Therefore these findingsindicate that L javanica has both nematicidal and plantgrowth-promoting properties

410 Toxicity and Cytotoxicity Activity Lippia javanica isknown to cause liver damage and photosensitisation in live-stock resulting in stock losses [167] Triterpenoids isolatedfrom the genus Lippia are icterogenic and cause jaundice asa result of liver damage [167] The characteristic swellingyellowing and later peeling of unpigmented skin are due tothe presence of phylloerythrin a photodynamic porphyrinthat reacts with sunlight and causes severe cell damage [167]The compound is normally formed when chlorophyll isbroken down by microorganisms in the rumen but it nowaccumulates in the liver as a result of the damage caused bytriterpenoids [167] In view of the known toxicity of Lippiaspecies the prolonged use of high doses of L javanica ispotentially harmful [167] Lippia javanica showed low toxicityafter 48 h exposure with the percentage of mortality below50 [74]

Ayuko et al [79] evaluated the toxicity of L javanicausing a brine shrimp cytotoxicity assay with LC

50value of

1138 plusmn 133 120583gmL Ayuko et al [79] found the cytotoxicity toantiplasmodial activity ratios for the methanolic extracts ofthe two tested strains to be 8430 and 6503 and since theseare greater than 100 it may be concluded that the extractsare of low toxicity Samie et al [73] demonstrated that apure compound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanicaessential oil has low cytotoxicity activity against intestinaladenocarcinoma cells (ie the HCT-8 monolayers with IC

50

of 2656 plusmn 53 120583gmL) Lukwa [64] evaluated the toxicity of Ljavanica aqueous leaf extracts using sexually mature BALBcmice with the placebo as control Within 48 hours all micefed with the L javanica leaf aqueous extract at 125ndash375 vvwere lethargic and the overall mortality was 375 Previousresearch byManenzhe et al [2] showed that hydrodistillationof L javanica leaves flowers and stems produced oil thatwas poisonous against P falciparumwhen diluted to 1 (vv)These findings imply that despite its apparent safety waterextracts of L javanica leaves may have deleterious healthimplications on humans and animals if consumed at veryhigh doses

Many compounds that have been isolated from L javan-ica including phenolic glycosides flavonoids and essentialoils are not known to have acute toxic properties withthe exception of icterogenin 173 Icterogenin 173 has beenshown to inhibit biliary excretion in rabbits [168] Reports inliterature indicate that the consumption of xanthine 22 hasresulted in mammalian toxicity According to Madzimure etal [64] xanthine 22 is a demethylated derivative of caffeinewith pharmacological actions such as central nervous system(CNS) stimulation relaxation of smooth muscle (especiallybronchial muscle) myocardial stimulation peripheral vaso-constriction and diuresis Considering the widespread useof L javanica as herbal tea and medicine it is important

18 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

to determine if any toxicological effects can occur from itschronic or subchronic usage

411 Other Activities Mpofu et al [169] determined the effectof inclusion of L javanica leaf meal in broiler diets ongrowth performance carcass characteristics and fatty acidprofiles The authors found that the L javanica fed broilershad higher total polyunsaturated fatty acids and n-3 fattyacidsThe findings from the study showed that inclusion of Ljavanica in broiler diets at 5 gkg feed has positive influenceson growth performance carcass characteristics and fattyacid profiles of broiler meat and therefore L javanica haspotential as growth-promoting feed additive in broilersSamie et al [73] evaluated antiamoebic activity of a purecompound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica essen-tial oil against Entamoeba histolytica using microdilutionmethod with metronidazole as the positive control diluents(ie culture medium with an appropriate concentration ofdimethyl sulphoxide as the negative control) and a blank(ie culture medium without dimethyl sulphoxide) Samieet al [73] demonstrated that piperitenone 162 had markedantiamoebic activity with IC

50value of 25 120583gmL More

research is required as L javanica could be harbouring potentantiamoebic properties which could be useful for managingamoebiasis an infection that remains a significant cause ofmorbidity and mortality worldwide

5 Conclusion

Lippia javanica has been used in African and Asian countriesas herbal tea and medicine for many centuries Utilization ofL javanica because of its flavour and medicinal propertiesforms the basis of the current demand for the plant speciesin central eastern and southern Africa Research on Ljavanica over the past decade on health promoting propertieshas greatly contributed to the increased consumption ofthe species as herbal or recreational tea The focus of thisresearch has been on phytochemical compounds particularlyphenolic content and antioxidant and free radical scavengingactivities Phenolic compounds present in L javanica arelargely responsible for the antioxidant properties possessedby the species More research in this regard is required andfuture research should focus on more comprehensive chem-ical characterization of both crude and pure extracts andevaluate potential for commercialization and developmentof nutraceutical products based on traditional uses of Ljavanica Most of the pharmacological researches conductedon L javanica so far have focused on the phytochemistryand biological properties of leaves and little or no researchhas been done on roots and other plant parts Thereforefuture research on the species should focus on other plantparts for example flowers roots and stems as well asorgan-to-organ age and seasonal variation evaluations in thephytochemical content and pharmacological activities of thespecies

The recent increase in the demand for L javanica prod-ucts may partly be ascribed to growing body of scientific evi-dence indicating important health benefits Lippia javanica

is widely sold as herbal tea in Botswana South Africa andZimbabwe Leaves and stems of L javanica are also sold asherbal medicines in the medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquo marketsin South Africa [35 170] For local people who rely onherbal medicines as part of their primary healthcare aswell as cultural beliefs they prefer L javanica harvestedfrom the wild and unprocessed plant parts sold in informalmedicinal ldquomuthirdquo markets [170] In the past there were norecords of overexploitation of L javanica wild populationsin southern Africa resulting in Raimondo et al [171] listingthe species as Least Concern (LC) under the IUCN RedList Categories and Criteria version 31 of threatened species(httpwwwiucnredlistorg) Recently signs of overharvest-ing have been noted where local people or plant traders haveuprooted whole plants to supply medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquomarkets or use the plants as herbal medicines brooms orherbal tea Therefore large-scale commercial utilization of Ljavanica is not sustainable if the species is harvested fromthe wild Currently L javanica is cultivated on a commercialscale in Kenya [28] and South Africa [117] for essential oilproduction for the mosquito-repellent candles and perfumeindustry Cultivation of L javanica is therefore a solutionto the sustainability problems associated with harvesting ofthe species from the wild and this option is also necessaryfor establishing commercial scale medicinal production andprocessing and trade enterprises The success of commercialcultivation of L javanica will depend on how the species ismarketed as herbal tea and medicine and source of essentialoil and health care products and as a source of functionalfoods

Significant research has been made in the past 50 yearsinto the chemistry and pharmacology of L javanica Thesestudies have shown L javanica to display various chemicaland different biological activities some of which justify itsethnopharmacological utilization in variety of cultures Inthe light of the evidence that L javanica is combined withother plant species in traditional medicine it will be valuableto investigate the possibility of synergistic effects of thedifferent extracts Deep phytochemical studies of L javanicaand its phytochemical properties especially the mechanismsof action of its bioactive constituents to illustrate the cor-relation between ethnomedicinal uses and pharmacologicalactivities should be the focus of further research on thespecies There is need for extensive in vivo experiments tovalidate the existing pharmacological activities Howeverbecause L javanica contains potentially toxic compoundsits toxicological properties need to be properly establishedvia proper quality control of product development to ensurethat potentially toxic components are kept below tolerancelevels

Appendix

A Chemical Compounds Isolated andCharacterized from Lippia javanica

See Table 5

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 19

Table 5

Chemical compound Reference(s)Phenolic compoundsCoumarin 1 [4]Verbascoside 2 [81]Isoverbascoside 3 [81]Theveside-Na 4 [82]Theveridoside 5 [82]4-ethylnonacosane 6 [83]Apigenin 7 [64 83]Cirsimaritin 8 [64 83]6-Methoxy luteolin41015840-methyl ether 9 [83]

6-Methoxy luteolin31015840410158407-trimethyl ether 10 [83]

Crassifolioside 11 [64]Luteolin 12 [64]Diosmetin 13 [64]Chrysoeriol 14 [64]Tricin 15 [64]Isothymusin 16 [64]Eupatorin 17 [64]5-Dimethyl noboletin 18 [64]Genkwanin 19 [64]Salvigenin 20 [64]Lippialactone 21 [84]AlkaloidXanthine 22 [64]Amino acids120572-Aminobutyric acid 23 [85 86]Valine 24 [86]Isoleucine 25 [86]Asparagine 26 [86]Phenylalanine 27 [86]120572-Aminoadipic acid 28 [86]Lysine 29 [86]Histidine 30 [86]Tyrosine 31 [86]Tryptophan 32 [86]Alanine 33 [85]Glycine 34 [85]Proline 35 [85]Serine 36 [85]Glutamine acid 37 [85]120573-Alanine 38 [85]Glutamine 39 [85]120573-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [85]4-hydroxyproline 41 [85]Essential oil(E)-2(3)-tagetenoneepoxide 42 [83]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]120572-Pinene 44 [3ndash5 87ndash91]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4](+)-2-Carene 46 [4]3-Carene 47 [4]Eucalyptol 48 [4]18 myrcene 49 [87]Ipsdienone 50 [87]Caryophyllene 51 [85]Geranial 52 [5 92 93]26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [92]Geraniol 54 [92]Octen-3-one 55 [5]6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]120588-Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]Artemisia ketone 58 [5]Linalool oxide 59 [5]Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5](Z)-120573-Ocimenone 61 [5](E)-120573-Ocimenone 62 [5]Carvyl acetate 63 [5]120572-Cubebene 64 [5]Sesquithujene 65 [5]Acora-35-diene 66 [5]120573-Bergamotene 67 [5]Trans-calamenene 68 [5]120573-Alaskene 69 [5]120574-Cadinene 70 [5]120575-Cadinene 71 [3 88 89 91]Cis-calamenene 72 [5]Nerolidol 73 [5](E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 88 89]Spathulenol 75 [5]Epi-120572-muurolol 76 [5]120572-Longipinene 77 [90]Chrysanthenone 78 [90]120572-Terpineol 79 [3 5 90 91]120572-Amorphene 80 [90]120572-Thujene 81 [91]120574-Terpinene 82 [91]120572-Cubebene 83 [91]Linalool acetate 84 [91]Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [91]Camphene 86 [3 5 88ndash91]120573-Pinene 87 [3 5 91]Sabinene 88 [3 5 87 90 91]Myrcene 89 [3 5 87ndash89 91ndash95]120572-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 88 89]2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]Limonene 92 [3 5 88ndash94]18-Cineole 93 [3 5 90 91 95]120573-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 88 89 91]

20 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3](Z)-120573-Ocimene 96 [3 5 88 89 91](E)-120573-Ocimene 97 [3 5 88 89 91]Isomyrcenol 98 [3]p-Cymene 99 [3 5 85 88ndash91]2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]Terpinolene 101 [3]Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 88 89 91 95]Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 88 89](Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]Nonanal 106 [3]Perillene 107 [3 91]Ipsenone 108 [3 87ndash89 95]Trans-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 88ndash90]1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 88 89]Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]Ttrans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]cis-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 88ndash90]120572-Copaene 114 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetone 115 [3 88 89]Trans-tagetone 116 [3 88 89]Camphor 117 [3 5 88ndash90 93 94]120573-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 91]Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 85 88ndash90 92 93]

Trans-120572-bergamotene 121 [3]120572-Cedrene 122 [3 5]Myrcenone 123 [3 5 83 91]120573-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 87ndash91 93 94]2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 88 89](Z)-120573-Farnesene 129 [3](E)-120573-Farnesene 130 [3 5](EE)-120572-Farnesene 131 [3 88 89]Ipsdienol 132 [3](Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]Isovaleric acid 134 [3]120572-Humulene 135 [3 5 88 89 91]120572-Acoradiene 136 [3]120573-Acoradiene 137 [3]120574-Muurolene 138 [3 5 88 89]120572-Muurolene 139 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]Borneol 142 [3 5 88ndash90]Verbenone 143 [3 91]Germacrene-D 144 [3 87ndash89 93]120573-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]120574-Bisabolene 146 [3]Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]Carvone 148 [3 5 91]Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 88 89 91]120573-Curcumene 150 [3]Ar-curcumene 151 [3]Cis-piperitol 152 [3]2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol156 [3 88 89]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]Calamenene 158 [3]Carvone oxide 159 [3]Isopiperitenone 160 [3]Cis-carveol 161 [3]Piperitenone 162 [2 3 73 83]Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 88 89]Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3ndash5 88ndash90]Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 88 89]Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]Spathulenol 167 [3]Eugenol 168 [3 5]Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120573-ol(=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120572-ol(=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [83]Icterogenin 173 [96]

B Chemical Structures ofPhenolic Compounds Alkaloids AminoAcids and Essential Oils Isolated fromLippia javanica

See Figure 4

Competing Interests

The author declares that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 21

O

OO

OO O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

C CH CHO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

COOH

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

Me

OMe

OMe

OMe

MeO

Me

HOOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OMe

OMe

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

（2 （2

（2

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

（3CO

（3CO

Coumarin 1 [4]

Verbascoside 2 [89]

Isoverbascoside 3 [89]

Theveside-Na 4 [90]

Theveridoside 5 [90]

4-Ethylnonacosane 6 [91]

Apigenin 7 [120 91]

Cirsimaritin 8 [120 91]

Crassifolioside 11 [120]

Luteolin 12 [120]

Diosmetin 13 [120]

Chrysoeriol 14 [120]

Tricin 15 [120]

Isothymusin 16 [120]

Eupatorin 17 [120]

6-Methoxyluteolin 3 47-trimethyl ether 10 [91]

6-Methoxyluteolin 4-methyl ether 9 [91]

Figure 4 Continued

22 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

N

NH

HN

HO

NH

O

NH

O

O

O

O

HN

N N

N

H

H

OAc

OAcOAc

OO

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

（3CO

（2

（2

（2

（2 （2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3N

（2N

（2N

（2N

（2N

minus

+

+

5-Desmethylnoboletin 18 [120]

Genkwanin 19 [120]

Salvigenin 20 [120]

Lippialactone 21 [92]

Xanthine 22 [120]

Valine 24 [94]

Isoleucine 25 [94]

Asparagine 26 [94]

Phenylalanine 27 [94]

Lysine 29 [94]

Histidine 30 [94]

Tyrosine 31 [94]

Tryptophan 32 [94]

Alanine 33 [93]

Glycine 34 [93]

Proline 35 [93]

Serine 36 [93]

Glutamine acid 37 [93]

Glutamine 39 [93]

4-Hydroxyproline 41 [93]

(E)-2(3)-Tagetenone epoxide 42 [91]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]

-Alanine 38 [93]

-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [93]

-Aminoadipic acid 28 [94]

-Aminobutyric acid 23 [93 94]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 23

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

H

H

HH

H

O

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

HO

OH

O

O

O

O

OH（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4]

3-Carene 47 [4]

Eucalyptol 48 [4]

18 myrcene 49 [123]

Ipsdienone 50 [123]

Caryophyllene 51 [93]

Geranial 52 [5 100 101]

26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [100]

Geraniol 54 [100]

Octen-3-one 55 [5]

6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]

Artemisia ketone 58 [5]

Linalool oxide 59 [5]

Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5]

Carvyl acetate 63 [5]

Sesquithujene 65 [5]

Acora-35-diene 66 [5]

-Pinene 44 [3-5 123 96 97 98 99] -Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]

(+)-2-Carene 46 [4]

-Bergamotene 67 [5]

-Cubebene 64 [5]

(Z)--Ocimenone 61 [5]

(E)--Ocimenone 62 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

24 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OH

H

H

H

H

O

OHO

HO

H

HH H

H

H

HH

H

HO

HO

O

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

Trans-calamenene 68 [5]

Cis-calamenene 72 [5]

Nerolidol 73 [5]

(E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 96 97]

Spathulenol 75 [5]

Chrysanthenone 78 [98]

Linalool acetate 84 [99]

Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [99]

Camphene 86 [3 5 96 97 98 99]

Sabinene 88 [3 5 123 98 99]

Myrcene 89 [3 5 123 100 101 96 97 99 102 103]

-Alaskene 69 [5]

-Terpineol 79 [3 5 98 99]

-Amorphene 80 [98]

-Cadinene 70 [45]-Thujene 81 [99]

-Cadinene 71 [3 96 97 99] -Terpinene 82 [99]

-Cubebene 83 [99]

-Pinene 87 [3 5 99]

-Longipinene 77 [98]

-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 96 97]

Epi--muurolol 76 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 25

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O

OH

OH

H

H

H

H

H

HOO

OH

O

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（3(（2)3（2

（3(（2)6（2

2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]

Limonene 92 [3 5 100 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3]

Isomyrcenol 98 [3]

p-Cymene 99 [3 5 93 96 97 98 99]

2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]

Terpinolene 101 [3]

Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 96 97 99 103]

Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 96 97]

(Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]

67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]

Nonanal 106 [3]

Perillene 107 [3 99]

Ipsenone 108 [3 123 96 97 103]

Trans-linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 96 97 98]

1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 96 97]

Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]

Trans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]

Cis-linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 96 97 98]

Cis-tagetone 115 [3 96 97]

Trans-tagetone 116 [3 96 97]

-Copaene 114 [3 5 96 97 98]

18-Cineole (=eucalyptol) 93 [3 5 98 99 103]

-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 96 97 99]

(Z)--Ocimene 96 [3 5 96 97 99]

(E)--Ocimene 97 [3 5 96 97 99]

Camphor 117 [3 5 101 96 97 98 102]

Figure 4 Continued

26 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

HH

H

H

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 93 100 101 96 97 98]

Myrcenone 123 [3 5 91 99]

2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol 125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]

Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 96 97]

Ipsdienol 132 [3]

(Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]

Isovaleric acid 134 [3]

Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]

Borneol 142 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 99]

Trans--bergamotene 121 [3]

-Cedrene 122 [3 5]

-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 123 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)--Farnesene 129 [3]

(E)--Farnesene 130 [3 5]

-Muurolene 139 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Muurolene 138 [3 5 96 97]

-Acoradiene 136 [3]

-Acoradiene 137 [3]

-Humulene 135 [3 5 96 97 99]

(EE)--Farnesene 131 [3 96 97]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O O

HO

O

H

H

H

HO

HO

OH

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3CO（3

Verbenone 143 [3 99]

Germacrene-D 144 [3 123 101 96 97]

Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]

Carvone 148 [3 5 99]

Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 96 97 99]

Ar-curcumene 151 [3]

Cis-piperitol 152 [3]

2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]

26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol 156 [3 96 97]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]

Calamenene 158 [3]

Carvone oxide 159 [3]

Isopiperitenone 160 [3]

Cis-carveol 161 [3]

Piperitenone 162 [2 3 91 81]

Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 96 97]

-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]

-Bisabolene 146 [3]

-Curcumene 150 [3]

Figure 4 Continued

28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

OO

O

O

H

H

H

H

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

H

H

HCH

HH

HO

（3

（2

（2C

（3C（3C

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C O（3

Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3-5 96 97 98]

Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 96 97]

Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]

Spathulenol 167 [3]

Eugenol 168 [3 5]

Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [91]

Icterogenin 173 [104]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Figure 4

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to the NationalResearch Foundation (NRF) and GovanMbeki Research andDevelopment Centre (GMRDC) University of Fort Hare forfinancial support to conduct this research

References

[1] JWMwangi I Addae-Mensah RMMunavu andW LwandeldquoEssential oils of Kenyan Lippia species Part IIIrdquo Flavour andFragrance Journal vol 6 no 3 pp 221ndash224 1991

[2] N J Manenzhe N Potgieter and T Van Ree ldquoCompositionand antimicrobial activities of volatile components of Lippiajavanicardquo Phytochemistry vol 65 no 16 pp 2333ndash2336 2004

[3] A M Viljoen S Subramoney S F V Vuuren K H C Baserand B Demirci ldquoThe composition geographical variation andantimicrobial activity of Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae) leafessential oilsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 96 no 1-2 pp271ndash277 2005

[4] N Lukwa P Moslashlgaard P Furu and C Boslashgh ldquoLippia javanica(Burm f) Spreng its general constituents and bioactivity onmosquitoesrdquoTropical Biomedicine vol 26 no 1 pp 85ndash91 2009

[5] L S Chagonda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssential oil compositionof Lippia javanica (Burmf) spreng chemotype from WesternZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants vol 18 no 2pp 482ndash485 2015

[6] W Kipkore B Wanjohi H Rono and G Kigen ldquoA study of themedicinal plants used by the Marakwet Community in KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 242014

[7] E A Shikanga S Combrinck and T Regnier ldquoSouth AfricanLippia herbal infusions total phenolic content antioxidant andantibacterial activitiesrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76no 3 pp 567ndash571 2010

[8] N T Parrant ldquoThe potential of non-timber forest products ofBotswanardquo Botswana Notes Records vol 28 no 1 pp 203ndash2181996

[9] D M Motlhanka and S W Makhabu ldquoMedicinal and ediblewild fruit plants of Botswana as emerging new crop opportu-nitiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plants Research vol 5 no 10 pp1836ndash1842 2011

[10] M Bhebhe T N Fuller B Chipurura and M MuchuwetildquoEffect of solvent type on total phenolic content and free radicalscavenging activity of black tea and herbal infusionsrdquo FoodAnalytical Methods vol 9 no 4 pp 1060ndash1067 2016

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29

[11] M Bhebhe B Chipurura and M Muchuweti ldquoDeterminationand comparison of phenolic compound content and antioxidantactivity of selected local Zimbabwean herbal teas with exoticAspalathus linearisrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 100no 1 pp 213ndash218 2015

[12] B Patiri and A Borah Wild Edible Plants of Assam GeetakhiPrinters Guwahati India 2007

[13] H Narzary and A Basumatary ldquoProximate and vitamin Canalysis of wild edible plants consumed by Bodos of AssamIndiardquo Journal of Molecular Pathophysiology vol 4 no 4 pp128ndash133 2015

[14] M Gelfand S Mavi R B Drummond and B Ndemera TheTraditional Medical Practitioners in Zimbabwe His Principles ofPractice and Pharmacopoeia Mambo Press Gweru Zimbabwe1985

[15] D Davids Materia medica and care a study of the uses ofmedicinal herbs and remedies as a form of treatment andnegotiating social relationships in cape town and surroundings[MS dissertation] University of theWestern Cape Cape TownSouth Africa 2012

[16] A Maroyi and G K E Mosina ldquoMedicinal plants and tradi-tional practices in peri-urban domestic gardens of the Limpopoprovince South africardquo Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledgevol 13 no 4 pp 665ndash672 2014

[17] A Samie C L Obi P O Bessong and L Namrita ldquoActivityprofiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Vendacommunities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterialspeciesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 4 no 12 pp1443ndash1451 2005

[18] T York An ethnopharmacological study of plants used fortreating respiratory infections in rural Maputaland [MS disser-tation] University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa South Africa2012

[19] D Davids T Blouws O Aboyade et al ldquoTraditional healthpractitionersrsquo perceptions herbal treatment andmanagement ofHIV and related opportunistic infectionsrdquo Journal of Ethnobiol-ogy and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 77 2014

[20] A Hutchings A H Scott G Lewis and A CunninghamZulu Medicinal Plants An Inventory University of Natal PressPietermarizburg South Africa 1996

[21] RM Coopoosamy andK K Naidoo ldquoAn ethnobotanical studyofmedicinal plants used by traditional healers inDurban SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 6no 11 pp 818ndash823 2012

[22] I Hedberg and F Staugard Traditional Medicinal Plants inBotswana Ipeleng Gaborone Botswana 1989

[23] H Shahriar A S M H K Chowdhury S Rahman et al ldquoSci-entific validation of medicinal plants used by a folk medicinalpractitioner of Chuadanga District BangladeshrdquoWorld Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 11 pp 13ndash24 2014

[24] S S Semenya M J Potgieter and M P Tshisikhawe ldquoUseconservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinalplants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 12 no 18 pp2392ndash2405 2013

[25] M Roberts Indigenous Healing Plants Southern Book Publish-ers Halfway House Johannesburg South Africa 1990

[26] T Birhanu D Abera and E Ejeta ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas westernEthiopiardquo Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare vol 5no 1 pp 83ndash93 2015

[27] N T Mahlangeni R Moodley and S B Jonnalagadda ldquoEle-mental composition of Cyrtanthus obliquus and Lippia javanicaused in South African herbal tonic Imbizardquo Arabian Journal ofChemistry 2013

[28] W Musila D Kisangau and J Muema ldquoConservation statusand use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitionersin Machakos District Kenyardquo in Indigenous Knowledge Con-ference Proceedings Pennsylvania State University May 27ndash292004 2004

[29] G N Njoroge and R W Bussmann ldquoTraditional managementof ear nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 542006

[30] P Chigora R Masocha and F Mutenheri ldquoThe role of indige-nous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailmentsin rural Zimbabwe the case of Mutirikwi communal landsrdquoJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol 9 no 2 pp26ndash43 2007

[31] R W Bussmann G G Gilbreath J Solio et al ldquoPlant use ofthe Maasai of Sekenani Valley Maasai Mara Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 22 2006

[32] D Motlhanka and G P Nthoiwa ldquoEthnobotanical Survey ofmedicinal plants of Tswapong North in Eastern Botswana acase of plants from Mosweu and Seolwane Villagesrdquo EuropeanJournal of Medicinal Plants vol 3 no 1 pp 10ndash24 2013

[33] A Vhurumuku ldquoKnowledge use and attitudes towardsmedici-nal plants of pre-service teachers at a South African UniversityrdquoGlobal Advanced Research Journal in Environmental Science andToxicology vol 4 no 2 pp 15ndash24 2015

[34] M N Nkwanyana An ethnobotanical and antidiarrhoeal inves-tigation of plants used traditionally in the maputaland areahomesteads [MS dissertation] University of Zululand KwaD-langezwa South Africa 2013

[35] T E Moeng An investigation into the trade of medicinal plantsbymuthi shops and street vendors in the Limpopo Province SouthAfrica [MS thesis] University of Limpopo Gauteng SouthAfrica 2010

[36] S Bandeira A M Manjate and O Filipe ldquoAn EcologicalAssessment of the Health of the Chibuto-Missavene Wetlandin the Dry Season Mozambique Emphasis on ResourcesAssessment Utilization and Sustainability Analysisrdquo reportto Challenge Program for Water and Food InternationalWater Management Institute Pretoria South Africa 2006httpscgspacecgiarorgbitstreamhandle105682160421604pdfsequence=1

[37] M C Palgrave R B Drummond and E J Moll Trees ofSouthern Africa Struik Cape Town South Africa 2003

[38] M O Nanyingi J M Mbaria A L Lanyasunya et alldquoEthnopharmacological survey of Samburu district KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4 article 142008

[39] J G J P Sankar and K B Satapathy ldquoWeed diversity of Rabicrops and their ethnomedicinal uses in Kendrapara districtof Odisha Indiardquo International Research Journal of BiologicalSciences vol 4 no 3 pp 33ndash38 2015

[40] D E N Mabogo The ethnobotany of the vhavenda [MSdissertation] University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa1990

[41] B-E van Wyk B van Oudtshoorn and N Gericke MedicinalPlants of South Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2013

[42] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used forthe treatment of tuberculosis by Bapedi traditional healers

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

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MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

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Disease Markers

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OncologyJournal of

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Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

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Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

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ObesityJournal of

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Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 16: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

16 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

kristinae Salmonella typhi and S aureus using dimethylsulphoxide and kanamycin as controls with MIC valuesranging from 12 to 50 120583gmL see Table 4 Shikanga et al [7]evaluated the antibacterial activity of L javanica methanolicleaf extract against S aureus Enterococcus faecalis E coliand Pseudomonas aeruginosa using the serial microdilutionmethod with gentamycin (Virbac) and acetone as positiveand negative controls respectively Lippia javanica displayedantibacterial activities with MIC values ranging from 013to 042mgmL against all four pathogens see Table 4 Theobtained minimum inhibitory concentrations are promisingsince natural products with MIC values below 1mgmLare generally considered to be noteworthy findings [160]Lippialactone 21 derived from the ethyl acetate extract ofaerial parts of L javanica exhibited some activity against theE coli and S aureus at a concentration of 10mgmL [84]Lekganyane et al [75] reported antibacterial activity of Ljavanica acetone leaf extracts against E coli E faecalis Paeruginosa and S aureus with MIC values ranging from 032to 064mgmL and total activity of the same species rangingfrom 127 to 253mgmL see Table 4 Methanol and water leafextracts of L javanica exhibited some antiproteus activityagainstProteusmirabilis andProteus vulgariswithMICvalueslt2000120583gmL with standard discs of ampicillin (2120583g) andchloramphenicol (10 120583g) as positive controls [74] Some of theantibacterial properties of L javanica can be attributed to thephytochemical constituents of the species for example thephenolic compound apigenin 7 is a well-known antibacterialagent [7 134] Apigenin 7 was shown to be highly activeagainst Vibrio cholera and E faecalis [161] while Basile et al[162] reported the inhibition of S typhi P mirabilis and Paeruginosa by the compound Therefore results from theseantibacterial evaluations of L javanica give credence to theuse of the speciesrsquo infusions against bacterial infections andother related diseases

Shikanga et al [126] investigated the antifungal activ-ities of leaf extracts and essential oil compounds isolatedfrom L javanica leafy extracts against a Guazatine-resistantstrain of Penicillium digitatumThemethanolic leafy extractsisoverbascoside 3 and verbascoside 2 compounds isolatedfrom L javanica inhibited fungal growth at concentrationsabove 06mgsdotmLminus1 causing significant inhibition of mycelialgrowth Verbascoside 2 is well-known for its antimicrobialproperties and has been found to inhibit viruses bacteriaand fungi [163] Similarly Samie et al [143] investigatedantifungal effects of acetone and hexane leaf extracts of Ljavanica against Candida albicans Candida krusei and Cneoformans isolated from AIDS patients using the microdi-lution method with nystatin Roche and DMSO as positiveand negative controls respectively Noteworthy moderateantifungal activities were recorded from C krusei with MICvalue of 188mgmL and other recordedMFCandMICvaluesfor other species ranged from 188mgmL to gt75mgmLsee Table 4 Thembo et al [76] investigated the antifungalactivity of aqueous and organic extracts of L javanica usinga serial microdilution assay Generally extracts of L javanicaexhibited weak activity see Table 4

47 Antimycobacterial Activity Mujovo et al [83] evaluatedL javanica compounds against a drug-sensitive strain ofMycobacterium tuberculosis using the radiometric respira-tory techniques Of all the isolated compounds only onetriterpenoid carboxylic acid euscaphic acid 172 exhibitedantimycobacterial activity with MIC value of 50120583gmLminus1against this strain In a similar study the leaf extract ofL javanica exhibited antimycobacterial activity against Msmegmatis in an evaluation which used microdilution assayand rifampicin as control [77] Acetone extract was thebest extractant with MIC value of 047mgmL it extractedantibacterial agents which was indicated by the lowest MICvalue [77] Masoko and Nxumalo [77] also evaluated thetotal activity ofL javanicawhich averaged 13mLg suggestingthat the extract prepared from one gram of L javanicacould be diluted to a volume of 13mL and will still inhibitM smegmatis efficiently According to Semenya and Maroyi[115] tuberculosis caused by M tuberculosis is a seriousdisease requiring effective strategies and tools to controland manage it Therefore preliminary evaluations done byMujovo et al [83] and Masoko and Nxumalo [77] serve asa scientific validation for the use of L javanica in traditionalmedicine for treatment of tuberculosis and other respiratoryailments in South Africa [24 27 115] and Uganda [43] as wellas their efficiency in tuberculosis drug discovery

48 Antiviral Activity Mujovo et al [83] found that (E)-2(3)-tagetenone epoxide 42 and piperitenone 162 inhibitedthe HIV-1 reverse transcriptase enzyme by 91 and 53respectively at 100 120583gmLminus1 based on a nonradioactive HIVRT colorimetric ELISA kit Little is known about the HIV RTactivity of L javanica extracts or compounds but flavonoidsare known to be active against viral RT and also as potentinhibitors of the cellular alpha and beta DNA polymerase[83] while luteolin 12 is active against HIV RT [164 165]Lippia javanica is traditionally used to treat HIVAIDSsymptoms in South Africa [65 66] and several viral andHIVAIDS opportunistic diseases and infections such asbronchitis [15 19ndash22] chicken pox [50] diarrhoea [17 3437 44 113] measles [14 20 38] pneumonia [14] shingles[15] and venereal diseases [44] Despite significant advancesin the utilization of L javanica in southern Africa overthe years for numerous viral diseases (Table 1) very littleantiviral evaluations have been done on crude extracts andpurified compounds of the species There is need thereforefor more pharmacological research as L javanica could beharbouring potent (RT) inhibitors which could be useful forthe development of new pharmaceutical products importantfor use against viral diseases and infections

49 Pesticidal Effects Magano et al [95] evaluated the repel-lent effects of hexane extracts of L javanica essential oilusing the in vitro tick climbing repellency bioassay on adultsof Hyalomma marginatum rufipes Koch ticks The authorsfound that 107mgmL caused repellency index of 100 at onehour and 30 minutes In a similar study by Madzimure et al[120] L javanica aqueous leaf extracts at 10 and 20 wvwere effective at controlling cattle ticks (Amblyomma species

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 17

Boophilus species Hyalomma species Rhipicephalus appen-diculatus and Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi) and were as goodas the positive control amitraz-based acaricide TrickbusterThese authors found no parasites on microscopic exami-nation of the Giemsa-stained thin blood smear collectedfrom treated cattle implying that the animals did not sufferfrom clinical tick-borne diseases Similarly Nyahangare etal [59] tested the pesticidal activity of L javanica waterextracts against cattle ticks The authors found no significantdifference between cattle treated with a commercial syntheticacaricide and those under L javanica treatment Martinez-Velazquez et al [166] evaluated pesticidal effects of twoessential oils namely 120574-terpinene 82 and 120588-cymene 99isolated from Lippia graveolens Kunth against 10-day-oldRhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini) tick larvaeusing the larval packet test bioassay The two essential oilsproduced highmortality ranging from90 to 100 in all testedconcentrations of 20 to 125 (vv)Therefore L javanica canprovide an effective tick control option where synthetic prod-ucts are unavailable or unaffordable particularly in remoterural areas in sub-Saharan Africa Lippia javanica is popularfor tick control and management among resource-poorsmallholder farmers in South Africa [58 95] and Zimbabwe[59 60 120] While these preliminary evaluations may serveas confirmation that L javanica has some bioactivities againstticks a comprehensive method of tick control is requiredfor the resource-constrained smallholder farmers based onethnopharmacological properties of L javanica

McGaw et al [146] screened L javanica for the anthel-mintic test systems using the free living nematodeCaenorhabditis elegans The crude ethanol and hexaneextracts showed some activity at a concentration of 2mgmLwith the 7-day incubation assay appearing to be moresensitive than the shorter assay Earlier research by Mwangiet al [1] indicated that L javanica was active against Aedesaegypti larvae and Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (maizeweevil) Katsvanga and Chigwiza [147] reported that Ljavanica is an effective natural pesticide which can be used tocontrol aphid species (Brevicoryne brassicae) In their studyKatsvanga and Chigwiza [147] found that 1 1 powderedaqueous leaf extract of L javanica reduced B brassicae by532 against 783 and 967 of two synthetic pesticidesAphid kill and Bexadust ldquoLrdquo respectively Chikukura etal [149] found L javanica powdered leaf extracts to haveinsecticidal properties with potential to control graindamage by 21ndash33 Mashela et al [148] reported that theapplication of ground L javanica leaves to soil in nematode-infested (Meloidogyne incognita) pots reduced the nematodenumbers by 79ndash92 and significantly increased fresh fruityield dry shoot mass plant height and stem diameter ofthe tomato plants as well as levels of potassium nitrogenand manganese in leaf tissue Muzemu et al [150] evaluatedwater extracts of L javanica leaf powder for pesticidal effectsagainst rape (Brassica napus L) aphids B brassicae andtomato (Solanum lycopersicum Lam) red spider mites andTetranychus evansi as alternatives to conventional pesticidesLippia javanica reduced B brassicae and Tetranychus evansiby 125 and 63 respectively [150]The study demonstratedthat L javanica has pesticidal effects on B brassicae and T

evansi The reduced number of B brassicae and T evansicould be due to L javanicarsquos extracts having repellent toxicand antifeedant effects since the species has essential oilswith pesticidal properties [2] Therefore these findingsindicate that L javanica has both nematicidal and plantgrowth-promoting properties

410 Toxicity and Cytotoxicity Activity Lippia javanica isknown to cause liver damage and photosensitisation in live-stock resulting in stock losses [167] Triterpenoids isolatedfrom the genus Lippia are icterogenic and cause jaundice asa result of liver damage [167] The characteristic swellingyellowing and later peeling of unpigmented skin are due tothe presence of phylloerythrin a photodynamic porphyrinthat reacts with sunlight and causes severe cell damage [167]The compound is normally formed when chlorophyll isbroken down by microorganisms in the rumen but it nowaccumulates in the liver as a result of the damage caused bytriterpenoids [167] In view of the known toxicity of Lippiaspecies the prolonged use of high doses of L javanica ispotentially harmful [167] Lippia javanica showed low toxicityafter 48 h exposure with the percentage of mortality below50 [74]

Ayuko et al [79] evaluated the toxicity of L javanicausing a brine shrimp cytotoxicity assay with LC

50value of

1138 plusmn 133 120583gmL Ayuko et al [79] found the cytotoxicity toantiplasmodial activity ratios for the methanolic extracts ofthe two tested strains to be 8430 and 6503 and since theseare greater than 100 it may be concluded that the extractsare of low toxicity Samie et al [73] demonstrated that apure compound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanicaessential oil has low cytotoxicity activity against intestinaladenocarcinoma cells (ie the HCT-8 monolayers with IC

50

of 2656 plusmn 53 120583gmL) Lukwa [64] evaluated the toxicity of Ljavanica aqueous leaf extracts using sexually mature BALBcmice with the placebo as control Within 48 hours all micefed with the L javanica leaf aqueous extract at 125ndash375 vvwere lethargic and the overall mortality was 375 Previousresearch byManenzhe et al [2] showed that hydrodistillationof L javanica leaves flowers and stems produced oil thatwas poisonous against P falciparumwhen diluted to 1 (vv)These findings imply that despite its apparent safety waterextracts of L javanica leaves may have deleterious healthimplications on humans and animals if consumed at veryhigh doses

Many compounds that have been isolated from L javan-ica including phenolic glycosides flavonoids and essentialoils are not known to have acute toxic properties withthe exception of icterogenin 173 Icterogenin 173 has beenshown to inhibit biliary excretion in rabbits [168] Reports inliterature indicate that the consumption of xanthine 22 hasresulted in mammalian toxicity According to Madzimure etal [64] xanthine 22 is a demethylated derivative of caffeinewith pharmacological actions such as central nervous system(CNS) stimulation relaxation of smooth muscle (especiallybronchial muscle) myocardial stimulation peripheral vaso-constriction and diuresis Considering the widespread useof L javanica as herbal tea and medicine it is important

18 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

to determine if any toxicological effects can occur from itschronic or subchronic usage

411 Other Activities Mpofu et al [169] determined the effectof inclusion of L javanica leaf meal in broiler diets ongrowth performance carcass characteristics and fatty acidprofiles The authors found that the L javanica fed broilershad higher total polyunsaturated fatty acids and n-3 fattyacidsThe findings from the study showed that inclusion of Ljavanica in broiler diets at 5 gkg feed has positive influenceson growth performance carcass characteristics and fattyacid profiles of broiler meat and therefore L javanica haspotential as growth-promoting feed additive in broilersSamie et al [73] evaluated antiamoebic activity of a purecompound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica essen-tial oil against Entamoeba histolytica using microdilutionmethod with metronidazole as the positive control diluents(ie culture medium with an appropriate concentration ofdimethyl sulphoxide as the negative control) and a blank(ie culture medium without dimethyl sulphoxide) Samieet al [73] demonstrated that piperitenone 162 had markedantiamoebic activity with IC

50value of 25 120583gmL More

research is required as L javanica could be harbouring potentantiamoebic properties which could be useful for managingamoebiasis an infection that remains a significant cause ofmorbidity and mortality worldwide

5 Conclusion

Lippia javanica has been used in African and Asian countriesas herbal tea and medicine for many centuries Utilization ofL javanica because of its flavour and medicinal propertiesforms the basis of the current demand for the plant speciesin central eastern and southern Africa Research on Ljavanica over the past decade on health promoting propertieshas greatly contributed to the increased consumption ofthe species as herbal or recreational tea The focus of thisresearch has been on phytochemical compounds particularlyphenolic content and antioxidant and free radical scavengingactivities Phenolic compounds present in L javanica arelargely responsible for the antioxidant properties possessedby the species More research in this regard is required andfuture research should focus on more comprehensive chem-ical characterization of both crude and pure extracts andevaluate potential for commercialization and developmentof nutraceutical products based on traditional uses of Ljavanica Most of the pharmacological researches conductedon L javanica so far have focused on the phytochemistryand biological properties of leaves and little or no researchhas been done on roots and other plant parts Thereforefuture research on the species should focus on other plantparts for example flowers roots and stems as well asorgan-to-organ age and seasonal variation evaluations in thephytochemical content and pharmacological activities of thespecies

The recent increase in the demand for L javanica prod-ucts may partly be ascribed to growing body of scientific evi-dence indicating important health benefits Lippia javanica

is widely sold as herbal tea in Botswana South Africa andZimbabwe Leaves and stems of L javanica are also sold asherbal medicines in the medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquo marketsin South Africa [35 170] For local people who rely onherbal medicines as part of their primary healthcare aswell as cultural beliefs they prefer L javanica harvestedfrom the wild and unprocessed plant parts sold in informalmedicinal ldquomuthirdquo markets [170] In the past there were norecords of overexploitation of L javanica wild populationsin southern Africa resulting in Raimondo et al [171] listingthe species as Least Concern (LC) under the IUCN RedList Categories and Criteria version 31 of threatened species(httpwwwiucnredlistorg) Recently signs of overharvest-ing have been noted where local people or plant traders haveuprooted whole plants to supply medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquomarkets or use the plants as herbal medicines brooms orherbal tea Therefore large-scale commercial utilization of Ljavanica is not sustainable if the species is harvested fromthe wild Currently L javanica is cultivated on a commercialscale in Kenya [28] and South Africa [117] for essential oilproduction for the mosquito-repellent candles and perfumeindustry Cultivation of L javanica is therefore a solutionto the sustainability problems associated with harvesting ofthe species from the wild and this option is also necessaryfor establishing commercial scale medicinal production andprocessing and trade enterprises The success of commercialcultivation of L javanica will depend on how the species ismarketed as herbal tea and medicine and source of essentialoil and health care products and as a source of functionalfoods

Significant research has been made in the past 50 yearsinto the chemistry and pharmacology of L javanica Thesestudies have shown L javanica to display various chemicaland different biological activities some of which justify itsethnopharmacological utilization in variety of cultures Inthe light of the evidence that L javanica is combined withother plant species in traditional medicine it will be valuableto investigate the possibility of synergistic effects of thedifferent extracts Deep phytochemical studies of L javanicaand its phytochemical properties especially the mechanismsof action of its bioactive constituents to illustrate the cor-relation between ethnomedicinal uses and pharmacologicalactivities should be the focus of further research on thespecies There is need for extensive in vivo experiments tovalidate the existing pharmacological activities Howeverbecause L javanica contains potentially toxic compoundsits toxicological properties need to be properly establishedvia proper quality control of product development to ensurethat potentially toxic components are kept below tolerancelevels

Appendix

A Chemical Compounds Isolated andCharacterized from Lippia javanica

See Table 5

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 19

Table 5

Chemical compound Reference(s)Phenolic compoundsCoumarin 1 [4]Verbascoside 2 [81]Isoverbascoside 3 [81]Theveside-Na 4 [82]Theveridoside 5 [82]4-ethylnonacosane 6 [83]Apigenin 7 [64 83]Cirsimaritin 8 [64 83]6-Methoxy luteolin41015840-methyl ether 9 [83]

6-Methoxy luteolin31015840410158407-trimethyl ether 10 [83]

Crassifolioside 11 [64]Luteolin 12 [64]Diosmetin 13 [64]Chrysoeriol 14 [64]Tricin 15 [64]Isothymusin 16 [64]Eupatorin 17 [64]5-Dimethyl noboletin 18 [64]Genkwanin 19 [64]Salvigenin 20 [64]Lippialactone 21 [84]AlkaloidXanthine 22 [64]Amino acids120572-Aminobutyric acid 23 [85 86]Valine 24 [86]Isoleucine 25 [86]Asparagine 26 [86]Phenylalanine 27 [86]120572-Aminoadipic acid 28 [86]Lysine 29 [86]Histidine 30 [86]Tyrosine 31 [86]Tryptophan 32 [86]Alanine 33 [85]Glycine 34 [85]Proline 35 [85]Serine 36 [85]Glutamine acid 37 [85]120573-Alanine 38 [85]Glutamine 39 [85]120573-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [85]4-hydroxyproline 41 [85]Essential oil(E)-2(3)-tagetenoneepoxide 42 [83]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]120572-Pinene 44 [3ndash5 87ndash91]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4](+)-2-Carene 46 [4]3-Carene 47 [4]Eucalyptol 48 [4]18 myrcene 49 [87]Ipsdienone 50 [87]Caryophyllene 51 [85]Geranial 52 [5 92 93]26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [92]Geraniol 54 [92]Octen-3-one 55 [5]6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]120588-Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]Artemisia ketone 58 [5]Linalool oxide 59 [5]Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5](Z)-120573-Ocimenone 61 [5](E)-120573-Ocimenone 62 [5]Carvyl acetate 63 [5]120572-Cubebene 64 [5]Sesquithujene 65 [5]Acora-35-diene 66 [5]120573-Bergamotene 67 [5]Trans-calamenene 68 [5]120573-Alaskene 69 [5]120574-Cadinene 70 [5]120575-Cadinene 71 [3 88 89 91]Cis-calamenene 72 [5]Nerolidol 73 [5](E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 88 89]Spathulenol 75 [5]Epi-120572-muurolol 76 [5]120572-Longipinene 77 [90]Chrysanthenone 78 [90]120572-Terpineol 79 [3 5 90 91]120572-Amorphene 80 [90]120572-Thujene 81 [91]120574-Terpinene 82 [91]120572-Cubebene 83 [91]Linalool acetate 84 [91]Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [91]Camphene 86 [3 5 88ndash91]120573-Pinene 87 [3 5 91]Sabinene 88 [3 5 87 90 91]Myrcene 89 [3 5 87ndash89 91ndash95]120572-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 88 89]2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]Limonene 92 [3 5 88ndash94]18-Cineole 93 [3 5 90 91 95]120573-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 88 89 91]

20 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3](Z)-120573-Ocimene 96 [3 5 88 89 91](E)-120573-Ocimene 97 [3 5 88 89 91]Isomyrcenol 98 [3]p-Cymene 99 [3 5 85 88ndash91]2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]Terpinolene 101 [3]Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 88 89 91 95]Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 88 89](Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]Nonanal 106 [3]Perillene 107 [3 91]Ipsenone 108 [3 87ndash89 95]Trans-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 88ndash90]1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 88 89]Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]Ttrans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]cis-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 88ndash90]120572-Copaene 114 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetone 115 [3 88 89]Trans-tagetone 116 [3 88 89]Camphor 117 [3 5 88ndash90 93 94]120573-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 91]Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 85 88ndash90 92 93]

Trans-120572-bergamotene 121 [3]120572-Cedrene 122 [3 5]Myrcenone 123 [3 5 83 91]120573-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 87ndash91 93 94]2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 88 89](Z)-120573-Farnesene 129 [3](E)-120573-Farnesene 130 [3 5](EE)-120572-Farnesene 131 [3 88 89]Ipsdienol 132 [3](Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]Isovaleric acid 134 [3]120572-Humulene 135 [3 5 88 89 91]120572-Acoradiene 136 [3]120573-Acoradiene 137 [3]120574-Muurolene 138 [3 5 88 89]120572-Muurolene 139 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]Borneol 142 [3 5 88ndash90]Verbenone 143 [3 91]Germacrene-D 144 [3 87ndash89 93]120573-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]120574-Bisabolene 146 [3]Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]Carvone 148 [3 5 91]Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 88 89 91]120573-Curcumene 150 [3]Ar-curcumene 151 [3]Cis-piperitol 152 [3]2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol156 [3 88 89]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]Calamenene 158 [3]Carvone oxide 159 [3]Isopiperitenone 160 [3]Cis-carveol 161 [3]Piperitenone 162 [2 3 73 83]Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 88 89]Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3ndash5 88ndash90]Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 88 89]Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]Spathulenol 167 [3]Eugenol 168 [3 5]Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120573-ol(=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120572-ol(=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [83]Icterogenin 173 [96]

B Chemical Structures ofPhenolic Compounds Alkaloids AminoAcids and Essential Oils Isolated fromLippia javanica

See Figure 4

Competing Interests

The author declares that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 21

O

OO

OO O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

C CH CHO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

COOH

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

Me

OMe

OMe

OMe

MeO

Me

HOOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OMe

OMe

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

（2 （2

（2

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

（3CO

（3CO

Coumarin 1 [4]

Verbascoside 2 [89]

Isoverbascoside 3 [89]

Theveside-Na 4 [90]

Theveridoside 5 [90]

4-Ethylnonacosane 6 [91]

Apigenin 7 [120 91]

Cirsimaritin 8 [120 91]

Crassifolioside 11 [120]

Luteolin 12 [120]

Diosmetin 13 [120]

Chrysoeriol 14 [120]

Tricin 15 [120]

Isothymusin 16 [120]

Eupatorin 17 [120]

6-Methoxyluteolin 3 47-trimethyl ether 10 [91]

6-Methoxyluteolin 4-methyl ether 9 [91]

Figure 4 Continued

22 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

N

NH

HN

HO

NH

O

NH

O

O

O

O

HN

N N

N

H

H

OAc

OAcOAc

OO

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

（3CO

（2

（2

（2

（2 （2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3N

（2N

（2N

（2N

（2N

minus

+

+

5-Desmethylnoboletin 18 [120]

Genkwanin 19 [120]

Salvigenin 20 [120]

Lippialactone 21 [92]

Xanthine 22 [120]

Valine 24 [94]

Isoleucine 25 [94]

Asparagine 26 [94]

Phenylalanine 27 [94]

Lysine 29 [94]

Histidine 30 [94]

Tyrosine 31 [94]

Tryptophan 32 [94]

Alanine 33 [93]

Glycine 34 [93]

Proline 35 [93]

Serine 36 [93]

Glutamine acid 37 [93]

Glutamine 39 [93]

4-Hydroxyproline 41 [93]

(E)-2(3)-Tagetenone epoxide 42 [91]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]

-Alanine 38 [93]

-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [93]

-Aminoadipic acid 28 [94]

-Aminobutyric acid 23 [93 94]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 23

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

H

H

HH

H

O

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

HO

OH

O

O

O

O

OH（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4]

3-Carene 47 [4]

Eucalyptol 48 [4]

18 myrcene 49 [123]

Ipsdienone 50 [123]

Caryophyllene 51 [93]

Geranial 52 [5 100 101]

26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [100]

Geraniol 54 [100]

Octen-3-one 55 [5]

6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]

Artemisia ketone 58 [5]

Linalool oxide 59 [5]

Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5]

Carvyl acetate 63 [5]

Sesquithujene 65 [5]

Acora-35-diene 66 [5]

-Pinene 44 [3-5 123 96 97 98 99] -Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]

(+)-2-Carene 46 [4]

-Bergamotene 67 [5]

-Cubebene 64 [5]

(Z)--Ocimenone 61 [5]

(E)--Ocimenone 62 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

24 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OH

H

H

H

H

O

OHO

HO

H

HH H

H

H

HH

H

HO

HO

O

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

Trans-calamenene 68 [5]

Cis-calamenene 72 [5]

Nerolidol 73 [5]

(E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 96 97]

Spathulenol 75 [5]

Chrysanthenone 78 [98]

Linalool acetate 84 [99]

Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [99]

Camphene 86 [3 5 96 97 98 99]

Sabinene 88 [3 5 123 98 99]

Myrcene 89 [3 5 123 100 101 96 97 99 102 103]

-Alaskene 69 [5]

-Terpineol 79 [3 5 98 99]

-Amorphene 80 [98]

-Cadinene 70 [45]-Thujene 81 [99]

-Cadinene 71 [3 96 97 99] -Terpinene 82 [99]

-Cubebene 83 [99]

-Pinene 87 [3 5 99]

-Longipinene 77 [98]

-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 96 97]

Epi--muurolol 76 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 25

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O

OH

OH

H

H

H

H

H

HOO

OH

O

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（3(（2)3（2

（3(（2)6（2

2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]

Limonene 92 [3 5 100 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3]

Isomyrcenol 98 [3]

p-Cymene 99 [3 5 93 96 97 98 99]

2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]

Terpinolene 101 [3]

Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 96 97 99 103]

Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 96 97]

(Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]

67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]

Nonanal 106 [3]

Perillene 107 [3 99]

Ipsenone 108 [3 123 96 97 103]

Trans-linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 96 97 98]

1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 96 97]

Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]

Trans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]

Cis-linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 96 97 98]

Cis-tagetone 115 [3 96 97]

Trans-tagetone 116 [3 96 97]

-Copaene 114 [3 5 96 97 98]

18-Cineole (=eucalyptol) 93 [3 5 98 99 103]

-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 96 97 99]

(Z)--Ocimene 96 [3 5 96 97 99]

(E)--Ocimene 97 [3 5 96 97 99]

Camphor 117 [3 5 101 96 97 98 102]

Figure 4 Continued

26 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

HH

H

H

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 93 100 101 96 97 98]

Myrcenone 123 [3 5 91 99]

2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol 125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]

Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 96 97]

Ipsdienol 132 [3]

(Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]

Isovaleric acid 134 [3]

Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]

Borneol 142 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 99]

Trans--bergamotene 121 [3]

-Cedrene 122 [3 5]

-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 123 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)--Farnesene 129 [3]

(E)--Farnesene 130 [3 5]

-Muurolene 139 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Muurolene 138 [3 5 96 97]

-Acoradiene 136 [3]

-Acoradiene 137 [3]

-Humulene 135 [3 5 96 97 99]

(EE)--Farnesene 131 [3 96 97]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O O

HO

O

H

H

H

HO

HO

OH

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3CO（3

Verbenone 143 [3 99]

Germacrene-D 144 [3 123 101 96 97]

Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]

Carvone 148 [3 5 99]

Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 96 97 99]

Ar-curcumene 151 [3]

Cis-piperitol 152 [3]

2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]

26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol 156 [3 96 97]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]

Calamenene 158 [3]

Carvone oxide 159 [3]

Isopiperitenone 160 [3]

Cis-carveol 161 [3]

Piperitenone 162 [2 3 91 81]

Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 96 97]

-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]

-Bisabolene 146 [3]

-Curcumene 150 [3]

Figure 4 Continued

28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

OO

O

O

H

H

H

H

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

H

H

HCH

HH

HO

（3

（2

（2C

（3C（3C

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C O（3

Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3-5 96 97 98]

Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 96 97]

Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]

Spathulenol 167 [3]

Eugenol 168 [3 5]

Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [91]

Icterogenin 173 [104]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Figure 4

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to the NationalResearch Foundation (NRF) and GovanMbeki Research andDevelopment Centre (GMRDC) University of Fort Hare forfinancial support to conduct this research

References

[1] JWMwangi I Addae-Mensah RMMunavu andW LwandeldquoEssential oils of Kenyan Lippia species Part IIIrdquo Flavour andFragrance Journal vol 6 no 3 pp 221ndash224 1991

[2] N J Manenzhe N Potgieter and T Van Ree ldquoCompositionand antimicrobial activities of volatile components of Lippiajavanicardquo Phytochemistry vol 65 no 16 pp 2333ndash2336 2004

[3] A M Viljoen S Subramoney S F V Vuuren K H C Baserand B Demirci ldquoThe composition geographical variation andantimicrobial activity of Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae) leafessential oilsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 96 no 1-2 pp271ndash277 2005

[4] N Lukwa P Moslashlgaard P Furu and C Boslashgh ldquoLippia javanica(Burm f) Spreng its general constituents and bioactivity onmosquitoesrdquoTropical Biomedicine vol 26 no 1 pp 85ndash91 2009

[5] L S Chagonda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssential oil compositionof Lippia javanica (Burmf) spreng chemotype from WesternZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants vol 18 no 2pp 482ndash485 2015

[6] W Kipkore B Wanjohi H Rono and G Kigen ldquoA study of themedicinal plants used by the Marakwet Community in KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 242014

[7] E A Shikanga S Combrinck and T Regnier ldquoSouth AfricanLippia herbal infusions total phenolic content antioxidant andantibacterial activitiesrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76no 3 pp 567ndash571 2010

[8] N T Parrant ldquoThe potential of non-timber forest products ofBotswanardquo Botswana Notes Records vol 28 no 1 pp 203ndash2181996

[9] D M Motlhanka and S W Makhabu ldquoMedicinal and ediblewild fruit plants of Botswana as emerging new crop opportu-nitiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plants Research vol 5 no 10 pp1836ndash1842 2011

[10] M Bhebhe T N Fuller B Chipurura and M MuchuwetildquoEffect of solvent type on total phenolic content and free radicalscavenging activity of black tea and herbal infusionsrdquo FoodAnalytical Methods vol 9 no 4 pp 1060ndash1067 2016

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29

[11] M Bhebhe B Chipurura and M Muchuweti ldquoDeterminationand comparison of phenolic compound content and antioxidantactivity of selected local Zimbabwean herbal teas with exoticAspalathus linearisrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 100no 1 pp 213ndash218 2015

[12] B Patiri and A Borah Wild Edible Plants of Assam GeetakhiPrinters Guwahati India 2007

[13] H Narzary and A Basumatary ldquoProximate and vitamin Canalysis of wild edible plants consumed by Bodos of AssamIndiardquo Journal of Molecular Pathophysiology vol 4 no 4 pp128ndash133 2015

[14] M Gelfand S Mavi R B Drummond and B Ndemera TheTraditional Medical Practitioners in Zimbabwe His Principles ofPractice and Pharmacopoeia Mambo Press Gweru Zimbabwe1985

[15] D Davids Materia medica and care a study of the uses ofmedicinal herbs and remedies as a form of treatment andnegotiating social relationships in cape town and surroundings[MS dissertation] University of theWestern Cape Cape TownSouth Africa 2012

[16] A Maroyi and G K E Mosina ldquoMedicinal plants and tradi-tional practices in peri-urban domestic gardens of the Limpopoprovince South africardquo Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledgevol 13 no 4 pp 665ndash672 2014

[17] A Samie C L Obi P O Bessong and L Namrita ldquoActivityprofiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Vendacommunities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterialspeciesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 4 no 12 pp1443ndash1451 2005

[18] T York An ethnopharmacological study of plants used fortreating respiratory infections in rural Maputaland [MS disser-tation] University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa South Africa2012

[19] D Davids T Blouws O Aboyade et al ldquoTraditional healthpractitionersrsquo perceptions herbal treatment andmanagement ofHIV and related opportunistic infectionsrdquo Journal of Ethnobiol-ogy and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 77 2014

[20] A Hutchings A H Scott G Lewis and A CunninghamZulu Medicinal Plants An Inventory University of Natal PressPietermarizburg South Africa 1996

[21] RM Coopoosamy andK K Naidoo ldquoAn ethnobotanical studyofmedicinal plants used by traditional healers inDurban SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 6no 11 pp 818ndash823 2012

[22] I Hedberg and F Staugard Traditional Medicinal Plants inBotswana Ipeleng Gaborone Botswana 1989

[23] H Shahriar A S M H K Chowdhury S Rahman et al ldquoSci-entific validation of medicinal plants used by a folk medicinalpractitioner of Chuadanga District BangladeshrdquoWorld Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 11 pp 13ndash24 2014

[24] S S Semenya M J Potgieter and M P Tshisikhawe ldquoUseconservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinalplants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 12 no 18 pp2392ndash2405 2013

[25] M Roberts Indigenous Healing Plants Southern Book Publish-ers Halfway House Johannesburg South Africa 1990

[26] T Birhanu D Abera and E Ejeta ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas westernEthiopiardquo Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare vol 5no 1 pp 83ndash93 2015

[27] N T Mahlangeni R Moodley and S B Jonnalagadda ldquoEle-mental composition of Cyrtanthus obliquus and Lippia javanicaused in South African herbal tonic Imbizardquo Arabian Journal ofChemistry 2013

[28] W Musila D Kisangau and J Muema ldquoConservation statusand use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitionersin Machakos District Kenyardquo in Indigenous Knowledge Con-ference Proceedings Pennsylvania State University May 27ndash292004 2004

[29] G N Njoroge and R W Bussmann ldquoTraditional managementof ear nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 542006

[30] P Chigora R Masocha and F Mutenheri ldquoThe role of indige-nous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailmentsin rural Zimbabwe the case of Mutirikwi communal landsrdquoJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol 9 no 2 pp26ndash43 2007

[31] R W Bussmann G G Gilbreath J Solio et al ldquoPlant use ofthe Maasai of Sekenani Valley Maasai Mara Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 22 2006

[32] D Motlhanka and G P Nthoiwa ldquoEthnobotanical Survey ofmedicinal plants of Tswapong North in Eastern Botswana acase of plants from Mosweu and Seolwane Villagesrdquo EuropeanJournal of Medicinal Plants vol 3 no 1 pp 10ndash24 2013

[33] A Vhurumuku ldquoKnowledge use and attitudes towardsmedici-nal plants of pre-service teachers at a South African UniversityrdquoGlobal Advanced Research Journal in Environmental Science andToxicology vol 4 no 2 pp 15ndash24 2015

[34] M N Nkwanyana An ethnobotanical and antidiarrhoeal inves-tigation of plants used traditionally in the maputaland areahomesteads [MS dissertation] University of Zululand KwaD-langezwa South Africa 2013

[35] T E Moeng An investigation into the trade of medicinal plantsbymuthi shops and street vendors in the Limpopo Province SouthAfrica [MS thesis] University of Limpopo Gauteng SouthAfrica 2010

[36] S Bandeira A M Manjate and O Filipe ldquoAn EcologicalAssessment of the Health of the Chibuto-Missavene Wetlandin the Dry Season Mozambique Emphasis on ResourcesAssessment Utilization and Sustainability Analysisrdquo reportto Challenge Program for Water and Food InternationalWater Management Institute Pretoria South Africa 2006httpscgspacecgiarorgbitstreamhandle105682160421604pdfsequence=1

[37] M C Palgrave R B Drummond and E J Moll Trees ofSouthern Africa Struik Cape Town South Africa 2003

[38] M O Nanyingi J M Mbaria A L Lanyasunya et alldquoEthnopharmacological survey of Samburu district KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4 article 142008

[39] J G J P Sankar and K B Satapathy ldquoWeed diversity of Rabicrops and their ethnomedicinal uses in Kendrapara districtof Odisha Indiardquo International Research Journal of BiologicalSciences vol 4 no 3 pp 33ndash38 2015

[40] D E N Mabogo The ethnobotany of the vhavenda [MSdissertation] University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa1990

[41] B-E van Wyk B van Oudtshoorn and N Gericke MedicinalPlants of South Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2013

[42] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used forthe treatment of tuberculosis by Bapedi traditional healers

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

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Disease Markers

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Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

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Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

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Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 17: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 17

Boophilus species Hyalomma species Rhipicephalus appen-diculatus and Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi) and were as goodas the positive control amitraz-based acaricide TrickbusterThese authors found no parasites on microscopic exami-nation of the Giemsa-stained thin blood smear collectedfrom treated cattle implying that the animals did not sufferfrom clinical tick-borne diseases Similarly Nyahangare etal [59] tested the pesticidal activity of L javanica waterextracts against cattle ticks The authors found no significantdifference between cattle treated with a commercial syntheticacaricide and those under L javanica treatment Martinez-Velazquez et al [166] evaluated pesticidal effects of twoessential oils namely 120574-terpinene 82 and 120588-cymene 99isolated from Lippia graveolens Kunth against 10-day-oldRhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini) tick larvaeusing the larval packet test bioassay The two essential oilsproduced highmortality ranging from90 to 100 in all testedconcentrations of 20 to 125 (vv)Therefore L javanica canprovide an effective tick control option where synthetic prod-ucts are unavailable or unaffordable particularly in remoterural areas in sub-Saharan Africa Lippia javanica is popularfor tick control and management among resource-poorsmallholder farmers in South Africa [58 95] and Zimbabwe[59 60 120] While these preliminary evaluations may serveas confirmation that L javanica has some bioactivities againstticks a comprehensive method of tick control is requiredfor the resource-constrained smallholder farmers based onethnopharmacological properties of L javanica

McGaw et al [146] screened L javanica for the anthel-mintic test systems using the free living nematodeCaenorhabditis elegans The crude ethanol and hexaneextracts showed some activity at a concentration of 2mgmLwith the 7-day incubation assay appearing to be moresensitive than the shorter assay Earlier research by Mwangiet al [1] indicated that L javanica was active against Aedesaegypti larvae and Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (maizeweevil) Katsvanga and Chigwiza [147] reported that Ljavanica is an effective natural pesticide which can be used tocontrol aphid species (Brevicoryne brassicae) In their studyKatsvanga and Chigwiza [147] found that 1 1 powderedaqueous leaf extract of L javanica reduced B brassicae by532 against 783 and 967 of two synthetic pesticidesAphid kill and Bexadust ldquoLrdquo respectively Chikukura etal [149] found L javanica powdered leaf extracts to haveinsecticidal properties with potential to control graindamage by 21ndash33 Mashela et al [148] reported that theapplication of ground L javanica leaves to soil in nematode-infested (Meloidogyne incognita) pots reduced the nematodenumbers by 79ndash92 and significantly increased fresh fruityield dry shoot mass plant height and stem diameter ofthe tomato plants as well as levels of potassium nitrogenand manganese in leaf tissue Muzemu et al [150] evaluatedwater extracts of L javanica leaf powder for pesticidal effectsagainst rape (Brassica napus L) aphids B brassicae andtomato (Solanum lycopersicum Lam) red spider mites andTetranychus evansi as alternatives to conventional pesticidesLippia javanica reduced B brassicae and Tetranychus evansiby 125 and 63 respectively [150]The study demonstratedthat L javanica has pesticidal effects on B brassicae and T

evansi The reduced number of B brassicae and T evansicould be due to L javanicarsquos extracts having repellent toxicand antifeedant effects since the species has essential oilswith pesticidal properties [2] Therefore these findingsindicate that L javanica has both nematicidal and plantgrowth-promoting properties

410 Toxicity and Cytotoxicity Activity Lippia javanica isknown to cause liver damage and photosensitisation in live-stock resulting in stock losses [167] Triterpenoids isolatedfrom the genus Lippia are icterogenic and cause jaundice asa result of liver damage [167] The characteristic swellingyellowing and later peeling of unpigmented skin are due tothe presence of phylloerythrin a photodynamic porphyrinthat reacts with sunlight and causes severe cell damage [167]The compound is normally formed when chlorophyll isbroken down by microorganisms in the rumen but it nowaccumulates in the liver as a result of the damage caused bytriterpenoids [167] In view of the known toxicity of Lippiaspecies the prolonged use of high doses of L javanica ispotentially harmful [167] Lippia javanica showed low toxicityafter 48 h exposure with the percentage of mortality below50 [74]

Ayuko et al [79] evaluated the toxicity of L javanicausing a brine shrimp cytotoxicity assay with LC

50value of

1138 plusmn 133 120583gmL Ayuko et al [79] found the cytotoxicity toantiplasmodial activity ratios for the methanolic extracts ofthe two tested strains to be 8430 and 6503 and since theseare greater than 100 it may be concluded that the extractsare of low toxicity Samie et al [73] demonstrated that apure compound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanicaessential oil has low cytotoxicity activity against intestinaladenocarcinoma cells (ie the HCT-8 monolayers with IC

50

of 2656 plusmn 53 120583gmL) Lukwa [64] evaluated the toxicity of Ljavanica aqueous leaf extracts using sexually mature BALBcmice with the placebo as control Within 48 hours all micefed with the L javanica leaf aqueous extract at 125ndash375 vvwere lethargic and the overall mortality was 375 Previousresearch byManenzhe et al [2] showed that hydrodistillationof L javanica leaves flowers and stems produced oil thatwas poisonous against P falciparumwhen diluted to 1 (vv)These findings imply that despite its apparent safety waterextracts of L javanica leaves may have deleterious healthimplications on humans and animals if consumed at veryhigh doses

Many compounds that have been isolated from L javan-ica including phenolic glycosides flavonoids and essentialoils are not known to have acute toxic properties withthe exception of icterogenin 173 Icterogenin 173 has beenshown to inhibit biliary excretion in rabbits [168] Reports inliterature indicate that the consumption of xanthine 22 hasresulted in mammalian toxicity According to Madzimure etal [64] xanthine 22 is a demethylated derivative of caffeinewith pharmacological actions such as central nervous system(CNS) stimulation relaxation of smooth muscle (especiallybronchial muscle) myocardial stimulation peripheral vaso-constriction and diuresis Considering the widespread useof L javanica as herbal tea and medicine it is important

18 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

to determine if any toxicological effects can occur from itschronic or subchronic usage

411 Other Activities Mpofu et al [169] determined the effectof inclusion of L javanica leaf meal in broiler diets ongrowth performance carcass characteristics and fatty acidprofiles The authors found that the L javanica fed broilershad higher total polyunsaturated fatty acids and n-3 fattyacidsThe findings from the study showed that inclusion of Ljavanica in broiler diets at 5 gkg feed has positive influenceson growth performance carcass characteristics and fattyacid profiles of broiler meat and therefore L javanica haspotential as growth-promoting feed additive in broilersSamie et al [73] evaluated antiamoebic activity of a purecompound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica essen-tial oil against Entamoeba histolytica using microdilutionmethod with metronidazole as the positive control diluents(ie culture medium with an appropriate concentration ofdimethyl sulphoxide as the negative control) and a blank(ie culture medium without dimethyl sulphoxide) Samieet al [73] demonstrated that piperitenone 162 had markedantiamoebic activity with IC

50value of 25 120583gmL More

research is required as L javanica could be harbouring potentantiamoebic properties which could be useful for managingamoebiasis an infection that remains a significant cause ofmorbidity and mortality worldwide

5 Conclusion

Lippia javanica has been used in African and Asian countriesas herbal tea and medicine for many centuries Utilization ofL javanica because of its flavour and medicinal propertiesforms the basis of the current demand for the plant speciesin central eastern and southern Africa Research on Ljavanica over the past decade on health promoting propertieshas greatly contributed to the increased consumption ofthe species as herbal or recreational tea The focus of thisresearch has been on phytochemical compounds particularlyphenolic content and antioxidant and free radical scavengingactivities Phenolic compounds present in L javanica arelargely responsible for the antioxidant properties possessedby the species More research in this regard is required andfuture research should focus on more comprehensive chem-ical characterization of both crude and pure extracts andevaluate potential for commercialization and developmentof nutraceutical products based on traditional uses of Ljavanica Most of the pharmacological researches conductedon L javanica so far have focused on the phytochemistryand biological properties of leaves and little or no researchhas been done on roots and other plant parts Thereforefuture research on the species should focus on other plantparts for example flowers roots and stems as well asorgan-to-organ age and seasonal variation evaluations in thephytochemical content and pharmacological activities of thespecies

The recent increase in the demand for L javanica prod-ucts may partly be ascribed to growing body of scientific evi-dence indicating important health benefits Lippia javanica

is widely sold as herbal tea in Botswana South Africa andZimbabwe Leaves and stems of L javanica are also sold asherbal medicines in the medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquo marketsin South Africa [35 170] For local people who rely onherbal medicines as part of their primary healthcare aswell as cultural beliefs they prefer L javanica harvestedfrom the wild and unprocessed plant parts sold in informalmedicinal ldquomuthirdquo markets [170] In the past there were norecords of overexploitation of L javanica wild populationsin southern Africa resulting in Raimondo et al [171] listingthe species as Least Concern (LC) under the IUCN RedList Categories and Criteria version 31 of threatened species(httpwwwiucnredlistorg) Recently signs of overharvest-ing have been noted where local people or plant traders haveuprooted whole plants to supply medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquomarkets or use the plants as herbal medicines brooms orherbal tea Therefore large-scale commercial utilization of Ljavanica is not sustainable if the species is harvested fromthe wild Currently L javanica is cultivated on a commercialscale in Kenya [28] and South Africa [117] for essential oilproduction for the mosquito-repellent candles and perfumeindustry Cultivation of L javanica is therefore a solutionto the sustainability problems associated with harvesting ofthe species from the wild and this option is also necessaryfor establishing commercial scale medicinal production andprocessing and trade enterprises The success of commercialcultivation of L javanica will depend on how the species ismarketed as herbal tea and medicine and source of essentialoil and health care products and as a source of functionalfoods

Significant research has been made in the past 50 yearsinto the chemistry and pharmacology of L javanica Thesestudies have shown L javanica to display various chemicaland different biological activities some of which justify itsethnopharmacological utilization in variety of cultures Inthe light of the evidence that L javanica is combined withother plant species in traditional medicine it will be valuableto investigate the possibility of synergistic effects of thedifferent extracts Deep phytochemical studies of L javanicaand its phytochemical properties especially the mechanismsof action of its bioactive constituents to illustrate the cor-relation between ethnomedicinal uses and pharmacologicalactivities should be the focus of further research on thespecies There is need for extensive in vivo experiments tovalidate the existing pharmacological activities Howeverbecause L javanica contains potentially toxic compoundsits toxicological properties need to be properly establishedvia proper quality control of product development to ensurethat potentially toxic components are kept below tolerancelevels

Appendix

A Chemical Compounds Isolated andCharacterized from Lippia javanica

See Table 5

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 19

Table 5

Chemical compound Reference(s)Phenolic compoundsCoumarin 1 [4]Verbascoside 2 [81]Isoverbascoside 3 [81]Theveside-Na 4 [82]Theveridoside 5 [82]4-ethylnonacosane 6 [83]Apigenin 7 [64 83]Cirsimaritin 8 [64 83]6-Methoxy luteolin41015840-methyl ether 9 [83]

6-Methoxy luteolin31015840410158407-trimethyl ether 10 [83]

Crassifolioside 11 [64]Luteolin 12 [64]Diosmetin 13 [64]Chrysoeriol 14 [64]Tricin 15 [64]Isothymusin 16 [64]Eupatorin 17 [64]5-Dimethyl noboletin 18 [64]Genkwanin 19 [64]Salvigenin 20 [64]Lippialactone 21 [84]AlkaloidXanthine 22 [64]Amino acids120572-Aminobutyric acid 23 [85 86]Valine 24 [86]Isoleucine 25 [86]Asparagine 26 [86]Phenylalanine 27 [86]120572-Aminoadipic acid 28 [86]Lysine 29 [86]Histidine 30 [86]Tyrosine 31 [86]Tryptophan 32 [86]Alanine 33 [85]Glycine 34 [85]Proline 35 [85]Serine 36 [85]Glutamine acid 37 [85]120573-Alanine 38 [85]Glutamine 39 [85]120573-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [85]4-hydroxyproline 41 [85]Essential oil(E)-2(3)-tagetenoneepoxide 42 [83]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]120572-Pinene 44 [3ndash5 87ndash91]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4](+)-2-Carene 46 [4]3-Carene 47 [4]Eucalyptol 48 [4]18 myrcene 49 [87]Ipsdienone 50 [87]Caryophyllene 51 [85]Geranial 52 [5 92 93]26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [92]Geraniol 54 [92]Octen-3-one 55 [5]6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]120588-Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]Artemisia ketone 58 [5]Linalool oxide 59 [5]Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5](Z)-120573-Ocimenone 61 [5](E)-120573-Ocimenone 62 [5]Carvyl acetate 63 [5]120572-Cubebene 64 [5]Sesquithujene 65 [5]Acora-35-diene 66 [5]120573-Bergamotene 67 [5]Trans-calamenene 68 [5]120573-Alaskene 69 [5]120574-Cadinene 70 [5]120575-Cadinene 71 [3 88 89 91]Cis-calamenene 72 [5]Nerolidol 73 [5](E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 88 89]Spathulenol 75 [5]Epi-120572-muurolol 76 [5]120572-Longipinene 77 [90]Chrysanthenone 78 [90]120572-Terpineol 79 [3 5 90 91]120572-Amorphene 80 [90]120572-Thujene 81 [91]120574-Terpinene 82 [91]120572-Cubebene 83 [91]Linalool acetate 84 [91]Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [91]Camphene 86 [3 5 88ndash91]120573-Pinene 87 [3 5 91]Sabinene 88 [3 5 87 90 91]Myrcene 89 [3 5 87ndash89 91ndash95]120572-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 88 89]2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]Limonene 92 [3 5 88ndash94]18-Cineole 93 [3 5 90 91 95]120573-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 88 89 91]

20 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3](Z)-120573-Ocimene 96 [3 5 88 89 91](E)-120573-Ocimene 97 [3 5 88 89 91]Isomyrcenol 98 [3]p-Cymene 99 [3 5 85 88ndash91]2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]Terpinolene 101 [3]Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 88 89 91 95]Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 88 89](Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]Nonanal 106 [3]Perillene 107 [3 91]Ipsenone 108 [3 87ndash89 95]Trans-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 88ndash90]1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 88 89]Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]Ttrans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]cis-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 88ndash90]120572-Copaene 114 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetone 115 [3 88 89]Trans-tagetone 116 [3 88 89]Camphor 117 [3 5 88ndash90 93 94]120573-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 91]Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 85 88ndash90 92 93]

Trans-120572-bergamotene 121 [3]120572-Cedrene 122 [3 5]Myrcenone 123 [3 5 83 91]120573-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 87ndash91 93 94]2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 88 89](Z)-120573-Farnesene 129 [3](E)-120573-Farnesene 130 [3 5](EE)-120572-Farnesene 131 [3 88 89]Ipsdienol 132 [3](Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]Isovaleric acid 134 [3]120572-Humulene 135 [3 5 88 89 91]120572-Acoradiene 136 [3]120573-Acoradiene 137 [3]120574-Muurolene 138 [3 5 88 89]120572-Muurolene 139 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]Borneol 142 [3 5 88ndash90]Verbenone 143 [3 91]Germacrene-D 144 [3 87ndash89 93]120573-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]120574-Bisabolene 146 [3]Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]Carvone 148 [3 5 91]Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 88 89 91]120573-Curcumene 150 [3]Ar-curcumene 151 [3]Cis-piperitol 152 [3]2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol156 [3 88 89]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]Calamenene 158 [3]Carvone oxide 159 [3]Isopiperitenone 160 [3]Cis-carveol 161 [3]Piperitenone 162 [2 3 73 83]Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 88 89]Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3ndash5 88ndash90]Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 88 89]Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]Spathulenol 167 [3]Eugenol 168 [3 5]Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120573-ol(=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120572-ol(=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [83]Icterogenin 173 [96]

B Chemical Structures ofPhenolic Compounds Alkaloids AminoAcids and Essential Oils Isolated fromLippia javanica

See Figure 4

Competing Interests

The author declares that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 21

O

OO

OO O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

C CH CHO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

COOH

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

Me

OMe

OMe

OMe

MeO

Me

HOOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OMe

OMe

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

（2 （2

（2

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

（3CO

（3CO

Coumarin 1 [4]

Verbascoside 2 [89]

Isoverbascoside 3 [89]

Theveside-Na 4 [90]

Theveridoside 5 [90]

4-Ethylnonacosane 6 [91]

Apigenin 7 [120 91]

Cirsimaritin 8 [120 91]

Crassifolioside 11 [120]

Luteolin 12 [120]

Diosmetin 13 [120]

Chrysoeriol 14 [120]

Tricin 15 [120]

Isothymusin 16 [120]

Eupatorin 17 [120]

6-Methoxyluteolin 3 47-trimethyl ether 10 [91]

6-Methoxyluteolin 4-methyl ether 9 [91]

Figure 4 Continued

22 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

N

NH

HN

HO

NH

O

NH

O

O

O

O

HN

N N

N

H

H

OAc

OAcOAc

OO

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

（3CO

（2

（2

（2

（2 （2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3N

（2N

（2N

（2N

（2N

minus

+

+

5-Desmethylnoboletin 18 [120]

Genkwanin 19 [120]

Salvigenin 20 [120]

Lippialactone 21 [92]

Xanthine 22 [120]

Valine 24 [94]

Isoleucine 25 [94]

Asparagine 26 [94]

Phenylalanine 27 [94]

Lysine 29 [94]

Histidine 30 [94]

Tyrosine 31 [94]

Tryptophan 32 [94]

Alanine 33 [93]

Glycine 34 [93]

Proline 35 [93]

Serine 36 [93]

Glutamine acid 37 [93]

Glutamine 39 [93]

4-Hydroxyproline 41 [93]

(E)-2(3)-Tagetenone epoxide 42 [91]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]

-Alanine 38 [93]

-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [93]

-Aminoadipic acid 28 [94]

-Aminobutyric acid 23 [93 94]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 23

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

H

H

HH

H

O

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

HO

OH

O

O

O

O

OH（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4]

3-Carene 47 [4]

Eucalyptol 48 [4]

18 myrcene 49 [123]

Ipsdienone 50 [123]

Caryophyllene 51 [93]

Geranial 52 [5 100 101]

26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [100]

Geraniol 54 [100]

Octen-3-one 55 [5]

6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]

Artemisia ketone 58 [5]

Linalool oxide 59 [5]

Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5]

Carvyl acetate 63 [5]

Sesquithujene 65 [5]

Acora-35-diene 66 [5]

-Pinene 44 [3-5 123 96 97 98 99] -Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]

(+)-2-Carene 46 [4]

-Bergamotene 67 [5]

-Cubebene 64 [5]

(Z)--Ocimenone 61 [5]

(E)--Ocimenone 62 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

24 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OH

H

H

H

H

O

OHO

HO

H

HH H

H

H

HH

H

HO

HO

O

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

Trans-calamenene 68 [5]

Cis-calamenene 72 [5]

Nerolidol 73 [5]

(E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 96 97]

Spathulenol 75 [5]

Chrysanthenone 78 [98]

Linalool acetate 84 [99]

Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [99]

Camphene 86 [3 5 96 97 98 99]

Sabinene 88 [3 5 123 98 99]

Myrcene 89 [3 5 123 100 101 96 97 99 102 103]

-Alaskene 69 [5]

-Terpineol 79 [3 5 98 99]

-Amorphene 80 [98]

-Cadinene 70 [45]-Thujene 81 [99]

-Cadinene 71 [3 96 97 99] -Terpinene 82 [99]

-Cubebene 83 [99]

-Pinene 87 [3 5 99]

-Longipinene 77 [98]

-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 96 97]

Epi--muurolol 76 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 25

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O

OH

OH

H

H

H

H

H

HOO

OH

O

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（3(（2)3（2

（3(（2)6（2

2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]

Limonene 92 [3 5 100 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3]

Isomyrcenol 98 [3]

p-Cymene 99 [3 5 93 96 97 98 99]

2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]

Terpinolene 101 [3]

Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 96 97 99 103]

Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 96 97]

(Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]

67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]

Nonanal 106 [3]

Perillene 107 [3 99]

Ipsenone 108 [3 123 96 97 103]

Trans-linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 96 97 98]

1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 96 97]

Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]

Trans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]

Cis-linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 96 97 98]

Cis-tagetone 115 [3 96 97]

Trans-tagetone 116 [3 96 97]

-Copaene 114 [3 5 96 97 98]

18-Cineole (=eucalyptol) 93 [3 5 98 99 103]

-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 96 97 99]

(Z)--Ocimene 96 [3 5 96 97 99]

(E)--Ocimene 97 [3 5 96 97 99]

Camphor 117 [3 5 101 96 97 98 102]

Figure 4 Continued

26 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

HH

H

H

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 93 100 101 96 97 98]

Myrcenone 123 [3 5 91 99]

2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol 125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]

Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 96 97]

Ipsdienol 132 [3]

(Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]

Isovaleric acid 134 [3]

Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]

Borneol 142 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 99]

Trans--bergamotene 121 [3]

-Cedrene 122 [3 5]

-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 123 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)--Farnesene 129 [3]

(E)--Farnesene 130 [3 5]

-Muurolene 139 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Muurolene 138 [3 5 96 97]

-Acoradiene 136 [3]

-Acoradiene 137 [3]

-Humulene 135 [3 5 96 97 99]

(EE)--Farnesene 131 [3 96 97]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O O

HO

O

H

H

H

HO

HO

OH

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3CO（3

Verbenone 143 [3 99]

Germacrene-D 144 [3 123 101 96 97]

Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]

Carvone 148 [3 5 99]

Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 96 97 99]

Ar-curcumene 151 [3]

Cis-piperitol 152 [3]

2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]

26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol 156 [3 96 97]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]

Calamenene 158 [3]

Carvone oxide 159 [3]

Isopiperitenone 160 [3]

Cis-carveol 161 [3]

Piperitenone 162 [2 3 91 81]

Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 96 97]

-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]

-Bisabolene 146 [3]

-Curcumene 150 [3]

Figure 4 Continued

28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

OO

O

O

H

H

H

H

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

H

H

HCH

HH

HO

（3

（2

（2C

（3C（3C

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C O（3

Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3-5 96 97 98]

Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 96 97]

Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]

Spathulenol 167 [3]

Eugenol 168 [3 5]

Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [91]

Icterogenin 173 [104]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Figure 4

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to the NationalResearch Foundation (NRF) and GovanMbeki Research andDevelopment Centre (GMRDC) University of Fort Hare forfinancial support to conduct this research

References

[1] JWMwangi I Addae-Mensah RMMunavu andW LwandeldquoEssential oils of Kenyan Lippia species Part IIIrdquo Flavour andFragrance Journal vol 6 no 3 pp 221ndash224 1991

[2] N J Manenzhe N Potgieter and T Van Ree ldquoCompositionand antimicrobial activities of volatile components of Lippiajavanicardquo Phytochemistry vol 65 no 16 pp 2333ndash2336 2004

[3] A M Viljoen S Subramoney S F V Vuuren K H C Baserand B Demirci ldquoThe composition geographical variation andantimicrobial activity of Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae) leafessential oilsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 96 no 1-2 pp271ndash277 2005

[4] N Lukwa P Moslashlgaard P Furu and C Boslashgh ldquoLippia javanica(Burm f) Spreng its general constituents and bioactivity onmosquitoesrdquoTropical Biomedicine vol 26 no 1 pp 85ndash91 2009

[5] L S Chagonda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssential oil compositionof Lippia javanica (Burmf) spreng chemotype from WesternZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants vol 18 no 2pp 482ndash485 2015

[6] W Kipkore B Wanjohi H Rono and G Kigen ldquoA study of themedicinal plants used by the Marakwet Community in KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 242014

[7] E A Shikanga S Combrinck and T Regnier ldquoSouth AfricanLippia herbal infusions total phenolic content antioxidant andantibacterial activitiesrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76no 3 pp 567ndash571 2010

[8] N T Parrant ldquoThe potential of non-timber forest products ofBotswanardquo Botswana Notes Records vol 28 no 1 pp 203ndash2181996

[9] D M Motlhanka and S W Makhabu ldquoMedicinal and ediblewild fruit plants of Botswana as emerging new crop opportu-nitiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plants Research vol 5 no 10 pp1836ndash1842 2011

[10] M Bhebhe T N Fuller B Chipurura and M MuchuwetildquoEffect of solvent type on total phenolic content and free radicalscavenging activity of black tea and herbal infusionsrdquo FoodAnalytical Methods vol 9 no 4 pp 1060ndash1067 2016

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29

[11] M Bhebhe B Chipurura and M Muchuweti ldquoDeterminationand comparison of phenolic compound content and antioxidantactivity of selected local Zimbabwean herbal teas with exoticAspalathus linearisrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 100no 1 pp 213ndash218 2015

[12] B Patiri and A Borah Wild Edible Plants of Assam GeetakhiPrinters Guwahati India 2007

[13] H Narzary and A Basumatary ldquoProximate and vitamin Canalysis of wild edible plants consumed by Bodos of AssamIndiardquo Journal of Molecular Pathophysiology vol 4 no 4 pp128ndash133 2015

[14] M Gelfand S Mavi R B Drummond and B Ndemera TheTraditional Medical Practitioners in Zimbabwe His Principles ofPractice and Pharmacopoeia Mambo Press Gweru Zimbabwe1985

[15] D Davids Materia medica and care a study of the uses ofmedicinal herbs and remedies as a form of treatment andnegotiating social relationships in cape town and surroundings[MS dissertation] University of theWestern Cape Cape TownSouth Africa 2012

[16] A Maroyi and G K E Mosina ldquoMedicinal plants and tradi-tional practices in peri-urban domestic gardens of the Limpopoprovince South africardquo Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledgevol 13 no 4 pp 665ndash672 2014

[17] A Samie C L Obi P O Bessong and L Namrita ldquoActivityprofiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Vendacommunities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterialspeciesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 4 no 12 pp1443ndash1451 2005

[18] T York An ethnopharmacological study of plants used fortreating respiratory infections in rural Maputaland [MS disser-tation] University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa South Africa2012

[19] D Davids T Blouws O Aboyade et al ldquoTraditional healthpractitionersrsquo perceptions herbal treatment andmanagement ofHIV and related opportunistic infectionsrdquo Journal of Ethnobiol-ogy and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 77 2014

[20] A Hutchings A H Scott G Lewis and A CunninghamZulu Medicinal Plants An Inventory University of Natal PressPietermarizburg South Africa 1996

[21] RM Coopoosamy andK K Naidoo ldquoAn ethnobotanical studyofmedicinal plants used by traditional healers inDurban SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 6no 11 pp 818ndash823 2012

[22] I Hedberg and F Staugard Traditional Medicinal Plants inBotswana Ipeleng Gaborone Botswana 1989

[23] H Shahriar A S M H K Chowdhury S Rahman et al ldquoSci-entific validation of medicinal plants used by a folk medicinalpractitioner of Chuadanga District BangladeshrdquoWorld Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 11 pp 13ndash24 2014

[24] S S Semenya M J Potgieter and M P Tshisikhawe ldquoUseconservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinalplants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 12 no 18 pp2392ndash2405 2013

[25] M Roberts Indigenous Healing Plants Southern Book Publish-ers Halfway House Johannesburg South Africa 1990

[26] T Birhanu D Abera and E Ejeta ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas westernEthiopiardquo Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare vol 5no 1 pp 83ndash93 2015

[27] N T Mahlangeni R Moodley and S B Jonnalagadda ldquoEle-mental composition of Cyrtanthus obliquus and Lippia javanicaused in South African herbal tonic Imbizardquo Arabian Journal ofChemistry 2013

[28] W Musila D Kisangau and J Muema ldquoConservation statusand use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitionersin Machakos District Kenyardquo in Indigenous Knowledge Con-ference Proceedings Pennsylvania State University May 27ndash292004 2004

[29] G N Njoroge and R W Bussmann ldquoTraditional managementof ear nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 542006

[30] P Chigora R Masocha and F Mutenheri ldquoThe role of indige-nous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailmentsin rural Zimbabwe the case of Mutirikwi communal landsrdquoJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol 9 no 2 pp26ndash43 2007

[31] R W Bussmann G G Gilbreath J Solio et al ldquoPlant use ofthe Maasai of Sekenani Valley Maasai Mara Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 22 2006

[32] D Motlhanka and G P Nthoiwa ldquoEthnobotanical Survey ofmedicinal plants of Tswapong North in Eastern Botswana acase of plants from Mosweu and Seolwane Villagesrdquo EuropeanJournal of Medicinal Plants vol 3 no 1 pp 10ndash24 2013

[33] A Vhurumuku ldquoKnowledge use and attitudes towardsmedici-nal plants of pre-service teachers at a South African UniversityrdquoGlobal Advanced Research Journal in Environmental Science andToxicology vol 4 no 2 pp 15ndash24 2015

[34] M N Nkwanyana An ethnobotanical and antidiarrhoeal inves-tigation of plants used traditionally in the maputaland areahomesteads [MS dissertation] University of Zululand KwaD-langezwa South Africa 2013

[35] T E Moeng An investigation into the trade of medicinal plantsbymuthi shops and street vendors in the Limpopo Province SouthAfrica [MS thesis] University of Limpopo Gauteng SouthAfrica 2010

[36] S Bandeira A M Manjate and O Filipe ldquoAn EcologicalAssessment of the Health of the Chibuto-Missavene Wetlandin the Dry Season Mozambique Emphasis on ResourcesAssessment Utilization and Sustainability Analysisrdquo reportto Challenge Program for Water and Food InternationalWater Management Institute Pretoria South Africa 2006httpscgspacecgiarorgbitstreamhandle105682160421604pdfsequence=1

[37] M C Palgrave R B Drummond and E J Moll Trees ofSouthern Africa Struik Cape Town South Africa 2003

[38] M O Nanyingi J M Mbaria A L Lanyasunya et alldquoEthnopharmacological survey of Samburu district KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4 article 142008

[39] J G J P Sankar and K B Satapathy ldquoWeed diversity of Rabicrops and their ethnomedicinal uses in Kendrapara districtof Odisha Indiardquo International Research Journal of BiologicalSciences vol 4 no 3 pp 33ndash38 2015

[40] D E N Mabogo The ethnobotany of the vhavenda [MSdissertation] University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa1990

[41] B-E van Wyk B van Oudtshoorn and N Gericke MedicinalPlants of South Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2013

[42] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used forthe treatment of tuberculosis by Bapedi traditional healers

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

OphthalmologyJournal of

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Diabetes ResearchJournal of

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Research and TreatmentAIDS

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 18: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

18 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

to determine if any toxicological effects can occur from itschronic or subchronic usage

411 Other Activities Mpofu et al [169] determined the effectof inclusion of L javanica leaf meal in broiler diets ongrowth performance carcass characteristics and fatty acidprofiles The authors found that the L javanica fed broilershad higher total polyunsaturated fatty acids and n-3 fattyacidsThe findings from the study showed that inclusion of Ljavanica in broiler diets at 5 gkg feed has positive influenceson growth performance carcass characteristics and fattyacid profiles of broiler meat and therefore L javanica haspotential as growth-promoting feed additive in broilersSamie et al [73] evaluated antiamoebic activity of a purecompound piperitenone 162 isolated from L javanica essen-tial oil against Entamoeba histolytica using microdilutionmethod with metronidazole as the positive control diluents(ie culture medium with an appropriate concentration ofdimethyl sulphoxide as the negative control) and a blank(ie culture medium without dimethyl sulphoxide) Samieet al [73] demonstrated that piperitenone 162 had markedantiamoebic activity with IC

50value of 25 120583gmL More

research is required as L javanica could be harbouring potentantiamoebic properties which could be useful for managingamoebiasis an infection that remains a significant cause ofmorbidity and mortality worldwide

5 Conclusion

Lippia javanica has been used in African and Asian countriesas herbal tea and medicine for many centuries Utilization ofL javanica because of its flavour and medicinal propertiesforms the basis of the current demand for the plant speciesin central eastern and southern Africa Research on Ljavanica over the past decade on health promoting propertieshas greatly contributed to the increased consumption ofthe species as herbal or recreational tea The focus of thisresearch has been on phytochemical compounds particularlyphenolic content and antioxidant and free radical scavengingactivities Phenolic compounds present in L javanica arelargely responsible for the antioxidant properties possessedby the species More research in this regard is required andfuture research should focus on more comprehensive chem-ical characterization of both crude and pure extracts andevaluate potential for commercialization and developmentof nutraceutical products based on traditional uses of Ljavanica Most of the pharmacological researches conductedon L javanica so far have focused on the phytochemistryand biological properties of leaves and little or no researchhas been done on roots and other plant parts Thereforefuture research on the species should focus on other plantparts for example flowers roots and stems as well asorgan-to-organ age and seasonal variation evaluations in thephytochemical content and pharmacological activities of thespecies

The recent increase in the demand for L javanica prod-ucts may partly be ascribed to growing body of scientific evi-dence indicating important health benefits Lippia javanica

is widely sold as herbal tea in Botswana South Africa andZimbabwe Leaves and stems of L javanica are also sold asherbal medicines in the medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquo marketsin South Africa [35 170] For local people who rely onherbal medicines as part of their primary healthcare aswell as cultural beliefs they prefer L javanica harvestedfrom the wild and unprocessed plant parts sold in informalmedicinal ldquomuthirdquo markets [170] In the past there were norecords of overexploitation of L javanica wild populationsin southern Africa resulting in Raimondo et al [171] listingthe species as Least Concern (LC) under the IUCN RedList Categories and Criteria version 31 of threatened species(httpwwwiucnredlistorg) Recently signs of overharvest-ing have been noted where local people or plant traders haveuprooted whole plants to supply medicinal plant ldquomuthirdquomarkets or use the plants as herbal medicines brooms orherbal tea Therefore large-scale commercial utilization of Ljavanica is not sustainable if the species is harvested fromthe wild Currently L javanica is cultivated on a commercialscale in Kenya [28] and South Africa [117] for essential oilproduction for the mosquito-repellent candles and perfumeindustry Cultivation of L javanica is therefore a solutionto the sustainability problems associated with harvesting ofthe species from the wild and this option is also necessaryfor establishing commercial scale medicinal production andprocessing and trade enterprises The success of commercialcultivation of L javanica will depend on how the species ismarketed as herbal tea and medicine and source of essentialoil and health care products and as a source of functionalfoods

Significant research has been made in the past 50 yearsinto the chemistry and pharmacology of L javanica Thesestudies have shown L javanica to display various chemicaland different biological activities some of which justify itsethnopharmacological utilization in variety of cultures Inthe light of the evidence that L javanica is combined withother plant species in traditional medicine it will be valuableto investigate the possibility of synergistic effects of thedifferent extracts Deep phytochemical studies of L javanicaand its phytochemical properties especially the mechanismsof action of its bioactive constituents to illustrate the cor-relation between ethnomedicinal uses and pharmacologicalactivities should be the focus of further research on thespecies There is need for extensive in vivo experiments tovalidate the existing pharmacological activities Howeverbecause L javanica contains potentially toxic compoundsits toxicological properties need to be properly establishedvia proper quality control of product development to ensurethat potentially toxic components are kept below tolerancelevels

Appendix

A Chemical Compounds Isolated andCharacterized from Lippia javanica

See Table 5

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 19

Table 5

Chemical compound Reference(s)Phenolic compoundsCoumarin 1 [4]Verbascoside 2 [81]Isoverbascoside 3 [81]Theveside-Na 4 [82]Theveridoside 5 [82]4-ethylnonacosane 6 [83]Apigenin 7 [64 83]Cirsimaritin 8 [64 83]6-Methoxy luteolin41015840-methyl ether 9 [83]

6-Methoxy luteolin31015840410158407-trimethyl ether 10 [83]

Crassifolioside 11 [64]Luteolin 12 [64]Diosmetin 13 [64]Chrysoeriol 14 [64]Tricin 15 [64]Isothymusin 16 [64]Eupatorin 17 [64]5-Dimethyl noboletin 18 [64]Genkwanin 19 [64]Salvigenin 20 [64]Lippialactone 21 [84]AlkaloidXanthine 22 [64]Amino acids120572-Aminobutyric acid 23 [85 86]Valine 24 [86]Isoleucine 25 [86]Asparagine 26 [86]Phenylalanine 27 [86]120572-Aminoadipic acid 28 [86]Lysine 29 [86]Histidine 30 [86]Tyrosine 31 [86]Tryptophan 32 [86]Alanine 33 [85]Glycine 34 [85]Proline 35 [85]Serine 36 [85]Glutamine acid 37 [85]120573-Alanine 38 [85]Glutamine 39 [85]120573-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [85]4-hydroxyproline 41 [85]Essential oil(E)-2(3)-tagetenoneepoxide 42 [83]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]120572-Pinene 44 [3ndash5 87ndash91]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4](+)-2-Carene 46 [4]3-Carene 47 [4]Eucalyptol 48 [4]18 myrcene 49 [87]Ipsdienone 50 [87]Caryophyllene 51 [85]Geranial 52 [5 92 93]26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [92]Geraniol 54 [92]Octen-3-one 55 [5]6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]120588-Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]Artemisia ketone 58 [5]Linalool oxide 59 [5]Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5](Z)-120573-Ocimenone 61 [5](E)-120573-Ocimenone 62 [5]Carvyl acetate 63 [5]120572-Cubebene 64 [5]Sesquithujene 65 [5]Acora-35-diene 66 [5]120573-Bergamotene 67 [5]Trans-calamenene 68 [5]120573-Alaskene 69 [5]120574-Cadinene 70 [5]120575-Cadinene 71 [3 88 89 91]Cis-calamenene 72 [5]Nerolidol 73 [5](E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 88 89]Spathulenol 75 [5]Epi-120572-muurolol 76 [5]120572-Longipinene 77 [90]Chrysanthenone 78 [90]120572-Terpineol 79 [3 5 90 91]120572-Amorphene 80 [90]120572-Thujene 81 [91]120574-Terpinene 82 [91]120572-Cubebene 83 [91]Linalool acetate 84 [91]Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [91]Camphene 86 [3 5 88ndash91]120573-Pinene 87 [3 5 91]Sabinene 88 [3 5 87 90 91]Myrcene 89 [3 5 87ndash89 91ndash95]120572-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 88 89]2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]Limonene 92 [3 5 88ndash94]18-Cineole 93 [3 5 90 91 95]120573-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 88 89 91]

20 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3](Z)-120573-Ocimene 96 [3 5 88 89 91](E)-120573-Ocimene 97 [3 5 88 89 91]Isomyrcenol 98 [3]p-Cymene 99 [3 5 85 88ndash91]2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]Terpinolene 101 [3]Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 88 89 91 95]Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 88 89](Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]Nonanal 106 [3]Perillene 107 [3 91]Ipsenone 108 [3 87ndash89 95]Trans-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 88ndash90]1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 88 89]Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]Ttrans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]cis-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 88ndash90]120572-Copaene 114 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetone 115 [3 88 89]Trans-tagetone 116 [3 88 89]Camphor 117 [3 5 88ndash90 93 94]120573-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 91]Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 85 88ndash90 92 93]

Trans-120572-bergamotene 121 [3]120572-Cedrene 122 [3 5]Myrcenone 123 [3 5 83 91]120573-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 87ndash91 93 94]2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 88 89](Z)-120573-Farnesene 129 [3](E)-120573-Farnesene 130 [3 5](EE)-120572-Farnesene 131 [3 88 89]Ipsdienol 132 [3](Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]Isovaleric acid 134 [3]120572-Humulene 135 [3 5 88 89 91]120572-Acoradiene 136 [3]120573-Acoradiene 137 [3]120574-Muurolene 138 [3 5 88 89]120572-Muurolene 139 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]Borneol 142 [3 5 88ndash90]Verbenone 143 [3 91]Germacrene-D 144 [3 87ndash89 93]120573-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]120574-Bisabolene 146 [3]Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]Carvone 148 [3 5 91]Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 88 89 91]120573-Curcumene 150 [3]Ar-curcumene 151 [3]Cis-piperitol 152 [3]2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol156 [3 88 89]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]Calamenene 158 [3]Carvone oxide 159 [3]Isopiperitenone 160 [3]Cis-carveol 161 [3]Piperitenone 162 [2 3 73 83]Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 88 89]Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3ndash5 88ndash90]Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 88 89]Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]Spathulenol 167 [3]Eugenol 168 [3 5]Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120573-ol(=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120572-ol(=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [83]Icterogenin 173 [96]

B Chemical Structures ofPhenolic Compounds Alkaloids AminoAcids and Essential Oils Isolated fromLippia javanica

See Figure 4

Competing Interests

The author declares that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 21

O

OO

OO O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

C CH CHO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

COOH

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

Me

OMe

OMe

OMe

MeO

Me

HOOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OMe

OMe

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

（2 （2

（2

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

（3CO

（3CO

Coumarin 1 [4]

Verbascoside 2 [89]

Isoverbascoside 3 [89]

Theveside-Na 4 [90]

Theveridoside 5 [90]

4-Ethylnonacosane 6 [91]

Apigenin 7 [120 91]

Cirsimaritin 8 [120 91]

Crassifolioside 11 [120]

Luteolin 12 [120]

Diosmetin 13 [120]

Chrysoeriol 14 [120]

Tricin 15 [120]

Isothymusin 16 [120]

Eupatorin 17 [120]

6-Methoxyluteolin 3 47-trimethyl ether 10 [91]

6-Methoxyluteolin 4-methyl ether 9 [91]

Figure 4 Continued

22 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

N

NH

HN

HO

NH

O

NH

O

O

O

O

HN

N N

N

H

H

OAc

OAcOAc

OO

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

（3CO

（2

（2

（2

（2 （2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3N

（2N

（2N

（2N

（2N

minus

+

+

5-Desmethylnoboletin 18 [120]

Genkwanin 19 [120]

Salvigenin 20 [120]

Lippialactone 21 [92]

Xanthine 22 [120]

Valine 24 [94]

Isoleucine 25 [94]

Asparagine 26 [94]

Phenylalanine 27 [94]

Lysine 29 [94]

Histidine 30 [94]

Tyrosine 31 [94]

Tryptophan 32 [94]

Alanine 33 [93]

Glycine 34 [93]

Proline 35 [93]

Serine 36 [93]

Glutamine acid 37 [93]

Glutamine 39 [93]

4-Hydroxyproline 41 [93]

(E)-2(3)-Tagetenone epoxide 42 [91]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]

-Alanine 38 [93]

-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [93]

-Aminoadipic acid 28 [94]

-Aminobutyric acid 23 [93 94]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 23

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

H

H

HH

H

O

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

HO

OH

O

O

O

O

OH（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4]

3-Carene 47 [4]

Eucalyptol 48 [4]

18 myrcene 49 [123]

Ipsdienone 50 [123]

Caryophyllene 51 [93]

Geranial 52 [5 100 101]

26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [100]

Geraniol 54 [100]

Octen-3-one 55 [5]

6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]

Artemisia ketone 58 [5]

Linalool oxide 59 [5]

Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5]

Carvyl acetate 63 [5]

Sesquithujene 65 [5]

Acora-35-diene 66 [5]

-Pinene 44 [3-5 123 96 97 98 99] -Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]

(+)-2-Carene 46 [4]

-Bergamotene 67 [5]

-Cubebene 64 [5]

(Z)--Ocimenone 61 [5]

(E)--Ocimenone 62 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

24 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OH

H

H

H

H

O

OHO

HO

H

HH H

H

H

HH

H

HO

HO

O

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

Trans-calamenene 68 [5]

Cis-calamenene 72 [5]

Nerolidol 73 [5]

(E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 96 97]

Spathulenol 75 [5]

Chrysanthenone 78 [98]

Linalool acetate 84 [99]

Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [99]

Camphene 86 [3 5 96 97 98 99]

Sabinene 88 [3 5 123 98 99]

Myrcene 89 [3 5 123 100 101 96 97 99 102 103]

-Alaskene 69 [5]

-Terpineol 79 [3 5 98 99]

-Amorphene 80 [98]

-Cadinene 70 [45]-Thujene 81 [99]

-Cadinene 71 [3 96 97 99] -Terpinene 82 [99]

-Cubebene 83 [99]

-Pinene 87 [3 5 99]

-Longipinene 77 [98]

-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 96 97]

Epi--muurolol 76 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 25

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O

OH

OH

H

H

H

H

H

HOO

OH

O

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（3(（2)3（2

（3(（2)6（2

2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]

Limonene 92 [3 5 100 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3]

Isomyrcenol 98 [3]

p-Cymene 99 [3 5 93 96 97 98 99]

2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]

Terpinolene 101 [3]

Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 96 97 99 103]

Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 96 97]

(Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]

67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]

Nonanal 106 [3]

Perillene 107 [3 99]

Ipsenone 108 [3 123 96 97 103]

Trans-linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 96 97 98]

1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 96 97]

Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]

Trans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]

Cis-linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 96 97 98]

Cis-tagetone 115 [3 96 97]

Trans-tagetone 116 [3 96 97]

-Copaene 114 [3 5 96 97 98]

18-Cineole (=eucalyptol) 93 [3 5 98 99 103]

-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 96 97 99]

(Z)--Ocimene 96 [3 5 96 97 99]

(E)--Ocimene 97 [3 5 96 97 99]

Camphor 117 [3 5 101 96 97 98 102]

Figure 4 Continued

26 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

HH

H

H

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 93 100 101 96 97 98]

Myrcenone 123 [3 5 91 99]

2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol 125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]

Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 96 97]

Ipsdienol 132 [3]

(Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]

Isovaleric acid 134 [3]

Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]

Borneol 142 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 99]

Trans--bergamotene 121 [3]

-Cedrene 122 [3 5]

-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 123 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)--Farnesene 129 [3]

(E)--Farnesene 130 [3 5]

-Muurolene 139 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Muurolene 138 [3 5 96 97]

-Acoradiene 136 [3]

-Acoradiene 137 [3]

-Humulene 135 [3 5 96 97 99]

(EE)--Farnesene 131 [3 96 97]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O O

HO

O

H

H

H

HO

HO

OH

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3CO（3

Verbenone 143 [3 99]

Germacrene-D 144 [3 123 101 96 97]

Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]

Carvone 148 [3 5 99]

Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 96 97 99]

Ar-curcumene 151 [3]

Cis-piperitol 152 [3]

2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]

26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol 156 [3 96 97]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]

Calamenene 158 [3]

Carvone oxide 159 [3]

Isopiperitenone 160 [3]

Cis-carveol 161 [3]

Piperitenone 162 [2 3 91 81]

Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 96 97]

-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]

-Bisabolene 146 [3]

-Curcumene 150 [3]

Figure 4 Continued

28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

OO

O

O

H

H

H

H

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

H

H

HCH

HH

HO

（3

（2

（2C

（3C（3C

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C O（3

Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3-5 96 97 98]

Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 96 97]

Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]

Spathulenol 167 [3]

Eugenol 168 [3 5]

Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [91]

Icterogenin 173 [104]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Figure 4

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to the NationalResearch Foundation (NRF) and GovanMbeki Research andDevelopment Centre (GMRDC) University of Fort Hare forfinancial support to conduct this research

References

[1] JWMwangi I Addae-Mensah RMMunavu andW LwandeldquoEssential oils of Kenyan Lippia species Part IIIrdquo Flavour andFragrance Journal vol 6 no 3 pp 221ndash224 1991

[2] N J Manenzhe N Potgieter and T Van Ree ldquoCompositionand antimicrobial activities of volatile components of Lippiajavanicardquo Phytochemistry vol 65 no 16 pp 2333ndash2336 2004

[3] A M Viljoen S Subramoney S F V Vuuren K H C Baserand B Demirci ldquoThe composition geographical variation andantimicrobial activity of Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae) leafessential oilsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 96 no 1-2 pp271ndash277 2005

[4] N Lukwa P Moslashlgaard P Furu and C Boslashgh ldquoLippia javanica(Burm f) Spreng its general constituents and bioactivity onmosquitoesrdquoTropical Biomedicine vol 26 no 1 pp 85ndash91 2009

[5] L S Chagonda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssential oil compositionof Lippia javanica (Burmf) spreng chemotype from WesternZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants vol 18 no 2pp 482ndash485 2015

[6] W Kipkore B Wanjohi H Rono and G Kigen ldquoA study of themedicinal plants used by the Marakwet Community in KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 242014

[7] E A Shikanga S Combrinck and T Regnier ldquoSouth AfricanLippia herbal infusions total phenolic content antioxidant andantibacterial activitiesrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76no 3 pp 567ndash571 2010

[8] N T Parrant ldquoThe potential of non-timber forest products ofBotswanardquo Botswana Notes Records vol 28 no 1 pp 203ndash2181996

[9] D M Motlhanka and S W Makhabu ldquoMedicinal and ediblewild fruit plants of Botswana as emerging new crop opportu-nitiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plants Research vol 5 no 10 pp1836ndash1842 2011

[10] M Bhebhe T N Fuller B Chipurura and M MuchuwetildquoEffect of solvent type on total phenolic content and free radicalscavenging activity of black tea and herbal infusionsrdquo FoodAnalytical Methods vol 9 no 4 pp 1060ndash1067 2016

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29

[11] M Bhebhe B Chipurura and M Muchuweti ldquoDeterminationand comparison of phenolic compound content and antioxidantactivity of selected local Zimbabwean herbal teas with exoticAspalathus linearisrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 100no 1 pp 213ndash218 2015

[12] B Patiri and A Borah Wild Edible Plants of Assam GeetakhiPrinters Guwahati India 2007

[13] H Narzary and A Basumatary ldquoProximate and vitamin Canalysis of wild edible plants consumed by Bodos of AssamIndiardquo Journal of Molecular Pathophysiology vol 4 no 4 pp128ndash133 2015

[14] M Gelfand S Mavi R B Drummond and B Ndemera TheTraditional Medical Practitioners in Zimbabwe His Principles ofPractice and Pharmacopoeia Mambo Press Gweru Zimbabwe1985

[15] D Davids Materia medica and care a study of the uses ofmedicinal herbs and remedies as a form of treatment andnegotiating social relationships in cape town and surroundings[MS dissertation] University of theWestern Cape Cape TownSouth Africa 2012

[16] A Maroyi and G K E Mosina ldquoMedicinal plants and tradi-tional practices in peri-urban domestic gardens of the Limpopoprovince South africardquo Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledgevol 13 no 4 pp 665ndash672 2014

[17] A Samie C L Obi P O Bessong and L Namrita ldquoActivityprofiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Vendacommunities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterialspeciesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 4 no 12 pp1443ndash1451 2005

[18] T York An ethnopharmacological study of plants used fortreating respiratory infections in rural Maputaland [MS disser-tation] University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa South Africa2012

[19] D Davids T Blouws O Aboyade et al ldquoTraditional healthpractitionersrsquo perceptions herbal treatment andmanagement ofHIV and related opportunistic infectionsrdquo Journal of Ethnobiol-ogy and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 77 2014

[20] A Hutchings A H Scott G Lewis and A CunninghamZulu Medicinal Plants An Inventory University of Natal PressPietermarizburg South Africa 1996

[21] RM Coopoosamy andK K Naidoo ldquoAn ethnobotanical studyofmedicinal plants used by traditional healers inDurban SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 6no 11 pp 818ndash823 2012

[22] I Hedberg and F Staugard Traditional Medicinal Plants inBotswana Ipeleng Gaborone Botswana 1989

[23] H Shahriar A S M H K Chowdhury S Rahman et al ldquoSci-entific validation of medicinal plants used by a folk medicinalpractitioner of Chuadanga District BangladeshrdquoWorld Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 11 pp 13ndash24 2014

[24] S S Semenya M J Potgieter and M P Tshisikhawe ldquoUseconservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinalplants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 12 no 18 pp2392ndash2405 2013

[25] M Roberts Indigenous Healing Plants Southern Book Publish-ers Halfway House Johannesburg South Africa 1990

[26] T Birhanu D Abera and E Ejeta ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas westernEthiopiardquo Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare vol 5no 1 pp 83ndash93 2015

[27] N T Mahlangeni R Moodley and S B Jonnalagadda ldquoEle-mental composition of Cyrtanthus obliquus and Lippia javanicaused in South African herbal tonic Imbizardquo Arabian Journal ofChemistry 2013

[28] W Musila D Kisangau and J Muema ldquoConservation statusand use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitionersin Machakos District Kenyardquo in Indigenous Knowledge Con-ference Proceedings Pennsylvania State University May 27ndash292004 2004

[29] G N Njoroge and R W Bussmann ldquoTraditional managementof ear nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 542006

[30] P Chigora R Masocha and F Mutenheri ldquoThe role of indige-nous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailmentsin rural Zimbabwe the case of Mutirikwi communal landsrdquoJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol 9 no 2 pp26ndash43 2007

[31] R W Bussmann G G Gilbreath J Solio et al ldquoPlant use ofthe Maasai of Sekenani Valley Maasai Mara Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 22 2006

[32] D Motlhanka and G P Nthoiwa ldquoEthnobotanical Survey ofmedicinal plants of Tswapong North in Eastern Botswana acase of plants from Mosweu and Seolwane Villagesrdquo EuropeanJournal of Medicinal Plants vol 3 no 1 pp 10ndash24 2013

[33] A Vhurumuku ldquoKnowledge use and attitudes towardsmedici-nal plants of pre-service teachers at a South African UniversityrdquoGlobal Advanced Research Journal in Environmental Science andToxicology vol 4 no 2 pp 15ndash24 2015

[34] M N Nkwanyana An ethnobotanical and antidiarrhoeal inves-tigation of plants used traditionally in the maputaland areahomesteads [MS dissertation] University of Zululand KwaD-langezwa South Africa 2013

[35] T E Moeng An investigation into the trade of medicinal plantsbymuthi shops and street vendors in the Limpopo Province SouthAfrica [MS thesis] University of Limpopo Gauteng SouthAfrica 2010

[36] S Bandeira A M Manjate and O Filipe ldquoAn EcologicalAssessment of the Health of the Chibuto-Missavene Wetlandin the Dry Season Mozambique Emphasis on ResourcesAssessment Utilization and Sustainability Analysisrdquo reportto Challenge Program for Water and Food InternationalWater Management Institute Pretoria South Africa 2006httpscgspacecgiarorgbitstreamhandle105682160421604pdfsequence=1

[37] M C Palgrave R B Drummond and E J Moll Trees ofSouthern Africa Struik Cape Town South Africa 2003

[38] M O Nanyingi J M Mbaria A L Lanyasunya et alldquoEthnopharmacological survey of Samburu district KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4 article 142008

[39] J G J P Sankar and K B Satapathy ldquoWeed diversity of Rabicrops and their ethnomedicinal uses in Kendrapara districtof Odisha Indiardquo International Research Journal of BiologicalSciences vol 4 no 3 pp 33ndash38 2015

[40] D E N Mabogo The ethnobotany of the vhavenda [MSdissertation] University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa1990

[41] B-E van Wyk B van Oudtshoorn and N Gericke MedicinalPlants of South Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2013

[42] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used forthe treatment of tuberculosis by Bapedi traditional healers

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

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Behavioural Neurology

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Disease Markers

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OncologyJournal of

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Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

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Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

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ObesityJournal of

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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 19: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 19

Table 5

Chemical compound Reference(s)Phenolic compoundsCoumarin 1 [4]Verbascoside 2 [81]Isoverbascoside 3 [81]Theveside-Na 4 [82]Theveridoside 5 [82]4-ethylnonacosane 6 [83]Apigenin 7 [64 83]Cirsimaritin 8 [64 83]6-Methoxy luteolin41015840-methyl ether 9 [83]

6-Methoxy luteolin31015840410158407-trimethyl ether 10 [83]

Crassifolioside 11 [64]Luteolin 12 [64]Diosmetin 13 [64]Chrysoeriol 14 [64]Tricin 15 [64]Isothymusin 16 [64]Eupatorin 17 [64]5-Dimethyl noboletin 18 [64]Genkwanin 19 [64]Salvigenin 20 [64]Lippialactone 21 [84]AlkaloidXanthine 22 [64]Amino acids120572-Aminobutyric acid 23 [85 86]Valine 24 [86]Isoleucine 25 [86]Asparagine 26 [86]Phenylalanine 27 [86]120572-Aminoadipic acid 28 [86]Lysine 29 [86]Histidine 30 [86]Tyrosine 31 [86]Tryptophan 32 [86]Alanine 33 [85]Glycine 34 [85]Proline 35 [85]Serine 36 [85]Glutamine acid 37 [85]120573-Alanine 38 [85]Glutamine 39 [85]120573-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [85]4-hydroxyproline 41 [85]Essential oil(E)-2(3)-tagetenoneepoxide 42 [83]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]120572-Pinene 44 [3ndash5 87ndash91]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4](+)-2-Carene 46 [4]3-Carene 47 [4]Eucalyptol 48 [4]18 myrcene 49 [87]Ipsdienone 50 [87]Caryophyllene 51 [85]Geranial 52 [5 92 93]26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [92]Geraniol 54 [92]Octen-3-one 55 [5]6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]120588-Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]Artemisia ketone 58 [5]Linalool oxide 59 [5]Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5](Z)-120573-Ocimenone 61 [5](E)-120573-Ocimenone 62 [5]Carvyl acetate 63 [5]120572-Cubebene 64 [5]Sesquithujene 65 [5]Acora-35-diene 66 [5]120573-Bergamotene 67 [5]Trans-calamenene 68 [5]120573-Alaskene 69 [5]120574-Cadinene 70 [5]120575-Cadinene 71 [3 88 89 91]Cis-calamenene 72 [5]Nerolidol 73 [5](E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 88 89]Spathulenol 75 [5]Epi-120572-muurolol 76 [5]120572-Longipinene 77 [90]Chrysanthenone 78 [90]120572-Terpineol 79 [3 5 90 91]120572-Amorphene 80 [90]120572-Thujene 81 [91]120574-Terpinene 82 [91]120572-Cubebene 83 [91]Linalool acetate 84 [91]Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [91]Camphene 86 [3 5 88ndash91]120573-Pinene 87 [3 5 91]Sabinene 88 [3 5 87 90 91]Myrcene 89 [3 5 87ndash89 91ndash95]120572-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 88 89]2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]Limonene 92 [3 5 88ndash94]18-Cineole 93 [3 5 90 91 95]120573-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 88 89 91]

20 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3](Z)-120573-Ocimene 96 [3 5 88 89 91](E)-120573-Ocimene 97 [3 5 88 89 91]Isomyrcenol 98 [3]p-Cymene 99 [3 5 85 88ndash91]2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]Terpinolene 101 [3]Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 88 89 91 95]Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 88 89](Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]Nonanal 106 [3]Perillene 107 [3 91]Ipsenone 108 [3 87ndash89 95]Trans-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 88ndash90]1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 88 89]Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]Ttrans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]cis-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 88ndash90]120572-Copaene 114 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetone 115 [3 88 89]Trans-tagetone 116 [3 88 89]Camphor 117 [3 5 88ndash90 93 94]120573-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 91]Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 85 88ndash90 92 93]

Trans-120572-bergamotene 121 [3]120572-Cedrene 122 [3 5]Myrcenone 123 [3 5 83 91]120573-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 87ndash91 93 94]2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 88 89](Z)-120573-Farnesene 129 [3](E)-120573-Farnesene 130 [3 5](EE)-120572-Farnesene 131 [3 88 89]Ipsdienol 132 [3](Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]Isovaleric acid 134 [3]120572-Humulene 135 [3 5 88 89 91]120572-Acoradiene 136 [3]120573-Acoradiene 137 [3]120574-Muurolene 138 [3 5 88 89]120572-Muurolene 139 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]Borneol 142 [3 5 88ndash90]Verbenone 143 [3 91]Germacrene-D 144 [3 87ndash89 93]120573-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]120574-Bisabolene 146 [3]Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]Carvone 148 [3 5 91]Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 88 89 91]120573-Curcumene 150 [3]Ar-curcumene 151 [3]Cis-piperitol 152 [3]2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol156 [3 88 89]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]Calamenene 158 [3]Carvone oxide 159 [3]Isopiperitenone 160 [3]Cis-carveol 161 [3]Piperitenone 162 [2 3 73 83]Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 88 89]Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3ndash5 88ndash90]Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 88 89]Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]Spathulenol 167 [3]Eugenol 168 [3 5]Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120573-ol(=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120572-ol(=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [83]Icterogenin 173 [96]

B Chemical Structures ofPhenolic Compounds Alkaloids AminoAcids and Essential Oils Isolated fromLippia javanica

See Figure 4

Competing Interests

The author declares that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 21

O

OO

OO O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

C CH CHO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

COOH

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

Me

OMe

OMe

OMe

MeO

Me

HOOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OMe

OMe

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

（2 （2

（2

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

（3CO

（3CO

Coumarin 1 [4]

Verbascoside 2 [89]

Isoverbascoside 3 [89]

Theveside-Na 4 [90]

Theveridoside 5 [90]

4-Ethylnonacosane 6 [91]

Apigenin 7 [120 91]

Cirsimaritin 8 [120 91]

Crassifolioside 11 [120]

Luteolin 12 [120]

Diosmetin 13 [120]

Chrysoeriol 14 [120]

Tricin 15 [120]

Isothymusin 16 [120]

Eupatorin 17 [120]

6-Methoxyluteolin 3 47-trimethyl ether 10 [91]

6-Methoxyluteolin 4-methyl ether 9 [91]

Figure 4 Continued

22 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

N

NH

HN

HO

NH

O

NH

O

O

O

O

HN

N N

N

H

H

OAc

OAcOAc

OO

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

（3CO

（2

（2

（2

（2 （2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3N

（2N

（2N

（2N

（2N

minus

+

+

5-Desmethylnoboletin 18 [120]

Genkwanin 19 [120]

Salvigenin 20 [120]

Lippialactone 21 [92]

Xanthine 22 [120]

Valine 24 [94]

Isoleucine 25 [94]

Asparagine 26 [94]

Phenylalanine 27 [94]

Lysine 29 [94]

Histidine 30 [94]

Tyrosine 31 [94]

Tryptophan 32 [94]

Alanine 33 [93]

Glycine 34 [93]

Proline 35 [93]

Serine 36 [93]

Glutamine acid 37 [93]

Glutamine 39 [93]

4-Hydroxyproline 41 [93]

(E)-2(3)-Tagetenone epoxide 42 [91]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]

-Alanine 38 [93]

-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [93]

-Aminoadipic acid 28 [94]

-Aminobutyric acid 23 [93 94]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 23

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

H

H

HH

H

O

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

HO

OH

O

O

O

O

OH（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4]

3-Carene 47 [4]

Eucalyptol 48 [4]

18 myrcene 49 [123]

Ipsdienone 50 [123]

Caryophyllene 51 [93]

Geranial 52 [5 100 101]

26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [100]

Geraniol 54 [100]

Octen-3-one 55 [5]

6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]

Artemisia ketone 58 [5]

Linalool oxide 59 [5]

Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5]

Carvyl acetate 63 [5]

Sesquithujene 65 [5]

Acora-35-diene 66 [5]

-Pinene 44 [3-5 123 96 97 98 99] -Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]

(+)-2-Carene 46 [4]

-Bergamotene 67 [5]

-Cubebene 64 [5]

(Z)--Ocimenone 61 [5]

(E)--Ocimenone 62 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

24 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OH

H

H

H

H

O

OHO

HO

H

HH H

H

H

HH

H

HO

HO

O

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

Trans-calamenene 68 [5]

Cis-calamenene 72 [5]

Nerolidol 73 [5]

(E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 96 97]

Spathulenol 75 [5]

Chrysanthenone 78 [98]

Linalool acetate 84 [99]

Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [99]

Camphene 86 [3 5 96 97 98 99]

Sabinene 88 [3 5 123 98 99]

Myrcene 89 [3 5 123 100 101 96 97 99 102 103]

-Alaskene 69 [5]

-Terpineol 79 [3 5 98 99]

-Amorphene 80 [98]

-Cadinene 70 [45]-Thujene 81 [99]

-Cadinene 71 [3 96 97 99] -Terpinene 82 [99]

-Cubebene 83 [99]

-Pinene 87 [3 5 99]

-Longipinene 77 [98]

-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 96 97]

Epi--muurolol 76 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 25

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O

OH

OH

H

H

H

H

H

HOO

OH

O

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（3(（2)3（2

（3(（2)6（2

2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]

Limonene 92 [3 5 100 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3]

Isomyrcenol 98 [3]

p-Cymene 99 [3 5 93 96 97 98 99]

2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]

Terpinolene 101 [3]

Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 96 97 99 103]

Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 96 97]

(Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]

67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]

Nonanal 106 [3]

Perillene 107 [3 99]

Ipsenone 108 [3 123 96 97 103]

Trans-linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 96 97 98]

1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 96 97]

Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]

Trans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]

Cis-linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 96 97 98]

Cis-tagetone 115 [3 96 97]

Trans-tagetone 116 [3 96 97]

-Copaene 114 [3 5 96 97 98]

18-Cineole (=eucalyptol) 93 [3 5 98 99 103]

-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 96 97 99]

(Z)--Ocimene 96 [3 5 96 97 99]

(E)--Ocimene 97 [3 5 96 97 99]

Camphor 117 [3 5 101 96 97 98 102]

Figure 4 Continued

26 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

HH

H

H

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 93 100 101 96 97 98]

Myrcenone 123 [3 5 91 99]

2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol 125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]

Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 96 97]

Ipsdienol 132 [3]

(Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]

Isovaleric acid 134 [3]

Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]

Borneol 142 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 99]

Trans--bergamotene 121 [3]

-Cedrene 122 [3 5]

-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 123 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)--Farnesene 129 [3]

(E)--Farnesene 130 [3 5]

-Muurolene 139 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Muurolene 138 [3 5 96 97]

-Acoradiene 136 [3]

-Acoradiene 137 [3]

-Humulene 135 [3 5 96 97 99]

(EE)--Farnesene 131 [3 96 97]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O O

HO

O

H

H

H

HO

HO

OH

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3CO（3

Verbenone 143 [3 99]

Germacrene-D 144 [3 123 101 96 97]

Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]

Carvone 148 [3 5 99]

Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 96 97 99]

Ar-curcumene 151 [3]

Cis-piperitol 152 [3]

2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]

26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol 156 [3 96 97]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]

Calamenene 158 [3]

Carvone oxide 159 [3]

Isopiperitenone 160 [3]

Cis-carveol 161 [3]

Piperitenone 162 [2 3 91 81]

Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 96 97]

-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]

-Bisabolene 146 [3]

-Curcumene 150 [3]

Figure 4 Continued

28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

OO

O

O

H

H

H

H

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

H

H

HCH

HH

HO

（3

（2

（2C

（3C（3C

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C O（3

Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3-5 96 97 98]

Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 96 97]

Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]

Spathulenol 167 [3]

Eugenol 168 [3 5]

Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [91]

Icterogenin 173 [104]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Figure 4

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to the NationalResearch Foundation (NRF) and GovanMbeki Research andDevelopment Centre (GMRDC) University of Fort Hare forfinancial support to conduct this research

References

[1] JWMwangi I Addae-Mensah RMMunavu andW LwandeldquoEssential oils of Kenyan Lippia species Part IIIrdquo Flavour andFragrance Journal vol 6 no 3 pp 221ndash224 1991

[2] N J Manenzhe N Potgieter and T Van Ree ldquoCompositionand antimicrobial activities of volatile components of Lippiajavanicardquo Phytochemistry vol 65 no 16 pp 2333ndash2336 2004

[3] A M Viljoen S Subramoney S F V Vuuren K H C Baserand B Demirci ldquoThe composition geographical variation andantimicrobial activity of Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae) leafessential oilsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 96 no 1-2 pp271ndash277 2005

[4] N Lukwa P Moslashlgaard P Furu and C Boslashgh ldquoLippia javanica(Burm f) Spreng its general constituents and bioactivity onmosquitoesrdquoTropical Biomedicine vol 26 no 1 pp 85ndash91 2009

[5] L S Chagonda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssential oil compositionof Lippia javanica (Burmf) spreng chemotype from WesternZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants vol 18 no 2pp 482ndash485 2015

[6] W Kipkore B Wanjohi H Rono and G Kigen ldquoA study of themedicinal plants used by the Marakwet Community in KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 242014

[7] E A Shikanga S Combrinck and T Regnier ldquoSouth AfricanLippia herbal infusions total phenolic content antioxidant andantibacterial activitiesrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76no 3 pp 567ndash571 2010

[8] N T Parrant ldquoThe potential of non-timber forest products ofBotswanardquo Botswana Notes Records vol 28 no 1 pp 203ndash2181996

[9] D M Motlhanka and S W Makhabu ldquoMedicinal and ediblewild fruit plants of Botswana as emerging new crop opportu-nitiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plants Research vol 5 no 10 pp1836ndash1842 2011

[10] M Bhebhe T N Fuller B Chipurura and M MuchuwetildquoEffect of solvent type on total phenolic content and free radicalscavenging activity of black tea and herbal infusionsrdquo FoodAnalytical Methods vol 9 no 4 pp 1060ndash1067 2016

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29

[11] M Bhebhe B Chipurura and M Muchuweti ldquoDeterminationand comparison of phenolic compound content and antioxidantactivity of selected local Zimbabwean herbal teas with exoticAspalathus linearisrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 100no 1 pp 213ndash218 2015

[12] B Patiri and A Borah Wild Edible Plants of Assam GeetakhiPrinters Guwahati India 2007

[13] H Narzary and A Basumatary ldquoProximate and vitamin Canalysis of wild edible plants consumed by Bodos of AssamIndiardquo Journal of Molecular Pathophysiology vol 4 no 4 pp128ndash133 2015

[14] M Gelfand S Mavi R B Drummond and B Ndemera TheTraditional Medical Practitioners in Zimbabwe His Principles ofPractice and Pharmacopoeia Mambo Press Gweru Zimbabwe1985

[15] D Davids Materia medica and care a study of the uses ofmedicinal herbs and remedies as a form of treatment andnegotiating social relationships in cape town and surroundings[MS dissertation] University of theWestern Cape Cape TownSouth Africa 2012

[16] A Maroyi and G K E Mosina ldquoMedicinal plants and tradi-tional practices in peri-urban domestic gardens of the Limpopoprovince South africardquo Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledgevol 13 no 4 pp 665ndash672 2014

[17] A Samie C L Obi P O Bessong and L Namrita ldquoActivityprofiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Vendacommunities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterialspeciesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 4 no 12 pp1443ndash1451 2005

[18] T York An ethnopharmacological study of plants used fortreating respiratory infections in rural Maputaland [MS disser-tation] University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa South Africa2012

[19] D Davids T Blouws O Aboyade et al ldquoTraditional healthpractitionersrsquo perceptions herbal treatment andmanagement ofHIV and related opportunistic infectionsrdquo Journal of Ethnobiol-ogy and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 77 2014

[20] A Hutchings A H Scott G Lewis and A CunninghamZulu Medicinal Plants An Inventory University of Natal PressPietermarizburg South Africa 1996

[21] RM Coopoosamy andK K Naidoo ldquoAn ethnobotanical studyofmedicinal plants used by traditional healers inDurban SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 6no 11 pp 818ndash823 2012

[22] I Hedberg and F Staugard Traditional Medicinal Plants inBotswana Ipeleng Gaborone Botswana 1989

[23] H Shahriar A S M H K Chowdhury S Rahman et al ldquoSci-entific validation of medicinal plants used by a folk medicinalpractitioner of Chuadanga District BangladeshrdquoWorld Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 11 pp 13ndash24 2014

[24] S S Semenya M J Potgieter and M P Tshisikhawe ldquoUseconservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinalplants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 12 no 18 pp2392ndash2405 2013

[25] M Roberts Indigenous Healing Plants Southern Book Publish-ers Halfway House Johannesburg South Africa 1990

[26] T Birhanu D Abera and E Ejeta ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas westernEthiopiardquo Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare vol 5no 1 pp 83ndash93 2015

[27] N T Mahlangeni R Moodley and S B Jonnalagadda ldquoEle-mental composition of Cyrtanthus obliquus and Lippia javanicaused in South African herbal tonic Imbizardquo Arabian Journal ofChemistry 2013

[28] W Musila D Kisangau and J Muema ldquoConservation statusand use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitionersin Machakos District Kenyardquo in Indigenous Knowledge Con-ference Proceedings Pennsylvania State University May 27ndash292004 2004

[29] G N Njoroge and R W Bussmann ldquoTraditional managementof ear nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 542006

[30] P Chigora R Masocha and F Mutenheri ldquoThe role of indige-nous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailmentsin rural Zimbabwe the case of Mutirikwi communal landsrdquoJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol 9 no 2 pp26ndash43 2007

[31] R W Bussmann G G Gilbreath J Solio et al ldquoPlant use ofthe Maasai of Sekenani Valley Maasai Mara Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 22 2006

[32] D Motlhanka and G P Nthoiwa ldquoEthnobotanical Survey ofmedicinal plants of Tswapong North in Eastern Botswana acase of plants from Mosweu and Seolwane Villagesrdquo EuropeanJournal of Medicinal Plants vol 3 no 1 pp 10ndash24 2013

[33] A Vhurumuku ldquoKnowledge use and attitudes towardsmedici-nal plants of pre-service teachers at a South African UniversityrdquoGlobal Advanced Research Journal in Environmental Science andToxicology vol 4 no 2 pp 15ndash24 2015

[34] M N Nkwanyana An ethnobotanical and antidiarrhoeal inves-tigation of plants used traditionally in the maputaland areahomesteads [MS dissertation] University of Zululand KwaD-langezwa South Africa 2013

[35] T E Moeng An investigation into the trade of medicinal plantsbymuthi shops and street vendors in the Limpopo Province SouthAfrica [MS thesis] University of Limpopo Gauteng SouthAfrica 2010

[36] S Bandeira A M Manjate and O Filipe ldquoAn EcologicalAssessment of the Health of the Chibuto-Missavene Wetlandin the Dry Season Mozambique Emphasis on ResourcesAssessment Utilization and Sustainability Analysisrdquo reportto Challenge Program for Water and Food InternationalWater Management Institute Pretoria South Africa 2006httpscgspacecgiarorgbitstreamhandle105682160421604pdfsequence=1

[37] M C Palgrave R B Drummond and E J Moll Trees ofSouthern Africa Struik Cape Town South Africa 2003

[38] M O Nanyingi J M Mbaria A L Lanyasunya et alldquoEthnopharmacological survey of Samburu district KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4 article 142008

[39] J G J P Sankar and K B Satapathy ldquoWeed diversity of Rabicrops and their ethnomedicinal uses in Kendrapara districtof Odisha Indiardquo International Research Journal of BiologicalSciences vol 4 no 3 pp 33ndash38 2015

[40] D E N Mabogo The ethnobotany of the vhavenda [MSdissertation] University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa1990

[41] B-E van Wyk B van Oudtshoorn and N Gericke MedicinalPlants of South Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2013

[42] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used forthe treatment of tuberculosis by Bapedi traditional healers

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

OphthalmologyJournal of

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Research and TreatmentAIDS

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 20: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

20 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3](Z)-120573-Ocimene 96 [3 5 88 89 91](E)-120573-Ocimene 97 [3 5 88 89 91]Isomyrcenol 98 [3]p-Cymene 99 [3 5 85 88ndash91]2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]Terpinolene 101 [3]Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 88 89 91 95]Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 88 89](Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]Nonanal 106 [3]Perillene 107 [3 91]Ipsenone 108 [3 87ndash89 95]Trans-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 88ndash90]1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 88 89]Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]Ttrans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]cis-Linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 88ndash90]120572-Copaene 114 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetone 115 [3 88 89]Trans-tagetone 116 [3 88 89]Camphor 117 [3 5 88ndash90 93 94]120573-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 91]Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 85 88ndash90 92 93]

Trans-120572-bergamotene 121 [3]120572-Cedrene 122 [3 5]Myrcenone 123 [3 5 83 91]120573-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 87ndash91 93 94]2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 88 89](Z)-120573-Farnesene 129 [3](E)-120573-Farnesene 130 [3 5](EE)-120572-Farnesene 131 [3 88 89]Ipsdienol 132 [3](Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]Isovaleric acid 134 [3]120572-Humulene 135 [3 5 88 89 91]120572-Acoradiene 136 [3]120573-Acoradiene 137 [3]120574-Muurolene 138 [3 5 88 89]120572-Muurolene 139 [3 5 88ndash90]Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Table 5 Continued

Chemical compound Reference(s)Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]Borneol 142 [3 5 88ndash90]Verbenone 143 [3 91]Germacrene-D 144 [3 87ndash89 93]120573-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]120574-Bisabolene 146 [3]Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]Carvone 148 [3 5 91]Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 88 89 91]120573-Curcumene 150 [3]Ar-curcumene 151 [3]Cis-piperitol 152 [3]2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol156 [3 88 89]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]Calamenene 158 [3]Carvone oxide 159 [3]Isopiperitenone 160 [3]Cis-carveol 161 [3]Piperitenone 162 [2 3 73 83]Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 88 89]Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3ndash5 88ndash90]Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 88 89]Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]Spathulenol 167 [3]Eugenol 168 [3 5]Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120573-ol(=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5120572-ol(=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [83]Icterogenin 173 [96]

B Chemical Structures ofPhenolic Compounds Alkaloids AminoAcids and Essential Oils Isolated fromLippia javanica

See Figure 4

Competing Interests

The author declares that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 21

O

OO

OO O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

C CH CHO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

COOH

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

Me

OMe

OMe

OMe

MeO

Me

HOOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OMe

OMe

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

（2 （2

（2

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

（3CO

（3CO

Coumarin 1 [4]

Verbascoside 2 [89]

Isoverbascoside 3 [89]

Theveside-Na 4 [90]

Theveridoside 5 [90]

4-Ethylnonacosane 6 [91]

Apigenin 7 [120 91]

Cirsimaritin 8 [120 91]

Crassifolioside 11 [120]

Luteolin 12 [120]

Diosmetin 13 [120]

Chrysoeriol 14 [120]

Tricin 15 [120]

Isothymusin 16 [120]

Eupatorin 17 [120]

6-Methoxyluteolin 3 47-trimethyl ether 10 [91]

6-Methoxyluteolin 4-methyl ether 9 [91]

Figure 4 Continued

22 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

N

NH

HN

HO

NH

O

NH

O

O

O

O

HN

N N

N

H

H

OAc

OAcOAc

OO

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

（3CO

（2

（2

（2

（2 （2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3N

（2N

（2N

（2N

（2N

minus

+

+

5-Desmethylnoboletin 18 [120]

Genkwanin 19 [120]

Salvigenin 20 [120]

Lippialactone 21 [92]

Xanthine 22 [120]

Valine 24 [94]

Isoleucine 25 [94]

Asparagine 26 [94]

Phenylalanine 27 [94]

Lysine 29 [94]

Histidine 30 [94]

Tyrosine 31 [94]

Tryptophan 32 [94]

Alanine 33 [93]

Glycine 34 [93]

Proline 35 [93]

Serine 36 [93]

Glutamine acid 37 [93]

Glutamine 39 [93]

4-Hydroxyproline 41 [93]

(E)-2(3)-Tagetenone epoxide 42 [91]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]

-Alanine 38 [93]

-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [93]

-Aminoadipic acid 28 [94]

-Aminobutyric acid 23 [93 94]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 23

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

H

H

HH

H

O

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

HO

OH

O

O

O

O

OH（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4]

3-Carene 47 [4]

Eucalyptol 48 [4]

18 myrcene 49 [123]

Ipsdienone 50 [123]

Caryophyllene 51 [93]

Geranial 52 [5 100 101]

26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [100]

Geraniol 54 [100]

Octen-3-one 55 [5]

6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]

Artemisia ketone 58 [5]

Linalool oxide 59 [5]

Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5]

Carvyl acetate 63 [5]

Sesquithujene 65 [5]

Acora-35-diene 66 [5]

-Pinene 44 [3-5 123 96 97 98 99] -Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]

(+)-2-Carene 46 [4]

-Bergamotene 67 [5]

-Cubebene 64 [5]

(Z)--Ocimenone 61 [5]

(E)--Ocimenone 62 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

24 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OH

H

H

H

H

O

OHO

HO

H

HH H

H

H

HH

H

HO

HO

O

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

Trans-calamenene 68 [5]

Cis-calamenene 72 [5]

Nerolidol 73 [5]

(E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 96 97]

Spathulenol 75 [5]

Chrysanthenone 78 [98]

Linalool acetate 84 [99]

Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [99]

Camphene 86 [3 5 96 97 98 99]

Sabinene 88 [3 5 123 98 99]

Myrcene 89 [3 5 123 100 101 96 97 99 102 103]

-Alaskene 69 [5]

-Terpineol 79 [3 5 98 99]

-Amorphene 80 [98]

-Cadinene 70 [45]-Thujene 81 [99]

-Cadinene 71 [3 96 97 99] -Terpinene 82 [99]

-Cubebene 83 [99]

-Pinene 87 [3 5 99]

-Longipinene 77 [98]

-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 96 97]

Epi--muurolol 76 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 25

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O

OH

OH

H

H

H

H

H

HOO

OH

O

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（3(（2)3（2

（3(（2)6（2

2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]

Limonene 92 [3 5 100 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3]

Isomyrcenol 98 [3]

p-Cymene 99 [3 5 93 96 97 98 99]

2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]

Terpinolene 101 [3]

Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 96 97 99 103]

Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 96 97]

(Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]

67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]

Nonanal 106 [3]

Perillene 107 [3 99]

Ipsenone 108 [3 123 96 97 103]

Trans-linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 96 97 98]

1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 96 97]

Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]

Trans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]

Cis-linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 96 97 98]

Cis-tagetone 115 [3 96 97]

Trans-tagetone 116 [3 96 97]

-Copaene 114 [3 5 96 97 98]

18-Cineole (=eucalyptol) 93 [3 5 98 99 103]

-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 96 97 99]

(Z)--Ocimene 96 [3 5 96 97 99]

(E)--Ocimene 97 [3 5 96 97 99]

Camphor 117 [3 5 101 96 97 98 102]

Figure 4 Continued

26 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

HH

H

H

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 93 100 101 96 97 98]

Myrcenone 123 [3 5 91 99]

2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol 125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]

Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 96 97]

Ipsdienol 132 [3]

(Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]

Isovaleric acid 134 [3]

Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]

Borneol 142 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 99]

Trans--bergamotene 121 [3]

-Cedrene 122 [3 5]

-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 123 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)--Farnesene 129 [3]

(E)--Farnesene 130 [3 5]

-Muurolene 139 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Muurolene 138 [3 5 96 97]

-Acoradiene 136 [3]

-Acoradiene 137 [3]

-Humulene 135 [3 5 96 97 99]

(EE)--Farnesene 131 [3 96 97]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O O

HO

O

H

H

H

HO

HO

OH

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3CO（3

Verbenone 143 [3 99]

Germacrene-D 144 [3 123 101 96 97]

Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]

Carvone 148 [3 5 99]

Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 96 97 99]

Ar-curcumene 151 [3]

Cis-piperitol 152 [3]

2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]

26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol 156 [3 96 97]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]

Calamenene 158 [3]

Carvone oxide 159 [3]

Isopiperitenone 160 [3]

Cis-carveol 161 [3]

Piperitenone 162 [2 3 91 81]

Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 96 97]

-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]

-Bisabolene 146 [3]

-Curcumene 150 [3]

Figure 4 Continued

28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

OO

O

O

H

H

H

H

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

H

H

HCH

HH

HO

（3

（2

（2C

（3C（3C

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C O（3

Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3-5 96 97 98]

Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 96 97]

Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]

Spathulenol 167 [3]

Eugenol 168 [3 5]

Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [91]

Icterogenin 173 [104]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Figure 4

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to the NationalResearch Foundation (NRF) and GovanMbeki Research andDevelopment Centre (GMRDC) University of Fort Hare forfinancial support to conduct this research

References

[1] JWMwangi I Addae-Mensah RMMunavu andW LwandeldquoEssential oils of Kenyan Lippia species Part IIIrdquo Flavour andFragrance Journal vol 6 no 3 pp 221ndash224 1991

[2] N J Manenzhe N Potgieter and T Van Ree ldquoCompositionand antimicrobial activities of volatile components of Lippiajavanicardquo Phytochemistry vol 65 no 16 pp 2333ndash2336 2004

[3] A M Viljoen S Subramoney S F V Vuuren K H C Baserand B Demirci ldquoThe composition geographical variation andantimicrobial activity of Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae) leafessential oilsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 96 no 1-2 pp271ndash277 2005

[4] N Lukwa P Moslashlgaard P Furu and C Boslashgh ldquoLippia javanica(Burm f) Spreng its general constituents and bioactivity onmosquitoesrdquoTropical Biomedicine vol 26 no 1 pp 85ndash91 2009

[5] L S Chagonda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssential oil compositionof Lippia javanica (Burmf) spreng chemotype from WesternZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants vol 18 no 2pp 482ndash485 2015

[6] W Kipkore B Wanjohi H Rono and G Kigen ldquoA study of themedicinal plants used by the Marakwet Community in KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 242014

[7] E A Shikanga S Combrinck and T Regnier ldquoSouth AfricanLippia herbal infusions total phenolic content antioxidant andantibacterial activitiesrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76no 3 pp 567ndash571 2010

[8] N T Parrant ldquoThe potential of non-timber forest products ofBotswanardquo Botswana Notes Records vol 28 no 1 pp 203ndash2181996

[9] D M Motlhanka and S W Makhabu ldquoMedicinal and ediblewild fruit plants of Botswana as emerging new crop opportu-nitiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plants Research vol 5 no 10 pp1836ndash1842 2011

[10] M Bhebhe T N Fuller B Chipurura and M MuchuwetildquoEffect of solvent type on total phenolic content and free radicalscavenging activity of black tea and herbal infusionsrdquo FoodAnalytical Methods vol 9 no 4 pp 1060ndash1067 2016

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29

[11] M Bhebhe B Chipurura and M Muchuweti ldquoDeterminationand comparison of phenolic compound content and antioxidantactivity of selected local Zimbabwean herbal teas with exoticAspalathus linearisrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 100no 1 pp 213ndash218 2015

[12] B Patiri and A Borah Wild Edible Plants of Assam GeetakhiPrinters Guwahati India 2007

[13] H Narzary and A Basumatary ldquoProximate and vitamin Canalysis of wild edible plants consumed by Bodos of AssamIndiardquo Journal of Molecular Pathophysiology vol 4 no 4 pp128ndash133 2015

[14] M Gelfand S Mavi R B Drummond and B Ndemera TheTraditional Medical Practitioners in Zimbabwe His Principles ofPractice and Pharmacopoeia Mambo Press Gweru Zimbabwe1985

[15] D Davids Materia medica and care a study of the uses ofmedicinal herbs and remedies as a form of treatment andnegotiating social relationships in cape town and surroundings[MS dissertation] University of theWestern Cape Cape TownSouth Africa 2012

[16] A Maroyi and G K E Mosina ldquoMedicinal plants and tradi-tional practices in peri-urban domestic gardens of the Limpopoprovince South africardquo Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledgevol 13 no 4 pp 665ndash672 2014

[17] A Samie C L Obi P O Bessong and L Namrita ldquoActivityprofiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Vendacommunities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterialspeciesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 4 no 12 pp1443ndash1451 2005

[18] T York An ethnopharmacological study of plants used fortreating respiratory infections in rural Maputaland [MS disser-tation] University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa South Africa2012

[19] D Davids T Blouws O Aboyade et al ldquoTraditional healthpractitionersrsquo perceptions herbal treatment andmanagement ofHIV and related opportunistic infectionsrdquo Journal of Ethnobiol-ogy and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 77 2014

[20] A Hutchings A H Scott G Lewis and A CunninghamZulu Medicinal Plants An Inventory University of Natal PressPietermarizburg South Africa 1996

[21] RM Coopoosamy andK K Naidoo ldquoAn ethnobotanical studyofmedicinal plants used by traditional healers inDurban SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 6no 11 pp 818ndash823 2012

[22] I Hedberg and F Staugard Traditional Medicinal Plants inBotswana Ipeleng Gaborone Botswana 1989

[23] H Shahriar A S M H K Chowdhury S Rahman et al ldquoSci-entific validation of medicinal plants used by a folk medicinalpractitioner of Chuadanga District BangladeshrdquoWorld Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 11 pp 13ndash24 2014

[24] S S Semenya M J Potgieter and M P Tshisikhawe ldquoUseconservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinalplants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 12 no 18 pp2392ndash2405 2013

[25] M Roberts Indigenous Healing Plants Southern Book Publish-ers Halfway House Johannesburg South Africa 1990

[26] T Birhanu D Abera and E Ejeta ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas westernEthiopiardquo Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare vol 5no 1 pp 83ndash93 2015

[27] N T Mahlangeni R Moodley and S B Jonnalagadda ldquoEle-mental composition of Cyrtanthus obliquus and Lippia javanicaused in South African herbal tonic Imbizardquo Arabian Journal ofChemistry 2013

[28] W Musila D Kisangau and J Muema ldquoConservation statusand use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitionersin Machakos District Kenyardquo in Indigenous Knowledge Con-ference Proceedings Pennsylvania State University May 27ndash292004 2004

[29] G N Njoroge and R W Bussmann ldquoTraditional managementof ear nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 542006

[30] P Chigora R Masocha and F Mutenheri ldquoThe role of indige-nous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailmentsin rural Zimbabwe the case of Mutirikwi communal landsrdquoJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol 9 no 2 pp26ndash43 2007

[31] R W Bussmann G G Gilbreath J Solio et al ldquoPlant use ofthe Maasai of Sekenani Valley Maasai Mara Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 22 2006

[32] D Motlhanka and G P Nthoiwa ldquoEthnobotanical Survey ofmedicinal plants of Tswapong North in Eastern Botswana acase of plants from Mosweu and Seolwane Villagesrdquo EuropeanJournal of Medicinal Plants vol 3 no 1 pp 10ndash24 2013

[33] A Vhurumuku ldquoKnowledge use and attitudes towardsmedici-nal plants of pre-service teachers at a South African UniversityrdquoGlobal Advanced Research Journal in Environmental Science andToxicology vol 4 no 2 pp 15ndash24 2015

[34] M N Nkwanyana An ethnobotanical and antidiarrhoeal inves-tigation of plants used traditionally in the maputaland areahomesteads [MS dissertation] University of Zululand KwaD-langezwa South Africa 2013

[35] T E Moeng An investigation into the trade of medicinal plantsbymuthi shops and street vendors in the Limpopo Province SouthAfrica [MS thesis] University of Limpopo Gauteng SouthAfrica 2010

[36] S Bandeira A M Manjate and O Filipe ldquoAn EcologicalAssessment of the Health of the Chibuto-Missavene Wetlandin the Dry Season Mozambique Emphasis on ResourcesAssessment Utilization and Sustainability Analysisrdquo reportto Challenge Program for Water and Food InternationalWater Management Institute Pretoria South Africa 2006httpscgspacecgiarorgbitstreamhandle105682160421604pdfsequence=1

[37] M C Palgrave R B Drummond and E J Moll Trees ofSouthern Africa Struik Cape Town South Africa 2003

[38] M O Nanyingi J M Mbaria A L Lanyasunya et alldquoEthnopharmacological survey of Samburu district KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4 article 142008

[39] J G J P Sankar and K B Satapathy ldquoWeed diversity of Rabicrops and their ethnomedicinal uses in Kendrapara districtof Odisha Indiardquo International Research Journal of BiologicalSciences vol 4 no 3 pp 33ndash38 2015

[40] D E N Mabogo The ethnobotany of the vhavenda [MSdissertation] University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa1990

[41] B-E van Wyk B van Oudtshoorn and N Gericke MedicinalPlants of South Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2013

[42] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used forthe treatment of tuberculosis by Bapedi traditional healers

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

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Research and TreatmentAIDS

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 21: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 21

O

OO

OO O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

C CH CHO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

COOH

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

Me

OMe

OMe

OMe

MeO

Me

HOOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OMe

OMe

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

（2 （2

（2

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

O（3

（3CO

（3CO

Coumarin 1 [4]

Verbascoside 2 [89]

Isoverbascoside 3 [89]

Theveside-Na 4 [90]

Theveridoside 5 [90]

4-Ethylnonacosane 6 [91]

Apigenin 7 [120 91]

Cirsimaritin 8 [120 91]

Crassifolioside 11 [120]

Luteolin 12 [120]

Diosmetin 13 [120]

Chrysoeriol 14 [120]

Tricin 15 [120]

Isothymusin 16 [120]

Eupatorin 17 [120]

6-Methoxyluteolin 3 47-trimethyl ether 10 [91]

6-Methoxyluteolin 4-methyl ether 9 [91]

Figure 4 Continued

22 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

N

NH

HN

HO

NH

O

NH

O

O

O

O

HN

N N

N

H

H

OAc

OAcOAc

OO

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

（3CO

（2

（2

（2

（2 （2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3N

（2N

（2N

（2N

（2N

minus

+

+

5-Desmethylnoboletin 18 [120]

Genkwanin 19 [120]

Salvigenin 20 [120]

Lippialactone 21 [92]

Xanthine 22 [120]

Valine 24 [94]

Isoleucine 25 [94]

Asparagine 26 [94]

Phenylalanine 27 [94]

Lysine 29 [94]

Histidine 30 [94]

Tyrosine 31 [94]

Tryptophan 32 [94]

Alanine 33 [93]

Glycine 34 [93]

Proline 35 [93]

Serine 36 [93]

Glutamine acid 37 [93]

Glutamine 39 [93]

4-Hydroxyproline 41 [93]

(E)-2(3)-Tagetenone epoxide 42 [91]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]

-Alanine 38 [93]

-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [93]

-Aminoadipic acid 28 [94]

-Aminobutyric acid 23 [93 94]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 23

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

H

H

HH

H

O

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

HO

OH

O

O

O

O

OH（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4]

3-Carene 47 [4]

Eucalyptol 48 [4]

18 myrcene 49 [123]

Ipsdienone 50 [123]

Caryophyllene 51 [93]

Geranial 52 [5 100 101]

26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [100]

Geraniol 54 [100]

Octen-3-one 55 [5]

6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]

Artemisia ketone 58 [5]

Linalool oxide 59 [5]

Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5]

Carvyl acetate 63 [5]

Sesquithujene 65 [5]

Acora-35-diene 66 [5]

-Pinene 44 [3-5 123 96 97 98 99] -Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]

(+)-2-Carene 46 [4]

-Bergamotene 67 [5]

-Cubebene 64 [5]

(Z)--Ocimenone 61 [5]

(E)--Ocimenone 62 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

24 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OH

H

H

H

H

O

OHO

HO

H

HH H

H

H

HH

H

HO

HO

O

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

Trans-calamenene 68 [5]

Cis-calamenene 72 [5]

Nerolidol 73 [5]

(E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 96 97]

Spathulenol 75 [5]

Chrysanthenone 78 [98]

Linalool acetate 84 [99]

Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [99]

Camphene 86 [3 5 96 97 98 99]

Sabinene 88 [3 5 123 98 99]

Myrcene 89 [3 5 123 100 101 96 97 99 102 103]

-Alaskene 69 [5]

-Terpineol 79 [3 5 98 99]

-Amorphene 80 [98]

-Cadinene 70 [45]-Thujene 81 [99]

-Cadinene 71 [3 96 97 99] -Terpinene 82 [99]

-Cubebene 83 [99]

-Pinene 87 [3 5 99]

-Longipinene 77 [98]

-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 96 97]

Epi--muurolol 76 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 25

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O

OH

OH

H

H

H

H

H

HOO

OH

O

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（3(（2)3（2

（3(（2)6（2

2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]

Limonene 92 [3 5 100 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3]

Isomyrcenol 98 [3]

p-Cymene 99 [3 5 93 96 97 98 99]

2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]

Terpinolene 101 [3]

Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 96 97 99 103]

Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 96 97]

(Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]

67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]

Nonanal 106 [3]

Perillene 107 [3 99]

Ipsenone 108 [3 123 96 97 103]

Trans-linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 96 97 98]

1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 96 97]

Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]

Trans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]

Cis-linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 96 97 98]

Cis-tagetone 115 [3 96 97]

Trans-tagetone 116 [3 96 97]

-Copaene 114 [3 5 96 97 98]

18-Cineole (=eucalyptol) 93 [3 5 98 99 103]

-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 96 97 99]

(Z)--Ocimene 96 [3 5 96 97 99]

(E)--Ocimene 97 [3 5 96 97 99]

Camphor 117 [3 5 101 96 97 98 102]

Figure 4 Continued

26 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

HH

H

H

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 93 100 101 96 97 98]

Myrcenone 123 [3 5 91 99]

2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol 125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]

Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 96 97]

Ipsdienol 132 [3]

(Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]

Isovaleric acid 134 [3]

Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]

Borneol 142 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 99]

Trans--bergamotene 121 [3]

-Cedrene 122 [3 5]

-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 123 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)--Farnesene 129 [3]

(E)--Farnesene 130 [3 5]

-Muurolene 139 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Muurolene 138 [3 5 96 97]

-Acoradiene 136 [3]

-Acoradiene 137 [3]

-Humulene 135 [3 5 96 97 99]

(EE)--Farnesene 131 [3 96 97]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O O

HO

O

H

H

H

HO

HO

OH

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3CO（3

Verbenone 143 [3 99]

Germacrene-D 144 [3 123 101 96 97]

Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]

Carvone 148 [3 5 99]

Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 96 97 99]

Ar-curcumene 151 [3]

Cis-piperitol 152 [3]

2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]

26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol 156 [3 96 97]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]

Calamenene 158 [3]

Carvone oxide 159 [3]

Isopiperitenone 160 [3]

Cis-carveol 161 [3]

Piperitenone 162 [2 3 91 81]

Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 96 97]

-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]

-Bisabolene 146 [3]

-Curcumene 150 [3]

Figure 4 Continued

28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

OO

O

O

H

H

H

H

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

H

H

HCH

HH

HO

（3

（2

（2C

（3C（3C

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C O（3

Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3-5 96 97 98]

Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 96 97]

Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]

Spathulenol 167 [3]

Eugenol 168 [3 5]

Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [91]

Icterogenin 173 [104]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Figure 4

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to the NationalResearch Foundation (NRF) and GovanMbeki Research andDevelopment Centre (GMRDC) University of Fort Hare forfinancial support to conduct this research

References

[1] JWMwangi I Addae-Mensah RMMunavu andW LwandeldquoEssential oils of Kenyan Lippia species Part IIIrdquo Flavour andFragrance Journal vol 6 no 3 pp 221ndash224 1991

[2] N J Manenzhe N Potgieter and T Van Ree ldquoCompositionand antimicrobial activities of volatile components of Lippiajavanicardquo Phytochemistry vol 65 no 16 pp 2333ndash2336 2004

[3] A M Viljoen S Subramoney S F V Vuuren K H C Baserand B Demirci ldquoThe composition geographical variation andantimicrobial activity of Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae) leafessential oilsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 96 no 1-2 pp271ndash277 2005

[4] N Lukwa P Moslashlgaard P Furu and C Boslashgh ldquoLippia javanica(Burm f) Spreng its general constituents and bioactivity onmosquitoesrdquoTropical Biomedicine vol 26 no 1 pp 85ndash91 2009

[5] L S Chagonda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssential oil compositionof Lippia javanica (Burmf) spreng chemotype from WesternZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants vol 18 no 2pp 482ndash485 2015

[6] W Kipkore B Wanjohi H Rono and G Kigen ldquoA study of themedicinal plants used by the Marakwet Community in KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 242014

[7] E A Shikanga S Combrinck and T Regnier ldquoSouth AfricanLippia herbal infusions total phenolic content antioxidant andantibacterial activitiesrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76no 3 pp 567ndash571 2010

[8] N T Parrant ldquoThe potential of non-timber forest products ofBotswanardquo Botswana Notes Records vol 28 no 1 pp 203ndash2181996

[9] D M Motlhanka and S W Makhabu ldquoMedicinal and ediblewild fruit plants of Botswana as emerging new crop opportu-nitiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plants Research vol 5 no 10 pp1836ndash1842 2011

[10] M Bhebhe T N Fuller B Chipurura and M MuchuwetildquoEffect of solvent type on total phenolic content and free radicalscavenging activity of black tea and herbal infusionsrdquo FoodAnalytical Methods vol 9 no 4 pp 1060ndash1067 2016

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29

[11] M Bhebhe B Chipurura and M Muchuweti ldquoDeterminationand comparison of phenolic compound content and antioxidantactivity of selected local Zimbabwean herbal teas with exoticAspalathus linearisrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 100no 1 pp 213ndash218 2015

[12] B Patiri and A Borah Wild Edible Plants of Assam GeetakhiPrinters Guwahati India 2007

[13] H Narzary and A Basumatary ldquoProximate and vitamin Canalysis of wild edible plants consumed by Bodos of AssamIndiardquo Journal of Molecular Pathophysiology vol 4 no 4 pp128ndash133 2015

[14] M Gelfand S Mavi R B Drummond and B Ndemera TheTraditional Medical Practitioners in Zimbabwe His Principles ofPractice and Pharmacopoeia Mambo Press Gweru Zimbabwe1985

[15] D Davids Materia medica and care a study of the uses ofmedicinal herbs and remedies as a form of treatment andnegotiating social relationships in cape town and surroundings[MS dissertation] University of theWestern Cape Cape TownSouth Africa 2012

[16] A Maroyi and G K E Mosina ldquoMedicinal plants and tradi-tional practices in peri-urban domestic gardens of the Limpopoprovince South africardquo Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledgevol 13 no 4 pp 665ndash672 2014

[17] A Samie C L Obi P O Bessong and L Namrita ldquoActivityprofiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Vendacommunities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterialspeciesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 4 no 12 pp1443ndash1451 2005

[18] T York An ethnopharmacological study of plants used fortreating respiratory infections in rural Maputaland [MS disser-tation] University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa South Africa2012

[19] D Davids T Blouws O Aboyade et al ldquoTraditional healthpractitionersrsquo perceptions herbal treatment andmanagement ofHIV and related opportunistic infectionsrdquo Journal of Ethnobiol-ogy and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 77 2014

[20] A Hutchings A H Scott G Lewis and A CunninghamZulu Medicinal Plants An Inventory University of Natal PressPietermarizburg South Africa 1996

[21] RM Coopoosamy andK K Naidoo ldquoAn ethnobotanical studyofmedicinal plants used by traditional healers inDurban SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 6no 11 pp 818ndash823 2012

[22] I Hedberg and F Staugard Traditional Medicinal Plants inBotswana Ipeleng Gaborone Botswana 1989

[23] H Shahriar A S M H K Chowdhury S Rahman et al ldquoSci-entific validation of medicinal plants used by a folk medicinalpractitioner of Chuadanga District BangladeshrdquoWorld Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 11 pp 13ndash24 2014

[24] S S Semenya M J Potgieter and M P Tshisikhawe ldquoUseconservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinalplants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 12 no 18 pp2392ndash2405 2013

[25] M Roberts Indigenous Healing Plants Southern Book Publish-ers Halfway House Johannesburg South Africa 1990

[26] T Birhanu D Abera and E Ejeta ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas westernEthiopiardquo Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare vol 5no 1 pp 83ndash93 2015

[27] N T Mahlangeni R Moodley and S B Jonnalagadda ldquoEle-mental composition of Cyrtanthus obliquus and Lippia javanicaused in South African herbal tonic Imbizardquo Arabian Journal ofChemistry 2013

[28] W Musila D Kisangau and J Muema ldquoConservation statusand use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitionersin Machakos District Kenyardquo in Indigenous Knowledge Con-ference Proceedings Pennsylvania State University May 27ndash292004 2004

[29] G N Njoroge and R W Bussmann ldquoTraditional managementof ear nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 542006

[30] P Chigora R Masocha and F Mutenheri ldquoThe role of indige-nous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailmentsin rural Zimbabwe the case of Mutirikwi communal landsrdquoJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol 9 no 2 pp26ndash43 2007

[31] R W Bussmann G G Gilbreath J Solio et al ldquoPlant use ofthe Maasai of Sekenani Valley Maasai Mara Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 22 2006

[32] D Motlhanka and G P Nthoiwa ldquoEthnobotanical Survey ofmedicinal plants of Tswapong North in Eastern Botswana acase of plants from Mosweu and Seolwane Villagesrdquo EuropeanJournal of Medicinal Plants vol 3 no 1 pp 10ndash24 2013

[33] A Vhurumuku ldquoKnowledge use and attitudes towardsmedici-nal plants of pre-service teachers at a South African UniversityrdquoGlobal Advanced Research Journal in Environmental Science andToxicology vol 4 no 2 pp 15ndash24 2015

[34] M N Nkwanyana An ethnobotanical and antidiarrhoeal inves-tigation of plants used traditionally in the maputaland areahomesteads [MS dissertation] University of Zululand KwaD-langezwa South Africa 2013

[35] T E Moeng An investigation into the trade of medicinal plantsbymuthi shops and street vendors in the Limpopo Province SouthAfrica [MS thesis] University of Limpopo Gauteng SouthAfrica 2010

[36] S Bandeira A M Manjate and O Filipe ldquoAn EcologicalAssessment of the Health of the Chibuto-Missavene Wetlandin the Dry Season Mozambique Emphasis on ResourcesAssessment Utilization and Sustainability Analysisrdquo reportto Challenge Program for Water and Food InternationalWater Management Institute Pretoria South Africa 2006httpscgspacecgiarorgbitstreamhandle105682160421604pdfsequence=1

[37] M C Palgrave R B Drummond and E J Moll Trees ofSouthern Africa Struik Cape Town South Africa 2003

[38] M O Nanyingi J M Mbaria A L Lanyasunya et alldquoEthnopharmacological survey of Samburu district KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4 article 142008

[39] J G J P Sankar and K B Satapathy ldquoWeed diversity of Rabicrops and their ethnomedicinal uses in Kendrapara districtof Odisha Indiardquo International Research Journal of BiologicalSciences vol 4 no 3 pp 33ndash38 2015

[40] D E N Mabogo The ethnobotany of the vhavenda [MSdissertation] University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa1990

[41] B-E van Wyk B van Oudtshoorn and N Gericke MedicinalPlants of South Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2013

[42] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used forthe treatment of tuberculosis by Bapedi traditional healers

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

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Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 22: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

22 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O O

O

OO

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

N

NH

HN

HO

NH

O

NH

O

O

O

O

HN

N N

N

H

H

OAc

OAcOAc

OO

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHHO

HO

HO

HO

HO

（3CO

（2

（2

（2

（2 （2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3N

（2N

（2N

（2N

（2N

minus

+

+

5-Desmethylnoboletin 18 [120]

Genkwanin 19 [120]

Salvigenin 20 [120]

Lippialactone 21 [92]

Xanthine 22 [120]

Valine 24 [94]

Isoleucine 25 [94]

Asparagine 26 [94]

Phenylalanine 27 [94]

Lysine 29 [94]

Histidine 30 [94]

Tyrosine 31 [94]

Tryptophan 32 [94]

Alanine 33 [93]

Glycine 34 [93]

Proline 35 [93]

Serine 36 [93]

Glutamine acid 37 [93]

Glutamine 39 [93]

4-Hydroxyproline 41 [93]

(E)-2(3)-Tagetenone epoxide 42 [91]

4-Methyl-2-pentanone 43 [3]

-Alanine 38 [93]

-Aminoisobutyric acid 40 [93]

-Aminoadipic acid 28 [94]

-Aminobutyric acid 23 [93 94]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 23

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

H

H

HH

H

O

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

HO

OH

O

O

O

O

OH（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4]

3-Carene 47 [4]

Eucalyptol 48 [4]

18 myrcene 49 [123]

Ipsdienone 50 [123]

Caryophyllene 51 [93]

Geranial 52 [5 100 101]

26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [100]

Geraniol 54 [100]

Octen-3-one 55 [5]

6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]

Artemisia ketone 58 [5]

Linalool oxide 59 [5]

Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5]

Carvyl acetate 63 [5]

Sesquithujene 65 [5]

Acora-35-diene 66 [5]

-Pinene 44 [3-5 123 96 97 98 99] -Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]

(+)-2-Carene 46 [4]

-Bergamotene 67 [5]

-Cubebene 64 [5]

(Z)--Ocimenone 61 [5]

(E)--Ocimenone 62 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

24 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OH

H

H

H

H

O

OHO

HO

H

HH H

H

H

HH

H

HO

HO

O

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

Trans-calamenene 68 [5]

Cis-calamenene 72 [5]

Nerolidol 73 [5]

(E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 96 97]

Spathulenol 75 [5]

Chrysanthenone 78 [98]

Linalool acetate 84 [99]

Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [99]

Camphene 86 [3 5 96 97 98 99]

Sabinene 88 [3 5 123 98 99]

Myrcene 89 [3 5 123 100 101 96 97 99 102 103]

-Alaskene 69 [5]

-Terpineol 79 [3 5 98 99]

-Amorphene 80 [98]

-Cadinene 70 [45]-Thujene 81 [99]

-Cadinene 71 [3 96 97 99] -Terpinene 82 [99]

-Cubebene 83 [99]

-Pinene 87 [3 5 99]

-Longipinene 77 [98]

-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 96 97]

Epi--muurolol 76 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 25

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O

OH

OH

H

H

H

H

H

HOO

OH

O

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（3(（2)3（2

（3(（2)6（2

2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]

Limonene 92 [3 5 100 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3]

Isomyrcenol 98 [3]

p-Cymene 99 [3 5 93 96 97 98 99]

2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]

Terpinolene 101 [3]

Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 96 97 99 103]

Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 96 97]

(Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]

67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]

Nonanal 106 [3]

Perillene 107 [3 99]

Ipsenone 108 [3 123 96 97 103]

Trans-linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 96 97 98]

1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 96 97]

Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]

Trans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]

Cis-linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 96 97 98]

Cis-tagetone 115 [3 96 97]

Trans-tagetone 116 [3 96 97]

-Copaene 114 [3 5 96 97 98]

18-Cineole (=eucalyptol) 93 [3 5 98 99 103]

-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 96 97 99]

(Z)--Ocimene 96 [3 5 96 97 99]

(E)--Ocimene 97 [3 5 96 97 99]

Camphor 117 [3 5 101 96 97 98 102]

Figure 4 Continued

26 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

HH

H

H

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 93 100 101 96 97 98]

Myrcenone 123 [3 5 91 99]

2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol 125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]

Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 96 97]

Ipsdienol 132 [3]

(Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]

Isovaleric acid 134 [3]

Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]

Borneol 142 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 99]

Trans--bergamotene 121 [3]

-Cedrene 122 [3 5]

-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 123 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)--Farnesene 129 [3]

(E)--Farnesene 130 [3 5]

-Muurolene 139 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Muurolene 138 [3 5 96 97]

-Acoradiene 136 [3]

-Acoradiene 137 [3]

-Humulene 135 [3 5 96 97 99]

(EE)--Farnesene 131 [3 96 97]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O O

HO

O

H

H

H

HO

HO

OH

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3CO（3

Verbenone 143 [3 99]

Germacrene-D 144 [3 123 101 96 97]

Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]

Carvone 148 [3 5 99]

Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 96 97 99]

Ar-curcumene 151 [3]

Cis-piperitol 152 [3]

2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]

26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol 156 [3 96 97]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]

Calamenene 158 [3]

Carvone oxide 159 [3]

Isopiperitenone 160 [3]

Cis-carveol 161 [3]

Piperitenone 162 [2 3 91 81]

Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 96 97]

-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]

-Bisabolene 146 [3]

-Curcumene 150 [3]

Figure 4 Continued

28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

OO

O

O

H

H

H

H

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

H

H

HCH

HH

HO

（3

（2

（2C

（3C（3C

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C O（3

Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3-5 96 97 98]

Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 96 97]

Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]

Spathulenol 167 [3]

Eugenol 168 [3 5]

Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [91]

Icterogenin 173 [104]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Figure 4

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to the NationalResearch Foundation (NRF) and GovanMbeki Research andDevelopment Centre (GMRDC) University of Fort Hare forfinancial support to conduct this research

References

[1] JWMwangi I Addae-Mensah RMMunavu andW LwandeldquoEssential oils of Kenyan Lippia species Part IIIrdquo Flavour andFragrance Journal vol 6 no 3 pp 221ndash224 1991

[2] N J Manenzhe N Potgieter and T Van Ree ldquoCompositionand antimicrobial activities of volatile components of Lippiajavanicardquo Phytochemistry vol 65 no 16 pp 2333ndash2336 2004

[3] A M Viljoen S Subramoney S F V Vuuren K H C Baserand B Demirci ldquoThe composition geographical variation andantimicrobial activity of Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae) leafessential oilsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 96 no 1-2 pp271ndash277 2005

[4] N Lukwa P Moslashlgaard P Furu and C Boslashgh ldquoLippia javanica(Burm f) Spreng its general constituents and bioactivity onmosquitoesrdquoTropical Biomedicine vol 26 no 1 pp 85ndash91 2009

[5] L S Chagonda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssential oil compositionof Lippia javanica (Burmf) spreng chemotype from WesternZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants vol 18 no 2pp 482ndash485 2015

[6] W Kipkore B Wanjohi H Rono and G Kigen ldquoA study of themedicinal plants used by the Marakwet Community in KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 242014

[7] E A Shikanga S Combrinck and T Regnier ldquoSouth AfricanLippia herbal infusions total phenolic content antioxidant andantibacterial activitiesrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76no 3 pp 567ndash571 2010

[8] N T Parrant ldquoThe potential of non-timber forest products ofBotswanardquo Botswana Notes Records vol 28 no 1 pp 203ndash2181996

[9] D M Motlhanka and S W Makhabu ldquoMedicinal and ediblewild fruit plants of Botswana as emerging new crop opportu-nitiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plants Research vol 5 no 10 pp1836ndash1842 2011

[10] M Bhebhe T N Fuller B Chipurura and M MuchuwetildquoEffect of solvent type on total phenolic content and free radicalscavenging activity of black tea and herbal infusionsrdquo FoodAnalytical Methods vol 9 no 4 pp 1060ndash1067 2016

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29

[11] M Bhebhe B Chipurura and M Muchuweti ldquoDeterminationand comparison of phenolic compound content and antioxidantactivity of selected local Zimbabwean herbal teas with exoticAspalathus linearisrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 100no 1 pp 213ndash218 2015

[12] B Patiri and A Borah Wild Edible Plants of Assam GeetakhiPrinters Guwahati India 2007

[13] H Narzary and A Basumatary ldquoProximate and vitamin Canalysis of wild edible plants consumed by Bodos of AssamIndiardquo Journal of Molecular Pathophysiology vol 4 no 4 pp128ndash133 2015

[14] M Gelfand S Mavi R B Drummond and B Ndemera TheTraditional Medical Practitioners in Zimbabwe His Principles ofPractice and Pharmacopoeia Mambo Press Gweru Zimbabwe1985

[15] D Davids Materia medica and care a study of the uses ofmedicinal herbs and remedies as a form of treatment andnegotiating social relationships in cape town and surroundings[MS dissertation] University of theWestern Cape Cape TownSouth Africa 2012

[16] A Maroyi and G K E Mosina ldquoMedicinal plants and tradi-tional practices in peri-urban domestic gardens of the Limpopoprovince South africardquo Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledgevol 13 no 4 pp 665ndash672 2014

[17] A Samie C L Obi P O Bessong and L Namrita ldquoActivityprofiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Vendacommunities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterialspeciesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 4 no 12 pp1443ndash1451 2005

[18] T York An ethnopharmacological study of plants used fortreating respiratory infections in rural Maputaland [MS disser-tation] University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa South Africa2012

[19] D Davids T Blouws O Aboyade et al ldquoTraditional healthpractitionersrsquo perceptions herbal treatment andmanagement ofHIV and related opportunistic infectionsrdquo Journal of Ethnobiol-ogy and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 77 2014

[20] A Hutchings A H Scott G Lewis and A CunninghamZulu Medicinal Plants An Inventory University of Natal PressPietermarizburg South Africa 1996

[21] RM Coopoosamy andK K Naidoo ldquoAn ethnobotanical studyofmedicinal plants used by traditional healers inDurban SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 6no 11 pp 818ndash823 2012

[22] I Hedberg and F Staugard Traditional Medicinal Plants inBotswana Ipeleng Gaborone Botswana 1989

[23] H Shahriar A S M H K Chowdhury S Rahman et al ldquoSci-entific validation of medicinal plants used by a folk medicinalpractitioner of Chuadanga District BangladeshrdquoWorld Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 11 pp 13ndash24 2014

[24] S S Semenya M J Potgieter and M P Tshisikhawe ldquoUseconservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinalplants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 12 no 18 pp2392ndash2405 2013

[25] M Roberts Indigenous Healing Plants Southern Book Publish-ers Halfway House Johannesburg South Africa 1990

[26] T Birhanu D Abera and E Ejeta ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas westernEthiopiardquo Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare vol 5no 1 pp 83ndash93 2015

[27] N T Mahlangeni R Moodley and S B Jonnalagadda ldquoEle-mental composition of Cyrtanthus obliquus and Lippia javanicaused in South African herbal tonic Imbizardquo Arabian Journal ofChemistry 2013

[28] W Musila D Kisangau and J Muema ldquoConservation statusand use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitionersin Machakos District Kenyardquo in Indigenous Knowledge Con-ference Proceedings Pennsylvania State University May 27ndash292004 2004

[29] G N Njoroge and R W Bussmann ldquoTraditional managementof ear nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 542006

[30] P Chigora R Masocha and F Mutenheri ldquoThe role of indige-nous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailmentsin rural Zimbabwe the case of Mutirikwi communal landsrdquoJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol 9 no 2 pp26ndash43 2007

[31] R W Bussmann G G Gilbreath J Solio et al ldquoPlant use ofthe Maasai of Sekenani Valley Maasai Mara Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 22 2006

[32] D Motlhanka and G P Nthoiwa ldquoEthnobotanical Survey ofmedicinal plants of Tswapong North in Eastern Botswana acase of plants from Mosweu and Seolwane Villagesrdquo EuropeanJournal of Medicinal Plants vol 3 no 1 pp 10ndash24 2013

[33] A Vhurumuku ldquoKnowledge use and attitudes towardsmedici-nal plants of pre-service teachers at a South African UniversityrdquoGlobal Advanced Research Journal in Environmental Science andToxicology vol 4 no 2 pp 15ndash24 2015

[34] M N Nkwanyana An ethnobotanical and antidiarrhoeal inves-tigation of plants used traditionally in the maputaland areahomesteads [MS dissertation] University of Zululand KwaD-langezwa South Africa 2013

[35] T E Moeng An investigation into the trade of medicinal plantsbymuthi shops and street vendors in the Limpopo Province SouthAfrica [MS thesis] University of Limpopo Gauteng SouthAfrica 2010

[36] S Bandeira A M Manjate and O Filipe ldquoAn EcologicalAssessment of the Health of the Chibuto-Missavene Wetlandin the Dry Season Mozambique Emphasis on ResourcesAssessment Utilization and Sustainability Analysisrdquo reportto Challenge Program for Water and Food InternationalWater Management Institute Pretoria South Africa 2006httpscgspacecgiarorgbitstreamhandle105682160421604pdfsequence=1

[37] M C Palgrave R B Drummond and E J Moll Trees ofSouthern Africa Struik Cape Town South Africa 2003

[38] M O Nanyingi J M Mbaria A L Lanyasunya et alldquoEthnopharmacological survey of Samburu district KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4 article 142008

[39] J G J P Sankar and K B Satapathy ldquoWeed diversity of Rabicrops and their ethnomedicinal uses in Kendrapara districtof Odisha Indiardquo International Research Journal of BiologicalSciences vol 4 no 3 pp 33ndash38 2015

[40] D E N Mabogo The ethnobotany of the vhavenda [MSdissertation] University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa1990

[41] B-E van Wyk B van Oudtshoorn and N Gericke MedicinalPlants of South Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2013

[42] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used forthe treatment of tuberculosis by Bapedi traditional healers

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

OphthalmologyJournal of

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Diabetes ResearchJournal of

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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Research and TreatmentAIDS

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Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 23: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 23

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

H

H

HH

H

O

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

HO

OH

O

O

O

O

OH（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

（3C

（3C

13-5-Cycloheptatriene 45 [4]

3-Carene 47 [4]

Eucalyptol 48 [4]

18 myrcene 49 [123]

Ipsdienone 50 [123]

Caryophyllene 51 [93]

Geranial 52 [5 100 101]

26-Dimethylstyrene 53 [100]

Geraniol 54 [100]

Octen-3-one 55 [5]

6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 56 [5]

Artemisia ketone 58 [5]

Linalool oxide 59 [5]

Terpinen-4-ol 60 [5]

Carvyl acetate 63 [5]

Sesquithujene 65 [5]

Acora-35-diene 66 [5]

-Pinene 44 [3-5 123 96 97 98 99] -Mentha-1(7)8-diene 57 [5]

(+)-2-Carene 46 [4]

-Bergamotene 67 [5]

-Cubebene 64 [5]

(Z)--Ocimenone 61 [5]

(E)--Ocimenone 62 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

24 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OH

H

H

H

H

O

OHO

HO

H

HH H

H

H

HH

H

HO

HO

O

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

Trans-calamenene 68 [5]

Cis-calamenene 72 [5]

Nerolidol 73 [5]

(E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 96 97]

Spathulenol 75 [5]

Chrysanthenone 78 [98]

Linalool acetate 84 [99]

Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [99]

Camphene 86 [3 5 96 97 98 99]

Sabinene 88 [3 5 123 98 99]

Myrcene 89 [3 5 123 100 101 96 97 99 102 103]

-Alaskene 69 [5]

-Terpineol 79 [3 5 98 99]

-Amorphene 80 [98]

-Cadinene 70 [45]-Thujene 81 [99]

-Cadinene 71 [3 96 97 99] -Terpinene 82 [99]

-Cubebene 83 [99]

-Pinene 87 [3 5 99]

-Longipinene 77 [98]

-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 96 97]

Epi--muurolol 76 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 25

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O

OH

OH

H

H

H

H

H

HOO

OH

O

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（3(（2)3（2

（3(（2)6（2

2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]

Limonene 92 [3 5 100 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3]

Isomyrcenol 98 [3]

p-Cymene 99 [3 5 93 96 97 98 99]

2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]

Terpinolene 101 [3]

Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 96 97 99 103]

Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 96 97]

(Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]

67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]

Nonanal 106 [3]

Perillene 107 [3 99]

Ipsenone 108 [3 123 96 97 103]

Trans-linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 96 97 98]

1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 96 97]

Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]

Trans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]

Cis-linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 96 97 98]

Cis-tagetone 115 [3 96 97]

Trans-tagetone 116 [3 96 97]

-Copaene 114 [3 5 96 97 98]

18-Cineole (=eucalyptol) 93 [3 5 98 99 103]

-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 96 97 99]

(Z)--Ocimene 96 [3 5 96 97 99]

(E)--Ocimene 97 [3 5 96 97 99]

Camphor 117 [3 5 101 96 97 98 102]

Figure 4 Continued

26 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

HH

H

H

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 93 100 101 96 97 98]

Myrcenone 123 [3 5 91 99]

2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol 125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]

Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 96 97]

Ipsdienol 132 [3]

(Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]

Isovaleric acid 134 [3]

Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]

Borneol 142 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 99]

Trans--bergamotene 121 [3]

-Cedrene 122 [3 5]

-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 123 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)--Farnesene 129 [3]

(E)--Farnesene 130 [3 5]

-Muurolene 139 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Muurolene 138 [3 5 96 97]

-Acoradiene 136 [3]

-Acoradiene 137 [3]

-Humulene 135 [3 5 96 97 99]

(EE)--Farnesene 131 [3 96 97]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O O

HO

O

H

H

H

HO

HO

OH

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3CO（3

Verbenone 143 [3 99]

Germacrene-D 144 [3 123 101 96 97]

Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]

Carvone 148 [3 5 99]

Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 96 97 99]

Ar-curcumene 151 [3]

Cis-piperitol 152 [3]

2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]

26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol 156 [3 96 97]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]

Calamenene 158 [3]

Carvone oxide 159 [3]

Isopiperitenone 160 [3]

Cis-carveol 161 [3]

Piperitenone 162 [2 3 91 81]

Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 96 97]

-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]

-Bisabolene 146 [3]

-Curcumene 150 [3]

Figure 4 Continued

28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

OO

O

O

H

H

H

H

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

H

H

HCH

HH

HO

（3

（2

（2C

（3C（3C

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C O（3

Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3-5 96 97 98]

Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 96 97]

Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]

Spathulenol 167 [3]

Eugenol 168 [3 5]

Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [91]

Icterogenin 173 [104]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Figure 4

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to the NationalResearch Foundation (NRF) and GovanMbeki Research andDevelopment Centre (GMRDC) University of Fort Hare forfinancial support to conduct this research

References

[1] JWMwangi I Addae-Mensah RMMunavu andW LwandeldquoEssential oils of Kenyan Lippia species Part IIIrdquo Flavour andFragrance Journal vol 6 no 3 pp 221ndash224 1991

[2] N J Manenzhe N Potgieter and T Van Ree ldquoCompositionand antimicrobial activities of volatile components of Lippiajavanicardquo Phytochemistry vol 65 no 16 pp 2333ndash2336 2004

[3] A M Viljoen S Subramoney S F V Vuuren K H C Baserand B Demirci ldquoThe composition geographical variation andantimicrobial activity of Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae) leafessential oilsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 96 no 1-2 pp271ndash277 2005

[4] N Lukwa P Moslashlgaard P Furu and C Boslashgh ldquoLippia javanica(Burm f) Spreng its general constituents and bioactivity onmosquitoesrdquoTropical Biomedicine vol 26 no 1 pp 85ndash91 2009

[5] L S Chagonda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssential oil compositionof Lippia javanica (Burmf) spreng chemotype from WesternZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants vol 18 no 2pp 482ndash485 2015

[6] W Kipkore B Wanjohi H Rono and G Kigen ldquoA study of themedicinal plants used by the Marakwet Community in KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 242014

[7] E A Shikanga S Combrinck and T Regnier ldquoSouth AfricanLippia herbal infusions total phenolic content antioxidant andantibacterial activitiesrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76no 3 pp 567ndash571 2010

[8] N T Parrant ldquoThe potential of non-timber forest products ofBotswanardquo Botswana Notes Records vol 28 no 1 pp 203ndash2181996

[9] D M Motlhanka and S W Makhabu ldquoMedicinal and ediblewild fruit plants of Botswana as emerging new crop opportu-nitiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plants Research vol 5 no 10 pp1836ndash1842 2011

[10] M Bhebhe T N Fuller B Chipurura and M MuchuwetildquoEffect of solvent type on total phenolic content and free radicalscavenging activity of black tea and herbal infusionsrdquo FoodAnalytical Methods vol 9 no 4 pp 1060ndash1067 2016

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29

[11] M Bhebhe B Chipurura and M Muchuweti ldquoDeterminationand comparison of phenolic compound content and antioxidantactivity of selected local Zimbabwean herbal teas with exoticAspalathus linearisrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 100no 1 pp 213ndash218 2015

[12] B Patiri and A Borah Wild Edible Plants of Assam GeetakhiPrinters Guwahati India 2007

[13] H Narzary and A Basumatary ldquoProximate and vitamin Canalysis of wild edible plants consumed by Bodos of AssamIndiardquo Journal of Molecular Pathophysiology vol 4 no 4 pp128ndash133 2015

[14] M Gelfand S Mavi R B Drummond and B Ndemera TheTraditional Medical Practitioners in Zimbabwe His Principles ofPractice and Pharmacopoeia Mambo Press Gweru Zimbabwe1985

[15] D Davids Materia medica and care a study of the uses ofmedicinal herbs and remedies as a form of treatment andnegotiating social relationships in cape town and surroundings[MS dissertation] University of theWestern Cape Cape TownSouth Africa 2012

[16] A Maroyi and G K E Mosina ldquoMedicinal plants and tradi-tional practices in peri-urban domestic gardens of the Limpopoprovince South africardquo Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledgevol 13 no 4 pp 665ndash672 2014

[17] A Samie C L Obi P O Bessong and L Namrita ldquoActivityprofiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Vendacommunities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterialspeciesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 4 no 12 pp1443ndash1451 2005

[18] T York An ethnopharmacological study of plants used fortreating respiratory infections in rural Maputaland [MS disser-tation] University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa South Africa2012

[19] D Davids T Blouws O Aboyade et al ldquoTraditional healthpractitionersrsquo perceptions herbal treatment andmanagement ofHIV and related opportunistic infectionsrdquo Journal of Ethnobiol-ogy and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 77 2014

[20] A Hutchings A H Scott G Lewis and A CunninghamZulu Medicinal Plants An Inventory University of Natal PressPietermarizburg South Africa 1996

[21] RM Coopoosamy andK K Naidoo ldquoAn ethnobotanical studyofmedicinal plants used by traditional healers inDurban SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 6no 11 pp 818ndash823 2012

[22] I Hedberg and F Staugard Traditional Medicinal Plants inBotswana Ipeleng Gaborone Botswana 1989

[23] H Shahriar A S M H K Chowdhury S Rahman et al ldquoSci-entific validation of medicinal plants used by a folk medicinalpractitioner of Chuadanga District BangladeshrdquoWorld Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 11 pp 13ndash24 2014

[24] S S Semenya M J Potgieter and M P Tshisikhawe ldquoUseconservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinalplants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 12 no 18 pp2392ndash2405 2013

[25] M Roberts Indigenous Healing Plants Southern Book Publish-ers Halfway House Johannesburg South Africa 1990

[26] T Birhanu D Abera and E Ejeta ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas westernEthiopiardquo Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare vol 5no 1 pp 83ndash93 2015

[27] N T Mahlangeni R Moodley and S B Jonnalagadda ldquoEle-mental composition of Cyrtanthus obliquus and Lippia javanicaused in South African herbal tonic Imbizardquo Arabian Journal ofChemistry 2013

[28] W Musila D Kisangau and J Muema ldquoConservation statusand use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitionersin Machakos District Kenyardquo in Indigenous Knowledge Con-ference Proceedings Pennsylvania State University May 27ndash292004 2004

[29] G N Njoroge and R W Bussmann ldquoTraditional managementof ear nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 542006

[30] P Chigora R Masocha and F Mutenheri ldquoThe role of indige-nous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailmentsin rural Zimbabwe the case of Mutirikwi communal landsrdquoJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol 9 no 2 pp26ndash43 2007

[31] R W Bussmann G G Gilbreath J Solio et al ldquoPlant use ofthe Maasai of Sekenani Valley Maasai Mara Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 22 2006

[32] D Motlhanka and G P Nthoiwa ldquoEthnobotanical Survey ofmedicinal plants of Tswapong North in Eastern Botswana acase of plants from Mosweu and Seolwane Villagesrdquo EuropeanJournal of Medicinal Plants vol 3 no 1 pp 10ndash24 2013

[33] A Vhurumuku ldquoKnowledge use and attitudes towardsmedici-nal plants of pre-service teachers at a South African UniversityrdquoGlobal Advanced Research Journal in Environmental Science andToxicology vol 4 no 2 pp 15ndash24 2015

[34] M N Nkwanyana An ethnobotanical and antidiarrhoeal inves-tigation of plants used traditionally in the maputaland areahomesteads [MS dissertation] University of Zululand KwaD-langezwa South Africa 2013

[35] T E Moeng An investigation into the trade of medicinal plantsbymuthi shops and street vendors in the Limpopo Province SouthAfrica [MS thesis] University of Limpopo Gauteng SouthAfrica 2010

[36] S Bandeira A M Manjate and O Filipe ldquoAn EcologicalAssessment of the Health of the Chibuto-Missavene Wetlandin the Dry Season Mozambique Emphasis on ResourcesAssessment Utilization and Sustainability Analysisrdquo reportto Challenge Program for Water and Food InternationalWater Management Institute Pretoria South Africa 2006httpscgspacecgiarorgbitstreamhandle105682160421604pdfsequence=1

[37] M C Palgrave R B Drummond and E J Moll Trees ofSouthern Africa Struik Cape Town South Africa 2003

[38] M O Nanyingi J M Mbaria A L Lanyasunya et alldquoEthnopharmacological survey of Samburu district KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4 article 142008

[39] J G J P Sankar and K B Satapathy ldquoWeed diversity of Rabicrops and their ethnomedicinal uses in Kendrapara districtof Odisha Indiardquo International Research Journal of BiologicalSciences vol 4 no 3 pp 33ndash38 2015

[40] D E N Mabogo The ethnobotany of the vhavenda [MSdissertation] University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa1990

[41] B-E van Wyk B van Oudtshoorn and N Gericke MedicinalPlants of South Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2013

[42] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used forthe treatment of tuberculosis by Bapedi traditional healers

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

OphthalmologyJournal of

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Diabetes ResearchJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Research and TreatmentAIDS

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 24: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

24 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

OH

H

H

H

H

O

OHO

HO

H

HH H

H

H

HH

H

HO

HO

O

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（2

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C（3C

Trans-calamenene 68 [5]

Cis-calamenene 72 [5]

Nerolidol 73 [5]

(E)-Nerolidol 74 [3 96 97]

Spathulenol 75 [5]

Chrysanthenone 78 [98]

Linalool acetate 84 [99]

Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 85 [99]

Camphene 86 [3 5 96 97 98 99]

Sabinene 88 [3 5 123 98 99]

Myrcene 89 [3 5 123 100 101 96 97 99 102 103]

-Alaskene 69 [5]

-Terpineol 79 [3 5 98 99]

-Amorphene 80 [98]

-Cadinene 70 [45]-Thujene 81 [99]

-Cadinene 71 [3 96 97 99] -Terpinene 82 [99]

-Cubebene 83 [99]

-Pinene 87 [3 5 99]

-Longipinene 77 [98]

-Phellandrene 90 [3 5 96 97]

Epi--muurolol 76 [5]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 25

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O

OH

OH

H

H

H

H

H

HOO

OH

O

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（3(（2)3（2

（3(（2)6（2

2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]

Limonene 92 [3 5 100 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3]

Isomyrcenol 98 [3]

p-Cymene 99 [3 5 93 96 97 98 99]

2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]

Terpinolene 101 [3]

Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 96 97 99 103]

Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 96 97]

(Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]

67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]

Nonanal 106 [3]

Perillene 107 [3 99]

Ipsenone 108 [3 123 96 97 103]

Trans-linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 96 97 98]

1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 96 97]

Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]

Trans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]

Cis-linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 96 97 98]

Cis-tagetone 115 [3 96 97]

Trans-tagetone 116 [3 96 97]

-Copaene 114 [3 5 96 97 98]

18-Cineole (=eucalyptol) 93 [3 5 98 99 103]

-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 96 97 99]

(Z)--Ocimene 96 [3 5 96 97 99]

(E)--Ocimene 97 [3 5 96 97 99]

Camphor 117 [3 5 101 96 97 98 102]

Figure 4 Continued

26 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

HH

H

H

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 93 100 101 96 97 98]

Myrcenone 123 [3 5 91 99]

2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol 125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]

Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 96 97]

Ipsdienol 132 [3]

(Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]

Isovaleric acid 134 [3]

Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]

Borneol 142 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 99]

Trans--bergamotene 121 [3]

-Cedrene 122 [3 5]

-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 123 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)--Farnesene 129 [3]

(E)--Farnesene 130 [3 5]

-Muurolene 139 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Muurolene 138 [3 5 96 97]

-Acoradiene 136 [3]

-Acoradiene 137 [3]

-Humulene 135 [3 5 96 97 99]

(EE)--Farnesene 131 [3 96 97]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O O

HO

O

H

H

H

HO

HO

OH

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3CO（3

Verbenone 143 [3 99]

Germacrene-D 144 [3 123 101 96 97]

Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]

Carvone 148 [3 5 99]

Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 96 97 99]

Ar-curcumene 151 [3]

Cis-piperitol 152 [3]

2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]

26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol 156 [3 96 97]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]

Calamenene 158 [3]

Carvone oxide 159 [3]

Isopiperitenone 160 [3]

Cis-carveol 161 [3]

Piperitenone 162 [2 3 91 81]

Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 96 97]

-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]

-Bisabolene 146 [3]

-Curcumene 150 [3]

Figure 4 Continued

28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

OO

O

O

H

H

H

H

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

H

H

HCH

HH

HO

（3

（2

（2C

（3C（3C

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C O（3

Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3-5 96 97 98]

Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 96 97]

Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]

Spathulenol 167 [3]

Eugenol 168 [3 5]

Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [91]

Icterogenin 173 [104]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Figure 4

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to the NationalResearch Foundation (NRF) and GovanMbeki Research andDevelopment Centre (GMRDC) University of Fort Hare forfinancial support to conduct this research

References

[1] JWMwangi I Addae-Mensah RMMunavu andW LwandeldquoEssential oils of Kenyan Lippia species Part IIIrdquo Flavour andFragrance Journal vol 6 no 3 pp 221ndash224 1991

[2] N J Manenzhe N Potgieter and T Van Ree ldquoCompositionand antimicrobial activities of volatile components of Lippiajavanicardquo Phytochemistry vol 65 no 16 pp 2333ndash2336 2004

[3] A M Viljoen S Subramoney S F V Vuuren K H C Baserand B Demirci ldquoThe composition geographical variation andantimicrobial activity of Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae) leafessential oilsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 96 no 1-2 pp271ndash277 2005

[4] N Lukwa P Moslashlgaard P Furu and C Boslashgh ldquoLippia javanica(Burm f) Spreng its general constituents and bioactivity onmosquitoesrdquoTropical Biomedicine vol 26 no 1 pp 85ndash91 2009

[5] L S Chagonda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssential oil compositionof Lippia javanica (Burmf) spreng chemotype from WesternZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants vol 18 no 2pp 482ndash485 2015

[6] W Kipkore B Wanjohi H Rono and G Kigen ldquoA study of themedicinal plants used by the Marakwet Community in KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 242014

[7] E A Shikanga S Combrinck and T Regnier ldquoSouth AfricanLippia herbal infusions total phenolic content antioxidant andantibacterial activitiesrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76no 3 pp 567ndash571 2010

[8] N T Parrant ldquoThe potential of non-timber forest products ofBotswanardquo Botswana Notes Records vol 28 no 1 pp 203ndash2181996

[9] D M Motlhanka and S W Makhabu ldquoMedicinal and ediblewild fruit plants of Botswana as emerging new crop opportu-nitiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plants Research vol 5 no 10 pp1836ndash1842 2011

[10] M Bhebhe T N Fuller B Chipurura and M MuchuwetildquoEffect of solvent type on total phenolic content and free radicalscavenging activity of black tea and herbal infusionsrdquo FoodAnalytical Methods vol 9 no 4 pp 1060ndash1067 2016

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29

[11] M Bhebhe B Chipurura and M Muchuweti ldquoDeterminationand comparison of phenolic compound content and antioxidantactivity of selected local Zimbabwean herbal teas with exoticAspalathus linearisrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 100no 1 pp 213ndash218 2015

[12] B Patiri and A Borah Wild Edible Plants of Assam GeetakhiPrinters Guwahati India 2007

[13] H Narzary and A Basumatary ldquoProximate and vitamin Canalysis of wild edible plants consumed by Bodos of AssamIndiardquo Journal of Molecular Pathophysiology vol 4 no 4 pp128ndash133 2015

[14] M Gelfand S Mavi R B Drummond and B Ndemera TheTraditional Medical Practitioners in Zimbabwe His Principles ofPractice and Pharmacopoeia Mambo Press Gweru Zimbabwe1985

[15] D Davids Materia medica and care a study of the uses ofmedicinal herbs and remedies as a form of treatment andnegotiating social relationships in cape town and surroundings[MS dissertation] University of theWestern Cape Cape TownSouth Africa 2012

[16] A Maroyi and G K E Mosina ldquoMedicinal plants and tradi-tional practices in peri-urban domestic gardens of the Limpopoprovince South africardquo Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledgevol 13 no 4 pp 665ndash672 2014

[17] A Samie C L Obi P O Bessong and L Namrita ldquoActivityprofiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Vendacommunities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterialspeciesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 4 no 12 pp1443ndash1451 2005

[18] T York An ethnopharmacological study of plants used fortreating respiratory infections in rural Maputaland [MS disser-tation] University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa South Africa2012

[19] D Davids T Blouws O Aboyade et al ldquoTraditional healthpractitionersrsquo perceptions herbal treatment andmanagement ofHIV and related opportunistic infectionsrdquo Journal of Ethnobiol-ogy and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 77 2014

[20] A Hutchings A H Scott G Lewis and A CunninghamZulu Medicinal Plants An Inventory University of Natal PressPietermarizburg South Africa 1996

[21] RM Coopoosamy andK K Naidoo ldquoAn ethnobotanical studyofmedicinal plants used by traditional healers inDurban SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 6no 11 pp 818ndash823 2012

[22] I Hedberg and F Staugard Traditional Medicinal Plants inBotswana Ipeleng Gaborone Botswana 1989

[23] H Shahriar A S M H K Chowdhury S Rahman et al ldquoSci-entific validation of medicinal plants used by a folk medicinalpractitioner of Chuadanga District BangladeshrdquoWorld Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 11 pp 13ndash24 2014

[24] S S Semenya M J Potgieter and M P Tshisikhawe ldquoUseconservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinalplants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 12 no 18 pp2392ndash2405 2013

[25] M Roberts Indigenous Healing Plants Southern Book Publish-ers Halfway House Johannesburg South Africa 1990

[26] T Birhanu D Abera and E Ejeta ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas westernEthiopiardquo Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare vol 5no 1 pp 83ndash93 2015

[27] N T Mahlangeni R Moodley and S B Jonnalagadda ldquoEle-mental composition of Cyrtanthus obliquus and Lippia javanicaused in South African herbal tonic Imbizardquo Arabian Journal ofChemistry 2013

[28] W Musila D Kisangau and J Muema ldquoConservation statusand use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitionersin Machakos District Kenyardquo in Indigenous Knowledge Con-ference Proceedings Pennsylvania State University May 27ndash292004 2004

[29] G N Njoroge and R W Bussmann ldquoTraditional managementof ear nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 542006

[30] P Chigora R Masocha and F Mutenheri ldquoThe role of indige-nous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailmentsin rural Zimbabwe the case of Mutirikwi communal landsrdquoJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol 9 no 2 pp26ndash43 2007

[31] R W Bussmann G G Gilbreath J Solio et al ldquoPlant use ofthe Maasai of Sekenani Valley Maasai Mara Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 22 2006

[32] D Motlhanka and G P Nthoiwa ldquoEthnobotanical Survey ofmedicinal plants of Tswapong North in Eastern Botswana acase of plants from Mosweu and Seolwane Villagesrdquo EuropeanJournal of Medicinal Plants vol 3 no 1 pp 10ndash24 2013

[33] A Vhurumuku ldquoKnowledge use and attitudes towardsmedici-nal plants of pre-service teachers at a South African UniversityrdquoGlobal Advanced Research Journal in Environmental Science andToxicology vol 4 no 2 pp 15ndash24 2015

[34] M N Nkwanyana An ethnobotanical and antidiarrhoeal inves-tigation of plants used traditionally in the maputaland areahomesteads [MS dissertation] University of Zululand KwaD-langezwa South Africa 2013

[35] T E Moeng An investigation into the trade of medicinal plantsbymuthi shops and street vendors in the Limpopo Province SouthAfrica [MS thesis] University of Limpopo Gauteng SouthAfrica 2010

[36] S Bandeira A M Manjate and O Filipe ldquoAn EcologicalAssessment of the Health of the Chibuto-Missavene Wetlandin the Dry Season Mozambique Emphasis on ResourcesAssessment Utilization and Sustainability Analysisrdquo reportto Challenge Program for Water and Food InternationalWater Management Institute Pretoria South Africa 2006httpscgspacecgiarorgbitstreamhandle105682160421604pdfsequence=1

[37] M C Palgrave R B Drummond and E J Moll Trees ofSouthern Africa Struik Cape Town South Africa 2003

[38] M O Nanyingi J M Mbaria A L Lanyasunya et alldquoEthnopharmacological survey of Samburu district KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4 article 142008

[39] J G J P Sankar and K B Satapathy ldquoWeed diversity of Rabicrops and their ethnomedicinal uses in Kendrapara districtof Odisha Indiardquo International Research Journal of BiologicalSciences vol 4 no 3 pp 33ndash38 2015

[40] D E N Mabogo The ethnobotany of the vhavenda [MSdissertation] University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa1990

[41] B-E van Wyk B van Oudtshoorn and N Gericke MedicinalPlants of South Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2013

[42] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used forthe treatment of tuberculosis by Bapedi traditional healers

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Research and TreatmentAIDS

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 25: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 25

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O

OH

OH

H

H

H

H

H

HOO

OH

O

（3

（3

（3

（2

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（3(（2)3（2

（3(（2)6（2

2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate 91 [3]

Limonene 92 [3 5 100 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)-3-Hexenal 95 [3]

Isomyrcenol 98 [3]

p-Cymene 99 [3 5 93 96 97 98 99]

2-Methylbutyl-2-methyl butyrate 100 [3]

Terpinolene 101 [3]

Dihydrotagetone 102 [3 96 97 99 103]

Cis-alloocimene 103 [3 96 97]

(Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol 104 [3]

67-Epoxymyrcene 105 [3]

Nonanal 106 [3]

Perillene 107 [3 99]

Ipsenone 108 [3 123 96 97 103]

Trans-linalool oxide (furanoid) 109 [3 96 97 98]

1-Octen-3-ol 110 [3 96 97]

Cis-12-limonene epoxide 111 [3]

Trans-12-limonene epoxide 112 [3]

Cis-linalool oxide (furanoid) 113 [3 96 97 98]

Cis-tagetone 115 [3 96 97]

Trans-tagetone 116 [3 96 97]

-Copaene 114 [3 5 96 97 98]

18-Cineole (=eucalyptol) 93 [3 5 98 99 103]

-Phellandrene 94 [3 4 96 97 99]

(Z)--Ocimene 96 [3 5 96 97 99]

(E)--Ocimene 97 [3 5 96 97 99]

Camphor 117 [3 5 101 96 97 98 102]

Figure 4 Continued

26 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

HH

H

H

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 93 100 101 96 97 98]

Myrcenone 123 [3 5 91 99]

2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol 125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]

Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 96 97]

Ipsdienol 132 [3]

(Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]

Isovaleric acid 134 [3]

Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]

Borneol 142 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 99]

Trans--bergamotene 121 [3]

-Cedrene 122 [3 5]

-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 123 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)--Farnesene 129 [3]

(E)--Farnesene 130 [3 5]

-Muurolene 139 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Muurolene 138 [3 5 96 97]

-Acoradiene 136 [3]

-Acoradiene 137 [3]

-Humulene 135 [3 5 96 97 99]

(EE)--Farnesene 131 [3 96 97]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O O

HO

O

H

H

H

HO

HO

OH

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3CO（3

Verbenone 143 [3 99]

Germacrene-D 144 [3 123 101 96 97]

Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]

Carvone 148 [3 5 99]

Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 96 97 99]

Ar-curcumene 151 [3]

Cis-piperitol 152 [3]

2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]

26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol 156 [3 96 97]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]

Calamenene 158 [3]

Carvone oxide 159 [3]

Isopiperitenone 160 [3]

Cis-carveol 161 [3]

Piperitenone 162 [2 3 91 81]

Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 96 97]

-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]

-Bisabolene 146 [3]

-Curcumene 150 [3]

Figure 4 Continued

28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

OO

O

O

H

H

H

H

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

H

H

HCH

HH

HO

（3

（2

（2C

（3C（3C

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C O（3

Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3-5 96 97 98]

Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 96 97]

Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]

Spathulenol 167 [3]

Eugenol 168 [3 5]

Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [91]

Icterogenin 173 [104]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Figure 4

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to the NationalResearch Foundation (NRF) and GovanMbeki Research andDevelopment Centre (GMRDC) University of Fort Hare forfinancial support to conduct this research

References

[1] JWMwangi I Addae-Mensah RMMunavu andW LwandeldquoEssential oils of Kenyan Lippia species Part IIIrdquo Flavour andFragrance Journal vol 6 no 3 pp 221ndash224 1991

[2] N J Manenzhe N Potgieter and T Van Ree ldquoCompositionand antimicrobial activities of volatile components of Lippiajavanicardquo Phytochemistry vol 65 no 16 pp 2333ndash2336 2004

[3] A M Viljoen S Subramoney S F V Vuuren K H C Baserand B Demirci ldquoThe composition geographical variation andantimicrobial activity of Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae) leafessential oilsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 96 no 1-2 pp271ndash277 2005

[4] N Lukwa P Moslashlgaard P Furu and C Boslashgh ldquoLippia javanica(Burm f) Spreng its general constituents and bioactivity onmosquitoesrdquoTropical Biomedicine vol 26 no 1 pp 85ndash91 2009

[5] L S Chagonda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssential oil compositionof Lippia javanica (Burmf) spreng chemotype from WesternZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants vol 18 no 2pp 482ndash485 2015

[6] W Kipkore B Wanjohi H Rono and G Kigen ldquoA study of themedicinal plants used by the Marakwet Community in KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 242014

[7] E A Shikanga S Combrinck and T Regnier ldquoSouth AfricanLippia herbal infusions total phenolic content antioxidant andantibacterial activitiesrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76no 3 pp 567ndash571 2010

[8] N T Parrant ldquoThe potential of non-timber forest products ofBotswanardquo Botswana Notes Records vol 28 no 1 pp 203ndash2181996

[9] D M Motlhanka and S W Makhabu ldquoMedicinal and ediblewild fruit plants of Botswana as emerging new crop opportu-nitiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plants Research vol 5 no 10 pp1836ndash1842 2011

[10] M Bhebhe T N Fuller B Chipurura and M MuchuwetildquoEffect of solvent type on total phenolic content and free radicalscavenging activity of black tea and herbal infusionsrdquo FoodAnalytical Methods vol 9 no 4 pp 1060ndash1067 2016

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29

[11] M Bhebhe B Chipurura and M Muchuweti ldquoDeterminationand comparison of phenolic compound content and antioxidantactivity of selected local Zimbabwean herbal teas with exoticAspalathus linearisrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 100no 1 pp 213ndash218 2015

[12] B Patiri and A Borah Wild Edible Plants of Assam GeetakhiPrinters Guwahati India 2007

[13] H Narzary and A Basumatary ldquoProximate and vitamin Canalysis of wild edible plants consumed by Bodos of AssamIndiardquo Journal of Molecular Pathophysiology vol 4 no 4 pp128ndash133 2015

[14] M Gelfand S Mavi R B Drummond and B Ndemera TheTraditional Medical Practitioners in Zimbabwe His Principles ofPractice and Pharmacopoeia Mambo Press Gweru Zimbabwe1985

[15] D Davids Materia medica and care a study of the uses ofmedicinal herbs and remedies as a form of treatment andnegotiating social relationships in cape town and surroundings[MS dissertation] University of theWestern Cape Cape TownSouth Africa 2012

[16] A Maroyi and G K E Mosina ldquoMedicinal plants and tradi-tional practices in peri-urban domestic gardens of the Limpopoprovince South africardquo Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledgevol 13 no 4 pp 665ndash672 2014

[17] A Samie C L Obi P O Bessong and L Namrita ldquoActivityprofiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Vendacommunities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterialspeciesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 4 no 12 pp1443ndash1451 2005

[18] T York An ethnopharmacological study of plants used fortreating respiratory infections in rural Maputaland [MS disser-tation] University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa South Africa2012

[19] D Davids T Blouws O Aboyade et al ldquoTraditional healthpractitionersrsquo perceptions herbal treatment andmanagement ofHIV and related opportunistic infectionsrdquo Journal of Ethnobiol-ogy and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 77 2014

[20] A Hutchings A H Scott G Lewis and A CunninghamZulu Medicinal Plants An Inventory University of Natal PressPietermarizburg South Africa 1996

[21] RM Coopoosamy andK K Naidoo ldquoAn ethnobotanical studyofmedicinal plants used by traditional healers inDurban SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 6no 11 pp 818ndash823 2012

[22] I Hedberg and F Staugard Traditional Medicinal Plants inBotswana Ipeleng Gaborone Botswana 1989

[23] H Shahriar A S M H K Chowdhury S Rahman et al ldquoSci-entific validation of medicinal plants used by a folk medicinalpractitioner of Chuadanga District BangladeshrdquoWorld Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 11 pp 13ndash24 2014

[24] S S Semenya M J Potgieter and M P Tshisikhawe ldquoUseconservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinalplants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 12 no 18 pp2392ndash2405 2013

[25] M Roberts Indigenous Healing Plants Southern Book Publish-ers Halfway House Johannesburg South Africa 1990

[26] T Birhanu D Abera and E Ejeta ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas westernEthiopiardquo Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare vol 5no 1 pp 83ndash93 2015

[27] N T Mahlangeni R Moodley and S B Jonnalagadda ldquoEle-mental composition of Cyrtanthus obliquus and Lippia javanicaused in South African herbal tonic Imbizardquo Arabian Journal ofChemistry 2013

[28] W Musila D Kisangau and J Muema ldquoConservation statusand use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitionersin Machakos District Kenyardquo in Indigenous Knowledge Con-ference Proceedings Pennsylvania State University May 27ndash292004 2004

[29] G N Njoroge and R W Bussmann ldquoTraditional managementof ear nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 542006

[30] P Chigora R Masocha and F Mutenheri ldquoThe role of indige-nous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailmentsin rural Zimbabwe the case of Mutirikwi communal landsrdquoJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol 9 no 2 pp26ndash43 2007

[31] R W Bussmann G G Gilbreath J Solio et al ldquoPlant use ofthe Maasai of Sekenani Valley Maasai Mara Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 22 2006

[32] D Motlhanka and G P Nthoiwa ldquoEthnobotanical Survey ofmedicinal plants of Tswapong North in Eastern Botswana acase of plants from Mosweu and Seolwane Villagesrdquo EuropeanJournal of Medicinal Plants vol 3 no 1 pp 10ndash24 2013

[33] A Vhurumuku ldquoKnowledge use and attitudes towardsmedici-nal plants of pre-service teachers at a South African UniversityrdquoGlobal Advanced Research Journal in Environmental Science andToxicology vol 4 no 2 pp 15ndash24 2015

[34] M N Nkwanyana An ethnobotanical and antidiarrhoeal inves-tigation of plants used traditionally in the maputaland areahomesteads [MS dissertation] University of Zululand KwaD-langezwa South Africa 2013

[35] T E Moeng An investigation into the trade of medicinal plantsbymuthi shops and street vendors in the Limpopo Province SouthAfrica [MS thesis] University of Limpopo Gauteng SouthAfrica 2010

[36] S Bandeira A M Manjate and O Filipe ldquoAn EcologicalAssessment of the Health of the Chibuto-Missavene Wetlandin the Dry Season Mozambique Emphasis on ResourcesAssessment Utilization and Sustainability Analysisrdquo reportto Challenge Program for Water and Food InternationalWater Management Institute Pretoria South Africa 2006httpscgspacecgiarorgbitstreamhandle105682160421604pdfsequence=1

[37] M C Palgrave R B Drummond and E J Moll Trees ofSouthern Africa Struik Cape Town South Africa 2003

[38] M O Nanyingi J M Mbaria A L Lanyasunya et alldquoEthnopharmacological survey of Samburu district KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4 article 142008

[39] J G J P Sankar and K B Satapathy ldquoWeed diversity of Rabicrops and their ethnomedicinal uses in Kendrapara districtof Odisha Indiardquo International Research Journal of BiologicalSciences vol 4 no 3 pp 33ndash38 2015

[40] D E N Mabogo The ethnobotany of the vhavenda [MSdissertation] University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa1990

[41] B-E van Wyk B van Oudtshoorn and N Gericke MedicinalPlants of South Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2013

[42] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used forthe treatment of tuberculosis by Bapedi traditional healers

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

OphthalmologyJournal of

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Diabetes ResearchJournal of

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Research and TreatmentAIDS

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 26: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

26 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

HH

H

H

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

Benzaldehyde 119 [3 5]

Linalool 120 [3 5 93 100 101 96 97 98]

Myrcenone 123 [3 5 91 99]

2-Methyl-6-methylene-37-octadien-2-ol 125 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 126 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-28-dien-1-ol 127 [3]

Alloaromadendrene 128 [3 5 96 97]

Ipsdienol 132 [3]

(Z)-3-Hexenyl tiglate 133 [3]

Isovaleric acid 134 [3]

Cis-tagetenone 140 [3]

Trans-tagetenone 141 [3]

Borneol 142 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Bourbonene 118 [3 5 99]

Trans--bergamotene 121 [3]

-Cedrene 122 [3 5]

-Caryophyllene 124 [3 5 123 101 96 97 98 99 102]

(Z)--Farnesene 129 [3]

(E)--Farnesene 130 [3 5]

-Muurolene 139 [3 5 96 97 98]

-Muurolene 138 [3 5 96 97]

-Acoradiene 136 [3]

-Acoradiene 137 [3]

-Humulene 135 [3 5 96 97 99]

(EE)--Farnesene 131 [3 96 97]

Figure 4 Continued

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O O

HO

O

H

H

H

HO

HO

OH

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3CO（3

Verbenone 143 [3 99]

Germacrene-D 144 [3 123 101 96 97]

Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]

Carvone 148 [3 5 99]

Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 96 97 99]

Ar-curcumene 151 [3]

Cis-piperitol 152 [3]

2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]

26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol 156 [3 96 97]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]

Calamenene 158 [3]

Carvone oxide 159 [3]

Isopiperitenone 160 [3]

Cis-carveol 161 [3]

Piperitenone 162 [2 3 91 81]

Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 96 97]

-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]

-Bisabolene 146 [3]

-Curcumene 150 [3]

Figure 4 Continued

28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

OO

O

O

H

H

H

H

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

H

H

HCH

HH

HO

（3

（2

（2C

（3C（3C

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C O（3

Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3-5 96 97 98]

Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 96 97]

Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]

Spathulenol 167 [3]

Eugenol 168 [3 5]

Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [91]

Icterogenin 173 [104]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Figure 4

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to the NationalResearch Foundation (NRF) and GovanMbeki Research andDevelopment Centre (GMRDC) University of Fort Hare forfinancial support to conduct this research

References

[1] JWMwangi I Addae-Mensah RMMunavu andW LwandeldquoEssential oils of Kenyan Lippia species Part IIIrdquo Flavour andFragrance Journal vol 6 no 3 pp 221ndash224 1991

[2] N J Manenzhe N Potgieter and T Van Ree ldquoCompositionand antimicrobial activities of volatile components of Lippiajavanicardquo Phytochemistry vol 65 no 16 pp 2333ndash2336 2004

[3] A M Viljoen S Subramoney S F V Vuuren K H C Baserand B Demirci ldquoThe composition geographical variation andantimicrobial activity of Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae) leafessential oilsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 96 no 1-2 pp271ndash277 2005

[4] N Lukwa P Moslashlgaard P Furu and C Boslashgh ldquoLippia javanica(Burm f) Spreng its general constituents and bioactivity onmosquitoesrdquoTropical Biomedicine vol 26 no 1 pp 85ndash91 2009

[5] L S Chagonda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssential oil compositionof Lippia javanica (Burmf) spreng chemotype from WesternZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants vol 18 no 2pp 482ndash485 2015

[6] W Kipkore B Wanjohi H Rono and G Kigen ldquoA study of themedicinal plants used by the Marakwet Community in KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 242014

[7] E A Shikanga S Combrinck and T Regnier ldquoSouth AfricanLippia herbal infusions total phenolic content antioxidant andantibacterial activitiesrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76no 3 pp 567ndash571 2010

[8] N T Parrant ldquoThe potential of non-timber forest products ofBotswanardquo Botswana Notes Records vol 28 no 1 pp 203ndash2181996

[9] D M Motlhanka and S W Makhabu ldquoMedicinal and ediblewild fruit plants of Botswana as emerging new crop opportu-nitiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plants Research vol 5 no 10 pp1836ndash1842 2011

[10] M Bhebhe T N Fuller B Chipurura and M MuchuwetildquoEffect of solvent type on total phenolic content and free radicalscavenging activity of black tea and herbal infusionsrdquo FoodAnalytical Methods vol 9 no 4 pp 1060ndash1067 2016

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29

[11] M Bhebhe B Chipurura and M Muchuweti ldquoDeterminationand comparison of phenolic compound content and antioxidantactivity of selected local Zimbabwean herbal teas with exoticAspalathus linearisrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 100no 1 pp 213ndash218 2015

[12] B Patiri and A Borah Wild Edible Plants of Assam GeetakhiPrinters Guwahati India 2007

[13] H Narzary and A Basumatary ldquoProximate and vitamin Canalysis of wild edible plants consumed by Bodos of AssamIndiardquo Journal of Molecular Pathophysiology vol 4 no 4 pp128ndash133 2015

[14] M Gelfand S Mavi R B Drummond and B Ndemera TheTraditional Medical Practitioners in Zimbabwe His Principles ofPractice and Pharmacopoeia Mambo Press Gweru Zimbabwe1985

[15] D Davids Materia medica and care a study of the uses ofmedicinal herbs and remedies as a form of treatment andnegotiating social relationships in cape town and surroundings[MS dissertation] University of theWestern Cape Cape TownSouth Africa 2012

[16] A Maroyi and G K E Mosina ldquoMedicinal plants and tradi-tional practices in peri-urban domestic gardens of the Limpopoprovince South africardquo Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledgevol 13 no 4 pp 665ndash672 2014

[17] A Samie C L Obi P O Bessong and L Namrita ldquoActivityprofiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Vendacommunities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterialspeciesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 4 no 12 pp1443ndash1451 2005

[18] T York An ethnopharmacological study of plants used fortreating respiratory infections in rural Maputaland [MS disser-tation] University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa South Africa2012

[19] D Davids T Blouws O Aboyade et al ldquoTraditional healthpractitionersrsquo perceptions herbal treatment andmanagement ofHIV and related opportunistic infectionsrdquo Journal of Ethnobiol-ogy and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 77 2014

[20] A Hutchings A H Scott G Lewis and A CunninghamZulu Medicinal Plants An Inventory University of Natal PressPietermarizburg South Africa 1996

[21] RM Coopoosamy andK K Naidoo ldquoAn ethnobotanical studyofmedicinal plants used by traditional healers inDurban SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 6no 11 pp 818ndash823 2012

[22] I Hedberg and F Staugard Traditional Medicinal Plants inBotswana Ipeleng Gaborone Botswana 1989

[23] H Shahriar A S M H K Chowdhury S Rahman et al ldquoSci-entific validation of medicinal plants used by a folk medicinalpractitioner of Chuadanga District BangladeshrdquoWorld Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 11 pp 13ndash24 2014

[24] S S Semenya M J Potgieter and M P Tshisikhawe ldquoUseconservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinalplants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 12 no 18 pp2392ndash2405 2013

[25] M Roberts Indigenous Healing Plants Southern Book Publish-ers Halfway House Johannesburg South Africa 1990

[26] T Birhanu D Abera and E Ejeta ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas westernEthiopiardquo Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare vol 5no 1 pp 83ndash93 2015

[27] N T Mahlangeni R Moodley and S B Jonnalagadda ldquoEle-mental composition of Cyrtanthus obliquus and Lippia javanicaused in South African herbal tonic Imbizardquo Arabian Journal ofChemistry 2013

[28] W Musila D Kisangau and J Muema ldquoConservation statusand use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitionersin Machakos District Kenyardquo in Indigenous Knowledge Con-ference Proceedings Pennsylvania State University May 27ndash292004 2004

[29] G N Njoroge and R W Bussmann ldquoTraditional managementof ear nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 542006

[30] P Chigora R Masocha and F Mutenheri ldquoThe role of indige-nous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailmentsin rural Zimbabwe the case of Mutirikwi communal landsrdquoJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol 9 no 2 pp26ndash43 2007

[31] R W Bussmann G G Gilbreath J Solio et al ldquoPlant use ofthe Maasai of Sekenani Valley Maasai Mara Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 22 2006

[32] D Motlhanka and G P Nthoiwa ldquoEthnobotanical Survey ofmedicinal plants of Tswapong North in Eastern Botswana acase of plants from Mosweu and Seolwane Villagesrdquo EuropeanJournal of Medicinal Plants vol 3 no 1 pp 10ndash24 2013

[33] A Vhurumuku ldquoKnowledge use and attitudes towardsmedici-nal plants of pre-service teachers at a South African UniversityrdquoGlobal Advanced Research Journal in Environmental Science andToxicology vol 4 no 2 pp 15ndash24 2015

[34] M N Nkwanyana An ethnobotanical and antidiarrhoeal inves-tigation of plants used traditionally in the maputaland areahomesteads [MS dissertation] University of Zululand KwaD-langezwa South Africa 2013

[35] T E Moeng An investigation into the trade of medicinal plantsbymuthi shops and street vendors in the Limpopo Province SouthAfrica [MS thesis] University of Limpopo Gauteng SouthAfrica 2010

[36] S Bandeira A M Manjate and O Filipe ldquoAn EcologicalAssessment of the Health of the Chibuto-Missavene Wetlandin the Dry Season Mozambique Emphasis on ResourcesAssessment Utilization and Sustainability Analysisrdquo reportto Challenge Program for Water and Food InternationalWater Management Institute Pretoria South Africa 2006httpscgspacecgiarorgbitstreamhandle105682160421604pdfsequence=1

[37] M C Palgrave R B Drummond and E J Moll Trees ofSouthern Africa Struik Cape Town South Africa 2003

[38] M O Nanyingi J M Mbaria A L Lanyasunya et alldquoEthnopharmacological survey of Samburu district KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4 article 142008

[39] J G J P Sankar and K B Satapathy ldquoWeed diversity of Rabicrops and their ethnomedicinal uses in Kendrapara districtof Odisha Indiardquo International Research Journal of BiologicalSciences vol 4 no 3 pp 33ndash38 2015

[40] D E N Mabogo The ethnobotany of the vhavenda [MSdissertation] University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa1990

[41] B-E van Wyk B van Oudtshoorn and N Gericke MedicinalPlants of South Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2013

[42] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used forthe treatment of tuberculosis by Bapedi traditional healers

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

OphthalmologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Diabetes ResearchJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Research and TreatmentAIDS

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 27: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O O

HO

O

H

H

H

HO

HO

OH

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（2

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（2C

（2C

（2C

（2C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3CO（3

Verbenone 143 [3 99]

Germacrene-D 144 [3 123 101 96 97]

Trans-carvyl acetate 147 [3]

Carvone 148 [3 5 99]

Bicyclogermacrene 149 [3 5 96 97 99]

Ar-curcumene 151 [3]

Cis-piperitol 152 [3]

2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid 153 [3]

Trans-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 154 [3]

Cis-p-mentha-1(7)8-dien-2-ol 155 [3]

26-Dimethyl-3(E)5(E)7-octatriene-2-ol 156 [3 96 97]

Trans-carveol 157 [3]

Calamenene 158 [3]

Carvone oxide 159 [3]

Isopiperitenone 160 [3]

Cis-carveol 161 [3]

Piperitenone 162 [2 3 91 81]

Isocaryophyllene oxide 163 [3 96 97]

-Bisabolene 145 [3 5]

-Bisabolene 146 [3]

-Curcumene 150 [3]

Figure 4 Continued

28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

OO

O

O

H

H

H

H

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

H

H

HCH

HH

HO

（3

（2

（2C

（3C（3C

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C O（3

Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3-5 96 97 98]

Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 96 97]

Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]

Spathulenol 167 [3]

Eugenol 168 [3 5]

Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [91]

Icterogenin 173 [104]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Figure 4

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to the NationalResearch Foundation (NRF) and GovanMbeki Research andDevelopment Centre (GMRDC) University of Fort Hare forfinancial support to conduct this research

References

[1] JWMwangi I Addae-Mensah RMMunavu andW LwandeldquoEssential oils of Kenyan Lippia species Part IIIrdquo Flavour andFragrance Journal vol 6 no 3 pp 221ndash224 1991

[2] N J Manenzhe N Potgieter and T Van Ree ldquoCompositionand antimicrobial activities of volatile components of Lippiajavanicardquo Phytochemistry vol 65 no 16 pp 2333ndash2336 2004

[3] A M Viljoen S Subramoney S F V Vuuren K H C Baserand B Demirci ldquoThe composition geographical variation andantimicrobial activity of Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae) leafessential oilsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 96 no 1-2 pp271ndash277 2005

[4] N Lukwa P Moslashlgaard P Furu and C Boslashgh ldquoLippia javanica(Burm f) Spreng its general constituents and bioactivity onmosquitoesrdquoTropical Biomedicine vol 26 no 1 pp 85ndash91 2009

[5] L S Chagonda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssential oil compositionof Lippia javanica (Burmf) spreng chemotype from WesternZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants vol 18 no 2pp 482ndash485 2015

[6] W Kipkore B Wanjohi H Rono and G Kigen ldquoA study of themedicinal plants used by the Marakwet Community in KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 242014

[7] E A Shikanga S Combrinck and T Regnier ldquoSouth AfricanLippia herbal infusions total phenolic content antioxidant andantibacterial activitiesrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76no 3 pp 567ndash571 2010

[8] N T Parrant ldquoThe potential of non-timber forest products ofBotswanardquo Botswana Notes Records vol 28 no 1 pp 203ndash2181996

[9] D M Motlhanka and S W Makhabu ldquoMedicinal and ediblewild fruit plants of Botswana as emerging new crop opportu-nitiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plants Research vol 5 no 10 pp1836ndash1842 2011

[10] M Bhebhe T N Fuller B Chipurura and M MuchuwetildquoEffect of solvent type on total phenolic content and free radicalscavenging activity of black tea and herbal infusionsrdquo FoodAnalytical Methods vol 9 no 4 pp 1060ndash1067 2016

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29

[11] M Bhebhe B Chipurura and M Muchuweti ldquoDeterminationand comparison of phenolic compound content and antioxidantactivity of selected local Zimbabwean herbal teas with exoticAspalathus linearisrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 100no 1 pp 213ndash218 2015

[12] B Patiri and A Borah Wild Edible Plants of Assam GeetakhiPrinters Guwahati India 2007

[13] H Narzary and A Basumatary ldquoProximate and vitamin Canalysis of wild edible plants consumed by Bodos of AssamIndiardquo Journal of Molecular Pathophysiology vol 4 no 4 pp128ndash133 2015

[14] M Gelfand S Mavi R B Drummond and B Ndemera TheTraditional Medical Practitioners in Zimbabwe His Principles ofPractice and Pharmacopoeia Mambo Press Gweru Zimbabwe1985

[15] D Davids Materia medica and care a study of the uses ofmedicinal herbs and remedies as a form of treatment andnegotiating social relationships in cape town and surroundings[MS dissertation] University of theWestern Cape Cape TownSouth Africa 2012

[16] A Maroyi and G K E Mosina ldquoMedicinal plants and tradi-tional practices in peri-urban domestic gardens of the Limpopoprovince South africardquo Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledgevol 13 no 4 pp 665ndash672 2014

[17] A Samie C L Obi P O Bessong and L Namrita ldquoActivityprofiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Vendacommunities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterialspeciesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 4 no 12 pp1443ndash1451 2005

[18] T York An ethnopharmacological study of plants used fortreating respiratory infections in rural Maputaland [MS disser-tation] University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa South Africa2012

[19] D Davids T Blouws O Aboyade et al ldquoTraditional healthpractitionersrsquo perceptions herbal treatment andmanagement ofHIV and related opportunistic infectionsrdquo Journal of Ethnobiol-ogy and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 77 2014

[20] A Hutchings A H Scott G Lewis and A CunninghamZulu Medicinal Plants An Inventory University of Natal PressPietermarizburg South Africa 1996

[21] RM Coopoosamy andK K Naidoo ldquoAn ethnobotanical studyofmedicinal plants used by traditional healers inDurban SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 6no 11 pp 818ndash823 2012

[22] I Hedberg and F Staugard Traditional Medicinal Plants inBotswana Ipeleng Gaborone Botswana 1989

[23] H Shahriar A S M H K Chowdhury S Rahman et al ldquoSci-entific validation of medicinal plants used by a folk medicinalpractitioner of Chuadanga District BangladeshrdquoWorld Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 11 pp 13ndash24 2014

[24] S S Semenya M J Potgieter and M P Tshisikhawe ldquoUseconservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinalplants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 12 no 18 pp2392ndash2405 2013

[25] M Roberts Indigenous Healing Plants Southern Book Publish-ers Halfway House Johannesburg South Africa 1990

[26] T Birhanu D Abera and E Ejeta ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas westernEthiopiardquo Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare vol 5no 1 pp 83ndash93 2015

[27] N T Mahlangeni R Moodley and S B Jonnalagadda ldquoEle-mental composition of Cyrtanthus obliquus and Lippia javanicaused in South African herbal tonic Imbizardquo Arabian Journal ofChemistry 2013

[28] W Musila D Kisangau and J Muema ldquoConservation statusand use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitionersin Machakos District Kenyardquo in Indigenous Knowledge Con-ference Proceedings Pennsylvania State University May 27ndash292004 2004

[29] G N Njoroge and R W Bussmann ldquoTraditional managementof ear nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 542006

[30] P Chigora R Masocha and F Mutenheri ldquoThe role of indige-nous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailmentsin rural Zimbabwe the case of Mutirikwi communal landsrdquoJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol 9 no 2 pp26ndash43 2007

[31] R W Bussmann G G Gilbreath J Solio et al ldquoPlant use ofthe Maasai of Sekenani Valley Maasai Mara Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 22 2006

[32] D Motlhanka and G P Nthoiwa ldquoEthnobotanical Survey ofmedicinal plants of Tswapong North in Eastern Botswana acase of plants from Mosweu and Seolwane Villagesrdquo EuropeanJournal of Medicinal Plants vol 3 no 1 pp 10ndash24 2013

[33] A Vhurumuku ldquoKnowledge use and attitudes towardsmedici-nal plants of pre-service teachers at a South African UniversityrdquoGlobal Advanced Research Journal in Environmental Science andToxicology vol 4 no 2 pp 15ndash24 2015

[34] M N Nkwanyana An ethnobotanical and antidiarrhoeal inves-tigation of plants used traditionally in the maputaland areahomesteads [MS dissertation] University of Zululand KwaD-langezwa South Africa 2013

[35] T E Moeng An investigation into the trade of medicinal plantsbymuthi shops and street vendors in the Limpopo Province SouthAfrica [MS thesis] University of Limpopo Gauteng SouthAfrica 2010

[36] S Bandeira A M Manjate and O Filipe ldquoAn EcologicalAssessment of the Health of the Chibuto-Missavene Wetlandin the Dry Season Mozambique Emphasis on ResourcesAssessment Utilization and Sustainability Analysisrdquo reportto Challenge Program for Water and Food InternationalWater Management Institute Pretoria South Africa 2006httpscgspacecgiarorgbitstreamhandle105682160421604pdfsequence=1

[37] M C Palgrave R B Drummond and E J Moll Trees ofSouthern Africa Struik Cape Town South Africa 2003

[38] M O Nanyingi J M Mbaria A L Lanyasunya et alldquoEthnopharmacological survey of Samburu district KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4 article 142008

[39] J G J P Sankar and K B Satapathy ldquoWeed diversity of Rabicrops and their ethnomedicinal uses in Kendrapara districtof Odisha Indiardquo International Research Journal of BiologicalSciences vol 4 no 3 pp 33ndash38 2015

[40] D E N Mabogo The ethnobotany of the vhavenda [MSdissertation] University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa1990

[41] B-E van Wyk B van Oudtshoorn and N Gericke MedicinalPlants of South Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2013

[42] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used forthe treatment of tuberculosis by Bapedi traditional healers

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

OphthalmologyJournal of

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Research and TreatmentAIDS

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 28: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

O

O

O

O

O

H

H

H

H

H

OO

O

O

H

H

H

H

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

HO

HO

HO

HO

H

H

HCH

HH

HO

（3

（2

（2C

（3C（3C

（3

（3 （3

（3

（3

（3

（3

（3C

（3C

（3C

（3C

（2C O（3

Caryophyllene oxide 164 [3-5 96 97 98]

Humulene epoxide II 165 [3 5 96 97]

Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 166 [3]

Spathulenol 167 [3]

Eugenol 168 [3 5]

Germacrene-D-4-ol 169 [3]

Euscaphic acid 172 [91]

Icterogenin 173 [104]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol I) 170 [3]

Caryophylla-2(12)6(13)-dien-5-ol (=Caryophylladienol II) 171 [3]

Figure 4

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to the NationalResearch Foundation (NRF) and GovanMbeki Research andDevelopment Centre (GMRDC) University of Fort Hare forfinancial support to conduct this research

References

[1] JWMwangi I Addae-Mensah RMMunavu andW LwandeldquoEssential oils of Kenyan Lippia species Part IIIrdquo Flavour andFragrance Journal vol 6 no 3 pp 221ndash224 1991

[2] N J Manenzhe N Potgieter and T Van Ree ldquoCompositionand antimicrobial activities of volatile components of Lippiajavanicardquo Phytochemistry vol 65 no 16 pp 2333ndash2336 2004

[3] A M Viljoen S Subramoney S F V Vuuren K H C Baserand B Demirci ldquoThe composition geographical variation andantimicrobial activity of Lippia javanica (Verbenaceae) leafessential oilsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 96 no 1-2 pp271ndash277 2005

[4] N Lukwa P Moslashlgaard P Furu and C Boslashgh ldquoLippia javanica(Burm f) Spreng its general constituents and bioactivity onmosquitoesrdquoTropical Biomedicine vol 26 no 1 pp 85ndash91 2009

[5] L S Chagonda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssential oil compositionof Lippia javanica (Burmf) spreng chemotype from WesternZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants vol 18 no 2pp 482ndash485 2015

[6] W Kipkore B Wanjohi H Rono and G Kigen ldquoA study of themedicinal plants used by the Marakwet Community in KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 242014

[7] E A Shikanga S Combrinck and T Regnier ldquoSouth AfricanLippia herbal infusions total phenolic content antioxidant andantibacterial activitiesrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76no 3 pp 567ndash571 2010

[8] N T Parrant ldquoThe potential of non-timber forest products ofBotswanardquo Botswana Notes Records vol 28 no 1 pp 203ndash2181996

[9] D M Motlhanka and S W Makhabu ldquoMedicinal and ediblewild fruit plants of Botswana as emerging new crop opportu-nitiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plants Research vol 5 no 10 pp1836ndash1842 2011

[10] M Bhebhe T N Fuller B Chipurura and M MuchuwetildquoEffect of solvent type on total phenolic content and free radicalscavenging activity of black tea and herbal infusionsrdquo FoodAnalytical Methods vol 9 no 4 pp 1060ndash1067 2016

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29

[11] M Bhebhe B Chipurura and M Muchuweti ldquoDeterminationand comparison of phenolic compound content and antioxidantactivity of selected local Zimbabwean herbal teas with exoticAspalathus linearisrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 100no 1 pp 213ndash218 2015

[12] B Patiri and A Borah Wild Edible Plants of Assam GeetakhiPrinters Guwahati India 2007

[13] H Narzary and A Basumatary ldquoProximate and vitamin Canalysis of wild edible plants consumed by Bodos of AssamIndiardquo Journal of Molecular Pathophysiology vol 4 no 4 pp128ndash133 2015

[14] M Gelfand S Mavi R B Drummond and B Ndemera TheTraditional Medical Practitioners in Zimbabwe His Principles ofPractice and Pharmacopoeia Mambo Press Gweru Zimbabwe1985

[15] D Davids Materia medica and care a study of the uses ofmedicinal herbs and remedies as a form of treatment andnegotiating social relationships in cape town and surroundings[MS dissertation] University of theWestern Cape Cape TownSouth Africa 2012

[16] A Maroyi and G K E Mosina ldquoMedicinal plants and tradi-tional practices in peri-urban domestic gardens of the Limpopoprovince South africardquo Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledgevol 13 no 4 pp 665ndash672 2014

[17] A Samie C L Obi P O Bessong and L Namrita ldquoActivityprofiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Vendacommunities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterialspeciesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 4 no 12 pp1443ndash1451 2005

[18] T York An ethnopharmacological study of plants used fortreating respiratory infections in rural Maputaland [MS disser-tation] University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa South Africa2012

[19] D Davids T Blouws O Aboyade et al ldquoTraditional healthpractitionersrsquo perceptions herbal treatment andmanagement ofHIV and related opportunistic infectionsrdquo Journal of Ethnobiol-ogy and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 77 2014

[20] A Hutchings A H Scott G Lewis and A CunninghamZulu Medicinal Plants An Inventory University of Natal PressPietermarizburg South Africa 1996

[21] RM Coopoosamy andK K Naidoo ldquoAn ethnobotanical studyofmedicinal plants used by traditional healers inDurban SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 6no 11 pp 818ndash823 2012

[22] I Hedberg and F Staugard Traditional Medicinal Plants inBotswana Ipeleng Gaborone Botswana 1989

[23] H Shahriar A S M H K Chowdhury S Rahman et al ldquoSci-entific validation of medicinal plants used by a folk medicinalpractitioner of Chuadanga District BangladeshrdquoWorld Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 11 pp 13ndash24 2014

[24] S S Semenya M J Potgieter and M P Tshisikhawe ldquoUseconservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinalplants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 12 no 18 pp2392ndash2405 2013

[25] M Roberts Indigenous Healing Plants Southern Book Publish-ers Halfway House Johannesburg South Africa 1990

[26] T Birhanu D Abera and E Ejeta ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas westernEthiopiardquo Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare vol 5no 1 pp 83ndash93 2015

[27] N T Mahlangeni R Moodley and S B Jonnalagadda ldquoEle-mental composition of Cyrtanthus obliquus and Lippia javanicaused in South African herbal tonic Imbizardquo Arabian Journal ofChemistry 2013

[28] W Musila D Kisangau and J Muema ldquoConservation statusand use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitionersin Machakos District Kenyardquo in Indigenous Knowledge Con-ference Proceedings Pennsylvania State University May 27ndash292004 2004

[29] G N Njoroge and R W Bussmann ldquoTraditional managementof ear nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 542006

[30] P Chigora R Masocha and F Mutenheri ldquoThe role of indige-nous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailmentsin rural Zimbabwe the case of Mutirikwi communal landsrdquoJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol 9 no 2 pp26ndash43 2007

[31] R W Bussmann G G Gilbreath J Solio et al ldquoPlant use ofthe Maasai of Sekenani Valley Maasai Mara Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 22 2006

[32] D Motlhanka and G P Nthoiwa ldquoEthnobotanical Survey ofmedicinal plants of Tswapong North in Eastern Botswana acase of plants from Mosweu and Seolwane Villagesrdquo EuropeanJournal of Medicinal Plants vol 3 no 1 pp 10ndash24 2013

[33] A Vhurumuku ldquoKnowledge use and attitudes towardsmedici-nal plants of pre-service teachers at a South African UniversityrdquoGlobal Advanced Research Journal in Environmental Science andToxicology vol 4 no 2 pp 15ndash24 2015

[34] M N Nkwanyana An ethnobotanical and antidiarrhoeal inves-tigation of plants used traditionally in the maputaland areahomesteads [MS dissertation] University of Zululand KwaD-langezwa South Africa 2013

[35] T E Moeng An investigation into the trade of medicinal plantsbymuthi shops and street vendors in the Limpopo Province SouthAfrica [MS thesis] University of Limpopo Gauteng SouthAfrica 2010

[36] S Bandeira A M Manjate and O Filipe ldquoAn EcologicalAssessment of the Health of the Chibuto-Missavene Wetlandin the Dry Season Mozambique Emphasis on ResourcesAssessment Utilization and Sustainability Analysisrdquo reportto Challenge Program for Water and Food InternationalWater Management Institute Pretoria South Africa 2006httpscgspacecgiarorgbitstreamhandle105682160421604pdfsequence=1

[37] M C Palgrave R B Drummond and E J Moll Trees ofSouthern Africa Struik Cape Town South Africa 2003

[38] M O Nanyingi J M Mbaria A L Lanyasunya et alldquoEthnopharmacological survey of Samburu district KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4 article 142008

[39] J G J P Sankar and K B Satapathy ldquoWeed diversity of Rabicrops and their ethnomedicinal uses in Kendrapara districtof Odisha Indiardquo International Research Journal of BiologicalSciences vol 4 no 3 pp 33ndash38 2015

[40] D E N Mabogo The ethnobotany of the vhavenda [MSdissertation] University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa1990

[41] B-E van Wyk B van Oudtshoorn and N Gericke MedicinalPlants of South Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2013

[42] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used forthe treatment of tuberculosis by Bapedi traditional healers

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

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Research and TreatmentAIDS

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 29: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29

[11] M Bhebhe B Chipurura and M Muchuweti ldquoDeterminationand comparison of phenolic compound content and antioxidantactivity of selected local Zimbabwean herbal teas with exoticAspalathus linearisrdquo South African Journal of Botany vol 100no 1 pp 213ndash218 2015

[12] B Patiri and A Borah Wild Edible Plants of Assam GeetakhiPrinters Guwahati India 2007

[13] H Narzary and A Basumatary ldquoProximate and vitamin Canalysis of wild edible plants consumed by Bodos of AssamIndiardquo Journal of Molecular Pathophysiology vol 4 no 4 pp128ndash133 2015

[14] M Gelfand S Mavi R B Drummond and B Ndemera TheTraditional Medical Practitioners in Zimbabwe His Principles ofPractice and Pharmacopoeia Mambo Press Gweru Zimbabwe1985

[15] D Davids Materia medica and care a study of the uses ofmedicinal herbs and remedies as a form of treatment andnegotiating social relationships in cape town and surroundings[MS dissertation] University of theWestern Cape Cape TownSouth Africa 2012

[16] A Maroyi and G K E Mosina ldquoMedicinal plants and tradi-tional practices in peri-urban domestic gardens of the Limpopoprovince South africardquo Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledgevol 13 no 4 pp 665ndash672 2014

[17] A Samie C L Obi P O Bessong and L Namrita ldquoActivityprofiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Vendacommunities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterialspeciesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 4 no 12 pp1443ndash1451 2005

[18] T York An ethnopharmacological study of plants used fortreating respiratory infections in rural Maputaland [MS disser-tation] University of Zululand KwaDlangezwa South Africa2012

[19] D Davids T Blouws O Aboyade et al ldquoTraditional healthpractitionersrsquo perceptions herbal treatment andmanagement ofHIV and related opportunistic infectionsrdquo Journal of Ethnobiol-ogy and Ethnomedicine vol 10 article 77 2014

[20] A Hutchings A H Scott G Lewis and A CunninghamZulu Medicinal Plants An Inventory University of Natal PressPietermarizburg South Africa 1996

[21] RM Coopoosamy andK K Naidoo ldquoAn ethnobotanical studyofmedicinal plants used by traditional healers inDurban SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 6no 11 pp 818ndash823 2012

[22] I Hedberg and F Staugard Traditional Medicinal Plants inBotswana Ipeleng Gaborone Botswana 1989

[23] H Shahriar A S M H K Chowdhury S Rahman et al ldquoSci-entific validation of medicinal plants used by a folk medicinalpractitioner of Chuadanga District BangladeshrdquoWorld Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 11 pp 13ndash24 2014

[24] S S Semenya M J Potgieter and M P Tshisikhawe ldquoUseconservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinalplants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province SouthAfricardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 12 no 18 pp2392ndash2405 2013

[25] M Roberts Indigenous Healing Plants Southern Book Publish-ers Halfway House Johannesburg South Africa 1990

[26] T Birhanu D Abera and E Ejeta ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas westernEthiopiardquo Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare vol 5no 1 pp 83ndash93 2015

[27] N T Mahlangeni R Moodley and S B Jonnalagadda ldquoEle-mental composition of Cyrtanthus obliquus and Lippia javanicaused in South African herbal tonic Imbizardquo Arabian Journal ofChemistry 2013

[28] W Musila D Kisangau and J Muema ldquoConservation statusand use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitionersin Machakos District Kenyardquo in Indigenous Knowledge Con-ference Proceedings Pennsylvania State University May 27ndash292004 2004

[29] G N Njoroge and R W Bussmann ldquoTraditional managementof ear nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 542006

[30] P Chigora R Masocha and F Mutenheri ldquoThe role of indige-nous medicinal knowledge (IMK) in the treatment of ailmentsin rural Zimbabwe the case of Mutirikwi communal landsrdquoJournal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol 9 no 2 pp26ndash43 2007

[31] R W Bussmann G G Gilbreath J Solio et al ldquoPlant use ofthe Maasai of Sekenani Valley Maasai Mara Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 22 2006

[32] D Motlhanka and G P Nthoiwa ldquoEthnobotanical Survey ofmedicinal plants of Tswapong North in Eastern Botswana acase of plants from Mosweu and Seolwane Villagesrdquo EuropeanJournal of Medicinal Plants vol 3 no 1 pp 10ndash24 2013

[33] A Vhurumuku ldquoKnowledge use and attitudes towardsmedici-nal plants of pre-service teachers at a South African UniversityrdquoGlobal Advanced Research Journal in Environmental Science andToxicology vol 4 no 2 pp 15ndash24 2015

[34] M N Nkwanyana An ethnobotanical and antidiarrhoeal inves-tigation of plants used traditionally in the maputaland areahomesteads [MS dissertation] University of Zululand KwaD-langezwa South Africa 2013

[35] T E Moeng An investigation into the trade of medicinal plantsbymuthi shops and street vendors in the Limpopo Province SouthAfrica [MS thesis] University of Limpopo Gauteng SouthAfrica 2010

[36] S Bandeira A M Manjate and O Filipe ldquoAn EcologicalAssessment of the Health of the Chibuto-Missavene Wetlandin the Dry Season Mozambique Emphasis on ResourcesAssessment Utilization and Sustainability Analysisrdquo reportto Challenge Program for Water and Food InternationalWater Management Institute Pretoria South Africa 2006httpscgspacecgiarorgbitstreamhandle105682160421604pdfsequence=1

[37] M C Palgrave R B Drummond and E J Moll Trees ofSouthern Africa Struik Cape Town South Africa 2003

[38] M O Nanyingi J M Mbaria A L Lanyasunya et alldquoEthnopharmacological survey of Samburu district KenyardquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4 article 142008

[39] J G J P Sankar and K B Satapathy ldquoWeed diversity of Rabicrops and their ethnomedicinal uses in Kendrapara districtof Odisha Indiardquo International Research Journal of BiologicalSciences vol 4 no 3 pp 33ndash38 2015

[40] D E N Mabogo The ethnobotany of the vhavenda [MSdissertation] University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa1990

[41] B-E van Wyk B van Oudtshoorn and N Gericke MedicinalPlants of South Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2013

[42] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used forthe treatment of tuberculosis by Bapedi traditional healers

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

OphthalmologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Diabetes ResearchJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Research and TreatmentAIDS

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 30: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

in three districts of the Limpopo Province South AfricardquoAfrican Journal of Traditional Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 10 no 2 pp 316ndash323 2013

[43] L Bunalema S Obakiro J R S Tabuti and P WaakoldquoKnowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment oftuberculosis in Ugandardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 151no 2 pp 999ndash1004 2014

[44] P Bruschi M Morganti M Mancini and M A SignorinildquoTraditional healers and laypeople a qualitative and quantita-tive approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda(Mozambique)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 138 no 2pp 543ndash563 2011

[45] A T Bryant Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men C Struik CapeTown South Africa 1966

[46] N SMkarafuuTherole of nonwood forest products in improvinglivelihoods of communities surrounding Jozani and Chwaka BayNational Park Zanzibar [MS thesis] Sokoine University ofAgriculture Morogoro Tanzania 2010

[47] S Kumar and D Dash ldquoFlora of Nandan Kanan sanctuarymedicinal plants with their role in health carerdquo InternationalJournal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences vol 3 no 4 pp 1631ndash1642 2012

[48] N Lukwa N Z Nyazema C F Curtis G L Mwaiko and S KChandiwana ldquoPeoplersquos perceptions about malaria transmissionand control using mosquito repellent plants in a locality inZimbabwerdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol 45 no 3pp 64ndash68 1999

[49] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J F Finnie G Kabera and J vanStaden ldquoAn ethnobotanical survey of mosquito repellent plantsin uMkhanyakude district KwaZulu-Natal province SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137 no 3 pp 1516ndash1520 2011

[50] J Mahachi Medicinal properties of some plants used for thetreatment of skin disorders in the OR Tambo and Amatholemunicipalities of the Eastern Cape Province South Africa [MSdissertation] Walter Sisulu University Mthatha South Africa2013

[51] M M Matlebyane J W W Ngrsquoambi and E M Areghe-ore ldquoIndigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browseand grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal andethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production inLimpopo province South Africardquo Livestock Research for RuralDevelopment vol 22 no 3 p 54 2010

[52] S O Bandeira F Gaspar and F P Pagula ldquoAfrican ethnobotanyand healthcare Emphasis on Mozambiquerdquo PharmaceuticalBiology vol 39 pp 70ndash73 2001

[53] C A Liengme ldquoPlants used by the Tsonga people ofGazankulurdquo Bothalia vol 13 no 3-4 pp 501ndash518 1981

[54] A J Afolayan D S Grierson and W O Mbeng ldquoEthnob-otanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management ofskin disorders among the Xhosa communities of the AmatholeDistrict Eastern Cape South Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 153 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2014

[55] O O G Amusan N A Sukati and M S Shongwe ldquoSomephytomedicines from Shiselweni region of Swazilandrdquo Journalof Natural Remedies vol 5 no 1 pp 19ndash25 2005

[56] H deWet S Nciki and S F vanVuuren ldquoMedicinal plants usedfor the treatment of various skin disorders by a rural communityin northernMaputaland South Africardquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 51 2013

[57] O Amuka P O Okemo A K Machocho and P K MbugualdquoEthnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by

Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infectionsrdquoEthnobotany Research and Applications vol 12 pp 627ndash6412014

[58] A Hutchings ldquoRitual cleansing incense and the tree of lifeobservations on some indigenous plant usage in traditionalZulu and Xhosa purification and burial ritesrdquo Alternation vol14 no 2 pp 189ndash218 2007

[59] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and T Mutibvu ldquoEthnovet-erinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control insemi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwerdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 11 article 30 2015

[60] E T Nyahangare B M Mvumi and P C Stevenson ldquoTickcontrol measures from naturerdquo Afgriland vol 56 no 3 pp 76ndash77 2012

[61] V L Narayana and G M Narasimharao ldquoPlants used inethnoveterinary medicine by tribals of Visakhapatnam andVizianagarm districts Andhra Pradesh Indiardquo InternationalJournal of Pure and Applied Bioscience vol 3 no 2 pp 432ndash4392015

[62] C A Onyango L W Gakuya F M Mathooko et al ldquoPreser-vative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milkfromMaasai community of Kajiado Countyrdquo Journal of AppliedBiosciences vol 73 pp 5935ndash5941 2014

[63] I T Rampedi Indigenous plants in the Limpopo Provincepotential for their commercial beverage production [PhD thesis]University of South Africa Pretoria South Africa 2010

[64] N Lukwa ldquoDo traditional mosquito repellent plants work asmosquito larvicidesrdquo Central African Journal of Medicine vol40 no 11 pp 306ndash309 1994

[65] United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS ldquoAIDS epidemicupdate Special Report on HIVAIDSrdquo 2006 httpdataunaidsorgpubEpiReport20062006 EpiUpdate enpdf

[66] A R Ndhlala G I Stafford J F Finnie and J van StadenldquoIn vitro pharmacological effects of manufactured herbal con-coctions used in KwaZulu-Natal South Africardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 122 no 1 pp 117ndash122 2009

[67] O O G Amusan P S Dlamini J D Msonthi and L PMakhubu ldquoSome herbal remedies from Manzini region ofSwazilandrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 79 no 1 pp109ndash112 2002

[68] J Williamson Useful Plants of Malawi University of MalawiLimbe Cameroon 1974

[69] C K Kaingu J A Oduma and T I Kanui ldquoPractices of tradi-tional birth attendants in Machakos District Kenyardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 137 no 1 pp 495ndash502 2011

[70] C M Doke and B W Vilakazi Zulu-English DictionaryWitwatersrand University Press Johannesburg South Africa1972

[71] O O Amusan ldquoHerbal medicine in Swaziland an overviewrdquo inAfrican Natural Plant Products New Discoveries and Challengesin Chemistry and Quality vol 1021 of ACS Symposium Seriespp 31ndash49 American Chemical Society Washington DC USA2010

[72] O O G Amusan ldquoEthical and environmental issues in bio-prospecting for drugs through traditional medicine the case ofSwazilandrdquo The African Journal of Plant Sciences and Biotech-nology vol 2 no 1 pp 1ndash9 2008

[73] A Samie AHouseinN Lall and J JMMeyer ldquoCrude extractsof and purified compounds from Pterocarpus angolensis andthe essential oil of Lippia javanica their in-vitro cytotoxicities

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

OphthalmologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Diabetes ResearchJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Research and TreatmentAIDS

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 31: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31

and activities against selected bacteria and Entamoeba histolyt-icardquo Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology vol 103 no5 pp 427ndash439 2009

[74] I E Cock and S F van Vuuren ldquoAnti-proteus activity ofsome South African medicinal plants their potential for theprevention of rheumatoid arthritisrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 22 no 1 pp 23ndash36 2014

[75] M A Lekganyane T M Matsebatlela R L Howard L JShai and P Masoko ldquoThe phytochemical antibacterial andantioxidant activity of five medicinal plants against the woundinfecting bacteriardquo African Journal of Biotechnology vol 11 no68 pp 13210ndash13219 2012

[76] K M Thembo H F Vismer N Z Nyazema W C AGelderblom and D R Katerere ldquoAntifungal activity of fourweedy plant extracts against selected mycotoxigenic fungirdquoJournal of Applied Microbiology vol 109 no 4 pp 1479ndash14862010

[77] P Masoko and K M Nxumalo ldquoValidation of antimycobac-terial plants used by traditional healers in three districts ofthe Limpopo Province (South Africa)rdquo Evidence-based Comple-mentary and Alternative Medicine vol 2013 Article ID 5862477 pages 2013

[78] D R Katerere G Graziani K MThembo N Z Nyazema andA Ritieni ldquoAntioxidant activity of some African medicinal anddietary leafy African vegetablesrdquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 11 no 17 pp 4103ndash4108 2012

[79] T A Ayuko RNNjauWCornelius N Leah and I ONdiegeldquoIn vitro antiplasmodial activity and toxicity assessment of plantextracts used in traditional malaria therapy in the Lake VictoriaRegionrdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 104 no 5 pp689ndash694 2009

[80] C Clarkson V JMaharaj N R Crouch et al ldquoIn vitro antiplas-modial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised inSouth Africardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 92 no 2-3pp 177ndash191 2004

[81] D K Olivier E A Shikanga S Combrinck R W M KrauseT Regnier and T P Dlamini ldquoPhenylethanoid glycosides fromLippia javanicardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 76 no 1pp 58ndash63 2010

[82] H Rimpler and H Sauerbier ldquoIridoid glucosides as taxonomicmarkers in the genera Lantana Lippia Aloysia and PhylardquoBiochemical Systematics and Ecology vol 14 no 3 pp 307ndash3101986

[83] S F Mujovo A A Hussein J J M Meyer B Fourie TMuthivhi and N Lall ldquoBioactive compounds from Lippiajavanica andHoslundia oppositardquoNatural Product Research vol22 no 12 pp 1047ndash1054 2008

[84] M T Ludere T van Ree and R Vleggaar ldquoIsolation and relativestereochemistry of lippialactone a new antimalarial compoundfrom Lippia javanicardquo Fitoterapia vol 86 no 3 pp 188ndash1922013

[85] RNeidlein andR Staehle ldquoConstituents of Lippia javanica IIIrdquoDeutsche Apotheker Zeitung vol 40 pp 1588ndash1592 1974

[86] T P Dlamini Isolation and characterization of bioactive com-pounds from Lippia javanica [MS thesis] University of Johan-nesburg Johannesburg South Africa 2006

[87] R Soukand and R Kalle ldquoWhere does the border lie locallygrown plants used for making tea for recreation andor healing1970s-1990s Estoniardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 150no 1 pp 162ndash174 2013

[88] Y Frum and A M Viljoen ldquoIn vitro 5-lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly

used topically for skin diseasesrdquo Skin Pharmacology and Physi-ology vol 19 no 6 pp 329ndash335 2006

[89] S F van Vuuren The antimicrobial activity and essential oilcomposition of medicinal aromatic plants used in african tradi-tional healing [PhD thesis] University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg South Africa 2007

[90] S Suliman Antimicrobial interactions of Artemisia afra used inafrican traditionalmedicine [MS dissertation] University of theWitwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa 2011

[91] S Virijevic Antimicrobial and chemical properties of essentialoils from indigenous South African lippia species [MS disser-tation] Tshwane University of Technology Tshwane SouthAfrica 2012

[92] L S Chagonda C D Makanda and J-C Chalchat ldquoEssentialoils of wild and cultivated Lippia javanica (Spreng) and Loatesii(Rolfe) fromZimbabwerdquo Journal of Essential Oil Researchvol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2000

[93] O Ngassapa D K B Runyoro E Harvala and I B ChinouldquoComposition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of twopopulations of Tanzanian Lippia javanica (Burm f) Spreng(Verbenaceae)rdquo Flavour and Fragrance Journal vol 18 no 3 pp221ndash224 2003

[94] O Amuka A K Machocho P O Okemo and P K MbugualdquoAntibacterial and antifungal activities of essential oils fromSatureia biflora D Don Benth Speng (Chepsagitiet) Lippiajavanica Burm f (Labotuet) and Toddalia asiatica (L) LamRutaceae (Chepindoruet)rdquo Global Journal of Science FrontierResearch B Chemistry vol 14 no 4 pp 45ndash51 2014

[95] S R Magano F Nchu and J N Eloff ldquoIn vitro investigationof the repellent effects of the essential oil of Lippia javanicaon adults of Hyalomma marginatum rufipesrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 10 no 44 pp 8970ndash8975 2011

[96] A Hutchings and J van Staden ldquoPlants used for stress-relatedailments in traditional Zulu Xhosa and Sotho medicine Part 1plants used for headachesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol43 no 2 pp 89ndash124 1994

[97] H E Marx N OrsquoLeary Y-W Yuan et al ldquoA molecularphylogeny and classification of Verbenaceaerdquo American Journalof Botany vol 97 no 10 pp 1647ndash1663 2010

[98] A A Munir ldquoA taxonomic revision of the genus Lippia (Houstex) Linn (Verbenaceae) in Australiardquo Journal of the AdelaideBotanic Garden vol 15 no 2 pp 129ndash145 1993

[99] R W Sanders ldquoThe genera of Verbenaceae in the southeasternUnited Statesrdquo Harvard Papers in Botany vol 5 no 2 pp 303ndash358 2001

[100] J M S de Campos S M Sousa P S Silva L C Pinheiro FSampaio and L F Viccini ldquoChromosome numbers and DNAC values in the genus Lippia (Verbenaceae)rdquo Plant Systematicsand Evolution vol 291 no 1 pp 133ndash140 2011

[101] B Verdcourt ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora of Tropical Africa R MPolhill Ed p 155 A A Balkema RotterdamThe Netherlands1992

[102] M Hyde B Wursten P Ballings and M C Palgrave ldquoFlora ofZimbabwe species information Lippia javanica (Burm f)Sprengrdquo httpwwwzimbabwefloracozwspeciesdataspeciesphpspecies id=148720

[103] IPNI (International Plant Name Index) 2016 httpwwwipniorg

[104] H H W Pearson ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo Flora Capensis vol 5 no 3pp 192ndash197 1912

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

OphthalmologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Diabetes ResearchJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Research and TreatmentAIDS

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 32: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[105] B-E vanWyk and N Gericke Peoplersquos Plants A Guide to UsefulPlants of Southern Africa Briza Pretoria South Africa 2000

[106] R Fernandes ldquoVerbenaceaerdquo in Flora Zambesiaca G V Popeand E S Martins Eds vol 8 part 7 pp 6ndash61 Royal BotanicGardens London UK 2005

[107] B-E Van Wyk ldquoThe potential of South African plants in thedevelopment of new food and beverage productsrdquo SouthAfricanJournal of Botany vol 77 no 4 pp 857ndash868 2011

[108] H R Juliani Y Koelliker M Bucuk et al ldquoQuality andconsumer studies in the USA of African herbal teas for thenatural product industry development in sub-Sahara Africardquoin Proceedings of the African Natural Plant Products New Dis-coveries and Challenges in Chemistry and Quality SymposiumH R Juliani J E Simon and C-T Ito Eds vol 1021 of ACSSymposium Series pp 403ndash420 American Chemical SocietyPublications Washington DC USA 2009

[109] C Pretorious Antioxidant properties of Lippia javanica (Burmf) Spreng [MS thesis] North West University PotchefstroomSouth Africa 2010

[110] M Whiteside Encouraging Sustainable Family Sector Agricul-ture in Botswana Cooperation for Research Development andEducation (CORDE) Gaborone Botswana 1997

[111] B-E Van Wyk ldquoA broad review of commercially importantsouthernAfricanmedicinal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 119 no 3 pp 342ndash355 2008

[112] H Wild and M Gelfand ldquoSome native herbal remedies atpresent in use in Mashonalandrdquo The Central African journal ofmedicine vol 5 no 6 pp 292ndash305 1959

[113] G N Njoroge and J W Kibunga ldquoHerbal medicine accep-tance sources and utilization for diarrhoea management in acosmopolitan urban area (Thika Kenya)rdquo African Journal ofEcology vol 45 no 1 pp 65ndash70 2007

[114] A Ribeiro M M Romeiras J Tavares and M T Faria ldquoEth-nobotanical survey in Canhane village district of MassingirMozambique medicinal plants and traditional knowledgerdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 6 article 332010

[115] S S Semenya and A Maroyi ldquoMedicinal plants used by theBapedi traditional healers to treat diarrhoea in the LimpopoProvince SouthAfricardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 144no 2 pp 395ndash401 2012

[116] AMaroyi ldquoTraditional use of medicinal plants in south-centralZimbabwe review and perspectivesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiologyand Ethnomedicine vol 9 article 31 2013

[117] V J Maharaj G Fouche J Senabe R Nthambeleni and FKotze ldquoAgro-processing opportunities identified through anovel mosquito repellent from a medicinal plantrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference on ScienceReal and Relevant Pretoria South Africa November 2008httphdlhandlenet

[118] J McCosh Z Nxele B Letty E de Beer N Majara and KSwanepoel ldquoStudy to develop a strategy for the developmentof a viable essential oils industry in South Africa review andsituation analysisrdquo INR Report 44211 Institute of NaturalResources Pietermaritzburg South Africa 2011

[119] CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) CSIRpatent mosquito repellent South African patent no 9595831995

[120] J Madzimure E T Nyahangare H Hamudikuwanda et alldquoAcaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral toxicity ofLippia javanica (Burm F) Sprengrdquo Tropical Animal Health andProduction vol 43 no 2 pp 481ndash489 2011

[121] Q Hou W-J He H-J Hao et al ldquoThe four-herb chinesemedicine ANBP enhances wound healing and inhibits scarformation via bidirectional regulation of transformation growthfactor pathwayrdquo PLoS ONE vol 9 no 12 Article ID e1122742014

[122] E-M M Abubakar ldquoThe use of Psidium guajava Linn in treat-ing wound skin and soft tissue infectionsrdquo Scientific Researchand Essays vol 4 no 6 pp 605ndash611 2009

[123] N N Mokoka Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippiajavanica) and effect of shade netting on plant growth oil yieldand compound composition [MS thesis] University of PretoriaPretoria South Africa 2005

[124] M A Ngwenya A Koopman and R Williams Zulu BotanicalKnowledge An Introduction National Botanical Institute Pre-toria South Africa 2003

[125] MMuchuweti L Nyamukonda L S Chagonda A R NdhlalaC Mupure and M Benhura ldquoTotal phenolic content andantioxidant activity in selected medicinal plants of ZimbabwerdquoInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology vol 41 no1 pp 33ndash38 2006

[126] E Shikanga T Regnier S Combrinck and B Botha ldquoPolarLippia extracts as alternatives for the postharvest control ofGuazatine-resistant strains of Penicillium digitatum in citrusrdquoFruits vol 64 no 2 pp 75ndash82 2009

[127] M Sandasi G P P Kamatou S Combrinck and A MViljoen ldquoA chemotaxonomic assessment of four indigenousSouth African Lippia species using GC-MS and vibrationalspectroscopy of the essential oilsrdquo Biochemical Systematics andEcology vol 51 no 3 pp 142ndash152 2013

[128] S Sedaghathoor A M Torkashvand D Hashemabadi and BKaviani ldquoYield and quality response of tea plant to fertilizersrdquoAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research vol 4 no 6 pp 568ndash570 2009

[129] K O Soetan C O Olaiya and O E Oyewole ldquoThe importanceof mineral elements for humans domestic animals and plantsa reviewrdquo African Journal of Food Science vol 4 no 5 pp 200ndash222 2008

[130] R Borneo A E Leon A Aguirre P Ribotta and J J CanteroldquoAntioxidant capacity of medicinal plants from the Province ofCordoba (Argentina) and their in vitro testing in a model foodsystemrdquo Food Chemistry vol 112 no 3 pp 664ndash670 2009

[131] W-Y Huang Y-Z Cai and Y Zhang ldquoNatural phenoliccompounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants potentialuse for cancer preventionrdquo Nutrition and Cancer vol 62 no 1pp 1ndash20 2010

[132] A Djilani and A Dicko ldquoThe therapeutic benefits of essentialoils nutrition well-being and healthrdquo 2012 httpwwwinte-chopencombooksnutrition-well-being-and-healththe-ther-apeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils

[133] S Kumar andA K Pandey ldquoChemistry and biological activitiesof flavonoids an overviewrdquo The Scientific World Journal vol2013 Article ID 162750 16 pages 2013

[134] T P T Cushnie and A J Lamb ldquoAntimicrobial activity offlavonoidsrdquo International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents vol26 no 5 pp 343ndash356 2005

[135] A Tapas D Sakarkar and R Kakde ldquoFlavonoids as nutraceuti-cals a reviewrdquo Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research vol7 no 3 pp 1089ndash1099 2008

[136] Y Nishizuka ldquoThe molecular heterogeneity of protein kinase Cand its implications for cellular regulationrdquoNature vol 334 no6184 pp 661ndash665 1988

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

OphthalmologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Diabetes ResearchJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Research and TreatmentAIDS

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 33: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33

[137] T Hunter ldquoProtein kinases and phosphatases the Yin and Yangof protein phosphorylation and signalingrdquo Cell vol 80 no 2pp 225ndash236 1995

[138] JWCritchfield S T Butera andTM Folks ldquoInhibition ofHIVactivation in latently infected cells by flavonoid compoundsrdquoAIDS Research and Human Retroviruses vol 12 no 1 pp 39ndash46 1996

[139] T Kamiya ldquoBiological functions and health benefits of aminoacidsrdquo Food Fermentation Journal Japan vol 206 pp 33ndash442002

[140] G Fouche G M Cragg P Pillay N Kolesnikova V J Maharajand J Senabe ldquoIn vitro anticancer screening of South Africanplantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 455ndash461 2008

[141] W M Arika Y A Abdirahman M M Mawia et al ldquoHypo-glycemic effect of Lippia javanica in alloxan induced diabeticmicerdquo Journal of Diabetes Metabolism vol 6 article 624 2015

[142] J Govere D N Durrheim N du Toit R H Hunt andM Coet-zee ldquoLocal plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis inMpumalanga Province South Africardquo Central African Journalof Medicine vol 46 no 8 pp 213ndash216 2000

[143] A Samie T Tambani E Harshfield E Green J NRamalivhana and P O Bessong ldquoAntifungal activities ofselected venda medicinal plants against candida albicansCandida krusei and cryptococcus neoformans isolated fromSouth African AIDS patientsrdquo African Journal of Biotechnologyvol 9 no 20 pp 2965ndash2976 2010

[144] E A Prozesky J J M Meyer and A I Louw ldquoIn vitroantiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of ethnobotanicallyselected South African plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 3 pp 239ndash245 2001

[145] M O Omolo D Okinyo I O Ndiege W Lwande and A Has-sanali ldquoFumigant toxicity of the essential oils of some Africanplants against Anopheles gambiae sensu strictordquo Phytomedicinevol 12 no 3 pp 241ndash246 2005

[146] L J McGaw A K Jager and J van Staden ldquoAntibacterialanthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in SouthAfricanmedic-inal plantsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 72 no 1-2 pp247ndash263 2000

[147] C A T Katsvanga and S Chigwiza ldquoEffectiveness of naturalherbs fever tea (Lippia javanica) andmexicanmarigold (Tagetesminuta) as substitutes to synthetic pesticides in controllingaphid species (Brevicoryne brassica) on cabbage (Brassica capi-tata)rdquo Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems vol 4 no 3 pp101ndash106 2004

[148] P W Mashela H A Shimelis D de Waele M N MokgalongF N Mudau and L G Ngobeni ldquoFever tea (Lippia javanica)as a root-knot nematode suppressant in tomato productionrdquoAfrican Plant Protection vol 16 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2010

[149] L Chikukura B M Mvumi R Chikonzo and C ChenzaraldquoEvaluation of selected indigenous pesticidal plant powdersagainst stored maize and cowpeas insect pestsrdquo in Proceedingsof the African Crop Science Conference vol 10 pp 191ndash194 2011

[150] S Muzemu B M Mvumi S P M Nyirenda et al ldquoPesticidaleffects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids andtomato red spider mitesrdquo in Proceedings of the African CropScience Conference Proceedings vol 10 pp 169ndash171 2012

[151] D W Nyamai W Arika P E Ogola E N M Njagi and MP Ngugi ldquoMedicinally important phytochemicals an untappedresearch evenuerdquo Research and Reviews Journal of Pharmacog-nosy and Phytochemistry vol 4 no 1 pp 35ndash49 2016

[152] C S Yang J M Landau M-T Huang and H L NewmarkldquoInhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary polyphenolic com-poundsrdquo Annual Review of Nutrition vol 21 pp 381ndash406 2001

[153] A Salminen M Lehtonen T Suuronen K Kaarniranta and JHuuskonen ldquoTerpenoids natural inhibitors of NF-120581B signalingwith anti-inflammatory and anticancer potentialrdquo Cellular andMolecular Life Sciences vol 65 no 19 pp 2979ndash2999 2008

[154] E J Mavundza R Maharaj J C Chukwujekwu J F Finnieand J Van Staden ldquoScreening for adulticidal activity againstAnopheles arabiensis in ten plants used as mosquito repellentin South AfricardquoMalaria Journal vol 13 article 173 2014

[155] S Chanda and R Dave ldquoIn vitro models for antioxidant activ-ity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxi-dant properties an overviewrdquo African Journal of MicrobiologyResearch vol 3 no 13 pp 981ndash996 2009

[156] K Knobloch A Pauli B Iberl H Weigand and N WeisldquoAntibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oil compo-nentsrdquo Journal of Essential Oil Research vol 1 no 3 pp 119ndash1281989

[157] J B Hinou C E Harvala and E B Hinou ldquoAntimicrobialactivity screening of 32 common constituents of essential oilsrdquoPharmazie vol 44 no 4 pp 302ndash303 1989

[158] J Kim M R Marshall and C-I Wei ldquoAntibacterial activ-ity of some essential oil components against five foodbornepathogensrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 43no 11 pp 2839ndash2845 1995

[159] S Pattnaik V R Subramanyam M Bapaji and C R KoleldquoAntibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituentsof essential oilsrdquoMicrobios vol 89 no 358 pp 39ndash46 1997

[160] S Gibbons ldquoAnti-staphylococcal plant natural productsrdquoNatu-ral Product Reports vol 21 no 2 pp 263ndash277 2004

[161] N D Martini D R P Katerere and J N Eloff ldquoBiologicalactivity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum ery-throphyllum (Combretaceae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 93 no 2-3 pp 207ndash212 2004

[162] A Basile S Giordano J A Lopez-Saez and R C CobianchildquoAntibacterial activity of pure flavonoids isolated frommossesrdquoPhytochemistry vol 52 no 8 pp 1479ndash1482 1999

[163] C S A Lima E L C de Amorim K R de Sena et alldquoAntimicrobial activity of a mixture of two isomeric phenyl-propanoid glycosides from Arrabidaea harleyi A H Gentry(Bignoniaceae)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencesvol 39 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2003

[164] K Ono H Nakane M Fukushima J C Chermann andF Barre-Sinoussi ldquoDifferential inhibitory effects of variousflavonoids on the activities of reverse transcriptase and cellularDNA and RNApolymerasesrdquo European Journal of Biochemistryvol 190 no 3 pp 469ndash476 1990

[165] A J Vlietinck T de Bruyne S Apers and L A PietersldquoPlant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) infectionrdquo Planta Medica vol64 no 2 pp 97ndash109 1998

[166] M Martinez-Velazquez R Rosario-Cruz G Castillo-HerreraJ M Flores-Fernandez A H Alvarez and E Lugo-CervantesldquoAcaricidal effect of essential oils from Lippia graveolens (Lami-ales Verbenaceae) Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiales Lami-aceae) and Allium sativum (Liliales Liliaceae) against Rhipi-cephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Journal ofMedical Entomology vol 48 no 4 pp 822ndash827 2011

[167] B-E van Wyk F van Heerden and B van OudtshoornPoisonous Plants of South Africa Briza Publications PretoriaSouth Africa 2009

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

OphthalmologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Diabetes ResearchJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Research and TreatmentAIDS

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 34: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

[168] T Heikel B C Knight C Rimington H D Ritchie andE J Williams ldquoStudies on biliary excretion in the rabbit 1the effect of icterogenin and rehmannic acid on bile flowand the excretion of bilirubin phylloerythrin coproporphyrinalkaline phosphatise and bromosulfaleinrdquo Proceedings of theRoyay Society of London Series B Biological Sciences vol 153no 950 pp 47ndash79 1960

[169] D AMpofu UMarume VMlambo and A Hugo ldquoThe effectsof Lippia javanica dietary inclusion on growth performancecarcass characteristics and fatty acid profiles of broiler chick-ensrdquo Animal Nutrition vol 2 no 3 pp 160ndash167 2016

[170] V L Williams K Balkwill and E T F Witkowski ldquoA lexiconof plants traded in the Witwatersrand umuthi shops SouthAfricardquo Bothalia vol 31 no 1 pp 71ndash98 2001

[171] D Raimondo L von Staden W Foden et al Red List of SouthAfrican Plants Strelitzia 25 SouthAfricanNational BiodiversityInstitute Pretoria South Africa 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

OphthalmologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Diabetes ResearchJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Research and TreatmentAIDS

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Page 35: Review Article Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent ... e potential of L. javanica as herbal or recreational tea and herbal

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

OphthalmologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Diabetes ResearchJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Research and TreatmentAIDS

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom


Enhanced therapeutic efficacy of LHRHa-targeted brucea javanica

Pemurinian Damar Shorea javanica dengan Menggunakan pelarut

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Citrus limon (L.) Burm.f.) TERHADAP SIFAT FISIKOKIMIA DAN

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Pengendalian Nematoda Puru Akar (Meloidogyne Javanica) Dengan Trichoderma Harzianum

Herbal Extracts · 2014-10-08 · Herbal Extract (also called herbal substance, herbal preparation): A Herbal Material that is processed by drying, crushing, distilling, extracting,

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GENERAL REVIEW ON HERBAL COSMETICS (1).pdf · The herbal cosmetics manufactured and used commonly for daily purpose include herbal face wash, herbal conditioner, herbal soap, herbal

Clinacanthus Nutans Hexane Extracts Induce Apoptosis ...journal.waocp.org/article_45981_7875f3a8ee9f4fad1da86153ae8d2f70.pdf · Clinacanthus nutans (C. nutans) (Burm.f.) Lindau, also

136. Strombosia javanica

Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f) Wall. ex Ness: A Potent ...cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/38658/InTech-Andrographis_paniculata_burm_f... · Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f) Wall. ex Ness:

Identification of Meloidogyne incognita, M. javanica and M

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Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity of parts of Rhus javanica · 2019. 8. 2. · Abstract Rhus javanica L. is Anacardiaceae plant distributed in East Asia. We evaluated the

Transfer of Manis crassicaudata, M. pentadactyla, M. javanica · A. Proposal Transfer of Manis crassicaudata, M. pentadactyla, M. javanica from Appendix II to Appendix I. ... it has

DORMANSI PADA BIJI KEDAWUNG (Parkia javanica (Lam.) Merr

PENGARUH EKSTRAK METANOL Hyrocotyle javanica Thumb

Ixora javanica Drymaria diandra - Kasetsart University€¦ · Antibacterial activities of the extracts from Ixora javanica (Linn)DC. and Drymaria diandra Blume. Mr.Phuttipong Phangrerk

STUDI POTENSI EKSTRAK BRUCEA JAVANICA SEBAGAI …

Perilaku trenggiling (manis javanica

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Resistance of Meloidogyne javanica in ... - nematoda.org · Resistance of Meloidogyne javanica in soybean genotypes Juliana Souza da Silva Bruinsma a * and Zaida Inês Antoniolli

Herbal Health With Herbal Product

Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f . : Aspects pharmacologiques et cliniques...Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f . : Aspects pharmacologiques et cliniques Jury Président : Mr Yves-François POUCHUS, Professeur

OCCURRENCE AND PATHOGENICITY OF Meloidogyne javanica

Shriji Herbal Products, Mumbai, Herbal Tablets

Herbal medicines, herbal healthcare products

The Gall Midge Orseolia javanica, a Candidate BioControl ...€¦ · The Gall Midge Orseolia javanica, a Candidate BioControl Agent of Cogongrass (Imperata cylindrica)James P. Cuda1,

ReviewArticle Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng ... · Traditional and Commercial Uses and Phytochemical and Pharmacological Significance in the African and Indian Subcontinent AlfredMaroyi

Interaksi Herbal , Dengan Herbal, Obat Dan

PEMURNIAN DAMAR MATA KUCING (Shorea Javanica METODE

(Manis javanica) National Conservation Strategy …...Sunda Pangolin (Manis javanica) National Conservation Strategy and Action Plan Scaling up pangolin conservation in Singapore A

Reprodução de Meloidogyne javanica em olerícolas e em ... · Tropical Plant Pathology 38 (2) March - April 2013 135 Reprodução de Meloidogyne javanica em olerícolas e em plantas

Javanica Edisi 1 (April-Mei 2014)