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Review of literature 2015
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REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Survey and disease occurrence
Survey report
Lakshmi, 1964 reported that survey of seed borne fungal infection of C.
Lindemuthianum on Dolichus lablab. The fungal infection on seed ranged
between 15.20 to 81.00 % and it is also affected to the seed weight. Varma and
Upadhyay (1973) reported seed weight loss due to infection of fungi i.e. 22.4 to
61.7 %. Zate et al. (1976) also observed seed borne fungal diseases.
Sanathkumar, (1999) reported that in Bangalore districts survey and found that the
chilli varieties Gauribidanur, Byadagi and pant C-2 showed anthracnose diseases
infection.
Leah et al. (1999) Served bacterial and fungal seed-borne disease on
potato. Israel imported potato seeds from Northern Europe and plantings in spring
season. Most of the seed defected by the Erwinia carotovora, Streptomyces
scabies, Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium spp. survey conducted during 1998 and
most of the pathogen reported first time. Soft rot diseases detected at 7 %
maximum level and 65 % at maximum level. 95.4 % lot shows dieses-free but
37.3 % shows low diseases. Survey shows that most of the pathogen was soil
borne. Dimitros et al. (2006) Served root-rot of sugar beet during the summer and
autumn in 2004 at Larissa, Thessaly region in central Greece. Total 76 field of
beet were studied and 5-10 diseased roots were observed in each field. PDA
method was used for isolation and Rhizoctonia solani and Phytopthora cryptogea
were isolated. Rhizopus stolonifer, Fusarium spp., Scerotium rolfsii and
Rhizoctonia violacea also isolated from field. Braithwaite et al. (2006) served that
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sub-tropical nursery of plant. Survey conducted during 2003 and 2004 Sample
analyzed in laboratory as well as in field and fungi identified different charters.
Survey showed that range of fungal pathogen identified from plant. These fungi
were shown effect on biodiversity well as economy of New Zealand.
Karadimos and Karaoglanidis (2006) conducted survey during the summer
and autumn of 2004 of sugar beet fields in the field of Larissa, Thessaly region,
with plants showing symptoms of root rot diseases. He found the causal agents of
root rot diseases. In total, 76 sugar beet fields were studied and 5—10 diseased
roots were identified from each field. Fungus species isolations by PDA showed
that two main fungal pathogens causing root rot were Phytophthora cryptogea and
Rhizoctonia solani. Isolated were isolated in 46 % of the fields and the latter in 38
% of the fields. 10 out of 76 sampled fields more than 2 fungi related to root rot
diseases were isolated successfully. In addition, Rhizopus stolonifer, Fusarium
spp., Scerotium rolfsii and Rhizoctonia violacea were isolated in 14 %, 7 %, 4 %
and 1 % of the fields. In large surveyed fields only one fungus was isolated and
only in a few of them more than one fungus identified.
Soares et al. (2008) served bio-control agent of Ipomoea carnea from
Brazil during research period. Ipomoea carnea also called morning glory which is
originated from tropical America. It is very toxic for cattle but ornamental in
Brazil. It is exotic for Brazil and becoming an aggressive wetland ecosystem. But
very few workers works on it in Brazil on mycobiota Coleosporium ipomoeae and
Puccinia putai only fungi observed on the plant in Brazil as attacking fungi.
Result shows twenty-one fungal pathogens were isolated and identified especially
from Ipomoea carnea fungi was the best potential for bio-controlling agent for
Ipomoea carnea. Soaclres et al. (2008) Served bio-control agent of Ipomoea
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carnea from Brazil during research period Ipomoea carnea also called as morning
glory which is originated from tropical America. It is very toxic for cattle but it is
ornamental in Brazil. It is exotic for Brazil and becoming an aggressive wetland
ecosystem. But very few workers work on it in Brazil on mycobiota
Coleosporium ipomeae and puccinia puta only fungi observed on the plant in
Brazil as attacking fungi. Result shows that 21 fungal pathogen were isolated and
identified specially from Ipomoea carnea. Fungi were the best potential for bio-
controlling for Ipomoea carnea. Watve et al. (2009) surveyed that leaf spot
infection on Jatropha causal organism C. gloeosporiods. Survey takes place during
2005 on the Jatropha plantation at Biodiversity cum Genomic Valley Park of Dr.
Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Agricultural University, Dapoli.
Maria et al. (2011) reported that crop survey of field in Manitoba on root
diseases from 33 different localities. Report also shows foliar diseases survey at
45 location. They assessed anthracnose, rust and white mould severity and
infection on plant tissue. They collected pod (infected sample) for fungal isolation
and confirm that the disease symptoms. EL-Mougy et al. (2011) served fungal
diseases affecting vegetables cultivating in Egypt. ARE repotted that root and
shoot fungal diseases at two different growth stage of the plant. Cucumber,
pepper, tomato, associated with fungal pathogen especially flowering period.
Damping–off, root rot, white rot, wilt, downy and powdery mildew, anthracnose,
and early and late blight were occurred on vegetables. Pytheium spp., Fusarium
spp., Rhizoctonia solani, Macrophomina spp., Sclerotinia spp., Sclerotium rolfsii,
Alternaria spp., Aspergillus spp., Penicilliumspp., and Trichoderma spp., was
isolated from rhizosperic soil. Biological controlling agent and green pesticides
will be available in future as a commercial product. Mishra et al. (2012) served
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some fungal diseases on egg plant due to creeper rate and maximum availability
of egg plant important crop in India. Several fungi affecting to age plant during
cultivation and also reduce the yield and quality of fruits.
Manjunath et al. (2012) surveyed intensive roving during kharif (2010) and
(2011) for 2 years and observed severity of foliar infection of diseases in southern
Karnataka. They found that diseases ranged 23.26 % to 47.54 % and highest in
infection noted in Mysore district (55.42 % and 26.68 %). Minimum infection
recorded in Ramnagar district 25.69 % and 9.92 % respectively. Massoud et al.
(2013) served and reported that is species from genera from fruit and vegetables
by using PDA medium. Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus
ochraceus were isolated and second most importent fungi isolated viz.
Acremonium, Alternaria, Fusarium and penicillium. They also studied cellulose
production by CMC agar plate method for better known ability of fungi. El-
Mohamady et al. (2014) have been served of root and foliar fungal diseases and
he observed that some root rots foliar and other diseases can become severe very
fast and use strict sanitation procedures for germinating seed and growing
transplants to diagnose all problems promptly. Diseases, insect, nutritional, and
growth problems also include and remove all diseased leaves, fruits, or entire
plants to avoid disease frequency. Same procedures was recommended for all
growing vegetables and crops to decrees the risk of introducing pathogens,
minimize disease severity and to lessen dependency on labeled fungicides.
Biological control agents including pesticides that will may be commercially
available all over market in the future.
Konaiah and Sreeramalu (2014) have been survey on cropping systems in
Cuddapah District of varied regions mandals in different seasons based on
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symptoms and pathogen nature. He found that Morphology of isolate was studied
in order to identify the taxonomy of the identified fungus. Commercial and
vegetable crops observed significantly high severity of the diseases with low yield
in the mandals. Main emphasis of writer is on studies of preliminary Survey of
fungal crops in the cuddapah district of AP (India). El-Mohonady et al. (2014)
served that foliar fungal diseases of tomato in Egypt and ARE studied either root
or shoot systems fungal diseases of plant. Root-rot, Damping off, wilt, blight were
observed during survey. Rhizospheric and flowering growth stage infected sample
were collected from same location. Pythium spp., Fusarium spp., Rhizoctonia
solani Trichodema harzianum, Trichodema viride, Trichodema hamatam,
Aspergillus spp. Penicillium spp. which was associated with root. Fusarium spp.
associated with root. Fusarium spp. occurred maximum compare them
Rhizoctonia and Sclerotium respectively. Hare et al. (2014) reported that fungal
diseases of Cuddapah distinct of Andhra Pradesh. Study evaluated that cropping
system and various regions. Fungi identified by symptoms and pathogen nature
during survey. During survey farmers gives information about fungal diseases and
commercial vegetables crops observed significant disease severity. Survey
resulted that Cuddapah distinct suffered from major disease problem in crops and
farmers take precautions and necessary action for controlling the fungal disease.
Occurrence
Soybean anthracnose or pod blight was first reported by Hepperly et al.
(1983) in China. Lambert et al. (1969) reported fungal disease in first time on
Soybean seed imported from Taiwan in India. Fungi occur in all area where
Soybean grown and it was reported by Pantnagar Nene et al. (1972), Verma and
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Upadhyay (1973) and Agrawal and Gupta (1989) found fungal diseases first time
in Madhya Pradesh (MP).
Isolation of the fungal pathogen
Wan Zainun Nik (1980) isolated fungal pathogen associated with seed of
14 cultivars comprising 16 samples of Soybean and 27 species. Frequently
isolated fungi i. e. Botryodiplodia theobromae, Colletotrichum dematium,
Diaporthe phaseolorum, Choanephora cucurbitarum, Fusarium equiseti, F.
fusarioides, F. moniliforme, F. semitectum, Macrophomina phaseolina,
Myrothecium roridum, and Phoma sorghina. Isolated included other species is
Aspergillus, Chaetomium, Cladosporium, Curvularia, Nigrospora, Odulisporium,
Penicillium, Rhizopus, Trichoderma, Zygosporium etc.Treated Seeds were with
fungicides is a higher germination in vitro compared to the control. Benomyl
eliminated most of the pathogenic fungi association of Soybean. Lim (1980)
reported brown spot severity and yield reduction in Soybean which is caused by
Septoria glycines. By inoculating Soybean plant at different growth stages of
brown spot epidemics. Rg-Rs shows higher infection rates in both cultivars when
at late growth stages. Williams was higher diseased compare to wells in 1978.
Brown spots seventy similar in plots of wells and Williams at corresponding
growth stages. Pataky et al. (1980) reported that controlling brown spot of
Soybean. The effect of benomly applied at different (3) reproductive stages on
Septoria brown spot. During 2 year studies apparent brown spot infection
lowered in plots of inoculated following benomyl sprays at R1, R2, R6 Soybean
stages. During early and mid-reproductive stager may increase yield when brown
spot severe but potential yield was high.
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Vesper et al. (1983) found that Verticillium wilt in Soybean Verticillium
nigrescens isolated from flower and pods of Soybean. Eight difference were
selected for isolation at severe stage at disease development 0.36 % incidence in
pod range was highest in 3.5 week after initial pod set and gradually decline
maturity when cotton occur grown repeatedly the fungus incidence was highest.
Fungi isolated from soil where moisture percents was maximum Verticillium
nigrescens isolated specially from the pedicel flower but rarely occurred from
other parts of flower. Verticillium nigrescens not affect to discoloration or wilt on
Soybean but it discard number of pod on infracted plants. Verticillium nigrescens
also differed to Weight of pods. Benomyl application reduces infection near about
50.90 %. Trapero-Lasas et al. (1985) reported that fungal wilt and root rot of
chickpea. Survey were shown observations severely affected by wilt and root rot
of Soybean. Wilt and yellowing were the most prevalent. Fusarium oxysporum, F.
solani, etc associate with the wilt and reddish pigmented and cortical collar rot
Fusarium solani, Fusarium oxysporum introduce non-vascular yellowing and
black collar rot on Soybean. Most severely affected chickpea and cultivar were
not pathogenic to cultivar JG-62 was very susceptible to with. Cubeta et al. (1985)
studied that fungi association and interaction with Bacillus Subtilis on Soybean.
Both species isolated from Soybean was tested antagonistic 26 species of fungi
associated with Soybean which is isolated by PDA and antagonism were checked
out suspension of Bacillus Subtilis was use on Soybean seed and reduce infection
causes by Phomopsis spp. further suspension sprayed on Soybean plant and result
observed significantly reduce Phomopsis infection on pod.
Mintor et al. (1985) observed Fusarium wilt or Soybean associated with
nematode and root rot in corn in this research intercropping of Soybean and corn
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were studied with nematode and disease problem of irrigation field nematode
control by ethylene Di- bromide, phenamiphos and aldicarb were equally effective
and increasing yield. The residual effect showed on yield of nematicides for 3
year of Soybean and 1 year of for corn. Fusarium wilt shower less sever in all
nematicides field them control field. In this study strongly indicated that Fusarium
wilt expression of Soybean influenced by nematodes will reduce severity of
disease. Anderson (1987) reported isolation fungi from stem and root of Soybean.
They isolated thirteen genera of fungi from stem and root of fungi from stem and
root Soybean i.e. Corynespora cassiicola, Fusarium oxysporum, Phytophtora
megasperma, Phthium spp., Rhizoctonia solani, Thielaviopsis basicola etc.
Erdman and Fordyce (1989) evaluated that and focus on especially nutritional
significance of soya product as a human consumption. In this reviewed study the
impact of consumption of soya product on range of about health issue revived and
discussed in this specially article with this protein quality, growth promoting
effect of protein from soya product. Also studied allergies in children,
hypocholesterolemic effects of protein and fiber, effects of soy products upon
glucose tolerance and the bioavailability of zinc and iron from Soybean product
also mention. Rizwi et al. (1995) served that 2 year duration to identify fungi
associated with Soybean seedling 52 and 66 location was selected for Survey and
fungi isolated from infected parts of Soybean. In 1993 and 1994 Rhizoctonia
solani 27.5 % and 27.3 % in 1994 as well as Fusarium spp. Phythium and
Phytopthora were observed in 1993 and 1994. Seed decay fungus also isolated
viz. Phomopsis, Stolonifer, Trichoderma, Fusarium, Phythium etc. were isolated
and identified by standard method pathogenicity test were applying for further
confirmation.
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Wrather et al. (1997) reported estimation of loss of Soybean by disease in
top 10 Soybean producing countries. 10 countries were selected for studies during
1994 major Soybean disease occur in these countries so far objective was to
documented and recent changes in the severity Soybean disease. Heterodera
glycine was causes major yield loss in 10 Soybean producing counties. Brown
spot and charcoal rot also severe disease for Soybean. 14.99 million Metric tons
yield loss during 1994 by disease which is $ 3.31 Billion loss. Plant, disease
diagnosis clinic sample, Varity trial data, information from workers, crop
consultant reports etc methods was used for disease estimation. Patkowska (2003)
studied that micro organism effect on phyllosphere parts of Soybean. In 1998-
2000 years study was conducted on Soybean. In this study leaves and pod of
Soybean were analyzed. 778 fungi were isolated from the infected parts of
Soybean. Within pathogen fungi viz. Fusarium spp. and Phomopsis spp.
frequently isolated during study. Acremonium, Cladosporium, Penicllium of
Trichoderma was isolated which is included in saprophytes. Number of micro
organism isolated from the healthy parts of Soybean.
Pimentel et al. (2006) observed that of identification and colonisation of
endophytic fungi from Soybean under different environmental condition. Fungi
were isolated and observation found that dematiaceous and nondematiaceous
genera. In this research work sample collected from two different conditions one
was field and second was greenhouse. Qualitative and quantitatively analyzed
forty different fungal species and number of isolates were decrees in greenhouse
condition and increases in field. Arshad et al. (2006) reported that. Stored Seed of
economical important crop sunflower, Soybean, chickpea, maize, nice etc. and
fungi isolated from above crops. Fungal genera were isolation viz. Alternaria
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alternata, Fusarium, Helminthosporium, Drechslera, Curularia, Cercospora,
Macrophomina and Cladosporium. Aspergillus flavus and Penicillium also
associated with storage condition of seeds. Benlate, Topsin-M, Anvil, etc.
fungicides were used against fungi. Ida Chapaval et al. (2006) reported that
endophytic fungi from Soybean under different environmental condition. 297
endophytic fungi were isolated from 1728 leaf and Stem collected from 20 and 40
days after germination of Soybean directly in the field and greenhouse condition.
Isolated pathogen belongs to eight group and six dematiaceous genera. Alternaria,
Cladosporium, Cruvularia and Drechslera etc. genera were studied along with
Soybean. Qualitative and quantitative differences in type and number of obtained
from field and greenhouse. Difference not found in the number of fungi isolates
from leaves and stems. Number of isolates decreased as the plants aged maximum
fungi were found in tissues near the soil.
Medic-pap et al. (2007) work out in assessment of seed of python-pathogen
on Soybean originated from Vojvodina province and 75 % seed lot from both
years 2001-2002. Seed inhibiting fungi were isolated on morphological and
cultural characteristic in considerable amount of seed but it is not infected with
phyto-pathogenic fungi. Phomapsis/Diaporthe genera of fungi Fusarium was the
most isolated pathogenic fungi in 2001 and 2002 from different species found in
both year. Facultative parasites fungal genera of Alternaria, aspergillus
Penicilliumetc was occurred in much more in Soybean half seed lot. Abida et al.
(2008) found that ICARDA Syria and NARC Pakistan i.e. chickpea were
evaluated under green house condition temperature adjusted from 8-240C and
humidity maintain above 80 % during 2006. Source of genetic resistance against
collar rot incited by sclerotium rolfsii and isolated sclerotium rolfsii from the
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chickpea crop directly from field with this maintain pure culture on PDA.
Genotype near about 25 type displayed moderately tolerate and resistant response
and other genotype highly susceptible to disease collar rot. Resistance source can
further exploited in breeding for development to resistance for disease of
commercial cultivars. Broders et al. (2009) found that new fungal species from
Soybean new Pythium special isolated from Soybean. Pythium delawarii is
germinated by zoospores and pathogenic on Soybean causing disease damping-off
especially on seedling.
Li. x. et al. (2009) found that grouping of fungal disease in use
quantitatively describe 34 Soybean fungal diseases in the United States 10
ecological character of pathogen were used and these characteristics includes
optimum temperature for disease development. Observation significantly pattern
were identified for same characteristic i.e. Pathogen dispersal, Soybean rust,
downy mildew, leaf spot similarly co-efficient. Cluster analysis identified two
major clusters with high significant level (P > 0.95) During 1996 to 2005 loss the
Soybean yield in US and geographical distribution range of Soybean rust include
most US Soybean production. Yield loss in US Minimum in north but moderate
in the south in US. Egberongbe et al. (2010) reported that seed grown in sterilized
and unsterilized soil. Trichoderma harzianum were inoculums in green house
compare their proximate analyses Soybean gives higher percentage of Crude Fiber
(3.66 %), carbohydrates (50.00 %) ash (4.53 %) in sterilized soil. Soybean gives
higher percentage crud protein (30.11 %), oil (12.93 %) etc in sterilized. Khodke
et al. (2010) found that the root rot and collar root or Soybean. It is important
disease occur specially in Vidarbha and Marthwada region of Maharashtra.
Fungicides apply on seed and soil and bio-agent and its combination effectively
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for increasing seed germination. Soybean seed germination achieved by applying
temperature (Thiram + Carbendazim + Trichoderma @ 3+1+4 g/kg) lower yield
obtained by control i.e. 15.70 q ha-1 while highest i.e. 22.50 q ha-1 in T7.
Ikechi–Nwogu et al. (2012) found that evolution of growth media for
cultivation of fungus. Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger Penicillium
chrysogenum, Aspergillus terrus, Aspergillus glaucus , Fusarium oxysporum were
isolated by standard bolter method from food material potato dextrose, Soybean
dextrose, groundnut dextrose, broth were used for fungal isolation and screening
the suitability for fungal cultivation. Fungi were isolated after 7 days incubation
period at 27 ± 1 0C. Soybean dextrose broth significantly higher than groundnut
dextrose broth but both broths contain different vital component (vitamin and
minerals) for fungal growth. Kakde et al. (2012) reviewed and concluded about oil
seed mycoflora origanised and present in various sections as like groundnut;
safflower, sunflower and Soybean are most of the major seed-oil yielding crop in
India as well as Maharashtra cultivated in kharif and rabbi seasons. In different
storage condition are not properly arrange and microbes as like viruses, bacteria,
fungi etc attacks on this and decreasing quality and longitivity of seed. Fungal
pathogen infected oil seed and various abnormalities occurring due to infection
such as discoloration, damage, shrunken seed, undersized, rotted seed, and
germination ability of seed reducing.
Diniz et al. (2013) isolated fungi from emergence field or Soybean. During
this study seed health quality was evaluating and seedling emergence or field.
Different Soybean curvier were selected, seed harvested of different periods,
Soybean were harvested at different growth condition as like is days, 30 days and
result were observed Significantly increase of fungi infection at is to 30 days.
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Phomapsis, Fusarium and Epicoccum increases after reproductive stage of
Soybean seedling emerge in the field was negatively affected at 30 days after
reproductive stage. Fabio et al. (2013) reported that pathogen and field emergency
of Soybean to harvested delay. Study aimed that evaluation of seed quality of
eight cultivars of Soybean subjected to different harvest period. R8, R8 +15 day,
and R8 + 30 days harvested stages seeds were collected and observed health test
and seedling emergency in field. After R8 stages fungi increases highly after 15
and 30 days especially Fusarium spp. phomopsis spp. and Epicoccum spp.
Reproductive stage R8 harvested seed after 30 days seeding emergency was
reduced. In relation to fungi Soybean cultivar had different performance, cultivars
affect by fungi very less but highest seedling emergency percentage. Belewu et al.
(2013) reported that effect of Aspergillus niger and Penicillium chrysogenum on
Jatropha curcas kernel cake. West Africa dwarf sheep were used to evaluate the
fungal blend effect Aspergillus niger and Penicillium chrysogenumi. Three
treatments with Soybean cake were gives. Dry matter was used for sheep fed.
Crude protein, crude fiber was significantly improvement was shown.
Sharma et al. (2013) reported that foliar blight of Soybean was major
fungal disease. Rhizoctonia solani was the disease causing organism isolate from
the aerial part of Soybean in Tarai regions of Uttara Khand. Near about 6
Rhizoctoina solani species were isolated and characterized on the basis at cultural
and physiology as like colony diameter, growth color etc. PDA was used for
isolation of and isolated fungi were grown on different five broth medium for
fresh and phytotoxic effect were check by using culture filtrates. Rhizoctonia
anamorph referred. Ramesh et al. (2013) found that Soybean mycoflora
associated with seed from different region of Karnataka. MARS Raichur sample
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showed discoloration was observed as fallow (30.0 %) Shrivelled seed 2.0 %,
broken seed 2.0 % and healthy seed shows very low percent (47.0 %). By using
Agar plate method 11 fungi were isolated Successfully Macrophomina
Phaseolina, Fusarium oxysporum, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Phoma
spp. and sclerotinia sclerotiorum were isolated from Soybean seeds frequently.
Fusarium solani F. moniliformae, Rhizophus spp., Botrytis cinerea and
Cercospora kikuchi isolated but less frequently. MARS Raichur recorded
maximum mu mycoflora, (50.0-52 %) sample collected from market and
minimum from field (15-5-27.5 %). Maetrese et al. (2013) reported that isolation
of fungal pathogen and aflatoxin detection by ELISA methods from soy milk
fungi was isolated from five randomly collected commercial soy milk and
frequently isolation fungi viz. Aspergillus and Fusarium, Aspergillus flavus
produce aflatoxin at high level toxic producers. In agriculture industry aflatoxin
contamination in milk is very serious problem and economic loss but comfortable
only few studies have made about aflatoxin contamination in this research to
examine identification of aflatoxin on milk sample by using ELISA technique 0.7
ppb aflatoxin amount showed highest range in milk sample. 0.5 ppb was excess
level in food and drug administration in table. In aflatoxin contamination result
must have to be verified and analyzed in case of milk produce isolated fungi and
its molecular identification match with databases search and improved software
tools for better understanding of biosynthesis of aflatoxin.
Sharma et al. (2014) reviewed that status Trichoderma research in India.
Trichoderma known as world wild for bio-controlling of other fungal microbial
community and widely exploited in industry as a source of enzyme. In India
researcher is working on various aspects Trichoderma Viride diversity ecology the
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application. 110 groups of different university working on 15 different
Trichoderma spp. and published near about 460 research paper. Trichoderma
Viride and Trichoderma harzianum used 87 different crops and 70 soils borne and
18 foliar diseases. Trichoderma species know to produce different type of enzyme
which plays an important role in antagonistic activity against pathogen quality
formulation of Trichoderma and field success are the major issues which need to
be further explored intensively. Oluwagbenga et al. (2014) fungi isolations from
the Dioscorea rotundata (YAM) and sample collected from the market.
Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Mucor recemosa, Botryodiplodia
thoehromae and macrophomina phaseolina isolated from sample. Most prevalent
fungi Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus flavus isolated. Captan, Dithane Mus,
Difloatan and Benlate fungicides were used against the isolated fungi as
controlling agent. Captan and Dithane was highly effective on all isolated fungi.
Potentialities of fungicides were occurred on post harvest fungi of Dioscorea
rotundata.
Pathogenicity of fungal pathogen
Mandeep and Munshi (2003) proved pathogenicity by different cultural
media on disease development and reported PDA produce highly mycelial growth
of fungi compare to Czapek-Dox-Agar. Rathaiah and Sharma (2004) reported
pathogenicity of fungi of anthracnose on mungbean by using PDA method.
Begum et al. (2008) isolated fungi and proved pathogenicity and its effect on
Soybean seed quality by using standard artificial inoculation. Report shows that C.
truncatum enable to produce latent infection without showing any visible
symptom. They also found that pathogenicity of fungi on Soybean more virulent
under greenhouse condition than that of field.
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Zabalgogeozcoa et al. (2008) studied pathogenicity of endophytic fungi to
Ornithodoros erraticus and Ornithodoros moubata. They examine pathogenicity
of endomorpathogenic fungi and resulted effective against argasid ticks. Xue
Allen et al. (2010) reported that pathogenicity of Pythium causing damping-off of
Soybean. They selected two Soybean cultivars and twenty four Pythium species
for pathogenicity and prove it. Al-sadi et al. (2012) reported pathogenicity of
fungi associated with root disease. Fungi isolated from date palm root. Study
showed that twenty one fungal species were pathogenic. Hossain et al. (2015)
found that pathogenicity of Fusarium spp. associated with rice in South Africa.
pathogenicity check of the three different fungal species isolated from rice plant
F. anthophilum F. fujikuroi were able to showing bakanae symptoms of rice and
prove pathogenicity.
Enzyme activity
Carcia-Garrido et al. (2000) found that hydrolytic enzyme ability of my
mycorrhizal fungi. Soybean root associated with Arbuskular Mycorrhizal (AM)
and plant root colonize with AM was observed. Glomus mosseae was the AM
species colonize with the Soybean root and hydrolytic enzyme activity shows in
association of root. Fungal mycelia colonized with Soybean root and shows
hydrolytic activity. AM fungi was affecting root and influence plant growth. Heck
et al. (2002) reported that Soybean residue used for the production of celluase and
xylanase production. In Brazil Soybean produce very large amount and Soybean
residual were used as enzyme production material. Five strains among 87 isolated
bacteria were selected for cellulose and xylanase production. Bacillus subtilis
identified and obtained for the maximum specific cellulose activity. Proteases
association was affected to the loss of cellulas and xylanase production. Micro
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organisms and cultivation process have great potential showed by results.
Sukumaran et al. (2005) reported that application and challenges of microbial
cellulase production in various industries. Utilization of biomass for fuel
production and cellulase was obtaining better yield. In future genetic engineering
will provide support to cellluase production to the enzyme. This review shows that
the current knowledge about cellulase production and industrial application as
well as improving the process of economy of enzyme. Metabolite engineering of
enzyme incase the specific activities, process tolerance and stability medium the
enzyme activity shows maximum 40 0C and pH 6.0.
Sae-Lee Nisa (2007) found that production of cellulase and xylanase by
palm kernel meal. Aspergillus wentti, A. niger, A. oryzae, Trichoderma reesei,
Penicillium spp. were used for the enzyme activity. Palm kernel meal (PKM)
substrate was used for the enzyme production. Specific activity shown by A.
wentii but during fermentation of PKM, cellulase and xylanase enzyme activity
observed high. PKM was suitable for production of mannanase than cellulase and
xylanase at high content of mannan as inducer. Kutateladze et al. (2009) reported
pectinase produces fungi applying and screening. Active fungal species were
selected from the culture thermophilic, alkali acidopilic and halophilic.
Aspergillus, Penicillium, Mucor, Trichoderma, Rhizopus, sporotrichum etc genera
were selected as an active enzyme producer. Aspergillus and Penicillium was the
dominant pectinase producer genera. Physiological and biochemical studies and
investigations were selected strain. Penicillium canescens shows highest pectinase
activity at 27 0C and pH 4.0 but Aspergillus niger optimization nutrient Ramos et
al. (2010) studied that pectolytic enzyme isolated from Colletotrichum truncatum
by Soybean. Colletotrichum truncatum is the common fungi causing anthracnose
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in Soybean and it was isolated from infected part of Soybean from different
location. Polymethyl galacturonase (PGM) activities were detected by using
medium. PGM peak activity shows the day maximum growth. Banu et al. (2010)
studied production and characterization of pectinase isolated from the Penicillium
chrysogenum. Fungi was isolated from the municipal waste soil and grown on
pectin containing medium (YPSS). Penicillium chrysogenum produce enzyme at
pH 6.5, temperature 35 0C by using sources, ammonium sources and nitrogen
sources. Penicillium chrysogenum was produce highest enzyme at pH 6.5 and
temperature 50 0C.
Gautam et al. (2011) reported that optimization for the production of
cellulase by fungi. Study evaluated that reduce the cost of cellulase production
and using alternative carbon source. Aspergillus niger and Trichoderma sp. was
the novel cellulase produced fungi. MSW, peptone, and yeast extract was the best
ingredient for the enzyme production. Aspergillus niger and Trichoderma sp was
give advantages for enzyme production because rate of these both fungi is higher
than other fungi. Microbial engineering technique biochemical and genetic
employing will be required to make useful for cellulase production by the fungi.
Brindha et al. (2011) reported that tomato spoilage casing fungi and these fungi
showing cellulase enzyme activity. Various fungal diseases reduce quality of
tomato but this fungus is a good source of hydrolytic enzyme. Different fungi
isolated from the spoiled tomato. Aspergillus spp. produce highest amylase
enzyme at 72 hrs of incubation period. Cellulase produce maximum at 72 hrs by
Trichoderma spp. and these enzymes have industrial application. Akhter et al.
(2011) studied that pectinase produced by the culture of Aspergillus niger. Seven
fungal strain were used for the solid state fermentation IM-6 strain of Aspergillus
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niger was effective for pectinase production. After 7 days incubation at 40 0C
temperature maximum activity in 1.42.44. Nitrogen source ((NH4)2SO4) were used
for enzyme production 1.69 %. Peptone also useful but peptone was not cost
effective. Wheat bran and potato starch use as a substrate medium. Result showed
that 9.68 % pectin was found and pectinase production was optimum in 98.43.
IM-6 strain of Aspergillus niger shows outstanding pectinase producer during 40
0C for 7 days incubation period.
Gilna et al. (2011) reported that cellulase activity by Aspergillus fumigutes
from mangroves soil. Aspergillus fumigutes isolated by the swa dust as a substrate.
pH, temperature, nitrogen source was the optimized for callulase enzyme
production. CMCase assay were used with culture filtrate for enzyme activity.
Physical factor and supplementation of nutrient factor optimize the cellulase
production. Iftikhar et al. (2011) studied that Penicillium chrysogenum used for
the biosynthesis Lipase in culture condition. Production of lipase was the main
aim of this investigation and Penicillium chrysogenum used for the lipase activity.
Lipase activity obtained at 28 0C after 72 hrs with 1 ml inoculums level but
Almond, Soybean, Sunflowers were used for the lipase production. Nitrogen and
carbon Sources were used for maximum enzyme production. 67.77 ± 0 155 U/ml
shows maximum production but yeast extract were optimized as the best addition.
Chancharoonpong et al. (2012) reported that enzyme production by Aspergillus
oryzae on Soybean koji. Aspergillus oryzae is the koji mould provides large
amount of enzyme. Study aimed that application for acceleration fish sauce
fermentation because Soybean koji contain 60 % was used substrate. PDA method
was used and mycelium of Aspergillus oryzae detect under SEM. Aspergillus
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oryzae observed and SEM were formed after 48 hrs and highest activity of
enzyme also observed at this stage.
Sri Lakshmi et al. (2012) reported that cellulase production by fungi
isolated from forest soil. Four fungi were isolated which is belongs to the genus
Aspergillus and Penicillium. These fungi were tested for cellulase production by
degrading cellulose. Fungi isolated three Aspergillus spp. was observed maximum
zone of hydrolysis. FPA (Filter Paper assay) were used for the cellulase enzyme
activity. Fungal culture filtrates also determine soluble Sugar and extracellular
protein. Nayebyyazdi et al. (2012) reported that cellulase activity of some soil
borne fungi. Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) medium were used as source for
enzyme production. Trichoderma reesei shows highest enzyme activity in CMC
media but Rhizoctonia solani showed lowest enzyme activity. Jurick et al. (2012)
studied application of the 2- cynoacetamide method for cellulase enzyme activity.
Cellulase is the major component present on our planet. Bio-fuel produced by the
cellulose degradation for global carbon cycle. Cellulase assay method was
developed in this study. Cellulose use as the substrate and detect the fungal
enzyme activity. Hussaina et al. (2012) studied celluloytic enzyme activity which
isolated by soft rot filamentous fungi. Paecilomyces variotii was the fungal
species isolated and used for cellulase production. Cellulose is a small subunit of
sugar and it hydrolyzed by hydrolytic enzyme produced by the fungi. Study
showed that callulase activity of soft rot wood degrading by Paecilomyces
variotiii (103-7 stain) CMC, cellulose, glucose, and sucrose medium used with the
czapeak dox brought and nitrogen sources were used at different temperature and
pH and incubation period. Culture filtrates of fungi were used for enzyme assay.
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Singh Kirti (2013) reported that lipase enzyme from endophytic. Lipase
production depends on carbon sources and Soybean oil. Leptosphaerulina spp.
shows negative effect by glucose. Leptosphaerulina spp. studied for the industrial
production of lipase. Lipid biotechnology documented that lipase in fungi on
vegetable oil. Alkalophilic and thermophilic lipase have few reports on mold
fungi. Leptosphaerulina spp. exploited for commercial use of lipase and use for
the making a washing powder. Sharada et al. (2013) reviewed that cellulase
enzyme production which hydrolyzed cellulosic biomass which is produced by the
microorganism. cellulase isolates from the agro west and solid state fermentation.
Cellulase produced by the fungi for degeneration of cellulose. This enzyme using
in industries is a major group industrial enzyme. Present review shows that
cellulase production by bacteria and fungi. Many researchers conducted for
enzyme activity using substrate like pumpkin oil cake, orange waste, sugarcane
biogases, rice bran etc. Hoa et al. (2013) reported that cellulase and pectinase
enzyme production by Aspergillus oryzae. Surface methodology using for enzyme
isolated and application of enzyme is a broad industrial level. Cellulase and
pectinase examined by Aspergillus oryzae under solid state fermentation. Soybean
residue was good nutrients for Aspergillus oryzae for Cellulase and pectinase
production. pH, temperature and incubation period of optimum condition for
Aspergillus oryzae produce Cellulase and pectinase activity. Enzyme activity
increased significantly as compared than traditionally one-at-a-time optimization.
Present research resulted that Soybean residue is a cheap substrate for production
of cellulase and pectinase.
Coffman et al. (2013) reported that carbohydrates production by
Trichoderma ressei isolated from soy-based medium. Trichoderma ressei shows
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higher cellulase enzyme activity. Enzymatic activities produce large proportion
that may reduce the value and usefulness of the soy-based medium. Sivakumaran
et al. (2014) reported that celluloytic enzyme activity of fungi. They studied
21differant fungal pathogen isolated from saw dust, sprinking soil and decaying
wood which cultured on medium. Celluloytic enzyme activity was take place by
filter paper assay and DNS reagent technique. Result showed that highest activity
was 42.61 FPU/ML observed by Helminthosporium. Considerably enzyme
activity was found in Trichoderma spp. and Asppergillus spp. EL-Said et al.
(2014) reported that phytopathogenic fungi production of cellulase. 50 infected
sample of broad bean were collected and 45 fungal species isolated from 23
genera. Alternaria, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Fusarium etc 45 genera were
commonly occurred on broad bean. C1 and Cx enzyme activity moderate on 2 and
3 species of fungi but remaining species were low activity. Alternaria citri and
Cochliobolus spicifer was recorded maximum cellulase production for C1.
Alternaria alternata and Alternaria citri shows highest enzyme activity for Cx
enzyme at 8 days incubation period and 30 0C temperature with pH 6 in medium
of carboxymethel cellulose and sodium nitrate.
Lekh et al. (2014) reported that cellulase production and characterization
by soil microbes. Totally degradation takes place of cellulose component by
applying fungi which is secreting hydrolytic enzyme and produce ethanol as well
as organic acids. Cellulase contributes 50 % cost of hydrolysis due to low specific
enzyme activity. Enzyme potentially use in industries as like food beverages,
textiles, laundry, paper production etc. Cellulase produced by microorganism and
obtaining of this cellulase is the main aim of the much more researchers.
Mohamadi et al. (2014) reported that pectinase enzyme activity of Trichoderma
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ressei. Pectinase enzyme produced for the industrial application for enzyme
compound advantages. Study was shown that direct mutation in the genome of
fungi Trichoderma ressei and increased the enzyme activity. 21 mutants were
isolated and enzyme activity studied with Trichoderma ressei. Three replicate
were randomly experimented. SPSS software was used for the statically analysis.
T. r M. 13 and T. r M. 15 shows highly active for enzyme production and near
about 50 % isolates mutant by gamma- rays.
Bajaj et al. (2014) reported agriculture residue for cellulase production
from Sporotrichum thermophile. They produce Eco-friendly bio-ethanol by
celluase using Saccharification of lignocellulosic biomass. Fungi isolated
(Sporotrichum thermophile) successfully from agriculture residue in this research.
Highest production of enzyme takes place by cotton cake. Temperature near about
80-90 0C shows highest enzyme activity compare than optimum temperature (60-
70 0C) pH 3.6 was recorded for stability of cellulase activity. Cellulase have
potential for lignocellulosic biomass transformation. Gupata et al. (2015) reported
that callulase production by fungi and its application. Research highlights the
production of cellulase enzyme and utilization of enzyme as refining agent for
security paper. 23 fungal species were isolated from soil collected from the near
wood based paper mill. Cellulase producing fungi were optimizing the production
in respect to pH, temperature and incubation period. Research resulted that near
about 26 % energy conservation potential during refining and strength property of
the paper.
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Toxin production
Yeh et al. (1980) reported that effect of fungi on seed germination.
Chaetomiun cupreum was isolated from Soybean of three locations in 1979 zone
of inhibition developed between Chaetomiun cupreum, Fusarium spp.
Experimental fungi were isolated by using water agar mixed culture method.
Culture filtrate was mixed with water agar and medium autoclaved. Alternaria
spp. Shows delay in Soybean seed. Nahed et al. (2008) studied that pathogenic
fugal culture filtrate on seed germination and seedling growth. Healthy seed of
Soybean were socked in culture filtrate in 25, 50, 75 and 100 % concentration of
4, 8, and 12 day old culture filtrate of Aspergillus niger, Fusarium oxysporum,
Penicillium spp., and Rhizoctonia solani. Result found that culture filtrate age
significantly reduction in seed germination. Aspergillus niger, Fusarium
culmorium, Penicilliumspp., and Rhizoctonia solani lost ability to phytotoxicity by
sterilization.
Girish et al. (2009) reported that culture filtrate of Phomopsis azadirachtae
which is infecting neem plant. Phytotoxicity of culture filtrate were check because
these fungal species almost loss 100 % of neem fruit. Crude phytotoxin (CP) was
used with methanol and chloroform extract. TCL shows four phytotoxic
compounds were exposure to UV 500 and 1000 ppm of extract in hr bit seed
germination. Phomopsis azadirachtae culture filtrate have toxic compound.
Jalander et al. (2011) reported that C.F of Fusariurm oxysporum on seed and
seedling growth of pegeonpea. Infected sample were collected from different
varities of Cajanus cajan and culture filtrate use against seed germination shoot
and root length. Results noted that varity BDN -708 increased seed germination
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90 % and root length 2-31 cm as well as shoot 1.85 cm compare than other
varieties.
Shirurkar et al. (2012) found that Effect of aflatoxin on seedling and seed
germination. Screenings was isolated and confirm fungal species Aspergillus
flavus for aflatoxin production. Maize variety was used for the observing crude
aflatoxin effect. Treatment was gives to maize of 5 hrs and grown in pot.
Germination, root, shoot length and chlorophyll content were observed effect
compare with control. Germination was highly inhibited by aflatoxin because
Maize seeds were sensitive. Total chlorophyll contains and seedling length
inhibits aflatoxin. Jalander et al. (2012) studied that effect of fungal culture filtrate
on seed germination. Cajanus cajan were used for the isolation of fungi viz.
Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus nidulans. Isolated fungal
culture filtrate investigated against seed germination and seedling growth.
Aspergilllus species secrete secondary metabolites inhibit seed germination, root
and shoot length of some cereals and pulses. But Aspergilllus niger shows effect
than Aspergilllus flavus and Aspergilllus nidulans. Chatage et al. (2013) studied
that phytotoxic activity of fungi. Culture filtrate was assayed for phytotoxic
activity and fungi grown on Richard’s medium Culture filtrate affected cereals,
pulses, of and vegetables by toxin and shows inhibitory effect. Bipolaris
tetramera shows 10 % on sorghum and 90 % toxic effect on sunflower.
Xiong Yiwen et al. (2013) reported that toxin production by culture filtrate
of Fusarium virguliforme causing sudden death syndrome of Soybean. Soybean
dextrose broth (SDB) observes better than potato dextrose broth (PDB). Because
fungi were grown on 6, 10 and 14 day compare than PDB (18 and 22 days). Soy
milk medium was very effective for growth and reproduction of nine Soybean
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fugal pathogen. Rao et al. (2014) found that culture filtrate’s effect on seed
germination and seeding growth of Jawar. Culture filtrates were used viz.
Penicillium nordicum, Penicillium chrysogenum, Penicillium verrucosum,
Penicillium commune, Penicillium citrinum and Penicillium digitatum. This was
more significant for inhibition of the seed germination. This Penicillium species
pathogenicity was also inhibiting varying seedling growth by using water agar
method. Theses fungal culture use as toxicant and effect shows inhibition in
radical 10-87 % and leaf growth 20.86 %. HPLC and TLC screened mycotoxin
viz. ochratoxin, cyclopiazonic acid, rubratoxin citrinin, patulin, penitrern etc.
Result also shows non-toxicant species of Penicillium observed significant effect
on growth of seeds.
Sharam et al. (2014) found that culture filtrate of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
used on seed germination and seedling on Indian mustard. Twenty-five isolates
were isolated from collected sample of Brassica grown in nine state of India.
Richard’s liquid medium was used for isolation. Result shows that compare to the
control, culture filtrate of all fungi inhibit seed germination and length of radical.
Strain SR. 15 and SR 03 were significantly reducing seed germination. SR 19
shows higher seed germination. Garuba et al. (2014) found that culture filtrate
effect on seed germination and leaf anatomy of maize. Seven days old fungal
culture of filtrate of Aspergillus niger and Penicillium chrysogenum were used for
the experiment. Before planting seed were socked in culture filtrate for 12 hrs.
Blotter paper method was used for the germination. Aspergillus niger and
Penicillium chrysogenum culture filtrate shows 65.33 % and 79.67 % leaf area
showed difference compare than controlled condition.
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Bio-efficacy
Jose et al. (2007) reviewed that active antifungal substance from natural
sources. Now a day fungi increased the capacity to resistance against the
antifungal compound. It must be control with the medicinal plant extract therapy.
Article studied that natural source as antimycotic agent. Abdelhamid et al. (2008)
reported that the Soybean associated weed affected by weed management and also
shows effect on growth, nodulation and yield. Research conducted in Egypt
during 2006-2007. Percentage reduction in dry matter non-weed treatment was
98.3 %, 92.64 % and 96.9 % respectively. Result showed that three herbicides
were higher than recommended markedly decreased number but application of dry
nodules as well as root significantly increased. Mukherjee et al. (2011) reported
that plant extract use against the mycelial growth of Colletotrichum
gloeosporides, botanicals were used viz. tobacco leaf, keora seed, gaint Indian
milky, garlic and ginger at different concentration growth was inhibited but
increases with concentration of botanicals. 74.35 % was observed highest mycelia
growth in 70 % garlic extracts. But 50 % and 60 % concentration shows better
effect than treatment.
Kakde et al. (2011) studied that storage fungi and its effect on changes in
oil seeds as well as bio-efficacy. Qualitative and quantitative storage mycoflora
were studied and biochemical changes observed during suitable condition. They
observe nutritional changes as like reducing sugar, crude fat, and crude fiber by
infestation of fungi. Reducing sugar and fat content inhibited by storage fungi
which are Alternaria diaonthicola, Curvularia lunata, Fusarium oxysporum,
Fusarium equiseti Macrophomina phaseolina and Rhizopus stolonifer storage
fungi increasing fiber content by fungi. Curularia lunata, Macrophomina
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phaseolina, Fusarium oxysporum, Rhizopus stolonifer and Penicllium digitatum,
Eucalyptus angophoroides found antifungal activity against storage fungi.
Ramjagath et al. (2011) reported that onion leaf blight controlled by botanical and
bio-control agents. Alternaria alternata causing leaf blight on onion and its
control by the plant extract and plant oil. 22.22 % disease intensity controlled by
using 3 % concentration of neem oil. Acorus calamus rhizome extract 10 % inhibit
disease intensity near about 34.78 %. Rajput et al. (2011) found that effect of
neem product on seedling of shisham, neem oil, neem seed decoction; leaf extract
etc. products were used for the growth of seedling of shisham. 5 % and 15 %
concentration were used and spray; direct mixing etc methods were employed on
seedling. Neem leaf extract was showed 19.000 and 27.667 cm compare then
central which were 0.332 and 0.7669 respectively. Significantly inhibit on by
neem product in growth of shishamn seedling. Result indicated that neem product
was potential for management of shisham dieback.
AL-Ani et al. (2012) studied that Rhizobium japonicum use as biological
controlling agent of root rot disease of Soybean. Soli borne pathogen Fusarium
solani and Macrophomina phaseolina was reduced by using Rhizobium
japonicum. Culture filtrates were used for inhibition or fungal growth on PDA
medium and compare with control. Controlling agent culture suspension was
adding in the soil which was pre-infected by Fusarium and Macrophomina in pot
and inhibits root rot disease. Result showed that Rhizobia would be very
important element in root rot disease management. Jagtap et al. (2012) reported
that Colletotrichum trunctum causing anthracnose or pod blight Soybean. Nine
aqueous leaf extract and four species of Tichoderma were used against the
Colletotrichum trunctum and found significant inhibition on fungal pathogen.
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Tichoderma viride recorded 18.33 mm coaly diameter inhibition, garlic recorded
highest growth inhibition 81.82 % tulsi 65.17 % and onion 60.31 % respectively.
Result also recorded maximum inhibit on of disease intensity 40.73 % pod
infection 75.73 %. Gurjar et al. (2012) reported that plant extract use in disease
management. Chemical fungicides create more sever ecological problem.
Recently world gives attention towards the exploitation of plant products as a
chemo-therapeutants, for dieses control in plants. Now a day’s some Pyrethroids
and neem product available in market as commercial product. Some of the
aromatic compound and volatile oils shows significant reduction in fungal growth
plant product use in agricultural as organic food production which is very valuable
in market and good for human consumption.
El-Samawaty et al. (2013) reported that Fusarium spp. causing seeding and
damping-off cotton controlled by the plant extract. There were four plat used as a
controlling agent viz. cinnamon (Cinnamoum Zeylanicum), clove (Syzygium
aromaticum), garlic (Allium sativum) and ginger (Zingiber officinale) against 10
selected Fusarium spp. causing cotton diseases. Soil infestation technique were
used for confirmation of Fusarium spp. pathogenicity result indicated that same
isolates were found to be virulent on inoculated cultivar but other were virulent on
one of the tested cultivars. All applying plant extracts shows inhibition on
Fusarium growth and efficacy of all plant extract was increased. 20 %
concentration of garlic were used and inhibition shows 80 % against Fusarium
spp. 94 % inhibition shows by 4 % concentration of clove but both clove and
garlic were effective on the controlling Fusarium growth in vitro. Pal et al. (2013)
reported that enhancing Soybean seed germination by using plant extracts and
Trichoderma harzianum. Research was resulted that potential of garlic and
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turmeric extract at 0.25 %, 0.05 % and Trichoderma harzianum enhancing seed
germination of Soybean. Where 82.0 % ranged germination shows by control
where 98 % enhanced seed germination by plant extracts. Turmeric enhances 93
% germination Trichoderma harzianum + kaolin also enhancement germination
not only in Soybean but also various crops. Lakshmeesha et al. (2013) studied
antifungal activity of medicinal plants on seed borne pathogen Macrophomina
phaseolina of Soybean. JS-335 verities were infected by Fusarium spp,
Macrophomina spp, pythium spp., Aspergillus spp. etc was on important pathogen
causing different type of diseases more than 500 hosts. Damping-off of Soybean
was causing 50 % yield loss. Result showed that botanical extract screened
totaling 10 samples but Datura metel methanol extract was very effective against
Macrophomina phaseolina. Secondary metabolites were the soluble in methanol
extract. Hence menthol extract of Datura metel was showed good result compare
than chloroform extract.
Yalba et al. (2013) reported that biological control of charcoal root rot
disease of Soybean. Soybean root and seedling disease causing agent
Macrophomina phaseolina Tichoderma harzianum use as potential bio-control
agent were evaluated against Soybean disease. Researchers showed that high
capability of antagonists reduce for next season of this disease. AL–Rahmah et al.
(2013) reported that methanolic extract of plants were used against fungi isolated
by tomato. Lantana camara, Salvadora persica, Zingiber officinale etc. five
methanolic plant extract were used against Fusarium oxysporum, Pythium spp.
and Rhizoctonia solani, causing agent of damping-off. Lantana camara were not
very effective against fungi except P. aphanidermatum. 8 ppm was effective plant
extract to attain the same effect. Potentially effective and environmentally safer to
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control damping-off. Belkar et al. (2013) reported that root rot and collar rot of
Soybean control by antagonistic micro organism. Bio-agent show inhibition of
collar rot and root rot on seed treatment. Pseudomonas fluorescens +
Bradyrhizobium japonicum + P. striata shows combined affect i.e. 8.86 %, 13.33
% and 20.00 % respectively. Day Utpal et al. (2013) studied that effect of
botanicals, bio-agent and indigenous teleology knowledge (ITK’S). Puccinia
sorghi was evaluated under in vitro condition. Botanical Neemazol F 5 % shows
significantly inhibition in spare germination (6.55 %) but Nimbicidine shows 6.85
%.
Rathod et al. (2013) studied that control of seed borne disease on Soybean;
seed borne fungal pathogen isolation method used which is recommended by
ISTA. Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, A. fumigatus, Alternaria tenuis, Fusarium
oxysporum, Penicillium notatum etc. fungal pathogen isolated from Varity; Durga
of Soybean. Effects of different fungicided were examined as well as effect of
seed germination also evaluated. Devi et al. (2013) studied that antifungal
propertied of plant against brown leaf spot of rice. Drechslera oryzae was the
causal organism of brown leaf spot of rice which was control by using aqueous
extract of local medicinal plant. Different concentrations were used such as 5 %,
10 %, 15 % and 20 % against mycelial growth of fungi in vitro. Result indicated
that plant extract shows inhibition such as Acorus calamus 20 % concentration on
shows 80 % reduction which was higher disease controlling agent. Kadam et al.
(2014) reported that reaction of turmeric cultivars of leaf blight caused by
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. Hexaconazole, propiconazole, mancozeb etc.
were used for inhibition of sporulation of fungi in vitro. There for twenty cultivars
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were screened for the disease reaction but local varieties shows better effect such
as sudarshana, suguna, suranjana to the leaf blight.
Taware et al. (2014) reported that bio-efficacy of botanicals against
Alternaria carthami agent of safflower diseases. Eleven plants extract were
evaluated against Alternaria carthami at 10 %, 15 % and 20 % concentration.
Alternaria racemosus showed inhibition 19.26 and 62.47 noted A. sativam and D.
metal shows 49.87 % and C. longa 46.91 % but all tested botanicals were found
antifungal activity. Omorusi et al. (2014) reported that inhibitory effect of leaf
extract against root pathogen Chromolaena odorata (stain weeds) Ocimum
gratissimum (shrubby basil) Cymbopagon giganteus (lemon grass) were selected
for extraction and antifungal activity evaluated on fungi viz. Fusarium
moniloforme, Rigidoporus lignosus and Trichoderma. Stain weed shows inhibition
on growth of Fusarium maximum and slightly control in Aspergillus as well as
Trichoderma. Abo-Elyousr et al. (2014) studied that effect of compst on Soybean
root rot with treatment of Trichoderma harzianum. Plant compost and animal
compost with Trichoderma were used for controlling Soybean root rot.
Trichoderma No. 1 was the most effective with 50 % of compost. Individually use
of compost with Trichoderma was shoed inhibit on of Rhizoctonia root rot of
Soybean.
Jagtap et al. (2014) reported that anthracnose pod blight of Soybean
controlled by leaf extract. Study conducted during 2009-2010 and couched
infected sample and isolated Colletotrichum trunctum. Nine leaves extract and
four Tichoderma were found effect and four Tichoderma spp. were found
effective against. Result shows that significant inhibition in leaf extract garlic
shows inhibition 81.82 % Tulsi 65.17 % onion 60.31 % shows great effecting to
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fungal species. Enyikwa et al. (2014) reviewed that efficacy of plant-derived
pesticides for control post harvest rot fungi. Postharvest disease causing fungi is
the main damaging agent which is losing agricultural product. Agricultural
economy loss by fungi near about 40 % it was also affected to the developed
nation. Rots and tubers were affected by the fungi as well as bacteria. Fungi
especially affected to the rots and tubers viz. Aspergillus, Fusarium
Colletotrichum, Macrophomina, Penicillium, Rhizopus etc. Physical, biological
and chemical techniques were used for disease controlling but recently plant based
pesticides also use for disease controlling. Biological method is better than
chemical controlling method because chemical residue remain in the crop which is
very harmful to mammals as well as human being. Recently same plant shows
anti-fungal effect of many tropical plants. In this review they highlights to the
different bio-control technique and bio-efficacy of plants to controlling fungi.
Antagonistic Activity
Elad et al. (1980) isolate of Trichoderma harzianum able of control
mycelia of the wheat bran preparation of T. harzianum enlarged growth of bean
Sclerotium rolfsii and Rhizoctonia solani was isolated from a soil naturally plants
in a non-infested soil and it prohibited S. rolfsii more capably than infected with
those pathogens. In culture, T. harzianum grew improved than conidial suspension
of the same antagonist. An un-inoculated wheat bran rolfsii and invaded its
mycelium below development situation unfavorable to the preparation improved
infection frequency. In naturally diseased soils, wheat pathogen; e. g, high
pentachloronitrobenzene concentrations, elevated pH bran preparations of T
harzianum inoculums considerably decreases levels. In greenhouse environment,
incorporation of diseases caused by S. rolfsii or R. solani in three field
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experiments with the wheat-bran inoculums preparation of T harzianum in
pathogen-infested beans, cotton, or tomatoes, and they considerably improved the
yield of soil significantly reduced bean diseases caused by S. rolfsii, R. solani, or
beans. Both, but its bio-control ability was inversely associated with heat. Begum
et al. (2008) reported that antagonistic activity of selected fungi and bacteria
against Colletotrichum trunctum potentially antagonistic activity were studied
against the Colletotrichum trunctum which was isolated from Soybean.
Colletotrichum trunctum strongly inhibit the growth by using antagonistic such as
Trichoderma viride and T. harzianum hence artificially induced the T. virens and
T. harziamun no inhibitory effete was observed on seed as well as seedling. But
both antagonistic species were enhancing the seed germination. Sharma et al.
(2010) mycelial development rate, colony character and sporulation outline of ten
fungal isolates, developed on three dissimilar culture media viz., Potato Dextrose
Agar (PDA), Czapek’s Dox + Yeast Extract Agar and Lignocellulose Agar
(LCA) were experiential later than seven days of incubation at 25±1°C. The
colony diameter, culture character such as texture, surface and reverse coloration,
zonation and sporulation of selected test fungi were really influenced by the kind
of growth medium used. LCA exhibited moderately privileged mycelial
development in six test fungi, while all the ten isolates exposed important
sporulation on this culture medium. Penicillium sp. and Acremonium kiliense
exhibited maximum colony growth on PDA, even as Chaetomium funicola and
Fusarium oxysporum showed maximum growth on CYA medium.
M. Seema et al. (2012) The effectiveness of four fungal and one bacterial
bio-agents viz, Trichoderma viride, Trichoderma harzianum, Aspergillus niger,
Penicillium spp. and Bacillus subtilis were evaluated in vitro state adjacent to the
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tobacco sore shin pathogen, Rhizoctonia solani. In the double culture examine, the
proportion inhibition of growth by T. viride, T. harzianum, , A. niger, B. subtilis
and Penicillium spp. on R. solani were 70%, 67%, 57%, 50% and 44%. Everyone
the antagonists concealed the configuration of Sclerotia. The unstable metabolite
studies revealed that T. viride and T. harzianum showed 50% and 40% inhibition
in mycelial growth respectively. This resulted in the decrease of the mycelial
development of the R. solani. Gajera et al. (2012) In vitro potentialities of seven
species of Trichoderma were evaluated aligned with phytopathogen
Macrophomina phaseolina by double culture method. The highest development
inhibition of test pathogen was observed by antagonist T. koningi (74.3%)
followed by T. harzianum (61.4%) at 7 days after inoculation. Expansion
inhibition of test fungus was sustained with maximum 14.7% increases in T4
(85.2%) followed by 6.8% increase in T1 (65.6%) antagonists during 7 to 14.
Microscopic examination showed that these two antagonists were capable of
overgrowing and degrading M. phaseolina mycelia, coiling around the hyphae
with apressoria and hook-like structures. The exact behavior of cell wall
degrading enzymes- chitinase, β-1, 3 glucanase, protease and cellulase were tested
during different incubation period. The antagonist T. koningi MTCC 796 induced
higher chitinase and protease action at 24 h incubation while β-1, 3 glucanase
actions was elevated 1.18 fold during 72 to 96 h. Total phenol was formed
considerably higher in culture supernatant of T. koningi MTCC 796 antagonist
followed by T. hamatum NBAII Tha and T. harzianum NBAII Th at 48 h
incubation. Development prohibit of pathogen during antagonism was absolutely
associated with coiling pattern of antagonists at 14, and induction of chitinase, β-
1, 3 glucanase and total phenol content. Choudhary et al. (2012) the original
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potential of bio-agents and their antagonistic potential against phytopathogen viz:
Fusarium oxysporum causing wilt of lentil, a disease common in Bihar. In this
investigate work nineteen isolates of Trichoderma were isolated and these were
attributed to three species viz. Trichoderma harzianum, Trichoderma viride and
Trichoderma koningii. Efficacy of these bio-antagonists was investigated in in
vitro surroundings by employing double culture method and liquor culture filtrate
analyze. The outcome of in vitro dual culture testing revealed that among the
different isolates of Trichoderma isolate-5 and 7 of Th, 2 and 18 of Tv and isolate
9 of Tk were found to be more efficient amongst all, as they showed better
antagonism against the tested phytopathogen. The isolate Th-5 caused highest
inhibition (82.8%) followed by Th-7 (82.3% ), Tv. Metabolites extracted from
liquor culture filtrates also depicted approximately the same trend of advantage as
mentioned in double culture i.e. the similar isolates additional proved its better
potentiality when compare with rest, Th-5 with superior bio-antagonistic potential.
Patil et al. (2012) efficient in vitro screening tests of three Trichoderma
species for antagonism against Pythium species isolated from Lycopersicon
esculentum (Mill root rot infection) mutually with its diffusible and unstable
metabolites production ability, which in turn mycoparasitic abilities. This informs
its assortment as the most capable candidate for the bio-control of isolated
Pythium pathogens. Action with the antagonist in inconsistent culture method
resulted in a notable decrease in conditions of percent inhibition of pathogens.
Trichoderma species by using diffusible and volatile metabolites against test
pathogen, unstable metabolites gives the majority satisfactory and important
results as compared to the diffusible metabolites, which can be further exploited
can bio-control tool for seed disease. Shrikrushna et al. (2014) reported that
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antagonistic activity against Rhizoctonia bataticola. Soybean plant pathogen was
isolated which is Rhizoctonia bataticola controlled by using antagonistic and
increase crop protection. Totally 48 actinobacterial were isolates by spread plate
method from saline belt of distinct double culture method was used for checking
antagonistic activity. Among 48 isolate only 11 species of an actinobacterial
shows antagonistic activity. Totally 8 isolates shows more effective activity
against Rhizoctonia bataticola. Salahuddin et al. (2014) in vitro potential of two
isolates of T. harzianum (T1, T2) were evaluated against seven soil borne
pathogenic fungi isolates (Acremonium spp. , Alternaria spp. , Aspergillus spp.,
Penecillium spp. , Pythium spp. , Rhizoctonia spp. and Verticillium spp.) in double
culture method and during production of unstable inhibitors at two incubation
periods (5 and 7 days)and non-volatile inhibitors together at four incubation
periods (3, 6, 9 and 12 days) and dissimilar concentrations (25, 50, 75 and 100%)
were investigated to assess their effects on mycelia. T2 isolate showed maximum
inhibitory outcome of mycelial development of pathogens (45.99%). Maximum
result noticed in Alternaria-T2 interaction (51.18%). Result of unstable
metabolites at 7 day seems to be additional efficient on mycelial growth of all
pathogens than the 5 day periods. Variability surrounded by the collection periods
of T2 cultural filtrates and the fungal pathogens was evident. Usually
concentration (100%) of T2 isolate had maximum growth decrease in all
pathogens.
Gautam et al. (2014) Trichoderma comprises of a number of fungal strains
that act as biological agent. Genus Trichoderma is efficient as bio-control agent
against fungal and bacterial pathogen. Trichoderma viride and Trichoderma
harzianum grows quickly in culture and simply isolated. In present research a
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variety of agro-waste substrates medium were used to verify growth of
Trichoderma spp. All these substrates medium, highest increase of T. viride was
originate on sugarcane bagasse and T. harzianum exhibited highest growth on
wheat medium. T. viride control 75 % mycelial growth of Fusarium moniliforme
and 45 % of Fusarium sacchari. T. harzianum control 70% growth of Fusarium
moniliforme and 55% of Fusarium sacchari. Leelavathi et al. (2014) studied
undertaken in order to evaluate the antimicrobial action of T. harzianum by well
dispersal method and MIC determination. They create or free diversity of
compounds that induce localized or universal responses which explains its lack of
pathogenicity to plants. The culture broth extract of T. harzianum in SDA media
was investigated for antimicrobial action. Study undertaken in vitro conditions T.
harzianum showed antimicrobial on the majority of the test organisms, both
bacteria and fungi. The smallest inhibitory concentration of T. harzianum on
fungal isolates ranges from 100 150 µl/ml and for bacterial isolates ranges from
50 100 µl/ml of media. A. niger and A. clavatus between fungal isolates and
Proteus among bacteria was resistant to antimicrobial action of T. harzianum
extract. The outcome of the study point out that T. harzianum is a source of eco-
friendly bio-control agent against the pathogenic microbes. Fatima et al. (2015)
oomycete, Phytophthora infesting is considered one of the majority significant
pathogens of potatoes and tomatoes universal. Total of 38 Phytophthora infesting
isolates were obtained from leaves, tubers and stems of diseases crops of potato
and tomato in dissimilar regions of the North West of Algeria in 2010, 2011 and
2012. Trichoderma species are among significant antagonists of plant pathogenic
fungi. The key reason of this study was to assess the bio-control potential of
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native Trichoderma harzianum. Antagonistic actions as well as competition and
colonization against Phytophthora infesting with an inhibition rate of 86%.
Soybean research workers works on the different aspects of Soybean crop
worldwide. Related to the fungal disease earlier research workers was reported
different diseases causing fungal pathogen showing in following table no. 1
Table no. 1. Fungal diseases of Soybean
Sr.No.
Fungal Pathogen OccurOn
Name OfDiseases
Reported By
1 Alternaria spp. Leaf Alternaria leafspot
Hesseltine C. W et al(1977)
2 Colletotrichum truncatum Pod Pod blight Wong, C.F.J. et al(1983)
3 Colletotrichum dematium F.truncatumGlomerella glycinesColletotrichum destructivum
Leaf andpod
Anthracnose Backman, P. A. et al(1982)Hartman, G. L. et al(1986)
4 Arkoola nigra Leaf Black leaf blight Walker, J. et al (1986)
5 Thielaviopsis basicolaChalara elegans Root
Black root rot Lee, M., et al (1977)Mondal A. H et al(2004)
6 Septoria glycinesMycosphaerella usoenskajae
Leaf Brown spot Young, L. D. et al(1978)Pataky J. K. et al(1981)
7 Phialophora gregata= Cephalosporium gregatum
Stem Brown stem rot Anne E. DorranceDennis R. Mills (2008)
8 Macrophomina phaseolina Root Charcoal rot Ma, J., Hill, (2010)
9 ChoanephorainfundibuliferaChoanephora trispora
Leaf Choanephoraleaf blight
C. W. Hesseltine(1961)
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10 Rhizoctonia solaniThanatephorus cucumerisPythium aphanidermatumPythium debaryanumPythium irregularePythium myriotylumPythium ultimum
Root rot Damping-off Bradle, Carl A.(2002)Nelson, B. (1996)Grau, C. R. (1979)
11 Peronospora manshurica Foliarpart
Downy mildew Lim S. M. et al (1984)
12 Drechslera glycines Podblight
Drechslerablight
Dunleavy J. M. (1966)
13 Cercospora sojina Leaf Frogeye leafspot
Mian, R et al (2009)
14 Fusarium spp. Root Fusarium rootrot
Maria Mercedes DiazArias et al (1012)Martinelli, J.A et al(2004)
15 Mycoleptodiscus terrestris Root Mycoleptodiscusroot rot
Deborah A. Samac et al(2009)
16 Neocosmospora vasinfectaAcremonium spp.
Stem Neocosmosporastem rot
Dunleavy J. M. (1966)
17 Phomopsis spp. Seed Phomopsis seeddecay
Li, S., et al (2010)S. S. Aye et al (2009)
18 Phytophthora sojae Stem Phytophthoraroot and stemrot
Takuma Sugimoto et al(2012)Jutaosun et al (2014)
19 Phyllosticta sojaecola Leaf Phyllosticta leafspot
Dunleavy J. M. (1966)
20 Phymatotrichopsisomnivora,Phymatotrichum omnivorum
Root Phymatotrichmroot rot
Dunleavy J. M. (1966)
21 Diaporthe phaseolorumPhomopsis sojae
Pod andstem
Pod and stemblight
Xue, H. Q., et al (2006)
22 Microsphaera diffusa Leaf Powderymildew
Mignucci J. S. et al(1978)
23 Cercospora kikuchii Seed Purple seed stain Walters H. J. et al(1980) Pathan M. A. etal (1989)
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24 Pyrenochaeta glycines Leaf Pyrenochaetaleaf spot
Datnoff L. E et al(1987)
25 Pythium aphanidermatumPythium debaryanumPythium irregularePythium myriotylumPythium ultimum
Seedling Pythium rot Dunleavy J. M. (1966)
26 Cylindrocladium crotalariaeCalonectria crotalariae
Stem Red crown rot Overstreet, C. et al(1988)
27 Dactuliochaeta glycines= Pyrenochaeta glycinesDactuliophora glycines
Leaf Red leaf blotch= Dactuliophoraleaf spot
Dunleavy J. M. (1966)
28 Rhizoctonia solaniThanatephorus cucumeris
Leaf Rhizoctoniaaerial blight
-----
29 Rhizoctonia solani Rootstem rot
Rhizoctonia rootand stem rot
Fenille, R.C. et al(2003)
30 Phakopsora pachyrhizi Leaf Rust Twizeyimana, M., et al(2009)
31 Sclerotinia sclerotiorum Stem Sclerotinia stemrot
Mueller, D. S. et al(1999)
32 Sclerotium rolfsiiAthelia rolfsii
Stem Southern blight(damping-offand stem rot) =Sclerotiumblight
Dunleavy J. M. (1966)
33 Fusarium solaniF. glycines
Wilt Sudden deathsyndrome
Dunleavy J. M. (1966)
34 Corynespora cassiicola Leafspot
Target spot Avozani, A. (2014)
35 Cercospora kikuchii Leaf CercosporaLeaf Blight
Wan Zainun Nik.(1980).
36 Phakopsora pachrbizi Leaf Soybean rust Hartman G. L.
37 Verticillium nigrescens StemRot
Wilt Vesper S. J. (1983)