review of literature - shodhgangashodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/78907/9/09_chapter...
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Chapter 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Due to increased human and animal population the natural resources particularly
Soil and other Land resources are under tremendous pressure. Hence, present day
agriculture demands utilization of improved technology, scientific management and
conservation of existing soil and land resources. This requires comprehensive know l̂edge
of the genesis, morphological, physical and chemical properties, geographical distribution
and classification of the soils occurring in nature. Some of the important research work
carried out in India and abroad regarding characterization, classification and genesis of
red and black soils are presented here. The available information is reviewed under
different headings.
2.1 MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS V5 LANDFORM
Sharma and Roychowdhury (1988) while relating soil-landform relationship in a
basaltic terrain concluded that soils on higher topographic situations are shallow to
moderately deep. They are excessively to well drained, reddish brown to dark brown in
colour and medium textured with gravels and exhibit poor profile development. The soils
in the lower topographic situation is deep to very deep, moderate to poorly drained, very
dark greyish brown in colour, fine textured and exhibit good profile development.
Arun Prasad et al. (1989) during their study of profile development with
topography reported that soils on the hill top and mid slope was reddish brown to dark
reddish brown, while soils occurring in the lower slopes and depression were dark brown
to very dark greyish brown in colour. Texture of the soils of the upper slope was gravelly
loam. Mid slope and toe slope soils had extensive greying. Upland soils did not have any
redoximorphic feature indicating free drainage and deep ground water table.
Shyampura et al. (1994) while establishing soil-physiographic relationship on a
transect in Southern Rajasthan observed that soil on very steep slopes are shallow,
excessively drained and coarser in nature. Whereas the soils on gently sloping pediment
and undulating plains are deep, finer in texture and have better structural development.
Presence of clay cutans and fine clay to total clay ratio provided evidence of argillic
horizons in the soils on very gently sloping and nearly level plains. Sand/silt ratio
(>0.2mm) suggests lithological discontinuity between overlying Ap and underlying Bt
horizon.
Gupta and Tripati (1996) studied mineralogy, genesis and classification of soils of
northwest Himalayas developed on different parent materials and variable topography.
They observed that light mineral fi-action comprised highest of the total sand with quartz,
feldspar and muscovite and heavy fraction consisting 11.3 to 0.7 per cent with several
minerals. Plagioclase feldspar was highly weathered. Biotite, augite and hornblende were
also of weathered nature.
While characterizing the soils of different physiographic imits of coastal areas of
Balasore district of Orissa, Maji and Bandopadhyay (1996) reported that soils of inland
plains are lighter in texture, acidic in reaction and have lower salinity. The lower deltaic
soils are heavier in textiu^e, have higher cation exchange capacity, almost neutral pH and
are more saline. The soil properties in the coastal plains are intermediate between inland
plain and lower delta in respect of pH, salinity and cation exchange capacity.
Walia and Rao (1996) have studied the morphology and other characteristics of
six typical Pedon formed on sandstone, shale, granite and colluvium representing
different landforms of Banda district of Uttar Pradesh. They observed that the soils are
deep to very deep, excessively to well drained, reddish brown to red, mildly acidic, low to
medium in cation exchange capacity, medium to high in organic carbon with wide
textural variations depending on parent material and physiography.
Sawney et al. (1996) investigated magnitude of soil variability in morphological
and other characteristics across different landscape in the Siwalik Hills. A statistical
analysis of horizon thickness determinations showed a consistently wide range of
variability within the different landscape position as indicated by high standard deviations
and co-efficient of variations. The soils developed on toe slopes showed thicker horizons
whereas shoulder slope showed thirmer horizons with minimum solum thickness.
During the study of landscape-soil relationship on a transect in central Assam, Sen
et al. (1997) have reported that the soils are derived fi-om sedimentary and metamorphic
parent materials showed variations in pedogenic development of the soils with respect to
their geology and physiographic positions.
Challa et al. (2000) while doing the characterization and classification study of
problematic Vertisols of Maharashtra reported that Khondwad and Kadambhe soils of
piedmont plains are dark greyish brown while Amalner and Valpi soils of floodplain are
dark yellowish brown in colour.
While studying properties and genesis of red and black soils in North Kamataka
Rudramurthy and Dasog (2001) have reported that redder hue, high chroma and
abundance of coarse fragments are the characteristic features of red soils. Yellow hue,
low chroma and less coarse fragments on the other hand characterized black soils.
2.2 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS
2.2.1 Distribution of soil separates
Eswaran and Bin (1978) while studying the soils formed on granite in an area
receiving annual precipitation of 3,257 mm in Malaysia reported that clay content of soil
remains constant throughout the solum indicating least translocation of clay in the profile.
Rajamarmar and Krishnamoorthy (1978) observed that the clay content of the
forest soils of Western Ghats in south India increased with depth of the profile.
While characterizing the red and laterite soils of northern plateau zone of Orissa
formed on highly weathered gneissic parent material, Sahu et al. (1990) revealed that the
content of clay increased with depth in all profile with a simultaneous decrease in sand
content indicating translocation of clay under well drained condition. There was evidence
of argillic horizon because of illuviation of clay.
Reddy et al. (1993) studied morphological and physico-chemical properties of red
soils (Alfisols) of Nagarjunasagar project area of Andhra Pradesh under irrigated and
unirrigated conditions and observed that texture of soils ranged from sandy loam on the
surface to sandy clay loam in the sub soils.
While characterizing the soils in a toposequence over a basaltic terrain of southern
Rajasthan, Sharma et al. (1996) observed that the soils at elevated topography were
shallow to moderately shallow, clayey to loamy-skeletal in texture and yellowish brown.
While a lower topography soils were deep to very deep, fine loamy to clayey texture and
greyish colour.
Sahu and Mishra (1997) while characterizing the soils of an irrigated river flood
plain in the eastern coastal region, observed that sand and silt content in all pedon
10
decreased from the surface downwards whereas clay content gradually increased with the
depth indicating pedogenic soil development.
Mahapatra et al. (2000) concluded that the soils vary greatly in texture from
loamy-skeletal on steep slopes to silty clay loam and clay loam in piedmont plain in
various physiographic imits in the sub humid eco-system of Kashmir region.
While studying rubber-growing soils of Tripura, Gangopadhyay et al. (2001)
stated that increase in clay content with depth and the development of soil structure,
indicate the development of cambic horizon.
2.3. CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS
2.3.1 Soil reaction (pH)
Reddy et al. (1993) reported that soils of Bangalore district were found to be
acidic to near neutral and showed decreasing trend with depth.
In Vijayapura and Tyamagondlu soil series of Kamataka, pH values ranged from
moderately acidic to slightly acidic and increasing trend with the depth of the profile
(Prakash et. al., 1993).
Kudrat et al. (1995) while studying the laterite soils of a part of Ajoy catchment in
West Bengal indicated that soils have acidic surface with pH values ranging from 5.95 to
6.80. The acidity decreases with depth.
Maji and Bandopadhyay (1996) during the characterization and classification of
coastal soils of Balasore district of Orissa concluded that soils of inland plains are acidic
in reaction and have lower salinity, lower deltaic soils have almost neutral pH and are
more saline. The soils of costal plain between inland plain and lower delta are
intermediate in respect of pH.
11
In a study on red soils of Bundelkhand region of Uttar Pradesh, Walia and Rao
(1996) mentioned that there is a tendency in pH to increase with depth possibly due to the
leaching of bases.
During the study of landscape - soil relationship on transect in central Assam, Sen
et al.(1997) observed that soils in general are acidic in nature and show regular increase in
pH down the profile.
Shivaprasad et al. (1998) while characterizing the soils of Kamataka state revealed
that soils derived from granitic gneiss parent material were foimd to be slightly acidic to
near neutral in soil reaction.
Characterization and classification of soils of lower Palar-Manimuthar watershed
of Tamil Nadu by Arun Kumar et al. (2002) reported that soil reaction ranged from
strongly acidic to strongly alkaline.
Dipak Sarkar et al.(2002) while characterizing and classifying soils of Loktak
catchment area of Manipur observed that soils developed from shale found to be
moderate to slightly acidic (p H 4.6-5.4) in the surface.
2.3.2 Electrical conductivity
Krishnamoorthy and Govindarajan (1977) while working with red and black soils
of Andhra Pradesh reported that in red soils electrical conductivity values vary from less
than 0.15 to 0.25 dS m'' and did not show any trend with depth, while electrical
conductivity of black soil ranged from 0.15 to 0.80 dS m"' and showed increasing trend
with depth.
12
While characterizing the laterite soils of Dakshina Kannada district of Kamataka,
Satisha (1991) reported that the electrical conductivity of these soils was very low
ranging from 0.08 to 0.32 dS m"' and did not show any relation with depth of the profile.
Sivasankaran et al. (1993) while characterizing the soils of Western Ghat in
Kamataka observed that the electrical conductivity values varying from 0.1 to 0.4 dS m"
indicating no accumulation of salts in soils.
2.3.3 Organic Carbon (OC)
While working with black and red soils of Andhra Pradesh, Krishnamoorthy and
Govindarajan (1977) noticed that higher organic matter in second horizon than the first
horizon in red soils, which later decreased. In black soils accumulation of organic matter
was noticed in the fourth horizon due to its movement along with clay.
During the characterization of three soil profile of Darjeeling forest soils. Pal et al.
(1985) found that a sharp decrease of organic matter with depth in two profiles while in
the other organic carbon was more in second layer than in first layer but decreased with
fiirther increase in depth.
Sivashankaran et al. (1993) while studying the red and laterite soils under
plantation crops in South India reported that organic carbon content of soils varied
between 1 and 10 per cent and it varies with altitude and cultivation practices.
While characterization of Western Ghat soils of Kamataka, Satisha and Badrinath
(1994) noticed that the organic carbon decreases with elevation. Soils situated at higher
elevation in Agumbe were rich in organic matter followed by soils situated in hillocks.
13
While working with red soils of Bundelkhand region of Utter Pradesh, Walia and
Rao (1996) stated that the organic carbon content of soils (0.5% to 1.5%) decreased with
depth. The distribution is mainly associated with physiography and land use.
Shivaprasad et al. (1998) while studying the laterite soils (Bangalore plateau)
mentioned that the organic content of these soils varied between low to medium and
showed decreasing trend regularly down the profile.
Arun Kumar et al. (2002) while characterizing and classifying the soils of lower
Palar-Manimuthar watershed of Tamil Nadu observed that these soils were low in organic
carbon content.
While characterizing the soils of Loktak catchment area of Manipur, Dipak Sarkar
et al. (2002) reported that soils are rich in organic matter.
2.3.4. Cation exchange capacity and exchangeable bases
While studying the acidic catenary soils of old flood plains of Assam, Walia and
Chamuah (1988) reported that cation exchange capacity values are low which were
attributed to predominance of kaolinitic clay in the soil. Under heavy rainfall and
intensive leaching, variation in cation exchange capacity values with depth in both the
profile was related to clay content.
Sahu et al. (1990) observed that increase in cation exchange capacity with depth
was noted in red and laterite soils of northern plateau of Orissa and it was attributed to
gradual increase in clay content with the depth of the profile.
While comparing the cation exchange capacity of soils formed fi-om different
parent material, Srikanth and Bapat (1993) observed that the cation exchange capacity of
soils formed from sandstone ranged from 24.3 to 25.8 cmol (+) kg"' and slightly increased
14
with depth whereas soils formed from basah decreased from 53.8 cmol (+) kg"' in surface
to 51.0 cmol (+) kg" in subsurface layer. Alluvial soils recorded the cation exchange
capacity of 38.1 to 56.7 cmol (+) kg"'. Exchangeable calcium remained constant
throughout the depth with values of 11.0 and 37.38 cmol (+) kg"' for soil derived from
sandstone and basalt respectively. Whereas exchangeable magnesium recorded the values
of 4 cmol (+) kg"' for sandstone and 10 to 12 cmol (+) kg"' for basah. Exchangeable
potassium and sodium ranged from 4 cmol (+) kg"' and 1.6 to 1.9 cmol (+) kg"'
respectively for sandstone and 0.5 to 0.8 cmol (+) kg"' and 1.3 to 1.8 cmol (+) kg"'
respectively for basalt.
Narayan Rao et al. (1993) while characterizing the laterite soils of North
Kamataka observed that both cation exchange capacity and per cent base saturation
values showed regular increasing trend down the profile.
Kudrat et al. (1995) during the characterization, and classification of laterite soils
of West Bengal found that cation exchange capacity of these soils are low, varying from
8.5 to 17.5 cmol (+) kg" . Calcium is the dominant exchangeable cation followed by
magnesium, sodium and potassium.
While studying genesis, characteristics and taxonomic classification of some red
soils in Bundelkhand, Walia and Rao (1996) noticed that these soils are low to medium in
CEC.
Arun Kumar et al. (2002) during characterization and classification of soils of
lower Palar-Manimuthar watershed of Tamilnadu reported that soils are having CEC
values ranging from 14.8 to 20.5 cmol (+) kg"'.
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2.3.5 Available Nutrients
2.3.5.1 Available Nitrogen
While studying some salt affected soils of Cauvery and Vanivilas Sagar command
areas of Kamataka, Mruthyunjaya (1991) reported that available nitrogen in the profile
ranged from 30.7 to 105.1 kg per ha and it showed a decreasing trend with depth.
Shivaprasad et al. (1998) during their study in Kamataka observed that about 10.3
per cent of soils fall under low category, 35.8 per cent under medium and 53.9 per cent
under high category of available nitrogen status.
While studying the distribution of organic carbon and nitrogen in Terai soils of
West Bengal, Saha et al. (2000) stated that the available nitrogen in the soil profile
decreased with depth, this follow similar trend as that of organic carbon. A relatively
higher content of nitrate nitrogen in the surface horizon may be on the other hand due to
high nitrification.
Dipak Sarkar et al. (2002) while characterizing and classifying the soils of Loktak
catchment area of Manipur reported that all the soils except the foot hill soils are high in
available nitrogen which may be due to high organic matter content.
During a detailed soil survey of upper Maulkhad catchment in Himachal Pradesh
Sharma and Anil Kumar (2003) reported soils were medium in available nitrogen content.
2.3.5.2 Available Phosphorus
While studying the soils of Challakere taluk of Chitradurga district, Gangappa
(1989) reported that available phosphorus content in red sandy loam and black clay soils
were found to vary from 2.69 to 80.64 kg/ha. In profile samples, it ranged from 2.72 to
16
41.20 kg/ha. The available phosphorus was found to increase with depth in all the
profiles.
Satisha and Badrinath (1994) during characterization of Western Ghat soils of
Dakshina Kannada district, Kamataka observed that low status of available phosphorus
was mainly attributed to its higher removal than replenishment and also high P fixing
capacity.
Shivaprasad et al. (1998) reported that the available phosphorus status in the soils
of Kamataka was low in 83 per cent of the soils and remaining falls under medium
category.
Dipak Sarkar et al. (2002) during the characterization of soils of Loktak catchment
area of Manipur observed that all the hilly soils are low in available phosphorus which
may be due to its fixation by free oxide and exchangeable aluminium. Higher amount of
phosphate in the plain land soils may be due to the presence of free iron oxide and
exchangeable aluminum in smaller amounts.
2.3.5.3 Available Potassium
Sahu and Mishra (1997) while characterizing and classifying soils of an irrigated
river flood plain in the eastern coastal region, reported that the available potassium
content varied from 171.0 to 211.7 kg /hectare and was in medium level.
The available potassium is medium to high in most of the soils of Kamataka state
except in laterite soils of coastal region, Westem Ghats and in shallow red and black soils
as reported by Shivaprasad et al. (1998)
Mapping of available potassiimi in the soils of Assam, Vadivelu et al. (2002)
reported that resultant spatial distribution of K showed that about 6 per cent of the state
17
has soils with potassium content less than 39mg/ kg and about 59 per cent of the soils
with potassium contents are in the range of 39-78 mg/ kg.
Dipak Sarkar et al. (2002) during characterization and classification of the soils of
Loktak catchment area of Manipur, reported that the available potassium content is high
in high hill soils whereas in rest of the area it is rated low to medium.
While characterizing and classifying the soils of upper Maulkhad catchment in
wet Temperate Zone of Himachal Pradesh, Sharma and Anil Kumar (2003) observed that
available potassium content is low to high in surface and subsurface horizon.
2.3.6 Micronutrients
Muneshwar Singh and Shekhon (1991) while investigating DTPA extractable
micronutrient cations status in six soil series occurring in different parts of the country
reported that among the four micronutrient cations, widespread deficiency of available Zn
was observed in all the six soil series, while Fe, Cu, Mn, was adequate in all the six
series.
While studying the distribution of DTPA extractable Zn, Cu, Mn and Fe in some
soil series of Maharashtra and their relation with some soil properties, Dhane and Shukla
(1995) indicated that compared to Zn and Fe deficiency, the deficiency of Mn was
limited, while Cu was found to be adequate in all soil series.
Sahoo et al. (1995) during their investigation to assess the status of available Zn,
Cu, Fe and Mn and their relationship with important soil properties in different landforms
of Malwa plateau of Rajastan concluded that soils are adequate in all the available
micronutrient except Zn which is deficient only in 6 per cent of the soils. The results
18
further indicated that the concentration of all the micronutrients except Fe was lower in
the soils of plain land as compared to the soils of other landforms.
Chattopadhyay et al. (1996) while studying the available micronutrients status in
the soils of Vindhyan scarplands of Rajasthan in relation to soil characteristics reported
that soils situated at higher elevation contained more micronutrient cations than the soils
at lower elevation. Copper and zinc were significantly and negatively correlated with pH,
iron and manganese showed significant negative correlation with pH, ECand CaCOs.
While investigating the status of micronutrients in some dominant soils of
Manipur, Sen et al. (1997) observed that the soils are inadequate or marginally adequate
in available Zn but have enough Fe, Mn, and Cu content.
During the characterization and classification of soils of Loktak catchment area of
Manipur, Dipak Sarkar et al. (2002) mentioned that available iron and manganese were
high and Cu and Zn were low particularly in subsurface horizon.
Sathyavathi and Suryanarayana Reddy (2004) during the study of distribution of
DTPA extractable micronutrients in soils of Telangana, Andhra Pradesh reported that as
per critical limit prescribed for Zn and Fe, 44 and 20 per cent of the soils could be rated as
deficient in available Zinc and Iron respectively. Copper and Manganese were found to be
adequate.
2.4 Genesis of soils
Dokuchaiev (1883) appreciated the role of natural agencies in soil formation.
Since the soil is the combined product of parent material, climate, living organisms, relief
and time, different combination of these factors would produce different soils.
19
Climate is often considered to be major factor determining the formation of great
soil groups. Climate includes rainfall, temperature, humidity, wind, evaporation, length
of dry season, sunshine hours and others. Of these constituents' rainfall and temperature
play major role. When a monsoon type of climate prevails, there is much variation in
distribution of rainfall, which in turn affects soil formation.
From the soil formation viewpoint, the concept of parent material must stem from
internal characteristics of raw materials, which makeup the mass of the soil body in
relation to other factors of soil formation. Jenny (1941) defined parent material as the
initial state of soil system and thus avoided special reference to the strata below the soil,
which might or might not be the parent material. Parent material influences the
morphological, physical, chemical and mineralogical properties of soil.
Karale et al. (1969) observed the formation of two distinct soil types under varied
rainfall conditions over the same basaltic parent material. They observed that under low
rainfall (620-1250 mm) conditions very dark greyish brown to black soil and under high
rainfall (1620 mm) acidic soils were formed. The difference in soil characteristics may
be considered as the direct reflection of differential weathering and developmental
process as conditioned by the amount of precipitation.
Topography controls the distribution of soil in the landscape to the extent that
soils of markedly contrasting morphologies and properties can merge laterally with each
other. The topography influences both external and internal drainage conditions,
differential transport of eroded material, leaching and translocation, which uhimately
determine soil characteristics.
The role of micro relief in the formation of diverse type of soils in close proximity
has been shown in some localities of India (Raychaudhuri and Mukherjee, 1945). The
20
occurrence of diverse type of soils, such as red and laterite, on the one extreme of a slope
and black soil on the other extreme is not uncommon in tropic and subtropics (Mohr and
VanBaren, 1954).
Jagadish Prasad et al. (1995) while doing characterization and classification of
soils of Nasik District of Maharashtra reported that soils developed fi-om basalt spur of
Western Ghat under hot-humid climate are dark reddish brown in colour with argillic
horizon and qualified for Typic Rhodustalfs. The other group of soils those developed on
interfluves under sub humid zone is very deep, dark reddish brown, clayey and qualifies
for Typic Ustropepts. Soils on piedmont plain experiencing semiarid climate is very deep,
moderately well drained, clayey and are placed in subgroup Chromic Haplusterts.
2.5. Soil classification
Soil is the collection of natural bodies on the earth's surface, comprising mineral
and organic constituents evolved by the interaction of soil-forming factors and processes
and any change in one such factor or process results in a different soil. The various kinds
of soils thus formed are the result of assorted combinations of the different soil-forming
factors and processes.
Any natural object having many variants may not be easy to classify. The
multitude of characteristics involved in variants make the grouping difficult. Soil is a
typical example where in the number of variants influencing its origin is too many.
Therefore, in order to understand differences, similarities and relationships among
different members, it is necessary that these be grouped in some orderly manner.
Classification is the grouping of objects in some orderly and logical manner into
compartments. It is based on the properties of objects for the purpose of studying.
21
identifying and grouping them. The properties are selected in accordance with the
purpose of the classification. They are termed as differentiating characteristics and serve
to differentiate one class from all others (Sehgal, 1996).
The first classification of soil was proposed by Dokuchaiev of Russian School. He
divides soils into three categories i.e. normal, transitional and abnormal soils. These
categories were later termed as Zonal, Intrazonal and Azonal soils respectively. Coffey of
USDA in 1912 classified soils into five classes on the basis of properties. Marbut of USA
was the first to advocate classification on the basis of soil properties rather than on the
basis of soil forming factors.
Soil Survey Staff of USDA brought out comprehensive system of soil
classification as Soil Taxonomy in the year 1975. According to this, soils are classified
into ten orders based on their properties, which have been recently classified into twelve
orders. Each order is fiirther divided into suborder, great groups, subgroups, families and
series.
Raychaudhuri (1961, 1962) and Govindarajan and Datta Biswas (1968) initiated
classification of red soils of India. They classified red loamy soils as Paleustalfs,
Rhodustalfs and Haplustalfs and red sandy soil as Rhodustalfs and Haplustalfs.
Manickam (1965) observed that the difference in parent rock composition in
association with climate, vegetation and slope produced different kinds of soil profile in
the Nilgiris. The varied nature of the soils indicated that the characteristics of soil were
predetermined by parent rock.
Govindarajan and Datta Biswas (1968) identified red soils of Machkand basin in
Koraput district of Orissa as Latosols of high base status.
22
Murthy et al. (1982) classified red and lateritic soils of Kamataka as Paleustalf
(Tyamagondlu series), Haplustalf (Vijayapura series) and Rhodustalfs (Channasandra
series).
Choudhari (1988) studied the genesis of pedons of two Aridisols (Gajsinghpura
and Pipar) in Rajastan on two distinct regions of rock formation on aggraded alluvial
plain of middle to early Pleistocene period. Micromorphological studies confirmed the
mineral alteration and illuviation of clay, showed distinctness in microstructure,
groundmass and pedofeatures. In situ formed calcitic segregations are pure in Pipar soils
and impregnative in Gajsinghpura soils.
The red and laterite soils of Bangalore district (Kamataka State) were classified as
Kandic Paleustalfs and Kandic Rhodustalfs by Reddy et al. (1993) while studying their
distribution, characterization and classification.
While characterizing and classifying the soils of Mahsani Island of the
Sundarbans in West Bengal, Dipak Sarkar et al. (1993) classified taxonomically as Vertic
Halaquepts, Aerie Haplaquepts and Typic Haplaquepts.
Bhattacharyya and Ghosh (1990) studied the genesis of Alfisol profile in
Konanakunte village of Kamataka in relation to parent material and climate. The
dominance of Kaolinite in the clay and silt fraction and its abundance in the coarser
fraction of the soils in various proportions clearly indicated that kaolinization was the
major process operative during the weathering of the Granitic gneiss.
Patil (1994) had studied the pedogenesis of laterite and associated soils of North
Kamataka and has showed that climate is the major factor and followed by topography
and drainage are responsible for the formation of these soils.,
23
Jagdish Prasad et al. (1995) while characterizing and classifying the soils of Nasik
District of Maharashtra, reported that soils developed from basalt on spur of Western
Ghat under hot humid climate are dark reddish brown in colour with argillic horizon and
qualified for Typic Rhodustalfs. The other group of soils those developed on interfluves
under subhumid zones is very deep, dark reddish brovm, clayey and qualifies for Typic
Ustropepts. Soils on piedmont plain experiencing semiarid climate are very deep,
moderately well drained, clayey and are placed in subgroup Chromic Haplusterts.
During the detailed soil survey of Ajoy catchment in West Bengal, Kudrat et al.
(1995) classified these soils as Modhudanga and Jamuria series (Typic Haplustalfs),
Churulia series-(Typic Ustochrepts) and Rakhukura series-(Aeric Haplaquepts).
While studying the genesis of lateritic soils of peninsular India, Natarajan (1995)
reported the predominance of kaolinite in all the pedons studied and concluded that
climate and topography are the main soil forming factors. Desilication was the major
process responsible for formation of soil when rainfall was heavy, and topography was
favourable for intensive leaching.
Walia and Rao (1996) studied the genesis of Inceptisol and Alfisol profiles formed
on sandstone, shale, granite and coUuvium representing different landforms of Banda
district of Uttar Pradesh. The depthwise distribution of Si02 indicated the stabilization of
silica content under mildly acidic pedochemical environment. Flat-topped hill and
monadnock exhibit the development of Bt horizon while soils of other landforms show
Bw horizon.
While studying the mineralogy, genesis and classification of soils of Northwest
Himalayas developed on different parent materials and variable topography, Gupta and
Tripathi (1996) observed that the similarity in mineralogy indicated the dominant
24
influence of parent material. They were classified up to sub-group level according to soil
taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 1975) as profile 1-Vertic Eutrochrepts, profile 2-Typic
Haplustalfs, profile 3- Typic Haplustalfs, profile 4- Andic Dystric Eutrochrepts, profile 5-
Typic HapludoUs and profile 6-Typic Glossudalfs. Calcification/decalcification,
illuviation and humification express the genesis of these soil profiles.
Maji and Bandopadhyay (1996) during characterizaion and classification of
coastal soils of Balasore in Orissa concluded that soils of inland and coastal plains are
taxonomically classified as Typic Endoaquepts but they have differences in the phase
level. The lower deltaic soils are classified as Vertic Fluvaquents.
Sharma et al. (1997) while studying morphological, physical, chemical and
mineralogical characteristics of Inceptisols on five dominant landscape of Punjab State
observed that in udic region, the soils developed on foot slopes are non-calcareous and
those on toe slopes are calcareous in nature. These soils are classified as Dystric
Eutrochrepts and Typic Eutrochrepts. In ustic moisture region (less hot zone) the soils of
Siwalik are calcareous and are classified as Fluventic Ustochrepts and adjoining to this in
piedmont plain soils are classified as Typic Ustochrepts. In ustic region (less hot zone)
the soils developed in internal areas show weakly developed cambic horizon and are
classified as Typic Ustochrepts. The soils developed on alluvial plains have a variable
calcium carbonate content and relatively well developed cambic horizon. These soils are
classified as Typic Ustochrepts. Some of the soils developed on slightly lower
topographic positions are alkaline in nature and are classified as Natric Ustrochrepts.
Fine textured soils developed on alluvial plains in the old fiood plain areas show the
development of strong angular blocky structure with pressure faces and slickenside.
These are classified as Vertic Ustochrepts.
25
During the study of landscape-soil relation on a transect in central Assam, Sen et
al. (1997) classified these soils according to USD A soil taxonomy as Udalfs, Udifluvents,
Udorthents, Epiaquepts, Eutrochrepts, Dystrochrepts and Udults.
Shivaprasad et al. (1998) during soil resource mapping of Kamataka identified 7
orders, 12 suborders, 27 great groups, 47 subgroups and 96 soil families. In Kamataka, 27
per cent is covered by Alfisols, 25 per cent by Inceptisols, 16 per cent by Entisols, 15 per
cent by Vertisols, 8 per cent by Ultisols, 5 per cent by Aridisols and one per cent by
MoUisols.
Singh et al. (1999) studied the genesis of soils derived from limestone and their
distribution, transformation, movement and accumulation of carbonate. According to
them calcification is the dominant pedogenic process. These soils are classified under
Sodic Ustic Haplocalcid, subgroup of Aridilsol.soil order.
Patil and Dasog (1999) studied the genesis of six ferruginous pedons from the
Western Ghat and coastal region in south Kamataka where the average rainfall varies
from 1792 to 3854 mm. All pedons were very deep. They reported laterization as the
dominant pedogenic process along with illuviation.
While characterising and classifying the soils of granitic terrain in Jabalpur district
of Madhya Pradesh Gupta et al. (1999) grouped these soils under Typic Haplusterts,
Vertic Ustochrepts and Typic Haplustalfs.
Dipak Sarkar et al. (2001) during the study of soil topo sequence relationship and
classification in lower outlier of Chhotanagpur plateau, classified these soils along the
topo sequence as Ultic Paleustalfs, Rhodic Paleustalfs, Aquic Haplustalfs and Aerie
Endoaqualfs.
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While characterising the soils of Central Research Station, Bhubaneswar, Nayak
et al. (2002) classified five pedons as Ultic Haplustalfs, Ultic Paleustalfs, Typic
Haplustepts and Typic Fluvaquents sub groups.
Dipak Sarkar et al. (2002) during characterization and classification of soils of
Loktak catchment area of Manipur for sustainable land use planning, classified these soils
as Humic Dystrudepts, Humic Hapludults, Typic Haplohumults, Typic Palehumults and
Aquic Haplohumults.
While doing the detailed soil survey of upper Maulkhad catchments in wet
Temperate Zone of Himachal Pradesh, Sharma and Anilkumar (2003) identified six soil
series with 21 phases. These soils were classified as Lithic Udorthents, Typic
Dystrudepts, Typic Hapludalfs, and Typic Paleudalfs.
While characterizing and classifying some typical banana growing soils of
Wardha district of Maharashtra, Kadao et al. (2003) grouped these soils under Typic
Haplusterts, Typic Haplustepts and Fluventic Haplustepts sub groups.
2.6 APPLICATION OF REMOTE SENSING
Information derived from remotely sensed data is used in various natural
resources like soil, land use/land cover, geological, geomorphological and water resource
studies are given below.
2.6.1 Application of remote sensing for soil mapping
Studies were carriedout on soil resource mapping by Dominquiz (1960) following
the FAQ (1976) guidelines. Later Gemini and Apollo space photographs were used for
soil resource mapping in the late 1960s (Mcphail and Cambell, 1970, Aldrich, 1971).
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Several studies were conducted to prepare soil resource maps using Landsat
(MSS) data, Hilwig, 1975; Singh and Dwivedi, 1986. Soil resource mapping at 1:50,000
scale was prepared by Biswas, 1987, using Landsat - TM data with improved spatial
(30m) spectral (seven bands) and radiometric (8 bit) resolutions.
Sangwan et al. (1988) studied geomorphology, soil and land use in southern part
of Mahendragarh district using aerial photographs. Nasibpur (Fine-loamy, Typic
Ustochrept), Khatripur (Fine-loamy, Udic Ustochrept) and Mirzapur Bacchod (coarse-
loamy, Typic Ustochrept) were the dominant series in the old alluvial plain, Bhankhri
series (coarse-loamy Typic Ustifluvent) dominated the young alluvial plain and Patikara
(Typic Ustipsamments) and Duloth Nimbi (Torripsamment) series were the major ones in
the aeolian plain.
Remote sensing techniques have been employed to identify and delineate soils in a
part of Dibrugarh district of Assam by Sen et al. (1992) using Landsat-4 MSS FCC data
(4,5,7). Dominant soils identified are: Coarse-loamy Aerie Flavaquents and Fine-loamy,
Typic Udifluvents in active flood plain; fine Typic Haplaquepts and fine loamy Aquic
Dystochrepts in recent alluvial plain; coarse-loamy Typic Udorthents and fine Mollic
Hapludalfs in piedmont plain.
Ahuja et al. (1992) carried out soil resource mapping of Bhiwani district (Haryana
state) by visual interpretation of IRS-IA LISS-II; FCC (2,3,4) data at 1: 50,000 scale and
established physiography-soil relationship. Taxonomically, the soils of each unit was
classified and are found - Typic Torripsamments/ coarse-loamy, Typic Camborthids;
Fluvio-aeolian plain - Aridic Ustipsamments/coarse-loamy/fine-loamy, Typic/Udic
Ustochrepts; Alluvial plain - Typic Ustipsamments/ coarse-loamy/fine-loamy Typic/ Udic
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Ustochrepts; Hills and pediments - fragmental Lithic Torriorthents/ Typic
Torripsamments.
Verma et al. (1996) used multi date remotely sensed data both in the form of aerial
photographs and satellite imagery on 1:50,000 Scale was interpreted visually to map
physiography and soils of arid tract of Punjab. The study demonstrated that potential
usefiilness of remote sensing technology in mapping natural resources and to assess the
nature, magnitude and spatial distribution of resource constraints.
Rao et al. (1999) conducted soil and land irrigability assessment of proposed
Krishna-Permar link canal command area using FCC of IRS-IB, LISS II data at 1:50,000
scale. Soils were classified up to family level and evaluated for their suitability to
irrigation using the standard criteria.
While conducting study on utility of satellite remote sensing technique for soil
resource and land evaluation studies in lower Palar-Manimuthar watershed, Arun Kumar
et al. (1999) recognized ten soil series in the area, which were classified as Entisols,
Inceptisols and Alfisol and soils suitability were evaluated for growing different crops.
Goyal et al. (1999) studied the utilization of remote sensing data for soil
characterization and preparation of geomorphic-soil maps of Rewari district of Haryana
state. The major sub geomorphic units identified and mapped were:
I. Aeo-fluvial plain
II. Recent sahibi flood plain and
III. Aravally hills rock out-crop and pediments.
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Nayan Ahmed et al. (1999) conducted reconnaissance survey of a part of IGNP
command area Rajastan using IRC-IC LISS III data in 1: 50,000 scale with the objective
of preparing physiography-soil map of the area and to use GIS for assessment of soil
resources.
Khan and Nepal Singh (2000) carried out visual interpretation of IRS-LISS II data
for the identification and mapping of major physiographic units in an arid watershed of
Jodhpur district of Rajastan. Based on image characteristics seven major physiographic
units were identified and 41 soil mapping units were identified based on physiography
and soil site characteristics. Taxonomically, these soils were classified as Para lithic
Torriorthents, Coarse-loamy, Lithic / Typic Haplocambids, fine-loamy, Lithic/ Typic
Haplosalids and Typic Torrifluvents and Typic Torripsamments.
IRS-IC data was used in the characterization and management of watershed in
Nagpur dist by Saxena et al., 2000. Satellite data was used for large-scale mapping in
basaltic terrain by Srivatsava and Saxena, 2004.
Solanke et al. (2005) studied the application of high resolution IRS-IC PAN
merged LISS III data and GIS in watershed characterization and management of
Ganeshpur micro-watershed near Nagpur, Maharashtra. Based on this study, four major
physiographic units viz. plateau top, escarpment, pediment and valley which was fiirther
subdivided into various subunits based on slope and image characteristics. Based on
physiography-soil relationship, nine soil series were tentatively identified and mapped as
series association.
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2.6.2 Application of Remote Sensing for Hydrogeomorphological studies
Tripathy et al. (1996) conducted geological and geomorphological studies of a
part of Ganjam district of Orissa by remote sensing techniques. Major geomorphic units
delineated are hills, pediments, vallyfills, new flood plains, new coastal plains and old
coastal plains.
Pradeep (1998) studied potential groundwater zones using IRS-LISS-II data. The
results indicated that alluvial plain, flood plain, in filled valley and deeply buried
Pediplain are the prospective zones of ground water exploration and development.
Fractures and faults parallel to drainage courses constitute priority zones for ground water
targeting.
Nag (1998) while conducting morphometric analysis and ground water studies of
Chaka sub basin in West Bengal using satellite remote sensing imagery proved that
moderate Pedi plains and valley fills are good prospective zones for ground water
exploration.
Hydromorphological investigations conducted by Venkateshwara Rao (1998) in a
typical Khondalitic terrain in Andhra Pradesh using remote sensing data suggested that
groimd water prospect areas are located in shallow buried Pedi plains and wash plains in
such way that they are identified on gently sloping uplands situated inbetween the
lineaments.
Shibani Maitra (1999) prepared geomorphological map of part of the upper
Baitarani river basin using aerial photograph and IRS-IA satellite imagery. The landform
units identified and delineated are grouped under two genetic types, denudational and
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fluvial. Ten landform units, each having its own characteristic features were identified
under three geomorphic domains viz. hill, pediment and plain.
Abraham Thomas et al. (1999) during hydrological mapping and evaluation of
ground water prospects of Lehra Gaga block of Sangrur district, Punjab using IRS-IB
LISS II data, indicated that alluvial plain has good to excellent groundwater prospects.
Field observation showed that grovmdwater occurs imder both confined and unconfined
conditions with water table at shallow depth.
Hydrogeomorphological mapping of Varaha river basin (VRB) was carried out by
Murthy and Venkateshwara Rao (1999) to identify relationship between ground water
condition and geomorphology of the area using IRS- lA data. Study showed that area
covered by buried channels has shallow aquifers of good quality water with excellent
yield. Lineaments and fractures may prove to be potential zones for groimdwater
development.
Obi Reddy et al. (2000) evaluated groundwater potential zones in Bhandara dist of
Maharashtra using IRS-IC LISS- III geocoded data on 1:50,000 scale. They showed that
deep valley fills with thick alluvium have excellent, shallow valley fills and deeply
weathered Pediplains with thin alluvium have very good groundwater potential.
Moderately weathered Pediplains with alluvium have a good groundwater potential.
Shallow weathered Pediplains in geological formations of Tirodi and Sausor groups are
grouped under limited ground water potential category, except along the fractures/
lineaments. Structural hills in Tirodi gneisses and Sausar groups have poor groundwater
prospects. Inselbergs and linear ridges are grouped under very poor ground water
prospects zones.
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2.6.3 Application of Remote Sensing for Land use / Land cover studies
Colour infrared aerial photographs and multiband photographs were used for land
use mapping (Quirk and Scarpace, 1982). Apart from the aerial photographs, airborne
multi-spectral scanner data was used for Land Use/Land Cover mapping (Kristof, 1971).
Gautam and Narayan (1983) evaluated Landsat MSS data for land use and land
cover inventory and mapping of Andhra Pradesh. The following land use classes of level-
1 such as built up land, agricultural land, forestland, water bodies and others were
obtained. Level -2 classes such as cropland, dry fallow land and wet follow land were
obtained from agricultural land where as in forest two types were noticed i.e., mixed
forest and scrubs. Water bodies were further classified as river, lake and reservoirs and
others classes categorized into Barren rock outcrop and sand.
Pathak and Kale (1988) prepared land use maps of 15 sq. km area using aerial
photographs. They concluded that large and inaccessible areas could be studied with
limited resources by using air photo technique.
Regional level mapping of land use and land cover has been carried out using
WiFs data. With LISS III data from IRS-IC and ID land use/land cover maps at 1:25,000
scale with abstraction level of land use and land cover categories corresponding to Level
-III, could be delineated and the changes therein occur over a period of time could be
monitored using multi-temporal data (Rao et al. 1996; NRSA, 1997).
Palaniyandi and Nagarathinam (1997) prepared land use/land cover maps of
Thiruvallur area of Chengai-MGR district of Tamil Nadu through visual interpretations of
Landsat -5 TM and IRS- lA LISS II images. They observed that the built up area and
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agricultural land use extensions are on the upward trend, whereas the area under forest
and wasteland has shown a declining trend.
Minakshi et al. (1999) used IRS IB LISS II data and IRS PAN data for land use /
land cover mapping and change detection of Dehlon block, Ludhiana district of Punjab.
Shamsudheen et al. (2005) utilized IRS ID LISS III images to prepare land
use/land cover map of the coastal regions of north Kamataka. The major land use classes
were agriculture crops, plantations and horticulture crops, forests and their types, forest
plantations and their types, water bodies, degraded forests and their types.
34