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CHAPTER-II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

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CHAPTER- II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Amatayakul Wathanyu, Gora Borndes (2012)

2.3 Angelis-Dimakis et al (2011)

2.4 Bain R.L. (1993)

2.5 Bhatnagar A. P. (1996)

2.6 Bhattacharya S. C. (2005)

2.7 Bolat Mustafa, Ayar Gunhan (2005)

2.8 Dutta Roy G. C. (2009)

2.9 Demirbas (2001)

2.10 Demirbas (2002)

2.11 Demirbas (2002)

2.12 Eyhorn F., Heeb M., Weidmann G. (2003)

2.13 Gera R. K. et al (2013)

2.14 Gerardi W. (2006)

2.15 Goldemberg and Teixeira (2004)

2.16 Gupta Achal (2013)

2.17 Gut Join Errez Vera (1999)

2.18 Hart Caaig A. and Rajora M.L. (2009)

2.19 Hofman Y., Phylipsen G.J., Jahzic R. (2004)

2.20 Jagdish K. S. (2008)

2.21 Jain Ravi (2009)

2.22 Kumar A. et al (2010)

2.23 Kumar Ankit and Pragati Kunal (2011)

2.24 Kumar M. and Patel S. K. (2008)

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2.25 Kumar Sudhir (1998)

2.26 Kumaradasa M. A. et al (1999)

2.27 Lalwani Mahedra Singh (2010)

2.28 Lysen and Egmond Van (2008)

2.29 Madke N.S. and Bhise V.B. (2002)

2.30 Melhuish M. (1998)

2.31 Meridian and Antares (1992)

2.32 Miller A.S., Mintzer, I. M., Hoagland S.H. (1986)

2.33 Mukunda H. S. et al (1994)

2.34 Mullar Adrian (2008)

2.35 Panachabuta (2011)

2.36 Rai S.N. and Chakrabarti S.K. (1996)

2.37 Rajan T. P. (1995)

2.38 Rajkumar Ashok et al. (2012)

2.39 Rajkumar (2003)

2.40 Ramage J. and Scurlock J. (1996)

2.41 Ramahandra T.V., Kamakshi G., Shruthi B. V. (2004)

2.42 Ravindranath N.H. and Hall D.O. (1995)

2.43 Ravindranath N. H. et al (2005)

2.44 Ravindranath N.H. et al (2009)

2.45 Ray P. C. (2012)

2.46 Reshi S. B. (2011)

2.47 Richard G. N. (2004)

2.48 Santisirisomboon J. et al (2001)

2.49 Sharma M. P. and Sharma J. D. (1999)

2.50 Shukla P. R. (1996)

2.51 Shukla P.R. (2005)

2.52 Sheng et al (2005)

2.53 Singal S. K. et al (2006)

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2.54 Singh B. P. et al (2000)

2.55 Singh N. P. (1996)

2.56 Smeets et al (2007)

2.57 Someshekhar S. P. et al (2003)

2.58 Sonde R. R. (2011)

2.59 Sorensen H.A. (1983)

2.60 Terra Daily (2007)

2.61 UNEP (2008)

2.62 Vergara W. and Pimentel D. (1978)

2.63 Victor N. M. et al (2002)

2.64 Williams R. H. and Larson E. D. (1992)

2.65 Wood J. and Hall D.O. (1994)

2.66 Zoelzer K. (2000)

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2.1 Introduction:-

In this chapter an attempt is made to review the published literature

in scientific journals, reports of survey and committees and books related

to the problem under investigation. Very little work has been done in

Maharashtra about biomass power projects. Some of the relevant and

related work carried out pertaining to the research topic is reviewed in

this chapter.

2.2 Amatayakul Wathanyu, Gora Borndes (2012)1, In this paper, a

hypothesis that government's guarantee of carbon credit purchase the

development of CDM biomass power projects in developing countries is

tested by an empirical analysis using objective indicators and by an

econometric analysis. The empirical analysis shows that there are

indications that guarantee of power purchase rather than guarantee of

access to sell carbon credit are guarantee of carbon credit purchase

determinac the development of a large percentage of registered CDM

bagasse power projects, in Brazil, India and Thailand. The result from the

econometric analysis supports the hypothesis. The result also suggests

that power purchase guarantee significantly determines whether or not

there is development of CDM biomass power project based on agriculture

residues in a country. This suggests that implementing policies and

regulations that guarantee an access for biomass power developers to sell

electricity to the development of biomass power projects in a large

number of developing countries.

2.3 Angelis-Dimakis et al (2011)2, concluded that, the recent

statements of the European Union and the US presidency pushed in the

direction of using renewable forms of energy in order to act against

climate changes including by the growing concentrations of carbon

dioxide in the atmosphere. In this paper a survey regarding methods and

tools presently available to determine potential and exploitable energy in

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the most important renewable sectors (i.e. solar, wind, wave, biomass and

geothermal energy) is presented. Moreover, challenges for each

renewable resource are highlighted as well as the available tools that can

help in evaluating the use of mix of different sources.

2.4 Bain R.L. (1993)3, Points out that, in short to medium term,

biomass waste and residues are expected to dominate biomass supply, to

be substituted by energy crops in the longer term. The future of biomass

electricity generation lies in biomass integrated gasification/gas turbine

technology, which offers high energy conversion efficiencies. Biomass

power plants (BPPs) use technology that is very similar to that used coal-

fired power plants. For example biomass plants use similar BPP

efficiencies of about 25% steam-turbine generators and fuel delivery

systems. Electricity costs are in the 8 c/KWh range. The average BBP is

about 20 MW in size, with a few dedicated wood fired plants in the 40-50

MW capacity with gas turbine/steam combined cycle. Biomass is burned

to produce steam, the steam turn a turbine and drives a generator,

producing electricity.

The biomass power industry in the United States has grown from

less than 200 MW in 1979 to more than 6000 MW in 1990. The United

States Department of Energy (USDOE) is projected installed capacity

will grow to about 22 GW by the year 2010.

2.5 Bhatnagar A. P. (1996)4, shows that paddy husk is an important

source of energy. Use of paddy husk as fuel in rice mill grate type

furnaces and boilers has become common in some states. However,

gasifier used in rice mill boilers operation is still to be introduced. Large

size paddy husk based gasifiers and pydrolyser systems of capacity 100

KW and above are not yet available in the country. However, the grate

type and husk fired furnaces need certain improvements.

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2.6 Bhattacharya S. C. (2005)5, in his paper concluded that, energy

consumption in the developing countries of Asia is rising rapidly. It is

likely that access to fossil fuels in the future. As a result, the share of

renewable energy in general and biomass in particular, in the total energy

supply is expected to rise in the future.

2.7 Bolat Mustafa, Ayar Gunhan (2005)6, in their paper concluded

that, biomass fuel is a renewable energy sources and its importance will

increase as national energy policy and strategy focuses more heavily on

renewable sources and conservation biomass power plants have

advantages over fossil-fuel plants because their pollution emission are

less.

World production of biomass is estimated at 146 billion metric

tones a year, through mostly wild plant growth. Total annual production

of biomass is 2740 quads in the world. In the future, biomass has the

potential to provide a cost-effective and sustainable supply of energy,

while at the same time aiding countries in meeting their greenhouse gas

reduction targets.

In this paper he underline that the collection of fuel from European

forestry and agriculture and the use of energy crops is a sustainable

activity that does not deplete future resources by the year 2050, it is

estimated that 90% of the world population will live in developing

countries.

2.8 Dutta Roy G. C. (2009)7, he estimated in his paper 10 years old

BEE rated grade, ESCO working globally in the area of energy efficiency

working globally in the area of energy efficiency and renewable energy.

Consulted and engineer over 200 biomass energy projects globally with

aggregate over 500 MW.

2.9 Demirbas (2001)8, shows that as with all forms of energy

production biomass energy systems raise some environmental issues that

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must be addressed. In biomass energy projects, issues such as air

pollution, impacts on forest and in impacts due to crop cultivation must

be addressed on a case by case basis. Unlike other non-renewable forms

of energy, biomass energy can be produced and consumed in a

sustainable fashion and there is no net contribution of carbon dioxide to

global warming.

2.10 Demirbas (2002)9, in his study reported that in Industrialized

countries, the main biomass processes utilized in the future are expected

to be direct combustion of residues and wastes for electricity generation,

bio-ethanol and bio diesel are liquid fuels and combined heat and power

production from energy crops.

He concluded that, the future of biomass electricity generation lies

in biomass integrated gasification/ gas turbine technology which offer

high energy conversion efficiencies. Biomass will complete favorably

with fossil mass for niches in the chemical feedstock industry. Biomass is

a renewable flexibly and adoptable resources. Crops can be grown to

satisfy changing end use need.

2.11 Demirbas (2002)10, in his paper concluded that, in the year 1992

electrical production from biomass, primarily wood had a net impact of $

1.7 billion and biomass electrical-generating capacity will have grown to

approximately 22 GW in 2010 at this capacity level, the economic

benefits are estimated to be $ 6.2 billion in personal and corporate income

and 23800 jobs.

2.12 Eyhorn F., Heeb M., Weidmann G. (2003)11, in their study

reported that, rice husk and sugarcane bagasses with their particularly low

nitrogen content, for example, can only provide a fraction of the material

for balanced composting. Thus rice husk and bagasses based bio-energy

projects or projects based on any residues abundant in a region and not

appropriate as a single basis for good compost or mulching may be less

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problematic than projects based on other residues. Nevertheless, they can

be used to produce compost or as a source for biomass in general and an

organic strategy may well depend on their availability in case alternatives

do not abound, given the general tendency of scarcity of biomass on

organic farms.

He concluded that, ash recycling does not solve the problem either,

as ash is a mineral fertiliser containing mainly kalium, calcium and trace

elements. It has to be supplemented with other fertilisers to deliver

organic matter, phosphorous and nitrogen.

2.13 Gera R. K. et al (2013)12, in his paper reviews the renewable

energy scenario of India and extrapolates the future development keeping

in view the consumption, production and supply of power. Most of the

power generation in India is carried out by conventional energy sources,

coal and mineral oil-based power plants which contribute heavily to

greenhouse gas emission. Setting up new power plants requires inevitably

import of highly volatile fossil fuels. He also focuses the solution of the

energy crisis on judicious utilization of abundant the renewable energy

resources, such as biomass, solar, wind, geothermal and ocean energy.

Research, Development, production and demonstration have been

carried out enthusiastically in India to find a feasible solution to the

perennial problem of power shortage for the past three decades. India has

obtained applications of a variety of renewable energy technologies for

use in different sectors too. This paper give an overview of the renewable

energies in India while evaluating the current status, the energy needs of

the country and forecast consumption and production, with the objective

to assess whether India can sustain its growth and its society with

renewable resources.

2.14 Gerardi W. (2006)13, reported the economic contribution of

renewable energy technologies in three sectors namely generation,

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manufacturing and services. The renewable energy industry generates a

total of 6212 direct jobs and 9069 indirect jobs. Of these totals, the

leading contributors is bioenergy which renders 27.44% (1893 direct

jobs) and 29.3 % (2664 indirect jobs).

2.15 Goldemberg and Teixeira (2004)14, concluded that, renewable

energy is basic to reduce poverty and to allow sustainable development.

However, the concept of renewable energy must be carefully established,

particularly in the case of biomass. This paper analyses the called

"Conventional" and "Modern" biomass and discusses the need for

statistical information which will allow the elaboration of scenarios

relevant to renewable energy targets in the world.

2.16 Gupta Achal (2013)15, he concluded that biomass power plants in

India are based mostly on agricultural waste. Gasifier-based power plants

are providing a great solution for off-grid decentralized power and are

lighting homes in Bihar, Courtesy, Husk power systems and DESI power,

while for providing grid-based power 8-15 MW for thermal biomass

power plants are suitable for Indian conditions, they stand no where when

compared to power plants being set up in Europe which are at least 20

times larger.

2.17 Gut Join Errez Vera (1999)16, has projected renewable energy

trends in Mexico in the third millennium. Realizing that by the end of the

first half of next century there will be a shortage of oil and gas as source

of energy and that renewable sources of energy will play a very important

role in providing clean and productive sources of energy, the current

scenario of various renewable sources of energy being utilized in Mexico

has been discussed in this paper with due concern.

2.18 Hart Caaig A. and Rajora M.L. (2009)17, in his paper discussed

that China and India both Plan for biomass power generation to increase

significantly. Both countries have provided preferential electricity tariffs

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and guaranteed sale of biomass and other renewable energy to the power

grid. Beyond these steps, the approaches taken by the countries diverge.

India has developed an innovative institutional approach that is

appropriate to its market economy and legal system. It relies on private

sector generation of power and limiting (without eliminating) competition

for the supply of biomass through state law and IREDA's leading

guidelines. In Contrast China's effort's focus on financial support of

developing biomass resources and technology financial support for the

purchase of biomass. China's technology development efforts include

research and development to increase the efficiency of conventional

biomass technologies and an innovative program to develop micro

turbine biomass facilities in an effort to adapt to the institutional and

market conditions facing biomass technology in China.

He also concluded in his paper, China and India's policies focus

primarily on the promotion of the use of biomass. Our survey did not

identify laws or policies designed to address water and food security

issues. Both China and India will need to more fully integrate water

resource planning into their energy policies as biomass power generation

is scaled up to meet energy demand.

2.19 Hofman Y., Phylipsen G.J., Jahzic R. (2004)18, in their paper

they studied the project in Rajasthan and concluded that the project

involves the implementation of a biomass-based power generation plant

using direct combustion boiler technology. The installed capacity of the

plant is 7.8 MW. In this project the fuel used in primarily mustard crop

residue, which is abundantly available in the vicinity of the site. The

generated electricity will replace a mixture of coal and gas based power

generation. The total amount of CE Rs. To be delivered is expected to be

313743. The implementation of the project will also lead to additional

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income of employment in the region. (Approximately 150,000 man days

of work per year)

2.20 Jagdish K. S. (2008)19, reported that the energy in the biomass that

grows annually in India is easily twice the fossil fuel energy consumed in

the country. Since all the biomass that grows is not readily available for

use as energy, the efficiencies of the current biomass utilization must be

examined.

He also says that the livestock are also responsible for loss of green

cover, loss of nutrients in soil and erosion of soil. Better management of

forest and wastelands and a more efficient and hence reduced livestock

population are essential for a better deployment of bioenergy resources. A

three-pronged approach, looking at biomass conservation, biomass

generation and efficient conversion of biomass to bio-fuels, is needed to

improve the availability of useful energy in India. Gaseous fuels such as

biogas and producer gas and liquid fuels such as ethanol and methanol

have the potential to meet a large portion of our energy budget. In liquid

fuels methanol appears to be more feasible than ethanol.

2.21 Jain Ravi (2009)20, estimated that the very high potential of

biomass India's capacity to add 16000 MW through biomass, biomass

generation becoming financially viable an established institutional

framework with industrial base, increased awareness of environmental

issues and energy security issue are the factors that will help the

penetration of biomass power generation. However, this depends on how

the challenge of adapting to the changing face of the power sector in

India is handled.

2.22 Kumar A. et al (2010)21, says that renewable energy source and

technologies have potential to provide solutions to the long-standing

energy problems being faced by the developing countries. The renewable

energy sources like wind energy, solar energy, geothermal energy, ocean

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energy, biomass energy and fuel cell technology can be used to overcome

energy shortage in India. To meet the energy requirement for such a fast

growing economy, India will require an assured supply of 3-4 times more

energy than the coal energy consumed today. The renewable energy is

one of the options to meet this requirement. Today, renewable account for

about 33% of India's primary energy consumptions.

India is increasingly adopting responsible renewable energy

techniques and taking positive steps towards carbon emissions, cleaning

the air and ensuring a more sustainable future. In India, from the last two

and half decades there has been a vigorous pursuit of actives, relating to

research, development, demonstrations, production and application of a

variety of renewable energy technologies for use in different sectors. In

this paper, efforts have been made to summarize the availability, current

status major achievements and future potentials of renewable energy

options in India. In this paper he assess pacific policy interventions for

overcoming the barriers and enhancing deployment of renewable for the

future.

2.23 Kumar Ankit and Pragati Kunal (2011)22, shows that

establishing a realistic figure for fuel availability is the most critical

aspect of a biomass planning. This aspect is currently not being given the

weightage by project developers as well as the policy makers. However,

the lack of credible estimates and data has resulted in failure of many

biomass projects. Thus, an urgent need for a closer look and review of the

existing biomass assessment process has piled up policy makes and reject

developers need to planned and individual project level fuel strategies

developed. He also suggest as part of its efforts to promote biomass based

power, the government could establish norms for data collection and fund

the execution of several such studies.

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2.24 Kumar M. and Patel S. K. (2008)23, says that in view of high

energy potential is non-woody biomass species and an increasing interest

in their utilization for power generation, an attempt has been made in his

study to access the proximate analysis and energy content of different

components of Ocinam canum and tridax procumbent biomass species

(both non woody) and their impact on power generation and land

requirement for Ocinum canum was found to be slightly higher than that

in tridax procumbers. The results have shown that approximately 650 and

12770 hectares of land are required to generate 20000 KWh /day

electricity from Ocimum cannum and Tridax procumbens biomass

spewcies.

2.25 Kumar Sudhir (1998)24, in his research paper concluded that,

there is large potential of producing power from biomass. Especially, the

biomass waste treatment has an added advantage of pollution control with

the changes in government policy and available incentives, many private

promoters are now coming up with new proposals private investors and

for promoters are invited to make wealth out of waste. Any clarifications

about the policies and technologies may be availed from MEDA.

2.26 Kumaradasa M. A. et al (1999)25, has estimated the agriwaste

energy potential in Sri Lanka. In 1993 agriwaste consumption for energy

was about 11.37 billion kg, which is equivalent to about 3.6 million tons

of oil equivalent (MTOE) and account act for nearly 66% of the total

primary energy consumption of the country. The share of fuel wood in

the conventional energy supplies.

2.27 Lalwani Mahedra Singh (2010)26, suggested in his paper, there is

a urgent need for transition from petroleum based energy systems to one

based on renewable resources to decrease reliance on depleting reserves

of fossil fuels and to mitigate climate change. In addition, renewable

energy has the potential to create many employment opportunities, at all

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levels, especially in rural areas. So isolated systems whose cost depends

on load factors are needed to be linked with rural industry. Innovative

financing is also a requirement. An emphasis should be given on

presenting the real picture of massive renewable energy potential; it

would be possible to attract foreign investments to herald a Green Energy

Revolution in India.

In this paper also presented a review about conventional and

renewable energy scenario of India. The ordinal terms of exuberant hunt

of activities related to research, development, production and

demonstration at India and also this paper presented current status, major

achievements and future aspects of renewable energy in India. In this

paper evaluated the current energy policies for conquering the

obstructions and implementing renewable for the future is also been

presented.

2.28 Lysen and Egmond Van (2008)27, says that only effects on

biodiversity and protected areas are a concern, pesticide and fertiliser use

and effects on soil fertility are mentioned in this paper only cursory (e.g.

on P. 28 and 78), soil degradation itself is repeatedly a topic, but only as a

constraint to land availability and productivity of biomass production and

not as an effect of such with conventional agriculture practices.

2.29 Madke N.S. and Bhise V.B. (2002)28, studied the economics of

biogas technology. This study is from Satara district. They conclude that

biogas plants of all sizes are economically viable investment. Biogas

technology is the best technology for solving problems of pollution,

deforestation and improving productivity of agriculture by using slurry.

Biogas technology is very useful for reducing import of oil and saving

foreign exchange.

2.30 Melhuish M. (1998)29, estimated the contribution of energy system

to sustainable development in New Zealand. There were total of 12920

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jobs and 9900 jobs in the energy sector in 1990 and 1996, respectively.

This data show 923% decline in 6 years or 3.88% annually. Out of these

totals, 4.6% (600 jobs) and 8.1% (800 jobs) were in the energy efficiency

and renewable energy sector in 1990 and 1996 respectively.

2.31 Meridian and Antares (1992)30, estimated the present and future

impact of biomass power production of US economy. He found that, in

the year 1992, electrical production from biomass, primarily wood had a

net impact of $ 1.7 billion and biomass electrical generating capacity will

have grown to approximately 22 GW in 2010 at this capacity level, the

economic benefits are estimated to be $6.2 billion in personal and

corporate income and 23800 jobs.

2.32 Miller A.S., Mintzer, I. M., Hoagland S.H. (1986)31, points out

that associated with conventional electric power plants are some negative

social and environmental externalities throughout the coal and nuclear

fuel cycles, there are significant environmental and social damages.

Contrariety, biomass energy offers positive environmental social benefits.

Biomass plantation is often best way to reclaim degraded lands and to

generate sizable employment.

2.33 Mukunda H. S. et al (1994)32, reported that biomass-based energy

devices developed in recent times. The need for this renewable energy for

use in developing countries is first highlighted. Classification of biomass

in terms of woody and powdery follows, along with comparison of its

energetic with fossil fuels. The technologies involved, namely gasifier,

combustor, gasifier engine alternator combinations, for generation of heat

and electricity are discussed for both woody biomass and powdery

biomass in some detail. The techno economics is discussed to indicate the

viability of these devices in the current world situation.

2.34 Mullar Adrian (2008)33, reported that bioenergy is seen as a

promising option to reduce GHG emissions. Correspondingly, policy and

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state assistance is steadily increasing, bioenergy use is extending and

technologies are developing fast. However, the long-term impacts of

bioenergy providing a significant share of world energy demand need to

be analysed in more depth. Sustainable policies must also include aspects

other than avoided greenhouse gas emissions. Besides the reservations

tied to food price and land rent increases due to the land competition

between food and bioenergy crops, there are reservation regarding the

increasing water scarcity and especially, regarding the way bioenergy is

grown on the fields.

He suggests that if the amount of biomass needed to supply a

significant share of global energy use can be produced in a truly

sustainable manner. Conventional agriculture may be the only way to

produce such biomass quantities. The bioenergy option may lead to lock-

in situation, making sustainable agriculture impossible. The potential

trade-off between policies to foster bioenergy for "sustainable" world

energy and policies to increase sustainable agriculture must therefore be

kept in mind.

2.35 Panachabuta (2011)34, earliest opined that biggest problem in

biomass projects is the availability of feedstock and the availability at the

right price and usually this varies even within the state and within a

particular district. This has to be analyzed at a micro market level for the

success of projects.

He has also estimated that biomass power potential in India is of

18000 MW and the installed capacity of biomass plants in India is 2664

MW. These plants are in Maharashtra (403 MW), Andhra Pradesh (3663

MW) Karnataka (365 MW), Madhya Pradesh (7 MW) Tamil Nadu (488

MW), Punjab (74 MW), Haryana (35 MW), Rajasthan (773 MW), Uttar

Pradesh (592 MW), West Bengal (16 MW) and Uttrakhand (10 MW).

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2.36 Rai S.N. and Chakrabarti S.K. (1996)35, estimated that, demand

in India for fuel wood at 201 million tones (table 1) supply of biomass is

primarily from fuels that are home grown or collected by households for

own need the government sponsored social forestry programme has

added to fuel wood supply to the tone of 40 million tone annually.

2.37 Rajan T. P. (1995)36, says that, the future of modern biomass

power programme rests on its competitive ability vis-à-vis other

centralized electricity generation technologies. Policies for realizing

biomass electric power potential through modern technologies under

competitive dynamics have a recent origin in India. The biomass

electricity programme took share after MNES appointed the task force in

1993 and recommended the thrust on bagasse based co-generation.

He pointed out the focus of modern biomass programme is one the

cogeneration, especially in sugar industry. A cogeneration potential of

17000 MW power is identified, with 6000 MW in sugar industry alone.

2.38 Rajkumar Ashok et al. (2012)37, in his paper draws on evidence

from the last for decades of energy production and consumption in India,

analyszing the overview evolution of renewable energy status and further

potential at national and global level; further, it explorers the strength,

weekness, opportunities and threat (SWOT) of renewable energy sector in

India. The barriers and solutions to the renewable energy development in

India also outlined.

He also concluded in his paper, the economic growth of any

country depends only on the long term availability of energy from

sources that are affordable, accessible and secured.

2.39 Rajkumar (2003)38, Concluded that IREDA has demonstrated the

viability of commercial shown that these projects can cater to the rural

energy needs for sustainable development. By demonstrating success,

IREDA has become a role model for other commercial banks and

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financial institutions in the country who have now also started exploring

similar financing of biomass based power projects.

2.40 Ramage J. and Scurlock J. (1996)39, points out that, it is

important to underline here that the collection of fuel from European

forestry and agriculture and the use of energy crops is a sustainable

activity that does not deplete future resources. By the year 2050, it is

estimated that 90% of the world population will live in developing

countries.

2.41 Ramahandra T.V., Kamakshi G., Shruthi B. V. (2004)40, in

theie paper concluded that, agro-climatic zone wise bioenergy availability

and demand compulation show that four zones are in energy surplus,

while the remaining are energy deficient.

Bioenergy surplus zones are the central dry zone (covering the

entire district of Bidar and parts of Gulbarga district); southern transition

zone (covering parts of Hassan, Chikmagalur, Shimoga, Mysore and a

small portion of Tamkur district) hill zoen (covering parts of Uttara

Kannada, Belgaum, Shimoga, Chikmagalur, Haveri, Kodagu and one

taluka of Hassan) and the coastal zone (covering parts of Uttara

Khannada, Udupi and Dakshina Kannada district.)

In this paper they analyzed sector wise contribution in the energy

surplus transition zone; about 127,769 ha of wasteland are available for

energy plantation. In the hilly and coastal zones, the extent of wastelands

available for energy plantations is about 237,371 ha and 880,189 ha

respectively, which can be utilized for raising energy plantations

comprising Acacia auricullformis, casuarina and Eucalyptus Species

Assuming an average biomass productivity of 5 t/ha/year, the total

amount of exploitable biomass available from there plantations would be

,400,945 tons annually with the population increasing rapidly the existing

bio source can be sustained by using other energy alternatives like biogas.

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2.42 Ravindranath N.H. and Hall D.O. (1995)41, estimated that,

biomass consumption remain highly variable since most biomass is not

transacted on the market supply-side estimated that, biomass energy are

reported as fuel wood for domestic sector 218.5 million tone (dry) crop

residue 96 million tone (estimate for 1985) and cattle dung cake 37

million tone.

2.43 Ravindranath N. H. et al, (2005)42, they concluded that in India,

fuel wood, crop residues and animal manure are the dominant biomass

fuels, which are mostly used in the rural areas, at very low efficiencies,

Industrial and municipal solid wastes (MSW) and Crop residues such as

rice husk and bagasse can be used for energy generation. In this paper,

the potential of energy from crop residues, animal manure, msw,

industrial wastewater and biomass fuels that can be conserved for other

application through efficiency improvement is discussed. The total

potential of energy from these sources in 1997 is estimated to be

equivalent to 5.114 EJ, which amounts to a little more than a third of the

total fossil fuel use in India. The energy potential in 2010 is estimated to

be about 8.26 EJ.

2.44 Ravindranath N.H. et al (2009)43, they says that India's energy

challenges are multi-pronged. They are manifested through growing

demand for modern energy carriers, a fossil fuel dominated energy

system facing a severe resources. Crunch, the need for creating access to

quality energy for the large section of deprived population, vulnerable

energy security, local and global pollution regimes and the need for

sustaining economic development. Renewable energy is considered as

one of the most promising alternatives. Recognized this potential, India

has been implementing one of the largest renewable energy programmes

in the world. among the renewable energy technologies, bioenergy has

gasification and biomass power projects and liquid fuels. India has also

106

formulated and implemented a number of innovative policies and

programmes to promote bioenergy technologies. However, according to

some preliminary studies, the success rate is marginal compared to the

potential available this limited success is a clear indicator of the need for

a serious reassessment of the bioenergy programme further, a realization

of the need for adopting a sustainable energy path to address the above

challenges will be the guiding for in this reassessment.

In this paper focuses on analysing the effectiveness of bioenergy in

creating this rural energy access and its sustainability in long run through

assessing the demand for bioenergy and potential that could be created,

technologies, status and commercialization and technology transfer and

dissemination in India's economic and environmental performance and

impacts; bioenergy policies, regulatory measures and barrier analysis.

The results show that bioenergy technology (BET) alternatives

compare favorably with the conventional ones. The cost comparisons

show that the unit costs of BET alternatives are in the range of 15-187%

of the conventional alternatives. The climate change benefits in terms of

carbon emission reductions are to the tune of 110 TC per year provided

the available potential of BET's are utilized.

2.45 Ray P. C. (2012)44, concluded that biomass has a very high

potential as a renewable energy resources because of its reliability and

availability everywhere around the globe. Many studies suggest that it

can become an important primary energy source in the future global

energy system, with dedicated biomass plantations being the major

biomass supply source.

In his paper, different technological option for energy production

from biomass has discussed and presented with suitable case studies. In

the above case studies 100% producer gas engine for gasification and

purified methane production form bio-machination may get more reliable

107

energy option because they are free from conventional resources.

Moreover plants are showing more viable option where abundant

available waste biomasses are available with the process industry such as

bamboo dust for paper industry rice husk for rice mill etc. energy from

biomass will be reliable energy option where there is lack of conventional

sources and located far away from the grid and abundant availability of

biomass other than wood, biomass. Finally prior implementations of

biomass energy projects always face problem of reliability due to the

issues like identical biomass composition, bulk density as well as energy

density at the inlet of the process and also cost varies due to non-

regulatory market for biomass.

2.46 Reshi S. B. (2011)45, says that India was one of the world leader in

installed renewable energy capacity with total of 17594 MW (both utility

and non utility) which represents approximately 10 percent of India's total

installed electric generating capacity. From the total of 17594 MW,

17.174 MW were grid connected projects and rest (2.4 percent) consist of

off grid systems.

2.47 Richard G. N. (2004)46, in his paper, a methodology was

developed to estimated quantities of crop residues that can be removed

while maintaing rain or wind erosion at less than or equal to the tolerable

soil-loss level six corn and wheat rotations in the 10 largest corn-

producing states were analyzed.

In this paper evaluated that residue removal rates for each rotation

were evaluated for conventional, mulch/reduced and no- till field

operation.

In this paper the analysis indicated that potential removable

maximum quantities range from nearly 5.5 million dry metric t/Yr. for a

continuous corn rotation using conventional till in Kansas to more than

97 million dry metric t/Yr. for a corn-wheat using no-till in Illinois.

108

2.48 Santisirisomboon J. et al (2001)47, presents in the research paper

that postulates that Thailand has a high potential to utilize renewable

energy for electricity generation especially from agricultural waste,

however, at present only a small fraction of biomass is used for energy

purposes. This paper aims to estimate the potential of biomass power

generation and its impact on power generation expansion planning as well

as mitigating carbon dioxide emission from the power sector. The harvest

area and crop yield per area are taken into consideration to estimate the

future biomass availability. The supplies of biomass are then applied as a

constraint in the least cost electricity generation expansion-planning

model. The cost of Co emissions is also added to the fuel costs as carbon

taxation to make biomass power generation competitive to fossil fuels

and then the optimum value of Co change is found out. In addition, levels

of Co limitation from power generation are also introduced to mitigate Co

emissions.

2.49 Sharma M. P. and Sharma J. D. (1999)48, observed that with the

increase in industrialization coupled with population growth, the demand

for power rapidly increased, thereby influencing the economic and social

growth of the country. In addition to power from conventional sources,

the new and renewable energy sources (NRES) have been found to have

enormous potential. About 800 MW of power from renewable has

already been created while about 2000 MW is likely to be added in new

future. Among the NRES, baggasse based co-generation of surplus power

in Indian sugar mills has been given a new boost, as more than 3500 MW

of surplus power potential exist in sugar mills only. These industries are

being encouraged by the govt. of India. India to generate surplus power

and feed to the grid by offering a number of incentive schemes. An

attempt has been made in this paper to present energy scenario, co-

generation potential, technological options available, incentives for

109

encouraging power generation in sugar industry, techno-economic

analysis of co-generated and developments in this vital field.

2.50 Shukla P. R. (1996)49, in his research paper, concluded that there

is large biomass use in India. The bio-energy is confined primarily to

conventional uses such as rooking in rural households and heating in rural

industries. The approach is penetrations biomass technologies through

government programmes push. Due to high cost and low service

reliability, the biomass energy is not yet competitive to cause significant

demand (market) pull. Biomass is however competitive in niche

application such as in remote biomass rich locations and agro and wood

processing industries generating cheaply available biomass waste.

A long-term techno-economic analysis using the MARKAL model

shows that biomass electricity technologies under an optimal greenhouse

gas mitigation regime will penetrate to over 35000 MW of electric power

(or 9 percent of India’s electricity generation) in the year 2035. A major

issue in the long run shall be the supply of land with improved biomass

productivity of land and higher conversion efficiency, a small fraction of

degraded land may be adequate to support the market penetration during

next few decades.

Under their policies in India during the next decade shall play

decisive role in the future penetration of biomass energy.

2.51 Shukla P.R. (2005)50, in his paper concluded that biomass is a key

link between energy, local environment, climate change and transition to

modern biomass can deliver development and climate co-benefits. Rising

productivity is vital to reducing pressure on land and resolving food vs.

energy security conflict.

2.52 Sheng et al (2005)51, they reported that the heating power value is

one of the most important protestics of biomass fuels for design

calculation or numerical simulations of thermal conversion systems for

110

biomass. There are a number of formulas proposed in this paper to

estimate the higher heating value (HHV) of biomass fuels from the basic

analysis data, i.e. proximate, ultimate and chemical analysis composition.

In this paper, there co-relations were evaluated statistically based on a

large database of biomass samples collected from the open literature. It

was found that the correlations based on ultimate analysis are the most

actuate. The correlations based on the proximate data have low accuracy

because the proximate analysis provide only on the proximate data have

low accuracy because the proximate analysis provides only an empirical

composition of the biomass. The correlations based on the biochemical

composition are not reliable because of the variation of the components

properties. The low accuracy of previous co-relations in mainly due to the

limitation of samples used for deriving them. To achieve a higher

accuracy, new correlations were proposed to estimate the HHV from the

proximate and ultimate analysis based on the current database. The new

correlation between the HHV and dry ash content of biomass (in weight

present, wt %) (I.e. HHV (MJ/Kg_=19.914-0.2324 Ash) could be

conveniently used to estimate the HHV from proximate analysis. The

new formula, based on the composition of main elements (in, wt %) C H

and O (i.e. HHV (MJ/Kg) =-1:3675 + 0:137C + 0:7009H + 0: 03180*) is

the most accurate one, with more than 90% predictions in the range of +

5% error.

2.53 Singal S. K. et al (2006)52, in there paper an attempt has been

made to present potential of non-conventional renewable energy sources

in India. Different renewable energy technologies (RET) and their

advantages are also discussed.

They concluded in their paper the demand of energy is growing

owing to the development. Due to the problems associated with the

development of conventional sources of energy, the focus is now being

111

shifted to renewable energy sources. India has potential of renewable

energy sources in abundance, which if developed properly can augment

the growing demand of the energy. There is need to make full use of

renewable energy technologies to harness the untapped potential in cost

effective manner and fulfill the energy demand.

2.54 Singh B. P. et al (2000)53, deals with prospect and perspective of

bioenergy in India. The present bioenergy status in India has been

compared with that elsewhere. A brief description of the research work

carried out so far in this area at Regional Research Laboratory (RRL)

Bhubaneswar was presented. It has been concluded that agro waste has

immense potential in the Indian context. All efforts should be made to

makes optimum use of it. Requirement of an action oriented national

policy for proper utilization of agro waste resources available in the

country was highlighted.

2.55 Singh N. P. (1996)54, has presented an overview of agriwaste

programme in India. He has discussed various technologies, production

and improvement practices, agriwaste, briquetting, agriwaste,

gasification, biomass based power project, combustion, cogeneration,

improved cook stoves, biogases and energy recovery from municipal and

industrial wastes, fiscal incentives in this paper.

2.56 Smeets et al (2007)55, found that the bioenergy potential of sub-

saharan Africa-after accounting for food production and resource

constraints was the greatest of any of the major world regions. Using four

scenarios, the potentials included various categories of biomass, among

which residues and abandoned agricultural land were the most significant

globally. The high potential results from the large areas of suitable

cropland in the region, large areas of pasture land presently used and the

low productivity of existing agricultural production systems.

112

It is important to note that these are techno-economic potentials,

and these will inevitably be social and cultural issues that would restrict

use of some lands for energy production, as well as the economics of the

markets themselves. Nevertheless, the tremendous potential for bio-

energy, after accounting for food production, means that the margin for

future development is significant.

2.57 Someshekhar S. P. et al (2003)56, in their paper assesses the

biomass production potential for energy and its financial viability for

India. The scenarios considered for estimating the biomass potential are

incremental to biomass demand, sustainable biomass demand and full

biomass demand. Under there scenarios, two situations have been

considered: no increase in cropland by 2010 and increase in cropland by

10% over the 1995 area annually. 62-310 million tones of wood could be

generated from the surplus land after meeting all the conventional

requirements of biomass such as domestic fuel wood, industrial wood and

sawn wood requiring an investment of 168786 billion rupees.

The annual energy potential of plantation biomass is estimated to

vary from 930 to 4650 PJ (Peta Joules). It is projected that the energy

consumption in 2010 will be 1920 PT, thus plantation biomass could

supply about 5%-24% of projected total energy consumption in 2010.

The key barriers to producing biomass for energy are the lack of demand

for wood for energy and financial incentives to promote bioenergy, low

productivity of plantations, inaccessibility of genetically improved

planting stock, in appropriate sidviculture practices for high yields of

plantations, land tenurial barriers and absence of institutions to integrate

biomass production for energy and bioenergy utilities (13 tables, 33

references)

2.58 Sonde R. R. (2011)57, shows that as India moves into high growth

trajectory, we will need to harness all forms of energy and biomass power

113

is one such credible option that India would do well to maximize. India

needs "built in India" indigenous technologies, component level

manufacturing base from MSME sectors, large numbers of project

developers, mini grids, and power electronics for biomass distributed

plants etc. to propel India as a biomass leader needless to mention along

with technology development, necessary manufacturing, facilities and

right king of financial instruments will make such a vision a distinct

possibility. Like solar mission, biomass mission is a necessity for fast

proliferation biomass based power plants in an India.

2.59 Sorensen H.A. (1983)58, A steam power plant is actually a two-

fluid system; that is energy is exchanged between the combustion gases

and water. The feasibility of combining gas and steam expansion in a

power cycle has been extensively explored. Because steam generation

involves the flow of large volumes of combustion gases, gas expansion is

most appropriately accomplished in a gas turbine.

2.60 Terra Daily (2007)59, Wood other types of biomass widely used as

fuels in the private and industrial sectors, basically because they are

cheaper than other fuels local availability and reliability of supply add to

the economic advantages. Modern applications in both industrialized

countries and in a south-east Asia have demonstrated that biomass energy

can also be competitive for large-scale industrial applications for fuel

importing countries, the use of local biomass can save substantial amount

of foreign exchange.

Presently, it is anticipated that shifting to renewable energy could

save countries in East Asia as a much as two trillion Vs dollars in fuel

costs over the next 23 years, or more than billion dollars annually,

according to the environmental group Greenpeace. As projected by the

(IEA), investment costs for new biomass power plants in East Asia would

total 430 billion dollars between 2004 and 2030.

114

2.61 UNEP (2008)60, Insurance Companies offer a range of products to

cover several categories of risks that biomass power plants face in

establishment and operation. Such policies, which cover fire, special

perils, business interruption, etc. were conventional ly priced based on

regulated tariffs but premiums are now market determined.

Insurance companies are not familiar with the dominant risk that

confronts biomass power plants the uncertainties regarding supply of fuel

and prices therefore, in view of varied business circumstances across

India, it is crucial that biomass power plants be evaluated within the

framework of the risk management protocols stipulated in section 5.

2.62 Vergara W. and Pimentel D. (1978)61, estimated the annual

Indian biomass growth at 1339.0 Mt. The current estimate appears

reasonably close. It is clear that the biomass energy available annually is

indeed significant. This quantum of biomass may be compared with the

fossil fuel energy consumed in India for instance, in 2000-01, the total

commercial energy consumed in India was about 15030 PJ (513.0 mt. of

coal equivalent @29.3 GJ/t coal equivalent) according to GOI (2002).

Even if we assume that the biomass has 40% less coal calorific value than

coal equivalent (i.e., 1 t biomass contains 17 6 PJ, the biomass energy

growth is easily double the fossil fuel energy consumption. It must,

however, be pointed out that not all the biomass energy may be available

and what is available may have other current uses. He has also suggested

that there is a need to examine the current biomass utilization patterns and

the various barriers to the expansion of biomass use.

2.63 Victor N. M. et al (2002)62, looked into the pattern of biomass use

and incomes in developing countries. Using 1996 data it was observed

that as income increased, the share of fuel wood in total household energy

consumption declined. The exact share of fuel wood varied greatly across

countries, but the declining pattern of fuel wood share with income was

specific at low income levels. Furthermore, for countries with high per

115

capita income, industrialization and urbanizations, the share of biomass

energy consumption is smaller. In the countries with low per capita

incomes, the share of biomass in total energy can reach 80% or more. On

one hand, US historical data confirm that with socio-economic

development, households and industries move from low quality fuels,

such as conventional biomass, to more convenient and efficient fuels

such as kerosene, coal, oil, gas and electricity.

2.64 Williams R. H. and Larson E. D. (1992)64, In their paper they

have reflected that a promising strategy for modernizing bioenergy is the

production of electricity or the cogeneration of electricity and heat using

gasified biomass with advanced conversion technologies.

As regards the biomass production, productivity values of

plantation have been reported to be up to 40 tones per hectare for high

intensity plantation. However, continuous production facilities at 10-15

tones per hectare per year may be quite satisfactory.

2.65 Wood J. and Hall D.O. (1994)65, Shows that among the biomass

energy sources, wood fuels are the most prominent, with rapid increase in

fossil fuel use, the share of biomass energy in total energy declined

steadily through substitution by coal in the nineteenth century and later

by refined oil and gas during the twentieth century. Despite its declining

share in energy, global consumption of wood energy, has continued to

grow during 1974 to 1994 global wood consumption of wood energy

grew annually the biomass sources contribute 14% of global energy and

38% of energy in developing countries.

2.66 Zoelzer K. (2000)63, enumerates the advantages and disadvantages

of fluidized bed applications for different applications. The evaluation is

confined to the most common type of atmospheric circulating fluidized

bed combustion (CFBC) system used in power plants and also includes

the principles of coal dust combustion (CDC) as a basis for comparison.

116

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