*:. . 11 October 1967

c R SIC - 70 1

REVIEW OF NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING T E C H N I Q U E S FOR D E T E C T I N G L A C K O F P E N E T R A T I O N I N ALUMINUM FUSION WELDS

bY

John A . Gibson

Contract No. DAAH01-67-C-1921 Battelle Memorial Institute

505 King Avenue Columbus, Ohio 43201

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN APPROVED FOR PUBLIC RELEASE AND SALE; ITS DISTRIBUTION IS UNLIMITED

Research Branch R edstone Scientific Information Center

U. S. Army Missile Command Redstone Arsenal, Alabama 35809

Res ear ch and Development Director ate

https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=19680000663 2018-04-27T09:21:59+00:00Z

ABSTRACT

A l i terature search was made to determine the effectiveness of various nondestructive testing techniques for detecting lack of penetration, i. e . , incomplete penetration, in butt joints in aluminum alloys fusion welded from both sides. Under certain conditions , conventional ultrasonic and radiographic techniques may fail to detect such incomplete penetration.

Two approaches to radiographic inspection also are reviewed which might be developed into satisfactory inspection techniques for improved reliabil- ity in detection of incomplete joint penetration. One approach involves the measurement of radiographic density variations in weld a reas . The other approach involves creating a readily detectable flaw which is completely removed when joint penetration i s complete.

In addition, two approaches to improve ultrasonic inspection a r e reviewed. One approach is to increase the sensitivity of the tes t method by increasing the tes t frequency. The other approach involves creating a readily detectable f law which is completely removed when complete penetration i s obtained, n s i m i l n r approach to tha t proposed for i.acliogrxyhic insycction.

Recomniendations are made for future research to develop the potential of these approaches.

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FOREWORD

This report summarizes a literature survey on the detection of imcomplete penetration in butt joints in aluminum fusion welded from two sides. The survey was made at the request of the Research Branch, Rcdstone Scientific Information Center, U. S. Army Missile Command, Redstone Arsenal, Alabama. The scope of this study was outlined by the Quality Assurance Laboratory of the Marshall Space Flight Center. 67-C-1921 and covers information published since 1963 and available a s of July 1967.

This report was prepared a s par t of Contract No. DAAH01-

Two computerized searches were made in connection with this study; one searched the NASA holdings and the other searched the DDC holdings. searches plus the RSIC l ibrary holdings gave a complete covering of U. S. Govern- ment documents. The open literature was searched through the use of published abstracts a s well as a complete review of selected journals.

These

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CONTENTS Page

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 . Conclusions and Recommendations ..................... 6

Recent Research and Development on Nondestructive Testing of Aluminum Welds

LITERATURECITED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

V

1 Introduction

In the aerospace industry, aluminum alloy plates often are butt welded using fusion processes. Occasionally in designs calling for complete penetration welds , joints with incomplete penetration may be encountered due to variations in the welding procedure. Incomplete penetration in a fusion- welded joint is defined as any case in which penetration is less than that speci- fied. In a complete penetration butt joint welded from both sides, incomplete penetration i s simply failure of the two fusion zones to meet, as shown in Figure 1.

The effect of incomplete penetration is to reduce the strength of the joint, This loss of strength resul ts from a reduction in welded sectional area and, in some cases, from notch effects caused by the remaining gap. The reduction in strength depends on the load conditions encountered in service and on the ductil- ity of the metal. ' The greatest reduction in serv ice performance occurs under cyclic loading. Incomplete penetration can also cause premature joint failure when the joint is subjected to impact loading, even when it is subjected to static loading conditions. The reduction in static strength is usually proportional to the loss of cross-sectional area.

Under certain conditions , however, some degree of incomplete penetra- Even so, i t is important to be able to detect and mcas- tion may be acceptable.

u r e the extent of penetration by nondestructive testing techniques. that a problem arises. developed for detecting various defects in welded structures. techniques, ultrasonics and radiography, a r e commonly used to detect subsur- face defects , such as incomplete penetration in aluminum weldments. two methods appear to have a common limitation; neither will reliably detect incomplete penetration in a case where shrinkage s t r e s ses from the weld beads force the unfused interfaces of the plate tightly together. With these inspection methods, a very small unwelded area might be easily detected if there is a gap between the edges of the plates, hut a much la rger unn~eldecl area in which the edges of the plate are in tight contact may defy detection. apparent limitation of the ultrasonic and radiographic techniques, a l i terature search was conducted with the objective of finding other methods for detecting incomplete penetration o r of finding means for assuring the reliability of either ultrasonics o r radiography.

it is here A wide variety of nondestructive techniques has been

Two of these

But these

Because of this

2. Recent Research and Development on Nondestructive Test ing of

Aluminum Welds

A s mentioned in the introduction, there i s a wide variety of non- destructive testing techniques in use for inspecting welds. niques were tlcvelopecl before 1960.

RIost of these tech- The use o f microwaves and infrared

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n a m n

w

1 W s

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.. radiation in nondestructive testing was developed in the ear ly 1960's. Since the latter developments, no new test tools have been introduced, but the l i terature shows many modifications and refinements of the ear l ier procedures and equip- ment. However, ultrasonics and radiography still appear to present the most reliable means of detecting incomplete penetration, although some refinement of one of these might be necessary to detect defects in all cases. A l l of the other nondestructive testing methods, some of which have been t r ied experimen- tally to detect incomplete penetration, appear to have some shortcomings. These methods involve the use of penetrants, anodic electroluminescence, radio- frequency waves, microwaves, eddy currents , infrared heating, magnetic particles, and photostress coatings. A description and reasons for their unreliability in detecting incomplete penetration a r e given briefly in the Appendix.

The following discussion is limited to radiography, ultrasonics, and certain promising refinements of these test methods.

a. Radiography

Radiography offers an advantage over ultrasonics in that it pro- vides a permanent visual record of the weld condition; however, radiographic techniques usually require access to both sides of a weld. This requirement is not necessarily valid when evaluating welds in pipe and tubing. In this case the X-ray beam may be directed through both walls of the pipe and, depending on diameter, the welds in either one o r both walls can be X-rayed in a single exposure.

Radiographic evaluation i s normally performed with industrial X-ray equipment. Gamma radiation from isotopes of cobalt, ir idium, and cesium also may be used. But in t h e case of aluminum, they a r e suitable only for very heavy sections. Radiographic inspection is performed by transmitting X-rays through the weld and recording the radiographic image on film. A slow-speed fine-grain fi lm is normally used to provide high contrast, high resolution, and maximum detail. amount of radiation has passed through the object in these areas . penetration appears on the radiograph as a continuous o r intermittent dark line at the center of the weld.2 The response of incomplete penetration to radiography has been defined as good to fair . appears to be in cases where unfused interfaces a r e drawn tightly together. However, it is possible to detect as small a s one percent o r l e s s of the material thickness with radiographic techniques.

On the radiographic film, defect a reas appear darker because a greater Incomplete

Again, as with ultrasonics, the limitation

4

( 1) Intentional Defects. One possible way of improving the detection of incomplete penetration when the unfused edges a r e in tight contact

A ’ ThiF defect will be

5 <: ::: ::: is being investigated experimentally at Marshall Space Flight Center. t

readily detectable delcct is intentionally created in the weld. completely eliminated with proper weld penetration. is not detected in radiographic examination of the weld, penetration is assumed to be complete.

If this intentional defect

Work a t MSFC involves plating the interface to be welded with a mater ia l that is relatively opaque to X-rays, such as copper, and also metallurgically compatible with the base metal. During welding, all of the plated copper is dissolved in the fusion zone. When complete penetration occurs , no layers of copper remain. If penetration is incomplete, l ayers of copper remain and are readily detected by radiographic techniques.

During the MSFC work, slight porosity was observed in the fusion zone of the plated specimens. Apparently gases , probably hydrogen, became entrap- ped on the base metal during plating. Work is now being car r ied out which indicates that the porosity may not be serious and that improved plating tech- niques might overcome the problem.

An interface defect could also be created by placing a shim o r foil between the abutting surfaces or by depositing metal on the weld joint surfaces by means other than plating. relatively opaque to X-rays , be readily dissolved in molten aluminum, and be metallurgically compatible with aluminum.

In either case, the mater ia l would have to be

There are obvious advantages to plating o r coating the surfaces as opposed to the use of a shim o r foil. only two surfaces as possible sources of contamination rather than four as with shim o r foil. extensive cleaning prior to joining that bare aluminum does. pointed out in the MSFC work, c a r e must be taken not to entrap porosity causing gases during plating. Regardless of how the mater ia l is plated, there must be assurance that undesirable alloying effects do not impair joint properties.

F i r s t , when plating is used, there a r e

Second, a joint plated with copper o r s i lver does not require the However, as

One other possible means of creating intentional defects is to score o r slit the weld interfaces prior to welding. These slits would be eliminated dur- ing welding i f penetration were complete and would be easily detected by radio- graphy i f not eliminated. controlled to a s su re that the marks were deep enough to be detected but not s o deep as to impair the quality of the joint.

The scoring operation would have to be carefully

:I: Private Communication, R. L. Brown, Marshall Space Flight Center, July 1967.

Center, July 1967. ::::I: Private Communication, W. N. Clotfelter, Marshall Space Flight

4

( 2) Density Variations. Another possible solution to the problem has been uncovered in work at North American Aviation, Space and Information Systems Division. 6, ’ Although their method has been reported as a feasible means of detecting incomplete penetration, the work done thus far does not appear conclusive. bead overlap to insure complete penetration in a butt weld. the radiographic density of the weld metal differs from that of the parent material . A radiation source is placed on one side of the weld and a detector on the other. The amount of radiation reaching the detector depends on the thickness and density of the material . Welds are machined to uniform thickness so that all variations in radiation a r e attributable to density differences. Experi- ments using this method have shown that weld specimens in which weld beads did not overlap gave readings different from either the base metal alone or a com- plete penetration weld. However, neither the effects of porosity nor of composi- tional variances within the weld zone itself were considered. These, and other possible causes of density changes, could affect the readings to a greater extent than incomplete penetration. It is possible that a technique along these lines can be developed, but additional research is needed.

The technique proposed involves a means of measuring weld It is assumed that

b. Ultrasonics

Ultrasonic testing uses high frequency radiation beyond the audible range to detect flaws and defects. A beam of ultrasonic energy is directed into the specimen. Measurement is made either of the energy transmitted through the specimen or of the energy reflected from a reas within the specimen. Defect detection is based on the fact that the waves are reflected a t surfaces. Any loss of energy as the beam passes through the specimen o r reflection of energy back is the result of reflection of the beam at defects. When properly calibrated and under favorable conditions the technique wil l show the defect s ize , type, and location. 8-10

Fo r ultrasonic testing of welds, the energy is usually directed at a pre- determined angle from the normal. This is called the shear-wave mode. A longitudinal mode is also used in some instances. High frequencies a r e required to detect small defects or discontinuities because ultrasonic waves will not interact with objects whose dimensions are less than the wavelength. Frequen- c ies of 1 to 5 mc a r e commonly used to inspect welds, 2 . 5 mc being perhaps the most common.

Ordinarily, ultrasonic testing is very sensitive to planar defects such as incomplete penetration in butt welds performed from two s ides . In the case of complete penetration butt welds in aluminum, however, areas of incomplete penetration may be closed up s o tightly as a resul t of the heat and forces generated by welding that they a r e undetectable.

This w a s confirmed in an experiment which used aluminum plates butted '

together to simulate an area of incomplete penetration. together so tightly that the interface between them w a s undetectable by ultrasonic shear-wave testing at 5 mc. *' However, it was necessary to apply both pressure and high temperature to abutting aluminum plates to simulate the undetectable condition; pressure alone, up to the point of yielding, did not prevent detection.

The plates were forced

The exact reason why the interface cannot be detected under these condi- One possible explanation is that the planar area of incomplete tions i s iudmown.

penetration may be broken up into many small areas due to the formation of microbonds under the conditions of high temperature and force. unbonded a reas would then be very difficult to detect by ultrasonic testing because of their small size.

The resulting

There are two possible approaches to increasing the effectiveness of ultrasonic testing in detecting incomplete penetration in aluminum weldments. One approach i s to increase the sensitivity of the process. plished by increasing the test frequency. length of the sound in the test object bccoiiies shor te r and smal le r defects can be dctccted. A n increase i n frequcncjr. however, is accompanied by a loss of energy (attenuation) . This in turn causes a rise in random reflections, or noise, which l imits the upper frequency that can be used for testing a material. ' I If the frequency could be ra i sed to say 25 mc with aluminuni, defects as small a s approximately 0.0005 in. could be detected, which might be sufficient to detect the a reas of incomplete penetration.

This can be accom- Ey increasing the frequency, the wave-

A second approach, suggested by the intentional defect procedure with radiography is to introduce intentional defects into the plate surfaces , such as small notches, which would be fused when complete penetration is obtained, but which a re readily detectable by ultrasonic testing in the event of incomplete penetration. be readily fused under proper conditions, but would not be crushed shut in the event of incomplete penetration. If the notches are oriented perpendicular to the plate surkicc. thcn ti?(. cicpth or the incomplete pcnctration could also bc c! e t e riii i 11 c d .

The notches would have a suitable s ize and shape so that they would

3 , Conclusions and Recommendations

The following conclusions have been rexched as a resul t of this study:

1) Ultrasonic and radiographic techniques can be used to detect incomplete penetration in butt welds in aluminum plate fusion welded from two sides. IIowever, with both techniques, it is

difficult to detect this defect in cases where the plate interfaces have been drawn tightly together by shrinkage forces.

A review of the l i terature has revealed no further basic techniques that will reliably detect incomplete penetration in welded joints in aluminum.

It might be possible to detect the incomplete penetration even when the interfaces a r e clrawvn very tight, with ultrasonic techniques if sufficiently high frequencies couIcl be used.

By creating readily detectable defects which are eliminated with complete penetration, it niight be possible to detect all cases of incomplete penetration by radiographic or ultrasonic techniques. This would have the advantage that the resul ts obtained by one test method could be confirmed by the other.

A technique for measuring rad iogaphie density variations might be developed in the future, hit at present i t requires more research.

On the basis of this study and the above conclusions, the following recom- mendations are made:

Studies should be made to determine the highest frequencies that can practically be used to detect incomplete penetration in alumi- num welclnieiits by ultrasonic techniques.

Work should be continued on the use of plated interfaces as an aid in detecting inadequate penetration by radiographic inspection. If tests show that this process does not impair joint properties, this approach may solve the problem.

W o r k should be continued on the possibility of introducing inten- tional defects, such as notches, into the weld region which are easily fused when complete penetration i s obtained, but which a r e readily detected by ultrasonic o r radiographic testing in the event of incomplete penetration.

The North Aniericaii Aviation approach of measuring variations in radiographic density might be continued. the effects of porosity and compositional variances be closely studied. 9

It i s recommended that

5) Battelle would suggest one other possible means of solving the problem. A tensile load applied during radiographic inspection might possibly "open up" interfaces sufficiently wherever incom- plete penetration existed to allow detection of this defect. There a r e no reports of this being done, but it appears at least worthy of investigation. Since many s t ructures undergo tensile loading in any case, this could be easily incorporated into an inspection program.

LITERATURE CITED

1.

2.

3 .

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus Laboratories, Columbus, Ohio,

ING by Koichi Masubuchi, U. S. Army Missile Command, Redstone Scientific Information Center , Huntsville, Alabama, Contract No. DA-01- 021-AMC-14693 ( Z ) , RSIC-670 (to b e published) .

INTEGRATION OF NASA-SPONSORED STUDIES O F ALUMINUM WELD-

R . C. McMaster, NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING ITAXDI3OOK. 1, New \70rl,, The Ronald Press Company, 1953. -

J. W. Knight, WELDING KAISER ALUMINUM, First Edition, Kaiser Aluminum and Chemical Sales, Inc. , Oakland, California, 1967.

W. McGonnagle, NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING, Materials Evaluation, December 1964, pp. 561-574.

R. W. Neuschafer , NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING - PREDICTIONS

NIQUES, Procedures of the 2nd Technology Status and Trends Symposium, Marshall Space Flight Center, October 26-27, 1966 , NASA-SP-5082, 1967.

O F THE FUTURE, NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING: TRENDS AND TECH-

L. Baurmash, "The Detection of Aluminum Weld Defects by Hcnns of Instrumental Radiography, 'I Atomics International Division of' North American, Inc.

Space and Information Systems Division, North American Aviation, Inc. EVALUATION O F DELAYED OPPOSED ARC WELD NUGGET OVERLAPS UTILIZING A SCINTILLATION COUNTING SYSTEM by N. ILIarcovich and H. E i le r , 1966, T. V. No. SID 55837.

J . E. Kingsbury and W. W. Clotfelter, NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING - THE ROAD TO QUALITY, Symposium on Technical Status and Trends, NGG-17728, pp. 215-221.

R. C . ILlcMaster , NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING HANDBOOK, - 2 , The Ronald Press Company, Eew York, 1939.

U. S. Army hlissile Command, Rocketdvne Division of North American Aviation, Inc. , Canoga Park, CnliEornia, ULTRASONIC TESTING OF ALC'RIINURI FUSIOX WELDS 1,) I). II:igcmaier, October 19Ci4, Contract DA -2 0 - 1 1 3 -AM C - 1 0 5 2 ( Z ) .

LITERATURE CITED (Concluded)

11. 13. G. Martin, EVALUATION O F TIIERMAL, ULTRASONIC , AND PIIOTOSTRESS TECIINIQUES FOR DETECTING LACK O F FUSION IN ALUMINUM WELDMENTS, 28 April 1966, lhuglas Aircraft Company Report No. SM- L9165.

1 2 . S. Eisner , DETECTION O F SUBSTRUCTURE DIFFERENCES IN ALUMINUM ALLOYS BY ANODIC ELECTROLUMINESCENCE, Materials Research and Standards, - 6, No. 2 , February 1966, pp. 72-75.

13. U. S. Army Missile Command, Redstone Arsenal, Alabama,

FREQUENCY WAVES by C. I<. Krichbaum, D. E. Stutz, D. Ensminger, and A. F. Leatherman, 30 June 1965, RSIC-433.

LITERATURE SURVEY O N INSPEC‘I‘ION O F WELDS BY RADIO-

14. U. S. Army, Frankford Arsenal, MICROWAVE TECIINIQUES AS APPLIED TO NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING ON NON-METALLIC MATERIALS by by T. M. Lavelle, J. T. Lehman, and D. Latshaw, March 1967, ‘rest Rc’lIort TG7-3-1.

15. W. D. Rummel, DEVELOPMENT AND USE OF A N EDDY CURRENT CON IXJCTIVITY TECIINJQUE E’OR MONITOR O F € E A T EFFECTS I N 2014 ALUMINUM ALLOY WELDMENTS, 20th Annual Tcchnical Conference Transactions, American Society Cor Quality Control, 1-3 June 1966, pp. 628-W!).

16. R. I<. Lewis and J . T. Norton, 1NI;RARED DECTECTION O F WELD DEFECTS - FINAL REPORT, -31 June 1961, WAL 550/1-1.

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APPENDIX

There a r e many nondestructive testing techniques used on weldments that h a w not been discussed in the main body of this report . None of these appear reliable for detecting incomplete penetration in aluminum joints, but each is discussed briefly here for reference purposes.

Penetrant Methods

Penetrant methods a r e used extensively for detecting surface flaws and cracks and a r e not intended for locating subsurface defects. A suitable low- viscosity fluid is applied to the surface of the test par t and allowed to penetrate into c racks and other discontinuities in the surface. from the surface, but a small amount is retained by any defects. fluid which seeps out of the defects is detected by means of a developer which absorbs the penetrant. it may be colored with a dye (usually r e d ) .

The excess fluid is removed The remaining

The penetrant may fluoresce under ultraviolet light o r

Anodic E lec tr olumine s c enc e

During barrier-layer anodizing of aluminum and its alloys, a glow can be seen at the anode in a dark room. This electroluminescence occurs only above certain voltages and only when certain chemicals a r e present in the anodizing solution. The wavelength o r intensity of the flow changes with impurities in the aluminum. This phenomenon may be valuable in nondestructive testing of aluminum weldments, but probably only fo r surface defects. l 2

Radio Frequency Waves

Radio-frequency waves or electromagnetic waves in a frequency range of approximately l o 5 to 10" cps , have been t r ied experimentally for detecting unbonded a reas in 1- to 2-in. thich aluminum but have not proved feasible, j 3

The failure was caused by electromagnetic energy in this range which was highly reflected and activated by the metal under test. However, an electromagnetic energy mode known as the "helicon-wave" mode did show promise for further r e sea rch , although not presently practical for inspection purposes. The mode has been obtained experimentally only in very pure, high-conductivity metals at temperatures near 0°K in the presence of a high-static magnetic field. these conditions, the mode propagates with l e s s attenuation than normal modes. No experimental evidence has been found to show that it will not propagate in ordinary metals at room temperatures.

Under

11

Microwaves A

Microwave energy can be transmitted, reflected, absorbed, and scattered. These actions can be measured to detect subsurface flaws, among other things. However, the method has been used only with dielectric mater ia ls and does not appear applicable to metals. 14

Eddy Currents

Eddy currents a r e created within electrical conducting materials by exposing these materials to strong alternating magnetic fields. interrupted by defects. secondary voltage in the instrumentation when a two-coil probe is used. eddy-current technique offers a reliable and reproducible means of nondestruc- tive inspection. However, the method is sensitive to minor variations such a s differences i n heat-affected zones and compositional variations. appear t o be promising €or detection of incomplete penetration in welds.

Such fields are These deiects a r e detected by observing variations in

The

15

It does not

Infrared Techniques

Thermal radiation also can be used in detecting discontinuities in metals. The isothermal l ines of heat from a uniform surface will form a regular and predictable pattern. Defects, such a s holes, inclusions , o r c racks , will dis- tor t this pattern. Thus, deiects can be located by measuring differences in surface temperature in uniformly preheated components. The measurement o€ infrared energy radiated from a surface is an accurate, practical means of determining this temperature difference. Temperature can be measured within 0 .1 to 0.05"C a t about room temperature for an a rea as small a s approximately 0 . 0 1 mm2. *

Subsurface defects a r e located by heating a surface of a component and measuring the temperature on this surface a second later. Higher temperatures indicate a subsurface defect delaying heat passage through the material. l 6 But, it has been shown that incomplete penetration can be detected by thermal tech- niques only i f the contact pressure of the surfaces is very low, about 100 psi." Thus, the method does not appear reliable for detection of incomplete penetration.

1 2

AIngnetic Particle JIethod

When a magnetic field is induced in a material , any defects that a r e present ivill distort the field. properties from those of the surrounding material. ’ In magnetic particle testing, a suitable magnetic field is established in the test object ( which iiiust have mag- netic properties) and magnetic particles are applied. These particles a r e attracted to the edges of the defects and will outline a pattern of the defects. Fluorescent particles niay be used to make the pattern more visible ( uncler ultraviolet light) . defects, however.

This is because the defect has different magnetic

The method is most sensitive to surface and near-surface

Photostress Techniques

A photostress testing method has been tried for detecting incomplete penetration, but has not proved satisfactory. I * This technique is hased on the premise that a defective weld, with low cross-sectional a rea , ivill shon. greater strain under stress than will a sound !veld. To measure s t ra in , a photoelxstic coating, highly sensitive to s t ra in , is adhesively bonded to one side of the tes t specimen. strength were applied to the specimen, the relatively sniall loads insuring that the tes t remained nondestructive. between weld conditions.

Loads up to approximately 30 percent of the predicted ultimate

In practice, no distinction could be made

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