review of related literature - semantic scholar...early chinese reading comprehension and found they...

CHAPTER III

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

3.1 Studies related to Orthographic Processing Skills and

Reading Achievement

3.2 Studies related to Orthographic Processing Skills and Writing

Achievement

3.3 Studies related to Multimedia in Education

3.4 Studies related to Test Anxiety and Home Environment

References

Review of Related Literature

55

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Any worthwhile study in any field of knowledge requires an adequate

familiarity and support of the works that has already been done in the same area. A

literature review is a body of text that aims to the critical points of current knowledge,

including substantative finding and theoretical and methodological contributions to a

particular topic. It acts as a link between the research proposed and the studies already

done in this area. It throws light on the differences of opinions, contradicting findings

and the explanations for the same. A brief summary of the writings of recognized

authorities and of previous researches provide evidence that the research is familiar

with what is already known and what is still unknown and untested. Review of related

literature helps the researcher to develop an insight into the present study and

scrutinize the problem with precision and accuracy.

Thus the findings, conclusions and recommendations of the studies reviewed

create an insight in the researcher to develop the study in a different perspective. Past

researches help to sharpen and define understanding of existing problem. A brief

account of the relevant studies is given below. The investigator reviewed the related

studies as well as scholarly articles and classified the studies under three major

headings:-

3.1 Studies related to Orthographic Processing Skills and Reading

Achievement

3.2 Studies related to Orthographic Processing Skills and Writing Achievement


3.4 Studies related to Test Anxiety and Home Environment


56

3.1 Studies related to Orthographic Processing Skills and Reading Skills

Ebert (2013) conducted a study on whether internal (phonological working

memory) and external variables (preschool and home learning environment) have

different impacts depending on parental native language. It was found that

Phonological working memory has a strong impact on all children's initial vocabulary.

The study also revealed that the effects of preschool and home learning environment

are comparatively less influential.

Danielle and Diane (2012) in their study ‘Examining the Relationship

between Adolescents' Orthographic Knowledge and Overall Reading Ability’ found

Orthographic development (as measured by spelling ability) would serve as a link

between constrained and unconstrained reading skills in adolescents.

According to Michal , Amalia and Tami (2012) in the study ‘ Reading

different Orthographic structures in the shallow-pointed Hebrew script: a cross-

grade study in elementary school’ examined the development of reading, in Hebrew

script. Rate and accuracy for four different pointed orthographic structures: letter-

diacritic mark combinations, legal pseudowords, illegal pseudowords, and real words,

were collected. Results found linear development for all structure types with respect

to reading rate which support the need for both universal as well as Orthography-

specific models of reading development.

Georgiou et al.(2012) in their study examined the longitudinal predictors of

non word decoding, reading fluency, and spelling in three languages that vary in

Orthographic depth. The results showed that the model for non word decoding in

Greek was similar to that of Finnish language (both have consistent grapheme-to-

phoneme mappings) while the model for spelling in Greek was similar to that of


57

English (both have some inconsistent Phoneme-to-Grapheme mappings) Letter

knowledge dominated the prediction in each language. This revealed the predictable

role of Orthographic consistency on literacy acquisition.

Deacon, Benere and Castles (2012) found that there is an increasing evidence

of relationship between orthographic processing skills ( the ability to form, store and

access word representations) and reading ability. The results suggest that, children

acquire orthographic processing skills through their reading and that this ability as

characterized by the most common tasks used to date, does not play an independent

role in supporting reading acquisition.

Zhang ,Catherine, Xiuli , Anita , Hua , and Cathy (2012) examined the

association of three levels of meaning acquisition word (vocabulary) morpheme

(morphological awareness) and semantic radical (orthography semantic awareness) to

early Chinese reading comprehension and found they were uniquely associated with

concurrent and subsequent reading comprehension.

Commisionaries , Duncan and Casalis (2011) conducted a study which

explores the nature of Orthographic Processing Skills among French-speaking

children, who are learning English at school as a second language (L2). Two aspects

of orthographic processing skills are thought to form a convergent construct in

monolingual beginning readers: word-specific knowledge (e.g."rain-rane") and

sensitivity to sub-lexical regularities. Word-specific orthographic knowledge in L2

correlates with L1 reading speed and results reveal direct cross-language transfer for

this component of Orthographic Processing Skill.

Negrete (2010) in the study ‘Oral Reading and Orthographic Development of

Transitional Readers and within Word Pattern Spellers in Grades 2-5’ concluded that


58

regardless of grade level, students who were within word pattern spellers produced

similar reading scores according to rate, accuracy, and word recognition in isolation.

Zeigler et.al. (2010) in their study ‘Orthographic depth and its impact on

universal predictors of reading: A cross language investigation’. They found that

phonological awareness was the chief factor associated with reading performance.

Winskel , Radach, and Luksaneeyanawinc (2009) investigated reading

and spelling developments in Thai children. A lexicality effect was found for both

reading and spelling. Beginning readers appear to predominantly use a larger lexico –

syllabic grain size to read Thai.

Ventura, Kolinsky, Pattamadilok, and Morais (2008) in their study ‘ The

Developmental Turnpoint of Orthographic Consistency Effects in Speech

Recognition’ found fourth-graders showed evidence of a widespread influence of

orthography in their spoken word recognition system.

Levy (2006) in their study explored the development of children’s early

understanding of visual and Orthographic aspects of print and how this is related to

early reading acquisition. The data show systematic development in understanding of

print conventions and English Orthography and spelling. Regression analyses

indicated the print knowledge was related to early reading skills.

In the study ‘Effects of Consistency and Age of Acquisition on Reading and

Spelling among Developing readers’ done by Weekes, Castles and Davies (2006)

found that the effect for Orthography and phonology consistency and reading was

larger for younger children than for older children.

Holland, McIntosh, and Huffman (2004) concluded in their study that

Utilizing Rapid Automatized naming(RAN) as a predictor of both phonological and


59

orthographic processing was found to provide a better-fitting model than when RAN

was used to predict either the Phonological or Orthographic factor alone.

Bowman and Treiman (2004) in their study ‘Stepping Stones to Reading’

found how young children use their knowledge of alphabet in their initial attempt to

read and spell and hence teachers can base their instruction on the skills children

already possess and build on it.

Senechal and Fevre (2002) found that children’s exposure to books was

related to the development of vocabulary, listening and comprehension skill, and that

these language skills were directly related to children’s reading in grade three. Fluent

reading has its roots in different aspects of children’s early experiences.

Cunningham, Perry, Stanovich, and Share, (2002) in their study

‘Orthographic Learning during Reading: Examining the Role of Self-Teaching’

assessed the degree of Orthographic learning in homophonic choice, spelling, and

target naming tasks with second graders and found that processing of target

homophones was superior to that of their homophonic controls . A substantial

correlation between Orthographic learning and number of target homophones

correctly decoded during story reading was consistent with the self- teaching

hypothesis.

Narges and Monique (2001) in the study ‘Orthographic and phonological

processing skills in reading and spelling in Persian / English bilinguals’, compared

whether Phonological and Orthographic processing skills contribute to reading and

spelling, for two alphabetic languages which differ drastically and found Phonological

and Orthographic processing skills each predicted unique variance in word reading in

English and in Persian


60

Nassaji & Geva (1999) investigated the role of phonological and Orthographic

Processing Skills in second –language reading English-as- second language: three

types of ESL reading variables were used: reading and comprehension, silent

reading rate, and ability to recognize individual words. Efficiency in phonological

and Orthographic Processing contributed significantly to individual differences on

the measures.

Varnhagen, Boechler and Steffler, (1999) concluded in their study that

beginners make best-guess decisions to spell ambiguous vowels based solely on

phonological information; and as they acquire more sound-letter correspondence

knowledge, children start to use Orthographic regularities in their knowledge to spell

new words by analogy.

Bowey and Hansen(1998 ) found that children were able to use orthographic

information from beginning, middle, and end of clue words to identify unfamiliar

words, with clue word presentation enhancing the reading of beginning-same and

end-same target words more than middle-same target words.

Holmes (1996) made a study on the role of Orthographic Processing Skill in

adults' reading proficiency. The result indicated that Orthographic Skill played a

significant independent role in fluent reading aloud, of connected text. The

importance of studying the various aspects of Orthographic processing capability and

their contribution to the process of attaining adequate literacy competence was

stressed.

Leslie and Thimke, (1992) in their study found boys performed significantly

better than girls on oral verbal fluency and girls outperformed boys on written

Orthographic fluency. Girls consistently outperformed boys on number of words and

number of clauses produced in narrative and expository composition.


61

Barker, Torgesen and Wagner, (1992) studied the unique contribution of

Orthographic Processing Skills to individual differences on five types of reading

measures. The role of orthographic skills in each of these measures was examined and

the result was that Orthographic skills contributed significantly to each type of

reading, but their role in reading of text was stronger than for isolated words.

Cunningham and Stanovich (1990) in their study ‘Assessing Print Exposure

and Orthographic Processing Skill in Children: A Quick Measure of Reading

Experience’ found that Orthographic Processing Ability can account for variance in

word recognition skill after the variance due to phonological processing has been

partialed out.

According to Adams (1990) skilful reading depends critically on the deep and

thorough acquisition of spellings and spelling-sound relationships and instruction

designed to develop children's sensitivity to spellings and their relations to

pronunciations should be of paramount importance in the development of reading

skills.

Wilde (1990) concluded that most students need more than mere exposure to

written language through reading and the chance to practice it, through writing.

Stanovich and West (1989) investigated whether Orthographic Processing

Abilities – the abilities’ to form, store and access Orthographic representation can

account for additional variance in word recognition and spelling skill. The results of

the studies were supportive of the idea there were individual differences in reading

and spelling cost by variation in Orthographic Processing Skills. Orthographic

Processing Skills were linked to print exposure and should be environmentally

mediated.


62

Wagner (1988) studied the relationship between the development of

phonological processing abilities and the acquisition of reading skills and found

relatively independent causal roles in the acquisition of word analysis skills for the

phonological processing abilities.

3.2 Studies related to Orthographic Processing Skills and Writing Skills

Gary et al. (2013) studied the relationship between writing motivation

writing activity, writing performance, and the student characteristics of grade, gender

and teacher judgment of writing ability. Girls and older students wrote qualitatively

better fictional stories, as did students with higher levels of writing ability based on

teacher judgment. With respect to writing activity, more frequent writing in and out of

school was reported by girls, better writers, and younger students. In a path analysis,

grade and gender directly influenced writing activity, while gender, teacher judgment

of writing ability, and writing activity directly influenced some aspects of writing

motivation.

Kaur, and Embi (2011) who in their study ‘The Relationship between

Language Learning Strategies and Gender among Primary School Students’ found

that that there was significant difference in the overall use of strategies between boys

and girls. Girls tend to use overall language learning strategies more often than boys

in learning English language.

Namik and Gozde (2011) conducted a study to find the effect of the cluster

method on the creative writing skill of Sixth grade students and found that the group

which used the cluster method in creative writing studies was more successful than

control group on academic success in writing skill.

Notarnicola (2011) analysed the spelling skills of Italian children as a function

of school experience. The writing performance on spelling test was examined based


63

on the Dual Route Model (DRM) which appeared as a useful theoretical frame work

to describe the development of spelling in a relatively regular language as Italian.

Apel and Apel (2011) presented componential model of spoken and written

language that can guide literacy educators in their assessment of students written

language skills. They concluded that students must be able to consciously use their

knowledge of Phonology, Orthography, Morphology, Semantics, Syntax and

Pragmatics to successfully read and write.

Carol, (2009) in the study ‘The Role of Orthographic-Motor Integration in the

Production of Creative and Well-Structured Written Text for Students in Secondary School’,

found there is a strong relationship between orthographic-motor integration related to

handwriting and students' ability to produce creative and well-structured written text.

Kim (2009) examined the relative contribution of letter-name knowledge and

phonological awareness to literacy skills and the relationship between letter-name

knowledge and phonological awareness, using data from Korean-speaking

preschoolers. The results revealed that both letter-name knowledge and phonological

awareness made unique contributions to literacy skills (i.e., word reading,

pseudoword reading, and spelling)

Reese (2009) in her study ‘The effects of a Multi - Linguistic Diagnostic

Spelling Intervention on the writing achievement and writing self –perception Beliefs

of secondary school students: Phonology, Orthography and Morphology’ found that

the treatment students who participated in thirty hours of spelling instruction with

writing component were more moderate to statistically significant games in

phonological awareness rapid naming, morphology word attack skill and reading

comprehension than the control group.


64

Chieh (2008) studied the effect of capitalizing on Orthography and found

children with poorer phonological awareness of Chinese and those with better

phonological awareness were taught novel English words in an auditory learning task

under exposure conditions and there was marked changes in children which proved

beneficial.

Pittman (2007) found that it is important to have knowledge of the linguistic

factors that allow students to be successful spellers. Having phonological,

morphological and Orthographic knowledge is essential to spell conventially. The

intervention based on phonological, morphological and Orthographic principles

produced large effect on students who received spelling instruction.

Brooks, Vaughan, and Berninger (1999) conducted a tutorial directed to

improve writing, spelling and composition skills and found reliable improvement in

writing and composition. Although writing related fine motor, orthographic,

orthographic-motor integration and phonological segmentation skills were not directly

taught they improved.

Graham (1999) found that explicit and systematic instruction as well as

incidental or natural learning approaches are needed to maximize the development of

writing and spelling.

Koda (1999) examined Orthographic sensitivity among adult second language

(L2) learners with diverse first language (L1) backgrounds, the finding was L1

alphabetic experience promotes L2 intra word structural sensitivity. ESL

(English as Second Language) learners are strongly inclined to use visual familiarity

as a primary cue during Orthographic processing; the ability to detect Orthographic

constraint violations separates L1 and L2 readers.


65

Cossu (1995) in the study ‘Acquisition of reading and writing spelling in a

transparent Orthography: two nonparallel process’, found that reading and writing

spelling are nonparallel process and that developmental asynchrony reflects a partial

structural independence of the two systems.

Vaughn (1992) evaluated the efficacy of handwriting, and computer based

instruction on the early spelling acquisition of normal achieving and learning disabled

elementary students. Results indicated no significant difference between the learning

disabled and normal achieving students.

Adams (1990) found that Spelling, or Orthographic knowledge, plays a much

greater role in the language arts. The careful examination of words that is part of

formal spelling instruction can beneficially affect not only the efficiency and quality

of students’ writing experiences but of their reading experiences as well.

Kurth (1983) found that a child’s emerging literacy is based on a growing

control of Orthography, wordness, directionality, grapheme phoneme correspondence

and syntax and the function of reading and writing is to generate meaning.

William and Gillooly (1973) in their study ‘The Influence of Writing –System

Characteristics on Learning to Read’ found Orthography influences the behavioural

effects of writing system. English writing was shown to involve a blend of two

levels , Phonographic representations and Orthographic representations which is the

basis for greater reading speed.


Michael, Melissa, Paige, Emily, & Mira, (2013) in their study ‘Improving

teacher candidates knowledge of phonological Awareness: A Multimedia Approach’ ,

found that multimedia instructional tools such as content acquisition podcasts CAP’s

benefit undergraduates as they acquire necessary knowledge and skills that


66

underwrites advanced practices for teaching students in general and special education

settings.

Softa (2011) found that the learning environment in the form of language labs

rather traditional classrooms affect the student cooperative skills, interpersonal

attitudes of the respondents and also the level of motivation in learning English.

Ping (2010) conducted a study on the use of video lesson, modules in teaching

methodologies to prepare pre service teachers for supporting the language

development of students. It was found that the application of the material had high

reliability.

Samy (2010) conducted a study on internet awareness and competence among

high school students and teachers. The objective of the study was to find out the

extent of awareness and competence of Internet among high school students and high

school teachers. The study was based on a sample of eighty six students from Mahiti

Sindhu. The study concluded that there was no significant difference between high

school boys and girls in terms of awareness and competence to use Internet

Rafeedali (2009) conducted a study on computer-based technology and its

pedagogical utility. The objective of the study was to find out the extent of use of

computer resources in the teaching-learning process among the higher secondary

school teachers. The sample selected for the study was three hundred teachers of

higher secondary schools from the Malappuram district of Kerala and found that

computer is very helpful device for evaluation but only a small percentage of higher

secondary school teachers are using computers for evaluation.

Rajesekar and Vaijapuri (2008) conducted a study on higher secondary

teacher’s computer anxiety. The study was to measure the level of teachers’ computer

anxiety and found the entire sample of teachers has high level of computer anxiety.


67

The teachers handling the subjects of the Science group and those who have not

attended any computer classes have high level computer anxiety than their

counterparts in the Arts group.

Sibichan (2006) found that achievement in English of students improved as a

result of the effect of multimedia approach in teaching.

English and Rainwater (2006) studied the instructional effectiveness of using

animations to teach thirty two learning objectives in an undergraduate operating

systems course. Statistical analysis using a paired t-test indicated inclusion of

animations in an undergraduate operating systems course yielded significant overall

student achievement gains as measured by pretest and posttest scores.

Craig ( 2002 ) studied the effects of agent properties, picture features, and

redundancy in animation. Two experiments explored the integration of animated

agents into multimedia environments in the context of Mayer’s cognitive theory of

multimedia learning. Experiment one was a three (agent properties: agent only, agent

with gesture, no agent) x three (picture features: static pictures, sudden onset,

animation) design. In experiment two, they explored the effects of printed text,

spoken narration, spoken narration with the printed text, in a multimedia environment

which included an agent, to investigate effects of redundancy. The findings indicated

that Agent properties produced no significant effects. Both sudden onset and

animation conditions facilitated performance relative to the static-picture condition.

The spoken-narration-only condition outperformed the other two, with no differences

between printed text and printed text with spoken narration.

Liao (1998) conducted a study which suggested a correlation between

integrating multimedia technology in education and students academic success.


68

In his study Madankumar (1998) found that media based instructional strategy

was more effective in creating environmental theory and application awareness than

conventional text book approach among primary school pupils in Kerala.

Das (1998) found computer assisted learning materials was very effective to

learn rhymes in different modes.

Mehryara (1998) conducted a survey on the effectiveness of web based

interactive multimedia system in tertiary education. The result of survey conducted

found that students were enthusiastic towards the multimedia package.

Reddy (1997) studied the effectiveness of multimedia instructional strategy in

instructing science to slow learners and the findings revealed that it enabled the slow

learners to cope with normal students to a considerable extent.

Hedberg, Brown and Arrighi(1997) developed a multimedia package

incorporating high quality visual materials in the form of graphic sound, text, and

video for high school students which resulted in active participation of the students

in the learning process.

Cates and Gooding (1997) examined the effectiveness of learning options in

two researcher-designed interactive multimedia instructional spelling programs, one

offering predominantly behaviourist- visual learning options of the type employed by

many current commercial spelling instructional programs and one offering

predominantly cognitivist-phonological learning options of the type recommended by

spelling research. The treatment groups improved their spelling performance

significantly. Skill gains were high.

Callaway (1996) found that effectiveness of an interactive multimedia package

designed to accommodate a number of cognitive and learning style was much higher


69

for learning difficult topics, for high school students than the typical classroom

methods.

Taylor (1992) had recognized that video was not an ideal medium for

presenting detailed material, but was better used for broader, abstract material,

possibly with an emotional appeal. An abstract video segment may serve well as the

medium for an advance organizer, and, similarly, for a lesson summarization. Taylor

also reported that most learning occured when audio and video were redundant, are

synchronized with content, and repeat and reinforce the concepts being presented.

Don (1992) investigated and found that the use of educational media would

stimulate teachers’ creativity and inspire continual growth in the effectiveness of

teachers professional educators. Multimedia also effected students learning improving

learning performance and increasing students motivation to learn.

Ayersman (1990) found that students who were instructed using multimedia

showed greater gains in areas of language development than students who learned in

traditional environment.

Hooper and Hannafin (1988) found that media that employ both print and

video were likely to result in deeper processing than a medium that employs just print.

Nugent (1982) found that the highest learning levels were attained when

students were presented information via combined text and pictures (verbal and

nonverbal channels) or combined audio and pictures (verbal and nonverbal channels)

compared to the same content presented via text alone (verbal channel), audio alone

(verbal channel), or pictures alone (nonverbal channel).

Basu (1981) developed a multimedia program and concluded that the strategy

enabled learners to reach the level of mastery learning.


70

Shah (1979) stated that the teachers who were exposed to the treatment of self

instructional multimedia course on effective questioning showed significant

improvement in all the skills of teaching.

Studies conducted by Atkinson (1968) showed that computer assisted

instruction (CAI), the students performed significantly better in their achievement in

reading at Stanford CAI program than their peers in normal classrooms.

3.4 Studies related to Test Anxiety, Home Environment

Pinto, Pessanha and Aguiar (2013) found that Home Environment and

preschool quality, were associated with children's language and literacy outcomes.

Nemati (2012) concluded that Test Anxiety was found in foreign language

learning. This study investigated on the relationship between age, gender, discipline

and foreign language, Test Anxiety specifically. The result of the independent t-test

also established that males and females were equally affected by Test Anxiety and

that pre-university had the highest level of Test Anxiety.

Villiger , Niggli, Wandeler and Kutzelmann ( 2012) found the potential of

the family in the sustained promotion of reading motivation.

Lawrence, Capotosto, Branum, White and Snow (2012) found an interaction

between instruction and home-language status such that English-proficient students

from language-minority homes improved more than English-proficient students from

English-speaking homes.

Mouna (2009) found that data trends showed that a child from a multilingual

Home environment improved at an exceptional rate, while the monolingual child

developed at a constant, but more flat rate.

Singaravelu (2009) investigated the relationship between Test Anxiety and

academic achievement in mathematics of high school students and found that higher


71

the Test Anxiety lower was the academic achievement in maths. The students with the

average level of Test Anxiety achieved more than with low and high level of Test

Anxiety.

Forget (2009) found that home characteristics had direct effects on school

readiness and indirect effects through child language. No genetic correlation was

found between language and school readiness. These results suggested that home

characteristics affect school readiness in part through their effect on early language

skills.

Cheri (2007) in the article ‘Impact of Home Environment’ stated that Home

Environment had a profound impact on learning. The old saying, "The most important

work you do takes place within the walls of your home," applies here.

Dwivedi and Gunthey (2005) conducted a study on the influence of medium

of Instruction on level of Anxiety among school students. The result of the study

showed that Anxiety level of English medium students was significantly greater than

students of Hindi medium.

Chappel (2005) found that students with low Test Anxiety scored significantly

higher grade than those student with high Test Anxiety .

Smith (1964) found that an individual’s negative experience will result in

higher Test Anxiety leading to lower performance and positive experience leads to

lower Test Anxiety and high performance.

Conclusion

Ample evidence could be collected on the researches done in the field of

language skills specifically on Reading and Writing skills. While reviewing the related

studies the investigator was able to get a bird’s eye view of the various studies done in

this area and that has motivated the investigator for further research and exploration in


72

this area. Review of related literature provided a sound basis and clear vision for

formulating the Objectives , Hypotheses and the Methodology to be adopted and also to

develop the study in a different perspective.

A number of studies speak of Orthographic Processing Skills and its role in

Reading and Writing skills. Deacon, Benere, and Castles (2012) found that there was

an increasing evidence of a relationship between Orthographic Processing Skill, or the

ability to form, store and access word representations, and reading ability. While

Adams (1990),Apel and Apel (2011) found that Spelling, or Orthographic knowledge,

played a much greater role in the language arts . The careful examination of words

that is part of formal spelling instruction can beneficially affect not only the efficiency

and quality of students’ writing experiences but of their reading experiences as well.

Multimedia also effect students learning, improving learning performance and

increasing students motivation to learn. Ayersman (1990),Callaway(1996) found that

students who were instructed using multimedia showed greater gains in areas of

language development than students who learned in traditional environment. Similarly

,Sibichan, (2006) found that achievement in English of students at secondary level

improved as a result of the effect of instruction used.

It was found that a number of studies regarding Orthographic Processing Skills

have been done abroad but very few studies have been conducted in India. All these

factors motivated the investigator to carry out the present study which is entitled

‘Effect of a multimedia learning package based on Orthographic Processing Skills on

Reading and Writing Achievements in English of Children at Primary Level’.


73

References

Adams, M. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print.

Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Apel, K., & Apel, L. (2011). Identifying Intraindividual Differences in Students

Written Language Abilities. Retrieved from ERIC database. ( EJ927244)

Atkinson, R. C. (1968). Computer based instruction in initial reading in

proceeding of the 1967 international conference on testing problems. In

J H Block (Ed), mastery learning: theory and practise. (1971), pp.145

Newyork: Holt, Rinehart and Witson, Inc. Awareness, and Reading

ability: Evidence from a Longitudinal and Experimental study. Merrill-

Palmer Quarterly, 33, 321-363.

Ayersman, D. (1990). Reviewing the research on hypermedia-based learning. Journal

of research in computing in education, 28 (4), 500-526.

Baker, A. T., Torgesen, K.J., & Wagner, K. R. (1992). The role of orthographic

processing skills on five different reading tasks, Reading Research

Quarterly, 27(4), 334-345.

Basu, M.K. (1981). Effectiveness of Multimedia Programmed Materials in the

Teaching of Physics. In M.B. Butch (Ed.), Fourth Survey of Research in

Education (1994) New Delhi :NCERT.

Bowman, & Treiman R., (2004) . Stepping Stones to Reading. Theory And Practice,

43 (4), 295-303.

Bowey, L.V & Hansen, J. (1998). Beginning readers' use of orthographic analogies in

word reading. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 68, 108-133.

Brooks, A., Vaughan, K. & Berninger, V. (1999). Tutorial Interventions for Writing

Disabilities: Comparison of Transcription and Text Generation Process.

Learning Disability Quarterly, 22(3), 183-190.

Callaway, J. A. (1996). An interactive multimedia computer package Callaway, J. A.

(1996). An interactive multimedia computer package on photosynthesis for

high school students based on a matrix of cognitive and learning styles.

(Doctoral dissertation). Dissertation abstracts international, 57(7), 2951A.


74

Carol, C.A. (2009) in the study ‘The Role of Orthographic-Motor Integration in the

Production of Creative and Well-Structured Written Text for Students in

Secondary School. Retrieved from ERIC database. (EJ691119)

Cates, W. M., & Gooding S. C. (1997). The Relative Effectiveness of Learning

Options in Multimedia Computer-Based Fifth-Grade Spelling Instruction .

Educational Technology Research and Development, 45(2), 27-46.

Chappel , M. S. (2005). Test Anxiety and academic performance in undergraduate

and graduate students. Journal of Educational psychology, 97, 268-274.

Cheri, F. (2007). The Impact of Home Environment The most important work you do

takes place within the walls of your home Retrieved from

ww.focusonthefamily.com/parenting/schooling/equip_kids_for_learning/impa

ct_of_home_environment.aspx

Chieh , F. H. (2008). Use orthography in L2 auditory word learning: Who

benefits? Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 21(8), 823-841.

Commissaries, E., Duncan, L. G., & Casalis, S. (2011). Cross-Language Transfer of

Orthographic Processing Skills: A Study of French Children Who Learn

English at School. Retrieved from ERIC database. (EJ793436)

Cossu, G. (1995). Acquisition of reading and written spelling in a transparent

orthography: two non parallel processes. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 12 (4)

391-407.

Craig, S. D. (2002). Animated pedagogical agents in multimedia educational

environments: Effects of agent properties, picture features, and redundancy.

Journal of Educational Psychology, 94 (2): 428-434.

Cunningham, A. E., Stanovich, K. E. (1990). Assessing Print Exposure and

Orthographic Processing Skill in Children: A Quick Measure of Reading

Experience. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82 (4), 73-40.

Cunningham, A. E., Perry, K. E., Stanovich, K. E., Share, D.L. (2002). Orthographic

Learning during Reading: Examining the Role of Self-Teaching. Journal of

Experimental Child Psychology, 82 (3), 185-99.

Danielle. V. D., & Diane C. K. (2012). Examining the Relationship between

Adolescents' Orthographic Knowledge and Overall Reading Ability. Reading

& Writing Quarterly , 28 (4), 358-376.

Das, A. (1998). Exploring effectiveness of CAI learning materials on rhymes in

different modes, unpublished PhD thesis, MS University, Broda.


75

Deacon , S.H., Benere, J., & Castles, A. (2012). Chicken or egg? Untangling the

relationship between orthographic processing and reading. Cognition, 122 (1),

110-117.

Don, D. (1992). Instructional media utilization, classroom learning and teacher

burnout. Retrieved from ERIC Database. (EJ223184).

Dwivedi, N., & Gunthey, R. (2005). Influence of medium of instruction on level of

academic anxiety among school students. Indian Educational Abstracts,5,1-2.

Ebert, S. (2013). Internal and external influences on vocabulary development in

preschool children. Retrieved from ERIC database.( EJ1004740)

English, B. M. ,& Rainwater,S.B. ( 2006). The effectiveness of animations in

an undergraduate operating systems course. JCSC, 21(5): 53-59.

Forget-D. (2009). Early Child Language Mediates the Relation between Home

Environment and School Readiness. Retrieved from ERIC database.

( EJ840082)

Gary,T. A., Allen , H.G., Rebecca, S., Kimberly, W., & Lawrence, A. (2013).

Relationships between writing motivation, writing activity, and writing

performance: Effects of grade, sex and ability. Reading and Writing: An

Interdisplinary Journal. 26(1), 17-44.

Georgiou, G. K., Papadopoulos, T. C., Fella, A., & Parrila, R. K. (2012). Rapid

naming speed components and reading development in a consistent

orthography. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 112, 1-17.

Graham, S. (1999). Handwriting and Spelling Instruction for Students with Learning

Disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 22(2) 79-98.

Hedberg,J., Brown, C. & Arrighi, M. (1997). Interactive Multimedia and Web-Based

Learning: Similarities and Differences. In B. Khan, (Ed.) Web-based

Instruction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

Holland, J., McIntosh, D. E., & Huffman, L. (2004). The role of phonological

awareness, rapid automatized naming, and orthographic processing in word

reading. Journal of Psycho educational Assessment, 22,233-260.

Holmes, V. M. (1996). Skilled reading and orthographic processing.

Australian Journal of Psychology, 48(3), 149-154.


76

Hooper, S., & Hannafin, M. J. ( 1988). Learning the ropes of instructional design:

Guidelines for emerging interactive technologies. Educational Technology, 28

(7), 14-18.

Kaur, M. & Embi, A. (2011). The Relationship between Language Learning

Strategies and Gender among Primary School Students .Theory and Practice

in Language Studies, 1 (10), 1432-1436. doi:10.4304/tpls.1.10.1432-143

Kim, Y.S. (2009). The foundation of literacy skills in Korean: the relationship

between letter-name knowledge and phonological awareness and their relative

contribution to literacy skills. Reading and Writing, 22, 907-931.

Koda, K. (1999). Development of L2 intraword orthographic sensitivity and

decoding skills, The Modern Language Journal. 83(1), 51-64.

Kurth , R. J. (1983). Exploring the relationship between Reading and Writing

in early Literacy development. Retrieved From ERIC database. ( ED

232778)

Lawrence, J. F., Capotosto, L., Branum, L., White, C., & Snow, C. E. (2012).

Language Proficiency, Home-Language Status, and English Vocabulary

Development: A Longitudinal Follow-Up of the Word Generation Program.

Retrieved from ERIC database. (EJ969132).

Leslie, L., & Thimke, B. (1992). The use of orthographic knowledge in beginning

reading. Journal of Reading Behavior, 18, 229-241.

Levy. B.A. (2006). Understanding print: early reading development and the

contributions of home literacy experiences. Journal of Experimental Child

Psychology, 93(1) , 63-93.

Liao, Y. (1998). Effects of hypermedia versus traditional instruction on students’

achievements: A meta-analysis. Journal of research on computing in

education, 30 (4), 341-360.

Madanakumar, C. K. (1998). Media based Instructional strategy to creat

Environmental Awareness among the Primary School Pupils in Kerala.

Unpublished M Ed. Thesis, Mahatma Gandhi Uty. Kottayam.

Mehryar, N. (1998). The effectiveness of a web based- interactive multimedia system

in tertiary education. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED422867)

Michael, J. K., Melissa, K., Driver, P. C., Pullen , E., Ely M.T., &Cole (2013).

Improving teacher candidates' knowledge of phonological awareness: A multimedia

approach. Computers & Education, 64, 42-51.


77

Michal, S., Amalia, B., & Tami, K. (2012). Reading Different Orthographic

Structures in the Shallow-Pointed Hebrew Script: A Cross-Grade Study in

Elementary School. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 25

(6), 1217-1238.

Mouna, T. (2009). Home lingual environment effect on developmentof child’s

language in multilingual day care. Bachelor’s thesis , Pirkanma University of

Applied Sciences, Finland.

Narges, A.M., Monique, S. (2001). Orthographic and phonological processing skills

in reading and spelling in Persian/English bilinguals. International Journal of

Behavioral Development, 25 (2), 140-147. doi:10.1080/0165025004200032

Namik, S., Gozde, K. D. (2011). The efficiency of cluster method in improving the

creative writing skill of 6th grade students of primary school. Educational

Research and Reviews. 11, 702-709.

Nassaji, H., & Geva, E. (1999). The contribution of Orthographic processing skills to

Adult ESL reading: Evidence from native speakers of Farsi. Applied

Psycholinguistic, 20 (2), 241-167.

Negrete, S. (2010). Oral Reading and Orthographic Development of Transitional

Readers and within Word Pattern Spellers in Grades 2-5. Retrieved from

ProQuest dissertations and theses. Document ID No. 847490115

Nemati, A. (2012). On the dimensions of test anxiety and foreign language learners,

International Journal of English and Literature. 3(4), 97-102 .doi:

10.5897/IJEL11.11

Notarnicola, A. (2011). Development of spelling skills in a shallow orthography: the

case of Italian language. Reading and Writing, 25 (5), 1171-1194.

Nugent, G. (1982). Pictures, audio, and print: Symbolic representation and effect on

learning. Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 30, 163-174.

Ping, L. (2010). Preparing pre service teachers for instruction on English- Language

development with video lesson module. Journal of Teacher Education and

Practise, 24(1), 9-29. Retrieved from ERIC database. (EJ917656)

Pinto, A. I., Pessanha, M., & Aguiar, C. (2013). Effects of Home Environmenti and

Center-Based Child Care Quality on Children's Language,communication,

and Literacy Outcome. Retrieved from ERIC database. ( EJ1007881)

Pittman, R. T. (2007). Improving Spelling Ability among Speakers of African

American Vernacular English: An Intervention based on Phonological,


78

Morphological and Orthographic Principles. Doctoral Dissertation,

Texas A & M University.

Rajesekar, S., & Vaijapuri, R. P. (2008). Higher Secondary Teacher’s

Computer Anxiety. Edutracks, 7 (8), 39-40.

Reddy, L. (1997). Effectiveness of Multimedia Instructional Strategy in

Teaching Science to the Slow learners. Journal of Indian Education, 23

(2), 50-59.

Reese, A. J. (2009). The effect of a Multi-Linguist Diagnostic Spelling

Intervention on the Writing Achievement and Writing Self-Perception

Beliefs of Secondary Students: Phonology, Orthography, and

Morphology. Retrieved from ERIC database.( ED535471)

Rafeedali, E. (2009). Computer-Based Technology and its Pedagogical Utility.

Edutracks, 9(2), 37-39.

Samy, A. L. (2010). Teaching Environment concept to school drop-outs

through video and characters, unpublished dissertation of M.Phill Edu.,

Madurai Kamaraj University, Tamil Nadu.

Senechal, M., & LeFevre, J. (2002). Parental involvement in the development

of children’s reading skill: A five-year longitudinal study. Child

Development, 73, 445 – 460.

Shah, S.G. (1979). Development and Try out of Multimedia Package on

Effective Questioning in the context of Micro Teaching. In M.B.B Butch

(Ed.), Third Survey of Research in Education (1986). New Delhi

:NCERT.

Sibichan, K. K. (2006). Effective of multimedia approach on achievement in

English of students at Std. IX.Unpublished M Ed dissertation, St.Joseph

Training College ,Mannanam, Kottayam.

Singaravelu,S. (2009). Test Anxiety and Academic Achievement in

Mathematics of high school students. Journal of Community Guidance

and research, 26, 293-289.

Smith ,C.P. (1964). Relationship between achievement-related motives and

intelligence, performance level and persistence. Journal of Abnormal

Socio Psychology, 68, 532-523.


79

Softa, V. (2011). Learning environment effect and use of technology in the

study of English language. Problems of Education in the 21st Century,

35, 127-137.

Stanovich, K. E. & West, R.F. (1989). The exposure to print and

orthographic processing. Reading Research Quarterly, 24 (4),

402-433.

Taylor, C.D. (1992). Choosing a display format for instructional multime dia:

Two screens vs.one. Multimedia Display Formats AECT, 92, 762 -784.

Torgesen, J.K., & Barker T.(1995). Computers as aids in the prevention and

remediation of reading disabilities. Learning Disabilities Qurarterly.

18, 76–88.

Varnhagen, C. K., Boechler ,P. M., &Steffler, D. J. (1999). Phonological and

Orthographic influences on children’s vowel spellings. Scientific

Studies of Reading, 3(4), 363-379.

Vaughn, S. (1992). Why intensive interventions are necessary for students with

severe reading difficulties, Retrieved from ww.ncbi.nlm.nih. gov/pmc/

articles/PMC2975106/

Ventura, P., Kolinsky, R., Pattamadilok, C.,& Morais, J. (2008). The

Developmental Turnpoint of Orthographic Consistency Effects in

Speech Recognition. Retrieved from ERIC database. (EJ793436)

Villiger, C., Niggli, A., Wandeler, C., & Kutzelmann, S. ( 2012). Does

Family Make a Difference? Mid-Term Effects of a School/Home-Based

Intervention Program to Enhance Reading Motivation. Retrieved from

ERIC database. ( EJ950375)

Wagner, K. (1988). Causal relations between the development of phonological

processing abilities and the acquisition of reading skills: A meta-

analysis. Merrill- Palmer Quarterly, 34, 261-279.

Weekes, B.S., Castles, A.E., & Davies, R.A. (2006). Effects of consistency and

age of acquisition on reading and spelling in developing readers.

Reading and Writing, 19(2), 132-169 .

Winskel ,H ., Radach, R. & Luksaneeyanawinc , S.(2009). Eye movements

when reading spaced and unspaced Thai and English: A comparison of


80

Thai–English bilinguals and English monolinguals. Journal of Memory

and Language, 61(3), 339-351. DOI:10.1016/j.jml.2009.07.002 .

Wilde, S. (1990). A proposal for a new spelling curriculum. Elementary School

Journal, 90, 275-290.

William, B. & Gillooly (1973) The Influence of Writing –System Characteristics on

Learning to Read, Reading Research Quarterly, 8 (2), 167-199.

Zeigler, J.C., et al. (2010). Orthographic depth and its impact on universal

predictors of reading: A cross language Investigation. Psychological

Science, 21(4), 551-559.

Zhang , J., Chang ,M. C., Tong X., Wong A.M.,. W , Shu, H., & Fong, Y.C.

(2012) Reading with meaning: the contributions of meaning-related

variables at the word and subword levels to early Chinese reading

comprehension. Reading and Writing , 25,(9) 2183-2203.

review of related literature - semantic scholar...early chinese reading comprehension and found they...

Documents