review on the design of pcm based thermal energy storage systems … · thermal energy storage...

Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol.2, Issue-2 , 2016 ISSN : 2454-1362 , http://www.onlinejournal.in

Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Page 203

Review On The Design Of Pcm Based

Thermal Energy Storage Systems

P.Pradeep Castro Assistant Professor, MAM School of Engg

P.Karthick Selvam Assistant Professor, MAM School of Engg

C.Suthan Assistant Professor, MAM School of Engg

Abstract—Thermal Energy Storage has become very

important in the recent years since it balances the energy

demand and improves the efficiency of the solar systems. It

is important that the thermal energy storage systems have

the necessary characteristics to improve the performance of

the storage systems. Usage of Phase change materials for

energy storage provides a great benefit but their low

thermal conductivity becomes a major drawback. This can

be compensated with the use of phase change material in an

appropriate design for effective functioning of the system.

This review article summarizes the recent designs of thermal

energy storage systems containing Phase Change Material

that has been adopted for effective energy storage.

Keywords— PCM, Thermal Conductivity, Energy

Storage, Phase Change, Latent Heat

I. INTRODUCTION

Solar energy is a basic need of living plants and

human beings on the earth. It is intermittent in nature, eco-

friendly and non-polluting energy. For effective utilization

of the solar energy, it is highly important to develop solar

thermal energy storage systems. Thermal energy storage is

essential for both domestic water heating and space heating

applications and for industrial applications. Energy can be

stored by the heating, melting, or vaporization of material

and the energy is made available as heat, when reversed.

The size of a storage system is related to the energy

density or the amount of energy stored per unit mass of the

storage material. Larger energy density provides smaller

storage size and lesser amount of storage material. This

paper summarizes the designs that have been used by

several authors in order to improve the performance of the

TES system for various practical applications.

II. DESIGN OF PCM STORAGE

T. Kousksou et. al [1] investigated PCM in the

form of small cylindrical containers for the application in

Solar Domestic Hot Water (SDHW). PCM was implemented

in cylindrical form of diameter 0.04m in order to increase

the surface area for heat transfer. The PCM used in the

investigation was a composite of NaOAc_3H2O-graphite

with the melting point of 57.31°C. On analysis, the authors

found that the Phase change temperature of the composite

PCM was higher. Hence another PCM with a phase change

temperature of 50°C was used and investigated which

indicated improved performance. Further suggestions were

made by the authors that apart from the geometry of the

PCM, the phase change temperature of the selected PCM,

environmental conditions were also important.

Kamal El Omari et al [2] studied the effect of the

shape of container on the melting of PCM contained within

it. Five geometries containing PCM of equal volume was

considered for the investigation as shown in Fig 1. The PCM

used in the investigation was a mixture of Paraffin wax and

graphite nano-particles, whose thermal conductivity was

higher than the original pure paraffin wax PCM. The authors

carried out numerical investigation to determine the effect of

container shape containing PCM that can be utilized for

electronics cooling. The melting effect of PCM was

determined for each container and the results were

compared.

Fig 1: Different shapes of containers containing PCM

It was found that as the melting proceeds, thermal

stratification occurs which makes most of the PCM to be

melted in the upper portion. Solid PCM was left at the

bottom of the container for melting at the last. For

electronics cooling, the PCM should maintain the electronics

temperature low enough. The first container having curved

surface had a great impact on maintaining the temperature.


Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) 04

Thus the authors conclude that when considering the

geometry of a PCM container, it is better to avoid sharp

corners and provide smooth curves to support complete

melting of the PCM.

E. Halawa and W. Saman [3] made a numerical

study on the performance of PCM based TES for space

heating applications. The storage unit was made of 45

rectangular slabs of length 1m and width 0.89m. Numerical

investigation was conducted with variations in the thickness

of the PCM slab and air gaps between the slabs. The PCM

used in the slab form is Calcium chloride hexahydrate

(CaCl2.H2O) with melting temperature of 28°C. The results

of the experiment shows that the thickness of the slab had

impact on the heat transfer rates. Thicker slabs reduced the

heat transfer rates which led to the increased melting and

freezing time, but with a higher mass flow rate the melting

and freezing time was reduced. Hence the authors come to a

conclusion regarding the importance of the design chosen

for energy storage.

57 vertical PVC tubes containing encapsulated

PCM were used by A. de Gracia et al [4] in hot water

cylinder to reduce the amount of electricity used for

producing hot water The tubes containing PCM had

dimensions of length 0.75 m and 0.04 m diameter placed

inside the hot water cylinder of length 1.02 m and 0.474 m

insulated with polyurethane of thickness 5cm. On examining

the results of the different cases, it was found that the PCM

in smaller diameter of PVC tubes was melted and solidified

faster. The usage of PCM in the hot water cylinder reduces

the electricity consumed for heating the water.

Mehmet et al [5] experimentally investigated the

influence of natural convection on the design and flow

parameters of a shell and tube heat exchanger. Two

concentric tubes formed the heat exchanger. The interior

cylinder was 400mm long with internal and external

diameters of 15mm and 25mm respectively. The exterior

cylindrical tube material and diameters were varied and

investigated, while the shell material was Plexiglas. The

tube materials considered for the investigation were copper,

stainless steel, and Polyethylene (PE-32). The heat

exchanger was insulated with 15mm of armaflex and 30mm

of glass wool. Water was used as the PCM and Ethylene-

glycol-water solution was used as the HTF. Charging and

discharging experiments were conducted on the heat

exchanger with different values of HTF flow rate and inlet

temperatures. Charging process included the complete

freezing of water and discharging the complete melting of

the ice under environmental conditions. The experimental

results indicated that conduction process followed by natural

convection dominated the charging and discharging process

as the buoyancy forces came into play. As a result, two

regions are formed along the interference, top layer called as

natural convection dominant region and the other bottom

region called conduction dominant region. The freezing

process results in the formation of ice, which is affected by

the axial flow direction. The influence of HTF flow rate and

inlet temperature was determined and resulted that increase

in HTF flow rate and decrease in inlet temperature leads to

higher energy storage. It was also found from the results that

the thermal conductivity of the tube material affects the

energy storage. With the use of material of higher

conductivity for the tube, the energy stored was high.

Considering the influence of the tube diameter on the energy

storage capacity of the system, the authors found that the

solidification speed was slower with the shell diameter of

114mm. When the shell diameter was increased to 190mm,

thermal stratification was induced leading to higher energy

storage. It could be understood from the experimental

investigation that along with the HTF flow rate, inlet

temperature, the design parameters of the heat exchanger for

energy storage must also be considered so that a greater

amount of energy can be stored.

M.J Huang et al [6] examined the performance of

Phase Change Slurries (PCS) in residential energy storage

applications along with a helical coil heat exchanger. A

Phase Change Slurry (PCS) consists of small

microencapsulated PCM particles in a fluid medium. The

PCS serves as an energy storage medium with the help of

PCM present in them and also as a HTF, used for improving

the heat transfer. The coiled heat exchanger was fabricated

for an outer diameter of 200mm with copper tubes having

outer diameter as 22mm. The coiled heat exchanger was

placed at the bottom end of the tank whose dimensions were

with diameter as 0.270m and height 1m. The tank was well

insulated. The PCS used in the investigation had paraffin

with melting point of 70°C enclosed within plastic capsules

of 2 to 8µm. The authors compared the performance of the

storage system when PCS as the storage medium with water

as storage medium. Temperature variations were measured

with natural circulation of water and with flow rates of

20kgmin-1 and 30kgmin-1. Results were obtained that energy

storage is faster with flow rate of 30kgmin-1 and convection

process dominated the heat transfer when water is used as

the storage medium. Similar analysis was made when the

PCS was used as the storage medium. In this case, the

volume concentration of the PCS had a major role. 25%

volume concentration of slurry produced similar results that

were closer to the case of water as storage medium. But

when 50% volume concentration of slurry was used, the heat

transfer and increase in temperature was much low. This is

due to the low thermal conductivity of the PCM, high

viscosity and high specific heat. Natural convection was

observed around the helical coil heat exchanger. As a result,

the PCS around the heat exchanger got heated up and

became less dense and started to move to the top of the tank

and the denser PCS started heating and the process

continued. From the results obtained, the authors come to a

conclusion that PCS with 50% of volume concentration are

not suitable for energy storage applications. Also it is found

that the size and location of the heat exchanger had a



significant influence in the energy storage performance of

the system.

Isabel Cerona et al [7] developed a new tile

containing PCM for cooling of room. The newly designed

tile was of length 660mm and width 660mm. It consists of

four pieces of pure clay of thickness 20mm, a metal

container of 32mm thickness containing 4.8l of PCM

followed by a thermal insulation of 22mm thick. The Tile

was experimentally investigated and the results were

compared with the tile without PCM. Experimental

evaluation took about 60 days and found that the tiles stored

the excess heat energy and maintained the room temperature

around 4°C to 10°C. The tile was found useful in storing the

heat energy and maintaining the room temperature. Also the

tiles exposed to higher temperatures had a higher

effectiveness. Similarly Chengbin Zhang et al [8] used PCM

in brick walls to control the temperature fluctuations of

buildings. Wei-Biao Ye et al [9] described the detail process

of thermal storage and release in a aluminium plate-fin

storage unit. Numerical investigation was carried for plate-

fin thermal storage/release unit using paraffin PCM for

determining the effect of temperature difference. The

authors described the detailed thermal storage/release

process that might be useful for practical applications. The

storage/release unit consisted square channel with inner

plates and outer plates. The inner plates carried water as the

HTF and paraffin in the fins space. The height and width of

the fins were 12mm and 1.6mm while the width of the PCM

layer was 4mm. When heated, PCM closer to the fin and

plate wall melts and the liquid is affected by gravitational

force as well as buoyancy forces. Gravitational force comes

to play with lower temperatures while buoyancy forces

affect the liquid PCM during greater temperatures which

makes the liquid PCM to flow upwards. With higher

temperatures, heat transfer takes place from bottom plate to

the top and the melting occurs and a circulating flow is

observed closer to the bottom heating wall which leads to

higher melting rates. The results show that with larger

temperature differences, the liquid fraction development rate

was quicker leading to shorter completion time. Also

increase in temperature difference causes the increase in

temperature gradient which finally results in the increase of

heat flux. Higher heat flux leads to reduced thermal storage

time. Similarly during the energy release process, volume of

the PCM reduces and it is noted that a part of the un-

solidified PCM remains for a long time. At the end of the

release process, the heat flux reaches to zero indicating the

end stage. The authors state that the dimensions of the

storage unit can also induce natural convection that

increases the heat transfer coefficient.

S.F. Hosseinizadeh et al [10] has done an detailed

experimental and numerical investigation on the effect of

number of fins, fin thickness, fin height, power input level

of PCM based heat sinks used in the thermal management of

electronic components. The heat sinks had a common

dimension of 60mm*40mm made aluminium 6061 alloy

with different dimensions of fins. With power inputs of

25W, 35W and 45W, it was observed that higher the power

input, the higher the heat absorbed was. With increase in

number of fins, the volume of PCM decreases and as a result

melting time is reduced. Similarly a thicker fin has lower

volume of PCM which causes delayed melting of PCM.

Increase in thickness of fins also reduces the thermal

resistance of fins, which obviously leads to delayed melting

of PCM. An increase in height of the fins delays the start of

melting and the melting period which leads to increased

usage time of the electronics component.

Nithyanandam and Pitchumani [11] attempted to

investigate the influence of heat pipe, parametric and

geometric parameters on the performance of a shell and tube

latent thermal energy storage systems with embedded heat

pipes. The LTES used in the investigation was a high

temperature LTES commonly used in CSP plants. The

LTES was examined as two modules. Module 1 had the

HTF flowing through the pipe surrounded by PCM, while

Module 2 had the PCM contained within the tube and the

HTF was made to flow transversely to the axis of the tube.

The arrangement was in such a way that the surface area

exposed to the HTF was equal for both the modules. The

geometric parameters considered by the authors were length

of module (0.08 to 0.2), length of evaporator section of the

heat pipe (0.2 to 0.4), length of condenser section of the heat

pipe (0.05 to 0.243), outer radius of the tube (0.2 to 0.4),

radius of vapor core of heat pipe (0.007 to 0.038), thickness

of the wick of heat pipe (0.007 to 0.032). The influence of

the above parameters on the performance of the LTES was

determined during charging and discharging process. The

mass flow rate values taken for the investigation were 0.589

kg/s, 2.80 kg/s, and 5.89 kg/s. During the charging with

module 1, the combined effect of natural convection and

conduction came into play. The performance of the LTES

with the above parameters was determined. With increase in

the mass flow rate, the melting rate of PCM increased with

increase in the melt fraction as a result of which the

charging rate of the PCM was found to be increased. Thus

by increasing the mass flow rate, the thermal performance of

the LTES was found to be decreasing. Considering the

module length, the authors found that with lower values of

the module length, which leads to horizontal configuration

of closely packed heat pipes will result in an improved

performance of the LTES system. The heat pipes with

longer evaporator section seem to produce a higher charging

rate with improved effectiveness of the LTES, which was

similar with the case of increasing the length of the

condenser section. The increase lead to a larger surface area

for the melting of the PCM in a slower process due to which

the onset of natural convection was delayed leading to an

improved effectiveness. When the tube radius was

increased, the effectiveness of the LTES decreased, but the



increase in the vapor core radius of the heat pipe increased

the effectiveness of the LTES than the increase of the wick

thickness of the heat pipe. The results were almost the same

when examined with module 2. The results obtained for

charging with module 1 and 2 was close to the results of

discharging process. The authors also tried and succeeded in

identifying the optimum design with operating parameters

which would increase the charging/discharging

effectiveness, effective charging/discharging rate and

effective energy transfer rate for charging/discharging.

Colas Hasse et al [12] examined a honeycomb wall

board filled with paraffin PCM. The honey combs had cell

size with 6mm and wall thickness 70µm and were 2cm deep.

Heat exchanger was placed over the wall board and water

was used as the HTF. The set up is as shown in figure (43).

The honey comb structure has a larger heat transfer area in

contact with the PCM which helps in uniform distribution of

the temperature to the PCM. Pandiyarajan et al [13]

designed a TES to store sensible and latent heat from the

exhaust gas of an IC engine with the help of a heat

exchanger. The heat exchanger used in the investigation was

a shell and tube type with finned copper tubes, in which the

exhaust gas from the IC engine passed through the shell side

thereby providing a higher heat transfer area. The tube side

of the heat exchanger carried castor oil. The heat exchanger

was used as the heat recovery system. The heat from the

exhaust gas is transferred to the castor oil which is then

passed to the TES system for storage of the thermal energy.

Fig 3: Honey comb filled with PCM

Fig 2: Heat exchanger with finned tubes

The TES tank is a cylindrical vessel of 450mm

inner diameter and 720mm height with 48 cylindrical caps

of diameter 80mm and height 100mm containing 320g of

paraffin as the PCM. The TES tank contained a total of 15

kg of paraffin and 55 kg of castor oil. The cylindrical

capsules were mounted on a stand of 430mm diameter and

640mm height made of mild steel. (Fig.39).The castor oil

served as the sensible heat storage medium and the paraffin

as latent heat storage medium. The TES tank was

completely insulated with glass wool and aluminium

cladding. The performance of the heat exchanger and the

TES was evaluated under different load conditions. From

the results obtained, the authors come to a conclusion that

by reducing the temperature of the exhaust below 100°C,

most of the heat can be recovered from it. In order to

determine the performance of the TES, the heat loss

coefficient, temperature distribution of the tank, charging

rate, charging efficiency, storage efficiency are to be

determined. It is found that the overall heat loss coefficient

of the TES tank increases with increase in the temperature.

The TES tank is made of stainless steel therefore

temperature variations cannot be observed in the tank which

indicates the absence of stratification in the tank. The

charging rate and the charging efficiency is found to

increase with increase in the load. The reason for this is

because of the increase of exhaust gas temperature at higher

load conditions. It is found that the charging efficiency of

the TES tank is increased to 99.34% as the load is increased

to 100%. The implementation of such a system with TES

has increased the percentage of energy saved from 10% to

15% as the load increases from 25% to 100%.

Yue-Tzu Yang and Yi-Hsien Wang [14] developed

a heat sink with its cavity filled with n-eicosane as the PCM

for cooling of electronic devices. Power levels of 2W – 4W,

orientations of horizontal, vertical and slanted and charging

and discharging modes were evaluated. Numerical results

were obtained and the results proved that use of PCM in

aluminium heat sinks can be useful in the cooling of

electronic devices which would help in the prolonged use of

electronic devices.



Fig 4: PCM containers stacked to form TES

V.V.Tyagi et al [15] developed a cool energy

storage system with the use of PCM for the control of room

temperature. Three stacks containing sixty rectangular high

density polyethylene panels (HDPE) filled with a total of

225 kg of calcium chloride hexahydrate as PCM was

assembled on the walls. The experimental setup consisted

three fans and 1.5TR window air-conditioning system in a

test room of dimensions 2.96m*2.41m*2.6m with an

insulated door of dimensions 2.13m*0.92m as shown in

fig.8. Three experiments were conducted, without the cool

energy storage system, with energy storage system and air-

conditioning switched on and with cool energy storage

system with air-conditioning switched off. Blowers and

heaters were also used in the experimental investigation.

The room temperature was measured for all the three

experiments and was found that temperature differences

occurred between the PCMs in different location, based on

their distance from the air conditioner. However, the thermal

management system was found to be effective for space

cooling applications as it maintained the room temperature

within the range 0f 22°C to 24°C.

Eduard Oro et al [16] found that without a

refrigeration system, the use of PCM could be able to

maintain the temperature of frozen foods low for a

prolonged time. Low temperature PCMs Climsel C-18 and

E-21 encapsulated in thin stainless steel containers were

used in the investigation. The PCM was placed at the top of

the evaporator tubes of a freezing compartment as shown in

fig. 9, with 5cm polyurethane insulation. The total amount

of PCM occupied 3.36% of the total volume of the freezing

compartment. The results of the investigation shows that the

PCM E-21 was most suitable than Climsel C-18 as it

maintained the temperature of the freezing compartment

within the range of -16°C to -12°C.

S. Karthikeyan and R. Velraj [17] performed a

numerical study by comparing three different models of a

packed bed LTES containing encapsulated spherical PCM as

energy storage system. The storage tank was with diameter

0.35m and 0.7m and the PCM were encapsulated in a plastic

ball of diameter 70mm with wall thickness 0.5mm. There

was a total of 260 such PCM ball contained within the steel

storage tank. Air was used as the HTF supplied from a

blower and heated by an air heater.

Rajesh Baby and C. Balaji [18] investigated a

finned heat sink for the cooling of electronic equipments.

The heat sink was designed with 72 pin fins made of pure

aluminium. The aluminium acts as a Thermal Conductivity

Enhancer (TCE). In this investigation, n-eicosane is used as

the PCM. The authors have also done a comparative study

with the performance of the heat sink with PCM and without

PCM. The heat sink without fin took 64 min to reach a

specific temperature of 58°C, whereas the heat sink with

PCM took about 165 min. This longer duration taken by the

heat sink to reach a specific value, increases the usage time

of the electronic device by storing a large amount of heat

energy. Different fin configurations were tested and

compared. The heat sink with 72 pin fins had the base

temperature lower than the heat sinks with 3 plate fins and

the heat sink without fins as shown in fig.23. The reason for

this was a larger surface area available for heat transfer. The

heat sink also had a maximum latent heating time as well as

an higher operating time for the same reason. The

comparison of the heat sinks with different configurations

has proved that the pin fin heat sink with larger surface area

for heat transfer has resulted in providing a better

performance for longer duration. Thus the authors conclude

that the performance of the heat sink is dependent depends

on the fin configuration, heat source power level, material

that is used as TCE, volumetric percentage of TCE and the

amount of PCM used.

Fig 5: Heat Sink with 72 Pin Fins.

Maciej Jaworski [19] designed a heat spreader that

can be used for cooling of electronic devices. The design

consists of a solid base plate of thickness 5mm and

dimensions 50*60mm onto which 320 pipes of outer

diameter 1.5mm or 80 pipes of outer diameter 3mm is

attached as in fig 27. Each tube was filled with12 to 17g of

lauric acid as PCM. The pipes functions as fins providing a



larger heat transfer surface and transfer of heat from the base

plate to the PCM. Presence of PCM prevents the

temperature of the microprocessor exceeding a certain value

which depends on the melting point of the PCM, thus

preventing the microprocessor from damages caused due to

excess heat. Hence the choice of the PCM is important. Also

the PCM increases the thermal capacity of the device. The

results of the investigation shows the effect of PCM used in

thermal performance of the heat spreader. The presence of

PCM in the pipes which gives larger heat transfer surface

area, specific air flow rate, keeps the temperature of the

microprocessor low which is lesser than 50°C. The different

configurations of the heat spreader reveal the difference in

their performance is due to the variations in the diameter of

the pipe, number of pipes. Heat spreader with larger pipe

diameters is better when compared to thin pipe diameters.

Jianghong Wu et al [20] developed a cascade air

source heat pump water heater with the use of PCM and

investigated the dynamic performance of the pump. The

cascade air source heat pump runs in the single stage heating

mode when the ambient temperature is high and in the

cascade heating mode when the ambient temperature

decreases. The thermal storage tank of 350mm diameter and

320mm high was contained within a water tank of 370 mm

diameter and 970mm high. 94 circular channels of diameter

15mm containing PCM was placed within the thermal

storage tank which is shown in fig. 46. The PCM used was a

mixture of 75 weight % of paraffin and 25 weight % of

expanded graphite.

Fig 6: TES showing 94 circular channels

The authors also investigated the performance of

the water tank with PCM and compared with the

performance of tank without PCM. It was found that the

stored energy of tank without PCM was higher. Also the

efficiency of the tank without PCM was of 97.85% while the

tank with PCM had an efficiency of 94.23%. The reason

behind the reduced efficiency of the tank with PCM is due

to the additional heat transfer process that took place within

the tank. The tank with PCM supplied only 407kJ of energy

more than that of the tank without PCM. The energy storage

density of the PCM used here was 103,500kJ/m3 while that

of water is 83,600kJ/m3. Thus it can be seen that the

difference in storage density of PCM and water is not too

high. As a result, the tank with PCM could not produce a

higher efficiency. As discussed earlier, the thermal

conductivity of the PCM is low which leads to lower heat

transfer process. Thus the authors suggest that PCM with

higher heat transfer rate and higher storage density is more

preferable for energy storage purposes.

Hiroyoshi Koizumi and Yunhai Jin [21] came up

with a new design of TES. The design consisted n- number

of curved slab containers arranged one above the over to

form the complete TES unit. (Fig.47).The curved slabs were

designed with an outer arc configuration to induce close

contact melting of the PCM contained within the slab. The

curvature resembled a one third part of a cylindrical shell

with radius R. The total height of the TES was varied

between15mm to 45mm with corresponding number of

curved slabs present in the TES. The TES had

configurations of width 1m, length 1m, which is similar to

the PCM container’s aluminium wall of thickness 1mm. The

TES had a duct height of 5mm between the successive

curved slabs that facilitated the flow of the HTF which was

hot water. During the early stages of the investigation,

melting experiments were performed on the curved slab and

compared with a flat slab container. The flat slab container

when heating melted the PCM contained in it. The melted

PCM was found between the lower container wall and upper

solid PCM. As melting continued, the thickness of the

melted PCM became larger which resulted in incomplete

melting of PCM. But in the curved slab, the solid PCM

remained in the lower half of the container and the liquid

PCM was found in the upper half of the container.

Fig 7: TES stacked with curves slabs containing PCM

A thin layer of liquid PCM was found between the

solid PCM and the inner curved wall of the container due to

close contact melting. The solid PCM was melted

continuously through this layer and the melted PCM moved

to the upper portion of the container which increased the

melting rate of the PCM. Thus the curved design of the slab

plays a key role in promoting the close contact melting. The

time required for complete the melting process for flat slab

container was 27 min whereas it took only 17 min for the

complete melting of PCM in the curved slab. The similar



concept was employed with the TES which was made of a

number of curved slab containers. Stefan number and flow

rate were the parameters involved in the study. Whwn the

Stefan number was increased from 0.02 t0 0.12, the melting

time was decreased. The authors made a feasibility study of

the curved slab TES with another TES with spherical

capsules containing PCM and found that the curved slab

TES had large storage capacity and a high efficiency.

N.H.S Tay et al [22] carried out an experimental

investigation of a tube in tank TES system filled with salt

hydrate as PCM for cold storage applications. The authors

investigated the influence of compactness factor (C.F) on

the design of the storage tank. Compactness factor (C.F) is

the ratio of volume of PCM to the total volume of the

storage tank, which describes the effective energy storage

density of the tank. Three designs with varying lengths of

the tubes were proposed which are shown in fig.11. Design

(a) comprised a single tube of 5.46m long coiled tube and

(b) comprised two tubes of length 5.61m and 6.01m coiled

tube while (c) comprised four tubes of length 5.95m, 6.05m,

5.79m and 6.04m respectively. The C.F of the designs was

98%, 95% and 90% respectively. The overall energy storage

density of the tank is the product of C.F and average

effectiveness. On examining and comparing the results of

the three designs, it was observed that the effectiveness of

designs (b) and (c) was greater than that of design (a).

Effectiveness was found to be increasing with the decrease

in mass flow rates which lead to larger temperature

difference. The heat transfer area exhibited by designs (b)

and (c) was also higher than design (a) and as a result the

outlet temperature is closer to the phase change temperature.

This resulted in higher average effectiveness. Also natural

convection played an important role in improving the

effectiveness by improving the heat transfer through the

liquid phase. The results acquired from the experimental

investigation concluded that higher the C.F is, lower the

effectiveness is and larger the heat transfer surface area, the

average effectiveness is high due to which the four tubes

tank had higher effectiveness

(a) Single tube design (b) Two tubes (c) Four tubes

Fig. 8: Tube designs used for TES

The authors also carried out an experimental

investigation and validated the results using CFD model

[23]. The four tube design of [22] was used in this analysis.

The PCM used in the investigation was water, contained in a

tank of diameter 290mm and height 330mm. The HTF was a

non-combustible, aqueous based fluid with dissolved ionic

solids capable of operating below -50°C which was made to

flow through the tubes. Freezing and melting process were

conducted and the results were compared with the simulated

results obtained through CFD analysis. It was observed that

the simulated results showed a slower melting process than

the experimental result. Also the melting started from the

bottom of the tubes and ended at the top of the tubes,

whereas in the simulated results, the melting process started

from both bottom and top and ended in the middle region.

Similar results were obtained with the freezing process. The

reason for such a behavior was that during the simulations,

the effect of natural convection was neglected. The melting

process of the PCM is primarily due to convection as a

result of which the PCM surrounding the tubes start melting

from the bottom and the process continues. Since such effect

was avoided with simulation, the process is delayed.

The authors were also involved in validating a

large- tube in tank model of TES system using CFD and an

effectiveness Number of Transfer Units (NTU) model [24].

A larger PCM tank with dimensions of diameter of 550mm

and height 870 mm having Compactness Factor 98% was

used in this investigation. The TES unit was made with eight

copper tubes of diameter 3.33mm. (Fig.12)



Fig. 9: Tube in tank model for larger tanks

Heating/Charging and cooling/discharging

experiments were conducted and the results were validated

using the Effectiveness NTU approach and CFD. Comparing

the effectiveness acquired by experimental investigation,

NTU approach and CFD results, it was observed that the

experimental values were higher than the results of the other

two models. Similarly the experimental values of the

cooling process was greater than the effectiveness NTU

technique and CFD results due to the buoyancy effect that

was observed during the melting process. Also the phase

change duration for heating process was compared with the

effectiveness NTU and CFD technique. The CFD approach

had faster phase change duration than the experimental and

effectiveness NTU results since heat loss to the environment

occurred during the experimental investigation. But the

phase change duration for cooling experiments showed

delayed time in the CFD approach. The thermal resistance of

PCM during the charging process was found to account for

40 to 60% of the total resistance and during discharging it

was found of 70 – 80% of total resistance which was due to

the buoyancy effect. The authors concluded that the reason

for variation of the experimental results with CFD and

effectiveness NTU approach was due to the tube to tube

distance of 100mm in the design which reduced the heat

transfer and increased the resistance.

Using the validated results obtained from [23] and

[24] the authors developed and investigated three more

models [25] shown in fig.13. The first model (Model 1)

consists of 16 pin fins mounted on a copper tube of length

100mm with inner diameter and outer diameter of 9.5mm

and 12.7mm respectively. The diameter and length of the

pin fins were varied and tested. The diameters were varied

with values of 3mm, 5mm, 7mm and 9.5mm and the length

with 20, 30, 40 mm. The second model (Model 2) had 5

copper fins attached to the similar tube as that of model 1.

Similar to the previous model the fin thickness with values

0.3, 0.5, 0.7 and 1mm and the fin diameter with values 52,

72, 92 mm was varied and investigated. Model 3 was a

copper tube of length 100mm and outer and inner radius

12.7 mm and 9.5mm without any fins or pins. The HTF used

in the investigation was similar with the previous. Model 3

is initially evaluated and the acquired results are used to

compare the pinned and finned tubes. It is found that the

finned tubes have a larger surface area as a result the

effectiveness is improved by 20 to 40% than the pinned

tubes. (Fig.14) .The larger the fins, the higher are the

effectiveness. From the results obtained, the authors have

suggests that for an effective design, the system needs to

have a high heat transfer surface area, a high CF and at the

same time faster charging or discharging rates. By

comparing the two designs, the finned model performs

better than the pinned tubes.

(1). Pinned tubes (2) Finned tubes

(3) Plane tube

Fig. 10: TES design made of pinned and finned tubes

Abduljalil et al [26] used a triplex tube heat

exchanger for thermal energy storage in the application of

liquid desiccant air conditioning system. The heat exchanger

comprised three horizontal copper tubes arranged

concentrically of equal length 500mm. The diameter of the

inner, middle and outer tubes was 50.8mm, 150mm and

200mm respectively. The middle tube of the heat exchanger

was filled with paraffin PCM and was examined to

determine the effect of mass flow rate in the melting of the

PCM (Fig. 35). Three different heating methods were

selected for the melting process, i.e. heating the inside tube,

heating the outside tube and heating both the inside and

outside tubes with average temperatures 95°C, 94°C and

90°C respectively. When the flow rates were increased from

8 to 32kg/min, the melting rate increased but when further

increased to 40kg/min, the melting rate was found to

decrease since it resulted in high Reynolds number and low

prandtl number. Heating the inside tube was carried by

passing the HTF through the inner tube. It was observed that

the melting process started from inner tube wall where



conduction process came into act which resulted in a thin

layer of liquid formation. The liquid fraction increased with

time and natural convection and buoyancy forces came into

play which leads to heat transfer process in the upper part of

the storage and the melting process was improved. But it

was observed that the PCM was not completely melted since

heat transfer due to conduction and convection was not

enough. Similar process was observed with the other two

methods of heating but the heating started from outer tube

walls in second case and uniform temperature distribution

was observed in the last method of heating. It was also noted

that complete PCM melting was observed in the second and

third heating methods and the highest average PCM heating

temperature was observed in the third method of heating.

The reason behind this is the increase in the heat transfer

surface area that is noted in the second and third heating

methods. Temperature gradients along the axial, radial and

angular directions were measured and analyzed. No

variation in axial temperature was found with the three

methods of heating, but on observing the radial

temperatures, it was found that the heating inner tubes

resulted in high temperature closer to the inner tube wall and

while heating both tubes, inner tube wall and outer tube wall

temperature was found high since the flow rate was high in

the inner tube. The angular temperature measured was

greater at 90° for all three heating methods. This was

because of the natural convection and buoyancy forces.

Ehsan et al [27] designed a TES made of

corrugated copper panels. The TES was designed in such a

way that it had a high surface to volume ratio of 506.5 m-1

and high aspect ratio of 6.35. Six square corrugated copper

panels were soldered together to the centre at 60° forming

six corrugated fins as shown in fig.22. The square

corrugations were of sides 0.8 cm with center to center

distance of 1.6cm. There were totally six squares with three

on each side of the fins. The copper panels enclosed the

PCM for thermal energy storage and release and hence were

sealed tight to prevent any leakage of the PCM in liquid

phase.

Fig. 11: Corrugated TES

A total of 900 cm3 of octadecane was used as PCM

within the TES with 150 cm3 in each panel. The entire unit

was placed inside a clear plastic pipe with both ends closed

by perforated disks of diameter 16 cm at a distance of 15.2

cm from the TES. The experimental setup was in such a way

that hot water (HTF) is allowed to flow through the plastic

tube surrounding the TES unit in upward and downward

directions. Parameters that the authors considered for the

investigation were Reynolds number and Stefan number.

From the results, the heat transfer rate was found to be

increased when the HTF was made to flow upward through

the TES. During the charging process, the melting of the

PCM started from the bottom and buoyancy forces came

into play. With buoyancy forces affecting the heat transfer,

the melting time of the PCM was much reduced by 70%

when compared to the HTF flowing downward. Similarly

during the discharging process with HTF flowing upward,

the solidification of PCM started from bottom which

resulted in the discharging time three times faster than the

downward flow of HTF. Stefan number was considered as

one of the parameters for evaluating the TES system since it

defines the effect of HTF temperature on the performance of

the TES system. When higher values of Stefan number were

obtained, stratification effect was noted in the system. Two

flow rates were used and the axial and radial temperature

gradients were recorded. The observations resulted that there

was no effect in the axial temperature gradients due to

internal conduction and convection. Similarly the radial

temperature distribution was reduced with radial distance.

The experimental results obtained with the corrugated TES

were compared with a multi-tube system and was found that

the corrugated TES had better results. This was due to the

higher surface to volume ratio that was exhibited by the

corrugated TES design and the flow direction of the HTF.

11. CONCLUSION PCMs are widely used in cold storage applications

as well as heat storage applications. Cold storage

applications include frozen food preservation, refrigeration,

cooling of buildings, turbine inlet temperature. Similarly

heat storage applications include hot water tanks, air

heating, waste heat recovery. Usage of PCM integrated TES

system in such applications leads to improved performance,

efficiency, and as well as the energy storage capacity of the

total system. But PCMs have very low thermal conductivity,

which is a major drawback of the PCMs. Hence the

Thermal Energy Storage system or the PCM tank must be

wisely chosen such that improved performance of the

system is obtained. Performance improvement can be

obtained through proper consideration of the material with

high thermal conductivity, design with higher heat transfer

areas and several parameters like input temperature,

dimensions, C.F, flow rate. When A TES system designed

effectively, promotes the melting/charging and

freezing/discharging of the PCM faster. Avoiding sharp

corners of TES systems promotes complete melting of the



PCM contained in the system. Use of pins and fins provide a

larger heat transfer surface area thereby promoting faster

melting and solidifying rates. Conduction process followed

by Convection promotes the melting of PCM as energy is

absorbed, while conduction process alone dominates the

freezing process as the stored energy is released. Hence it is

important that the design of the TES is in such a way that

the melting and freezing process are improved and a proper

PCM with required properties are selected for an effective

performance of the thermal storage system.

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