revised first year syllabus 2020-21

REVISED FIRST YEAR SYLLABUS 2020-21

Curriculum & Evaluation Scheme (I & II semester) Page 43

KNC-101 SOFT SKILLS-I 2L:0T:0P

SOFT SKILLS-I

UNIT I- Basics of Applied Grammar and usage Tenses: Part of Speech, Active & Passive Voice, Articles, Subject-verb agreement, Antonyms, Synonyms, Prefix and Suffix, Narration, Conditional sentences, Concord, Tag questions, punctuation marks. UNIT II- Presentation and Interaction Skills Speech Delivery, Interjecting: Objectives& Methodology; Group Discussion: Objectives & Methods; Theme Presentation: Methods; Argumentative skills: Pattern and Ingredients; Debate & Discussion: Unity, Coherence & Emphasis. Public Speaking: Audience Analysis: Approach and Style. Interviews: Types; Focus & Objectives. UNIT III- Interpersonal Communication Skills Features: Methods; Principles; Requisites; Team- work; Skills: Empathy, Emotional Intelligence, empathy and listening skills. Time Management; Attitude; Responsibility. Leadership qualities: Integrity; Values; Trust; Self-Confidence & Courage; Communication and Networking; Speed reading; Problem Solving & Trouble- Shooting UNIT IV- Persuasion and Negotiation Skills Definition; Understanding Attitude, Beliefs, Values and Behavior; The process of Persuasion: Analysis of Audience; Classification of Audience; Egoistic and Non-Egoistic; Specific Techniques for Specific Audience; Skills of Persuasion, Steps to Persuasion/Influence, Negotiation: Definition; Process of Negotiation: Characteristics; Qualities of good negotiator; Approaches to Negotiation. UNIT V- Communication Skills Introduction to oral communication, Nuances & Modes of Speech Delivery, Public speaking: confidence, clarity, and fluency, Non verbal Communication: Kinesics, Paralinguistic features of Voice-Dynamics, Proxemics, Chronemics, and Presentation Strategies: planning, preparation, organization, delivery.

Course Outcome: Unit 1- Students will be enabled to understand the correct usage of grammar. Unit 2- Students will apply the fundamental inputs of communication skills in making speech delivery, individual

conference, and group communication. Unit 3-Students will evaluate the impact of interpersonal communication on their performance as a professional

and in obtaining professional excellence at the workplace. Unit 4-Skills and techniques of persuasion and negotiation would enhance the level of students at multifarious

administrative and managerial platforms.

Unit 5-Student will be able to equip with basics of communication skills and will apply it for practical and oral purposes by being honed up in presentation skills and voice-dynamics.

Prescribed Books:

1. Technical Communication, (Second Ed.); O.U.P., Meenakshi Raman & S.Sharma New Delhi, 2011 2. Business Communication for Managers, Payal Mehra, Pearson, Delhi, 2012. 3. Personality Development, Harold R. Wallace et. al, Cengage Learning India Pvt. Ltd; New Delhi 2006 4. Practical Communication by L.U.B. Pandey; A.I.T.B.S. Publications India Ltd.; Krishan Nagar, 2013,

Delhi. 5. Personality Development & Soft Skills, Barun K.Mitra, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2012. 6. Public Speaking, William S. Pfeiffer, Pearson, Delhi, 2012. 7. Human Values, A.N. Tripathi, New Age International Pvt. Ltd. Publishers New Delhi ,2005

SOFT SKILLS_1 (KNC101)

CO-PO Mapping

Course Outcomes (COs)

Course

Outcome

After Completion of the course :

CO1 The students will understand the basics of communication skills for verbal and non-

verbal communication.

CO2 The students will apply the fundamental inputs of communication skills in making

speech delivery, individual conference, and group communication.

CO3 The students will evaluate the impact of interpersonal communication on their

performance as a professional and in obtaining professional excellence at the workplace.

CO4 Skills and techniques of persuasion would enhance the level of the students at

multifarious administrative and managerial platforms.

CO5 Negotiation Skills would enhance the power of negotiation capabilities of students and

to utilize their knowledge for their professional competence.

PROGRAMME OUTCOMES (POs)

Program

Outcome

PO1

Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,

engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of

complex computer engineering problems.

PO2

Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyse

complex computer engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using

first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.

PO3

Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex computer

engineering problems and design system components or processes that meet the

specific needs with appropriate considerations for the public health and safety, and

the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.

PO4

Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and

research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of

data, and synthesis of the information to provide conclusions

PO5

Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and

modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modelling to complex

engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.

PO6

The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge

to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent relevant

to the professional engineering practices

PO7

Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional

engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the

knowledge of, and need for sustainable development

PO8 Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and

responsibilities and norm of the engineering practices

PO9 Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member

or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings

PO10

Communications: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with

the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to

comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective

presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.

PO11

Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of

the engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a

member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary

environments.

PO12

Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to

engage in independent and life learning in the broadest context of technological

change.

CO-PO Mapping Matrices

Course Outcome

Pos

PO

1

PO

2

PO

3

PO

4

PO

5

PO

6

PO

7

PO

8

PO

9

PO

10

PO

11

PO

12

CO1 1 3 3

CO2 1 1 3 3

CO3 1 2 3 3

CO4 2 3

CO5 2 3 3

Average 1 1 2 3 2.5 3

Galgotias College of Engineering & Technology

SOFT SKILLS_1(KNC101)

NOTES

UNIT-1 (CO-1)

UNIT I- Basics of Applied Grammar and usage

Tenses: Part of Speech, Active & Passive Voice, Articles, Subject-verb agreement, Antonyms, Synonyms,

Prefix and Suffix, Narration, Conditional sentences, Concord, Tag questions, punctuation marks.

Tenses:

Present Tense

Past Tense

Future Tense Each of the three above mentioned tenses can further be divided into sub parts. These sub parts include:

Simple

Continuous

Perfect

Perfect Continuous Given below are the rules of tenses for your reference:

Simple Present Tense

Subject + V1 + s/es + Object (Singular)

Subject + V1 + Object (Plural)

Present Continuous Tense

Subject + is/am/are + V1 + ing + object

Present Perfect Tense

Subject + has + V3 + Object (Singular)

Subject + have + V3 + Object (Plural)

Present Perfect Continuous Tense

Subject + has been + V1 + ing + Object


(Singular)

Subject + have been + V1 + ing + Object (Plural)

Simple Past Tense Subject + V2 + Object

Past Continuous Tense

Subject + was + V1 + ing + Object (Singular)

Subject + were + V1 + ing + Object (Plural)

Past Perfect Tense

Subject + had + V3 + Object

Past Perfect Continuous Tense

Subject + had been + V1 + ing + Object

Simple Future Tense

Subject + will/shall + V1 + Object

Future Continuous Tense

Subject + will be/shall be + ing + V1 + Object

Future Perfect Tense

Subject + will have/shall have + V3 + Object

Future Perfect Continuous Tense

Subject + will have been + V1 + ing + Object

In the above table,

V1 refers to first form of verb

V2 refers to second form of verb

V3 refers to the third form of verb

Given below are a few examples that may help simply the concept:

1. Rakesh speaks English fluently. (Simple Present for Singular)

2. They speak Italian (Simple Present for Plural)

3. She is speaking Sanskrit. (Present Continuous)

4. He has learnt German. (Present Perfect for Singular)

5. They have learnt American. (Present Perfect for Plural)

6. He has been learning German. (Present Perfect Continuous for Singular)


7. We have been learning Sanskrit. (Present Perfect Continuous for Plural)

8. I played cricket yesterday (Simple Past)

9. I was playing cricket yesterday (Past Continuous for Singular)

10. They were playing cricket yesterday. (Past Continuous for Plural)

11. They had played cricket yesterday. (Past Perfect)

12. They had been playing football the entire yesterday (Past Perfect Continuous)

13. He will go to school tomorrow. (Simple Future)

14. He will be going to the school tomorrow. (Future Continuous)

15. He will have gone to school tomorrow. (Future Perfect)

16. She will have been going to school tomorrow. (Future Perfect Continuous)

Parts of Speech

Parts of speech are the basic categories of words according to their function in a sentence. It is a category to

which a word is assigned in accordance with its syntactic functions. English has eight main parts of speech, namely,

Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions & Interjections. In grammar, the parts of

speech, also called lexical categories, grammatical categories or word classes is a linguistic category of words.

The parts of speech are commonly divided into two categories:

1. Open classes - Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives and adverbs.

2. Closed classes - Pronouns, Prepositions, Conjunctions and Interjections.

Eight Parts of Speech in English Grammar

Nouns

A noun names a person, place, or thing Caribbean, ship, Argentina, Mathew etc

Pronouns

A pronoun takes the place of a noun I, you, he, she, it, ours, them, who etc.

Verb

Verb identifies an action or state of being believe, seem, finish, eat, drink etc.

Adverbs

An adverb modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb lazily, often, only, hopefully, softly etc.

Adjectives


An adjective modifies a noun funny, unique, bright, beautiful, healthy etc.

Prepositions

A preposition shows a relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and other words in a sentence close to, out of,

apart from etc.

Conjunction

A conjunction joins words, phrases, and clauses and, but, or etc.

Interjections

An interjection expresses emotion and can usually stand alone like whoops, ouch etc.

1. Nouns

A noun is a part of speech that identifies a person, place, thing, idea or events. Nouns are the simplest among

the 8 parts of speech. In a sentence, nouns can play the role of subject, direct object, indirect object, subject

complement, object complement, appositive, or adjective as depending on the necessity. Nouns are broadly

classified into five categories:

1. Proper Noun

2. Common Noun

3. Collective Noun

4. Abstract Noun

5. Materialistic Noun

To know the detailed classification of Nouns with examples, check out the Parts of Speech with Examples PDF

that we have provided later in the article.

2. Pronouns

Pronouns as part of speech are the words which are used in place of nouns like people, places, or things. They

are used to avoid sounding unnatural by reusing the same noun in a sentence multiple times. In the sentence,

Maya saw Sanjay, and she waved at him, the pronouns she and him take the place of Maya and Sanjay,

respectively. The other examples of pronouns are I, you, she, her, it, everyone, somebody, hers, theirs, etc.

Pronouns are classified into eight broad categories as follows:

1. Personal Pronouns

2. Reflexive & Emphatic Pronouns

3. Demonstrative Pronouns

4. Indefinite Pronouns

5. Distributive Pronouns

6. Reciprocal Pronouns


7. Relative Pronouns

8. Interrogative Pronouns

To know the detailed classification of Pronouns with examples, check out the Part of Speech Notes PDF that we

have provided later in the article.

3. Verbs

Verbs as part of speech are used to signify the actions, processes, conditions, or states of being of people or

things. It is basically a word that characteristically is the grammatical center of a predicate and expresses an act,

occurrence, or mode of being, that in various languages is inflected for agreement with the subject, for tense,

for voice, for mood, or for aspect, and that typically has full descriptive meaning and characterizing quality in it.

The different types of verbs are mentioned below:

1. Finite & Infinite Verbs

2. Transitive & Intransitive Verbs

3. Regular & Irregular Verbs

To know the detailed classification of Verbs with examples, check out the Parts of Speech with Examples PDF

that we have provided later in the article.

4. Adverbs

An adverb is a word that is used to change or qualify the meaning of an adjective, a verb, a clause, another

adverb, or any other type of word or phrase with the exception of determiners and adjectives that directly

modify nouns. The adverbs are broadly classified into nine types as follows:

Adverb of

1. Time

2. Place

3. Manner

4. Degree or Quantity

5. Frequency or Number

6. Reason

7. Focus & Viewpoint

8. Affirmation

9. Negation

To know the detailed classification of Adverbs with examples, check out the Part of Speech Notes PDF that we

have provided later in the article.

5. Adjectives


Adjectives are words that describe or modify a noun or a pronoun in the sentence. The adjectives are easy to

spot because they come immediately before the nouns they modify. They are used to identify or quantify

individual people and unique things and are usually positioned before the noun or pronoun that they modify.

Some sentences also contain multiple adjectives. The different types of Adjectives are as follows:

1. Adjectives of Quality

2. Adjectives of Quantity

3. Adjectives of Number

4. Demonstrative Adjectives

5. Interrogative Adjectives

6. Exclamatory Adjectives

7. Possessive Adjectives

To know the detailed classification of Adjectives with examples, out the Parts of Speech with Examples PDF that

we have provided later in the article.

6. Prepositions

A preposition is a word placed before a noun or a pronoun to indicate some relation between the noun or

pronoun and some other word. The noun or pronoun that is connected by the preposition is known as the

object of the preposition. Some common prepositions are in, on, for, to, of, with, and about, etc. Preposition can

be divided into five parts as follows:

1. Simple Prepositions

2. Compound Prepositions

3. Double Prepositions

4. Participle Prepositions

5. Prepositional Prepositions

To know the detailed classification of Prepositions with examples, check out the Part of Speech Notes PDF that


7. Conjunctions

Conjunctions are used to link different clauses together, and to join words, phrases and sentences. By using

conjunctions, we can make complex sentences that show a connection between actions and ideas. Examples:

and, but, so, although, or, etc. There are three types of Conjunctions as follows:

1. Coordinating Conjunction

2. Correlative Conjunctions

3. Subordinating Conjunction


To know the detailed classification of Conjunctions with examples, check out the Parts of Speech with Examples

PDF that we have provided later in the article.

8. Interjections

It is a word used to express emotions or some sudden outburst of feeling. Usually, an interjection is used in

informal language. Though interjections do not relate grammatically to the other parts of the sentence or help

the reader understand the relationship between words and phrases in the sentence, they express a wide variety

of feelings, such as joy, sorrow, surprise, disgust, etc.

To know the detailed classification of Interjections with examples, check out the Part of Speech Notes PDF that


Subject-Verb Agreement

Countable nouns can be either singular or plural, it is very important to use the correct subject-verb

agreement when they are functioning as the subject of a clause.

Subject-verb agreement refers to using certain conjugations of verbs for singular subjects and using other

conjugations for plural subjects. This happens most noticeably with the verb to be, which becomes is or

was with singular subject nouns and are or were with plural subjects.

For example:

• “My brother is back from college.” (singular present simple tense)

• “The company was in financial trouble.” (singular past simple tense)

• “Many people are getting frustrated with the government.” (plural present

simple tense)

• “The computers were rather old.” (plural past simple tense)

For any other verb, we only need to make a change if it is in the present simple tense. For most verbs, this

is accomplished by adding an “-s” to the end if it is singular and leaving it in its base form if it is plural.

For example:

• “My father runs his own business.” (singular)

• “But his sons run it when he’s away.” (plural)

• “The dog wags his tail when he is happy.” (singular)

• “Dogs sometimes wag their tails when they’re angry or scared.” (plural)

The verbs have and do also only conjugate for singular subjects in the present simple tense, but they have

irregular forms for this: has and does. For example:


• “The apple has a mark on it.” (singular)

• “All the apples have marks on them.” (plural)

• “The teacher does not think it’s a good idea.” (singular)

• “The other teachers do not mind, though.” (plural)

Finally, the modal auxiliary verbs will, would, shall, should, can, could, might, and must do not conjugate

for singular vs. plural subjects—they always remain the same. For instance:

• “This phone can also surf the Internet!” (singular)

• “Most phones can do that now.” (plural)

• “The president will arrive in Malta next week.” (singular)

• “The other diplomats will arrive shortly after that.” (plural)

Synonyms & Antonyms

The English language (and, we may presume, many other languages) has both antonyms and synonyms.

There are many more words with synonyms than there are words with antonyms, since many things

exist which do not have an opposite (the word sandwich, for instance, may be said to have synonyms in

the words hoagie, grinder, submarine, and many other words, but there is no opposite of sandwich).

Antonym is also a much more recent addition to English than synonym is; it first appeared in the 1860s,

whereas synonym has been used for more than 500 years. Additionally, both nouns have adjectival

forms: synonymous and antonymous. Synonymous, which is often used loosely ("She has become

synonymous with good taste"), is the more common of the two.

A synonym is a word that means exactly the same as, or very nearly the same as, another word in the

same language. For example, "close" is a synonym of "shut".

One of two or more words or expressions of the same language that have the same or nearly the same

meaning in some or all senses

An antonym is a word that means the opposite of another word. For example "bad" is an antonym of

"good".

Synonyms And Antonyms List

Words Synonyms – Same Meaning Antonyms – Opposites


Abate Moderate, decrease Aggravate

Adhere Comply, observe Condemn, disjoin

Abolish Abrogate, annul Setup, establish

Acumen Awareness, brilliance Stupidity, ignorance

Abash Disconcert, rattle Uphold, Discompose

Absolve Pardon, forgive Compel, Accuse

Abjure Forsake, renounce Approve, Sanction

Abject Despicable, servile Commendable, Praiseworthy

Abound Flourish, proliferate Deficient, Destitute

Abortive Vain, unproductive Productive

Acrimony Harshness, bitterness Courtesy, Benevolence

Accord Agreement, harmony Discord

Adjunct Joined, Added Separated, Subtracted

Adversity Misfortune, calamity Prosperity, Fortune

Adherent Follower, disciple Rival, Adversary

Adamant Stubborn, inflexible Flexible, Soft

Admonish Counsel, reprove Approve, Applaud

Allay Pacify, soothe Aggravate, Excite

Alien Foreigner, outsider Native, Resident

Ascend Climb Escalate Descend, Decline

Alleviate Abate, relieve Aggravate, Enhance

Allure Entice, fascinate Repulse, Repel


Arraign Incriminate, indict Exculpate, Pardon

Amplify Augment, deepen Lessen, Contract

Axiom Adage, truism Absurdity, Blunder

Audacity Boldness, Courage Mildness, Cowardice

Authentic Accurate, credible Fictitious, unreal

Awkward Rude, blundering Adroit, clever

Barbarous Frustrate, perplex Civilized

Bleak Grim, Austere Bright, Pleasant

Bewitching Alluring, charming Repulsive, Repugnant

Baroque Florid, gilt Plain, unadorned

Brittle Breakable, crisp Tough, Enduring

Barrier Barricade, Obstacle Link, Assistance

Baffle Astound, Faze Facilitate, Clarify

Bustle Commotion, Tumult Slowness, Quiet

Barren Desolate, Sterile Damp, Fertile

Bawdy Erotic, Coarse Decent, Moral

Bind Predicament Release

Batty Insane, silly Sane

Benevolent Benign, Generous Malevolent, Miserly

Befogged Becloud, Dim Clear headed, Uncloud

Base Vulgar, Coarse Summit, Noble

Benign Favorable, friendly Malignant, Cruel


Busy Active, Engaged Idle, Lazy

Bleak Austere, Blank Bright, Cheerful

Bold Adventurous Timid

Boisterous Clamorous, rowdy Placid, Calm

Blunt Dull, Insensitive Keen, Sharp

Callous obdurate, unfeeling Compassionate, Tender

Capable competent, able Incompetent, Inept

Calamity adversity, misfortune Fortune

Calculating Canny, Devious Artless, honest

Calumny defamation, aspersion Commendation, Praise

Captivity imprisonment, confinement Freedom, Liberty

Captivate Charm, fascinate Disillusion offend

Chaste virtuous, pure Sullied, Lustful

Cease terminate, desist Begin, Originate

Compassion kindness, sympathy Cruelty, Barbarity

Chastise punish, admonish Cheer, encourage

Concede yield, permit Deny, reject

Comprise include, contain Reject, lack

Consent agree, permit Object Disagree

Concur approve, agree Differ, disagree

Consolidate solidify, strengthen Separate, Weaken

Consequence effect, outcome Origin, Start


Contempt scorn, disregard Regard, Praise

Conspicuous prominent, obvious Concealed, hidden

Contrary dissimilar, conflicting Similar, Alike

Contradict deny, oppose Approve, Confirm

Callous Insensitive, indurated Kind, merciful

Calm Harmonious, unruffled Stormy, turbulent

Candid Blunt, bluff Evasive

Camouflage Cloak, disguise Reveal

Carnal Earthly, fleshly Spiritual

Captivate Beguile, bewitch Repel

Celebrated Acclaimed, lionized Unknown, Inglorious

Catholic Generic, liberal Narrow- minded

Censure Rebuke, reprimand Praise, Acceptance

Cement Plaster, mortar Disintegrate

Clandestine Covert, furtive Open, Legal

Cheap Competitive, Inexpensive Dear, unreasonable

Coarse Bawdy, Boorish Fine, Chaste

Classic Simple, Typical Romantic, Unusual

Compact Bunched, thick Loose, Diffuse

Comic Clown, Jester Tragic, tragedian

Conceit Egotism, Immodesty Modesty

Compress Abbreviate, Shrink Amplify, Expand


Condemn Castigate, Chide Approve, Praise

Concord Agreement, accord Discord

Consolidate Centralize, Fortify Weaken

Confident Bold, Undaunted Diffident, cowardly

Creation Formation, foundation Destruction

Courtesy Generosity, Reverence Disdain, Rudeness

Cunning Acute, Smart Naive, Coarse

Decipher interpret, reveal Misinterpret, distort

Decay Collapse, decompose Flourish, Progress

Deceit deception, artifice Veracity, Sincerity

Defray spend, pay Disclaim, Repudiate

Defile contaminate, pollute Purify, sanctity

Demolish Ruin, devastate Repair, construct

Deliberate cautious, intentional Rash, Sudden

Deride mock, taunt Inspire, Encourage

Deprive despoil, divest Restore, Renew

Dissuade Remonstrate, Counsel Insite, Persuade

Disdain detest, despise Approve, praise

Dense Opaque, piled Sparse, brainy

Denounce Blame, boycott Defend

Despair Depression, misery Contentment, Hope

Derogatory Sarcastic, critical Laudatory, appreciative


Docile Pliable, pliant Headstrong, obstinate

Destructive Catastrophic, pernicious Creative, Constructive

Dwarf Diminutive, Petite Huge, Giant

Eclipse Diminution, Dimming Shine, eclipse

Eager Keen, acquisitive Indifferent, apathetic

Ecstasy delight, exultation Despair, Calamity

Eccentric strange, abnormal Natural, Conventional

Encumbrance hindrance, obstacle Incentive, stimulant

Efface destroy, obliterate Retain, Maintain

Eloquence expression, fluency Halting, Stammering

Enormous colossal, mammoth Diminutive, negligible

Endeavour undertake, aspire Cease, quit

Equivocal uncertain, hazy Obvious, lucid

Epitome precise, example Increment, expansion

Eradicate destroy, exterminate Secure, plant

Fallacy delusion, mistake Veracity, Truth

Fabricate construct, produce Destroy, Dismantle

Fanatical narrow-minded, biased Liberal, Tolerant

Falter stumble, demur Persist, Endure

Ferocious cruel, fierce Gentle, Sympathetic

Feeble weak, frail Strong, Robust

Fluctuate deflect, vacillate Stabilize, resolve


Feud strife, quarrel Harmony, fraternity

Fragile weak, infirm Enduring, Tough

Forsake desert, renounce Hold, maintain

Frivolous petty, worthless Solemn, significant

Frantic violent, agitated Subdued, gentle

Frugality economy, providence Lavishness, extravagance

Gloom obscurity, darkness Delight, mirth

Gather Converge, huddle Disperse, Dissemble

Gorgeous magnificent, dazzling Dull, unpretentious

Glut stuff, satiate Starve, abstain

Grisly disgusting, atrocious Pleasing, attractive

Gracious courteous, beneficent Rude, Unforgiving

Guile cunning, deceit Honesty, frankness

Grudge hatred, aversion Benevolence, Affection

Genuine Absolute, Factual Spurious

Generosity Altruism, bounty Stinginess, greed

Glory Dignity, renown Shame, Disgrace

Gloomy Bleak, cloudy Gay, Bright

Harass irritate, molest Assist, comfort

Hamper retard, prevent Promote, facilitate

Hazard Peril, danger Conviction, security

Hapless unfortunate, ill-fated Fortunate, Lucky


Haughty arrogant, pompous Humble, Submissive

Hideous frightful, shocking Attractive, alluring

Heretic non-conformist, secularist Conformable, religious

Harmony Conformity, Amicability Discord, discord

Hamstrung Cripple Debilitate Strengthen, Encourage

Honor Adoration, Reverence Denunciation, Shame

Hasty Abrupt, Impetuous Leisurely, Cautious

Humility Resignation, Fawning Boldness, Pride

Humble Meek, Timid Proud, Assertive

Impenitent Uncontrite, Obdurate Repentant

Hypocrisy Deception, Pharisaism Sincerity, frankness

Indifferent Equitable, Haughty Partial, Biased

Impulsive Flaky, Impetuous Cautious, Deliberate

Infernal Damned, Accursed Heavenly,

Indigent Destitute, Impoverished Rich, Affluent

Interesting Enchanting, Riveting Dull, Uninteresting

Insipid Tedious, Prosaic Pleasing, appetizing

Immense huge, enormous Puny, Insignificant

Immaculate unsullied, spotless Defiled, Tarnished

Imminent impending, brewing Distant, Receding

Immerse submerge, involve Emerge, uncover

Impair diminish, deteriorate Restore, Revive


Immunity prerogative, privilege Blame, Censure

Impediment hurdle, obstruction Assistant, Concurrence

Impartial just, unbiased Prejudiced, Biased

Impute attribute, ascribe Exculpate, support

Impious irreligious, unholy Pious, Devout

Incompetent inefficient, unskilled Dexterous, Skilled

Inclination disposition, affection Indifference, Disinclination

Inevitable unavoidable, ascertained Unlikely, Doubtful

Incongruous inappropriate, absurd Compatible, harmonious

Ingenuous undisguised, naive Wily, Craftly

Infringe violate, encroach Comply, Concur

Insipid tasteless, vapid Delicious, luscious

Insinuate allude, hint Conceal, Camouflage

Instill inculcate, inject Eradicate, extract

Insolvent indigent, destitute Wealthy, solvent

Intrigue scheme, conspiracy Candor, Sincerity

Intricate tangled, complicated Regulated, Orderly

Invective accusation, censure Approval, acclamation

Intrinsic genuine, fundamental Extraneous, incidental

Immaculate Exquisite, Impeccable Defiled, Tarnished

Invincible unconquerable, impregnable Effeminate, languid

Irrepressible irresistible, unconfined Composed, hesitant


Jejune dull, boring Interesting, exciting

Jaded tired, exhausted Renewed, recreated

Jubilant rejoicing, triumphant Melancholy, depressing

Jovial frolicsome, cheerful Solemn, morose

Just honest, impartial Unequal, unfair

Judicious thoughtful, prudent Irrational, foolish

Juvenile young, tender Dotage, antiquated

Justify defend, exculpate Impute, arraign

Knave dishonest, scoundrel Paragon, innocent

Knotty complicated difficult Simple, manageable

Kindred relation, species Unrelated, dissimilar

Keen sharp, poignant Vapid, insipid

Knell death knell, last blow Reconstruction, rediscovery

Lax slack, careless Firm, reliable

Lavish abundant, excessive Scarce, deficient

Liable accountable, bound Unaccountable, apt to

Lenient compassionate, merciful Cruel, severe

Lucid sound, rational Obscure, hidden

Lure attract, entice Repel, dissuade

Linger loiter, prolong Hasten, quicken

Liberal magnanimous, generous Stingy, malicious

Lunacy delusion, insanity Normalcy, sanity


Luxuriant profuse, abundant Scanty, meagre

Luscious palatable, delicious Unsavory, tart

Languid Sluggish, apathetic Energetic, spirited

Mandatory Imperative, requisite Optional

Malice Vengefulness, grudge Goodwill, Kindness

Merit Stature, Asset Demerit, dishonor

Masculine Gallant, strapping Feminine, meek

Mitigate alleviate, relieve Augment enhance

Miraculous marvelous, extraordinary Ordinary, trivial

Molest harass, tease Console, soothe

Modest humble, courteous Arrogant, pompous

Momentous notable, eventful Trivial, insignificant

Mollify appease, assuage Irritate, infuriate

Morbid Nasty, Macabre Healthy, Cheerful

Monotonous irksome, tedious Varied, pleasant

Murky dusky, dreary Bright, shining

Munificent liberal, hospitable Frugal, penurious

Mutual joint, identical Separate, distinct

Mutinous recalcitrant, insurgent Submissive, faithful

Nimble prompt, brisk Sluggish, languid

Niggardly miser, covetous Generous, profuse

Noxious baneful, injurious Healing, profitable


Notion Conceit, Apprehension Reality, Concrete

Novice tyro, beginner Veteran, ingenious

Nonchalant indifferent, negligent Attentive, considerate

Nullify cancel, annual Confirm, Uphold

Numerous profuse, various Scarce, deficient

Obliging Complaisant, Willing Mulish, Obstinate

Obstruct impede, prevent Hasten, encourage

Obstinate Stubborn, Adamant Pliable, flexible

Obscure Arcane, Vague Prominent

Obvious Evident, apparent Obscure, ambiguous

Obtain Access, Inherit Forfeit

Offensive Abhorrent, obnoxious Engaging, fascinating

Odious Malevolent, obnoxious Engaging, fascinating

Offspring descendant, sibling Ancestor, forefather

Occult latent, ambiguous Intelligible, transparent

Opaque obscure, shady Transparent, bright

Ominous Menacing, Foreboding Auspicious

Oracular cryptic, vague Lucid, distinct

Optimist Idealist Pessimist

Ornamental decorative, adorned Unseemly, plain

Ordain Order, impose Revoke abolish

Outrage offence, maltreatment Praise, favour


Outbreak eruption, insurrection Compliance, subjection

Persuade Cajole, Impress Dissuade, halt

Pacify Appease, Chasten Irritate, worsen

Propagate Inseminate, fecundate Suppress, deplete

Perturbed Flustered, anxious Calm

Prompt Precise, Punctual Slow, Negligent

Progress Pace, Betterment Retrogress, worsening

Pamper Flatter, indulge Deny, disparage

Prudence Vigilance, Discretion Indiscretion

Peerless matchless, unrivalled Mediocre, commonplace

Paramount foremost, eminent Trivial, inferior

Pertness flippancy, impudence Modesty, diffidence

Peevish perverse, sullen Suave, amiable

Placid tranquil, calm Turbulent, hostile

Perverse petulant, obstinate Complacent, docile

Precarious doubtful, insecure Assured

Pompous haughty, arrogant Unpretentious, humble

Predicament plight, dilemma Resolution, confidence

Quaint Queer, strange Familiar, usual

Quack Impostor, deceiver Upright, unfeigned

Quell subdue, reduce Exacerbate, agitate

Quarantine seclude, screen Befriend, socialize


Quibble equivocate, prevaricate Unfeigned, plain

Rapidity Quickness, Velocity Inertia, lanquidity

Raid Incursion, Foray Retreat, release

Rebellious Restless, attacking Submissive, Compliant

Reason Acumen, Bounds Folly, Speculation

Reluctant Cautious, Averse anxious, Eager

Rectify Amend, Remedy Falsify, Worsen

Ravage Destroy, ruin Reconstruct, renovate

Remnant Residue, piece Entire, whole

Ratify consent, approve Deny, dissent

Restrain Detain, Confine Incite

Redeem Recover, liberate Conserve lose

Remorse Regret, penitence Ruthlessness, obduracy

Remonstrate Censure, protest Agree, loud

Resentment Displeasure, wrath Content, Cheer

Rescind Annul, abrogate Delegate, permit

Reverence Respect, esteem Disrespect, affront

Retract Recant, withdraw Confirm, assert

Rustic Rural, uncivilized Cultured, Refined

Rout Vanquish, overthrow Succumb, withdraw

Ruthless Remorseless, inhumane Compassionate, lenient

Savage Wild, untamed Polished, Civilized


Sacred Cherish, Divine Ungodly, Profane

Steep Course, lofty Flat, gradual

Startled Frightened, Shocked Waveringly

Sublime Magnificent, eminent Ridiculous

Stranger Immigrant, guest Acquaintance, national

Sympathy Tenderness, harmony Antipathy, Discord

Succinct Concise, Terse Lengthy, polite

Sarcastic Ironical, derisive Courteous, gracious

System Scheme, Entity Chaos, Disorder

Shrewd Cunning, craftly Simple, imbecile

Saucy Impudent, insolent Modest, humble

Servile Slavish, Docile Aggressive, Dominant

Scanty scarce, insufficient Lavish, multitude

Slander defame, malign Applaud, approve

Shabby miserable, impoverished Prosperous, thriving

Solicit entreat, implore Protest oppose

Sneer mock, scorn Flatter, praise

Stain blemish, tarnish Honor, purify

Subterfuge Deceit, Stratagem Frankness, Openness

Sporadic intermittent, scattered Incessant, frequent

Spurious Fake, Counterfeit Genuine, Authentic

Squalid dirty, filthy Tidy, Attractive


Spry Nimble, Brisk Lethargic, Sluggish

Sterile Barren, Impotent Profitable, Potent

Successful Propitious, Felicitous Destitute, Untoward

Subsequent consequent, following Preceding, previous

Stupor lethargy, unconsciousness Sensibility, Consciousness

Subvert Demolish, sabotage Generate, organize

Substantial Considerable, solid Tenuous, fragile

Sycophant Parasite, flatterer Devoted, loyal

Superficial Partial, shallow Profound, discerning

Taciturn Reserved, silent Talkative, extrovert

Taboo Prohibit, ban Permit, consent

Temperate Cool, moderate Boisterous, violent

Tedious Wearisome. Irksome Exhilarating, lively

Tenacious Stubborn, Dodge Docile, non- resinous

Tenement Apartment, Digs Breakeven, dislodge

Timid Diffident, coward Bold, intrepid

Throng Assembly, crowd Dispersion, sparsity

Transient Temporal, transitory Lasting, enduring

Tranquil Peaceful, composed Violent, furious

Treacherous Dishonest, duplicitous Forthright, reliable

Trenchant Assertive, forceful Feeble, ambiguous

Tumultuous Violent, riotous Peaceful, harmonious


Trivial Trifling, insignificant Significant, veteran

Tame Compliant, Subdued Wild, untamed

Tyro Beginner, riotous Proficient, veteran

Thick Chunky, massive Thin, attenuated

Terse Incisive, Compact Diffuse, Gentle

Tranquil Amicable, Calm Agitated, Fierce

Thrifty Frugal, prudent Extravagant

Tremble Vibrate Steady

Transparent Diaphanous Opaque

Utterly Completely, entirely Deficiently, incomplete

Uncouth Awkward, ungraceful Elegant, Compensate

Uncouth Boorish, Clownish Elegant, Compensate

Umbrage Chagrin, offense Sympathy, goodwill

Urge Incite, Implore Abhorrence, Abomination

Urchin Foundling, Orphan Creep, Knave

Vagrant Wander, roaming Steady, settled

Vain Arrogant, egoistic Modest

Vanity Conceit, pretension Modesty, Humility

Valor Bravery, prowess Fear, cowardice

Venom Poison, malevolence Antidote, Benevolent

Venerable Esteemed, honored Unworthy, immature

Vicious Corrupt, obnoxious Noble, Virtuous


Veteran Ingenious, experienced Novice, tyro

Vivacious Spirited, Energetic Dispirited, Unattractive

Vigilant Cautious, alert Careless, negligent

Vouch Confirm, consent Repudiate, prohibit

Vilify Malign, Slur, Defame Cherish, Commend

Vivid Eloquent, lucid Dull, Dim

Virtue Ethic, morality Vice, dishonesty

Wan Pale, faded Bright, healthy

Waive Relinquish, remove Impose, Clamp

Wary cautious, circumspect Heedless, negligent

Wane Decline, Dwindle Ameliorate, Rise

Wicked vicious, immoral Virtuous, Noble

Wed marry, combine Divorce, Separate

Wile Trickery, Artifice Naivety, honor

Wield Exert, employ Forgo, avoid

Wilt wither, perish Revive, bloom

Winsome Beautiful, Comely Alluring, Rapturous

Yield surrender abdicate Resist, protest

Yell shout, shriek Whisper muted

Yoke connect, harness Liberate, Release

Yearn languish, crave Content, satisfy

Zenith summit, apex Nadir, base


Zeal eagerness, fervor Apathy, lethargy

Zig -zag oblique, wayward Straight, unbent

Zest delight, enthusiasm Disgust, passive


Prefixes and Suffixes

Prefix-Suffix-Root List by Grade Level

(Generally, prefixes and suffixes change the meanings of roots, but it is usually the suffix that

denotes the part of speech.)

1st Grade

Prefix Suffix Definition Examples Origin Additional

Information

-s,-es plural, more than

one

hats, pigs,

boxes,

wishes

Anglo-Saxon

-ing action/ process helping,

skipping,

running,

seeing,

thinking

Anglo-Saxon Present

participle of

verb

-ed past tense jumped,

helped

Anglo-Saxon Past tense verb

2nd Grade (Please review affixes from prior grade.)


Information

un- not/ opposite unlock, unsafe Anglo-Saxon

re- again/ back reread,

rewrite,

return

Latin

dis- not/ opposite of dislike,

distrust

Latin

-er person connected

with/

comparative

degree

teacher,

writer,

baker, bigger,

colder, taller

Anglo-Saxon

-est superlative

degree

biggest,

coldest,

tallest

Anglo-Saxon Usually an

adjective

3rd Grade (Please review affixes from prior grades.)


Information

dis- not/ opposite of dislike,

distrust

Latin


in- not inactive,

insane,

Latin

inexpensive

-ful full of beautiful,

painful


adjective

-less without careless,

helpless

Anglo-Saxon

-y characterized by/

like

cloudy, fishy Anglo-Saxon

-ly characteristic of badly,

friendly,

quickly


adverb

4th Grade (Please review affixes from prior grades.)


Information

under- too little/ below underfed,

underground

Anglo-Saxon

over- too much/ above overdone,

overhead

Anglo-Saxon

non- not nonfat,

nonsense

Latin

pre- before preplan,

pretest

Latin

bi- two bicycle,

binocular

Latin

tri- three tricycle,

triangle

Latin/ Greek

quad- four quadrilateral,

quadrant

Latin

oct- eight octagon,

octopus

Latin/ Greek

-ion, –

ation

–sion, -

tion

act of/ state of/

result of

attention,

vision,

invitation

Anglo-Saxon Noun

(See 6th grade

for

explanation)

-ness condition/ state of darkness,

fairness

Anglo-Saxon Usually a noun

-ly characteristic of badly,

friendly,

quickly


adverb

-ment act/ process enjoyment,

replacement

Latin


-er, -or one who/ that

which

baker, boxer,

conductor,

survivor

Latin Usually a noun

Use –or with

Latin roots for

nouns

(inventor,

elevator) Use –

er with

Anglo-Saxon

roots (heater,

swimmer)

5th

Grade

(Please

review

affixes

from

prior

grades.)

Prefix Suffix Root Definition Examples Origin Additional

Information

semi- half semicircle,

semicolon

Latin

super- above/ on top

of/ beyond

superfine,

superhuman,

supersonic

Latin

multi- many/ much multicolor,

multifamily

Latin

poly- many/ much polygon,

polysyllable

Greek

tele- distant/far Television,

telephone

Greek

mis- bad or badly/

wrong or

wrongly

misbehave,

misread,

misspell

Latin

inter- between intercept,

interview,

interstate

Latin

mid- middle midnight,

midweek

Anglo-Saxon

sub- under,

beneath,

subway, subsoil,

substitute

Latin


below/

secondary

deca-

deci-

ten decathlon,

decade,

decimal,

decimeter

Latin/ Greek

kilo- 1,000 kilogram,

kilowatt

Greek

milli-

mille-

1,000 millennium,

millimeter

Latin

centi- 100 centimeter,

centipede

Latin

-able,

-ible

can be done enjoyable,

sensible, likable

Latin -able ending

words have

roots that can

stand alone.

enjoyable

-ible ending

words have

roots that can

not stand alone.

sensible

-ian, -

an

one having a

certain skill/

relating to/

belonging to

electrician,

magician,

American,

suburban


-ship condition of/

skill

championship,

friendship,

hardship,

leadership


-ist one who

does a

specific

action

artist, tourist Latin/ Greek Usually a noun

-logy,

-ology

science of/

study of

biology,

chronology

Greek

-ism act/ belief/

practice of

patriotism,

idealism,

absenteeism,

Latin/ Greek Usually a noun


-ence,

-ance

act/

condition of

persistence,

excellence,

assistance,

importance


-ence and –ance

sound alike

because of the

schwa. –ence is

used somewhat

more often than

– ance.

-ess feminine actress, lioness Latin/ Greek Usually a noun

max(i) great maximum,

maximize

Latin

meter,

metr

measure diameter,

odometer,

metric,

perimeter

Greek

photo light photograph,

telephoto,

photocopy

Greek

port to carry portable,

transport

Latin

phobia,

phobic,

phobe

irrational

fear or

hatred/ one

who fears/

hates

aquaphobia,

claustrophobic

technophobe

Greek There are names

for more than

500 phobias,

most of which

come from the

field of

medicine.

rupt break/ burst bankrupt,

rupture,

disruptive

Latin FYI: Erupt

means to

explode. (The

volcano

erupted.) Irrupt

means to rush or

burst in. (The

police irrupted

into

the hideout.)

scrib,

script

to write describe,

manuscript

Latin Verbs usually

use scribe, as in

prescribe; nouns

usually use

script, as

in prescription.


gram,

graph

written/

drawn

autograph,

paragraph,

telegram

Greek

dict to say/ tell diction, dictator Latin

ject to throw inject, objection Latin

spect,

spec

to see/

watch/

observe

prospect,

respect,

specimen

Latin

6th

Grade

(Please

review

affixes

and

roots

from

prior

grades.)


Information

en-, em- to cause to

be/ to put

into or onto/

to go into

or onto

encounter,

enable, employ,

embark, encircle

Latin

fore- before/

earlier

forearm,

foreword

Anglo-Saxon

de- reduce

down/

away from

defeat, deform,

decrease

Latin

trans- across/

change/

through

transformation,

transportation,

transfer

Latin

anti- opposite/

against

antibiotic,

antifreeze

Greek

di-, dia- two/

through/

across

digraph,

dialogue,

diagonal

Greek

ex- out of/ away

from

extract, exhale,

extend

Latin/ Greek

auto- self autograph,

automatic

Greek


in- (il-,

im-, ir-)

not inability,

impatient,

irregular, illegal

Latin il- used before

roots beginning

with l illegible

im- used before

roots beginning

with b, m, p

immature,

imbalance,

impatient

ir- used before

roots beginning

with r

irregular

in- (il-,

im-, ir-)

in/ on/

toward

infer, illustrate,

improve, irrigate

Same prefix

usage is

applied as above

bio- life biography,

biological

Greek

mini- small miniature,

minimum

Latin From the Latin

word

miniature…

Modern

generations

shortened

miniature to

mini-.

micro- small/

minute

microbiology,

microscope

Greek

uni- one/ single unicorn,

unicycle,

uniform

Latin

-en made of/ to

make

wooden,

dampen, tighten

Anglo-Saxon

-dom condition of boredom,

freedom,

kingdom


-ity state of/

quality

of

prosperity,

equality


-al, -

ial

related to/

characterized

by

colonial,

biennial, dental,

betrayal

Latin Usually an

adjective


-ion,

-ation

–sion,

-tion

act of/ state

of/ result of

tension,

attention,

elevation, union

Anglo-Saxon The real suffix

is

–ion. Putting s

or t in front of –

ion is simply

determined by

the spelling of

the root.

Usually a noun

-ish relating to/

characteristi

c

childish, foolish Anglo-Saxon Usually an

adjective

of

-ent, -

ant

an action/

condition

student,

contestant,

immigrant

Latin Often a noun

The suffix –ant

often indicates a

person noun.

-ent, -

ant

causing a

specific

action

obedient,

absorbent,

abundant,

elegant

Latin Often an

adjective

-ent and –ant

sound alike

because of the

schwa. –ent is

used somewhat

more often than

–ant.

-hood the state/ the

condition/

the quality

boyhood,

likelihood


History of the

suffix

–hood

· Old English:

-had

· Middle

English: - hod

· Modern

English:

-hood

aqua water aquarium,

aquamarine

Latin

act put in

motion/

process of

doing

action, react,

transact

Latin

mit to send emit, transmit Latin


anni,

annu,

enni

year anniversary,

semiannual,

millennium


arch chief/ ruler archenemy,

matriarch

Greek

duct,

duc

lead induce, conduct Latin

geo earth/

ground/

soil

geography,

geology

Greek

man hand manicure,

manually

Latin

nym,

onym

name/ word antonym,

synonym

Greek

phon voice/ sound telephone,

symphony

Greek

therm heat thermometer,

thermostat

Greek

tox poison toxic,

toxicology

Latin

scope to watch/ see horoscope,

microscope,

telescope

Greek

7th

Grade

(Please review affixes and roots from prior

grades.)


Information

ante- in front of/

before

antecedent,

antebellum

Latin Fun information

–

antepenultimate

means next to

the next to the

last…this

word can

usually be found

on the SAT.

ab- from/ away absent, absorb,

abnormal

Latin

a- on/ in/ to across, aboard,

aside

Anglo-Saxon/

Latin


a- without/ not atypical, amoral,

asocial

Anglo-Saxon/

Latin

co-,

con-,

com-

together/

with

cooperate,

concede,

combine

Latin Concrete –

meaning to

harden or to

grow

together

pro- forward/

before/ in

support of

proceed,

pronoun,

prohibit

Latin/ Greek Some words

with pro- as a

prefix are often

hyphenated, so

be sure to check

the

dictionary.

intra- within intranet,

intramural

Latin

mega- great/ huge megabyte,

megaphone

Greek

post- after/

following

postpone,

postwar

Latin

-ous,

-ious,

-eous

full of/

characterized

by

adventurous,

nervous,

mysterious,

courteous

Latin Usually an

adjective

-ive,

-itive,

-ative

inclined/

tending

toward an

action

festive,

talkative, active,

sensitive

Latin Words that end

with

–de (intrude)

change the –de

to s then add

–ive (intrusive).

Words that end

with silent e

(create) drop

the e then add –

ive (creative).

-ic relating to/

characterized

by

energetic,

historic

Latin/ Greek Usually an

adjective

-ize to make/ to

cause to

become

fertilize,

criticize,

apologize

Latin/ Greek Usually a verb

-fy, -

ify

to make satisfy, magnify Latin Usually a verb


-age result of an

action/

collection

manage,

drainage,

acreage

Latin

-some characterized

by a

specified

quality,

condition, or

action

awesome,

lonesome

Anglo-Saxon Primarily used

with Anglo-

Saxon base

words.

chron time chronology, Greek

synchronize

temp time temporary,

temperature

Latin

aer,

aero

air aerial, aerospace Greek

cede,

ceed

to go/ yield/

surrender

proceed, secede,

precede,

concede

Latin

cept,

ceive

to take/

catch/ seize/

hold/ receive

accept, deceive Latin Additional roots

with same

definition:

cap (captive)

ceit (conceit)

cep (concept)

cip (municipal)

fract,

frag

to break fracture,

fraction,

fragment

Latin

gen race, kind, or

species/ birth

gender, genetics,

genesis

Latin

grat thanks/

pleasing

congratulations,

gratify

Latin

liber free liberty, liberate Latin

leg,

lect, lig

law/ to

choose/ to

pick/ to read/

to speak

legend, legal,

intelligent, elect,

lecture

Latin The roots lect,

lect, and lig are

related to the

Greek

combining form

logos, meaning

speech or word.

mater,

matr,

matri

mother maternal,

matrimony,

matriarch

Latin


pater,

patr

father paternal, patriot Latin

mot,

mob

to move motivate,

mobilize

Latin

opt eye/ to make

a

choice

optometry,

optic, optional

Latin

ped,

pod

foot pedal, Latin

pedestrian,

tripod

ped child pediatrician Greek

urb city urban, suburban Latin Exurb: a

modern word

meaning large

cities that

directly

surround a

major city

(Arlington is an

exurb of

Dallas.)

pop people population,

popular

Latin

tract to draw/ pull attract, distract,

retract

Latin

form to shape conform,

reform,

transform

Latin

pend to hang/

weigh

suspend,

pendulum

Latin

8th

Grade

(Please

review

affixes

and

roots

from

prior

grades.)



Information

hyper- over/ above/

excessive

hyperactive,

hypercritical

Greek

hypo-,

hyp-

below/ less

than normal

hypothermia,

hypnosis

Greek

omni- all omnipresent,

omniscient

Latin

homo- same homogeneous,

homonym

Latin

hetero- different/

other

heterochromatic,

heterogeneous

Greek Heteronyms:

words with the

same spelling,

but different

meanings

(dove – the bird;

dove – did dive)

ultra- beyond in

degree/

extreme

ultramarine,

ultraviolet

Latin

-cide kill germicide,

pesticide


-ery relating to/

quality/

place where

imagery,

pottery, bakery


-ary relating to/

place where/

one who

dictionary,

infirmary

cautionary,

dietary,

missionary

Latin Noun/ adjective

-ium chemical

element/

group

helium,

aquarium

Greek Usually a noun

-tude condition/

state/ quality

of

altitude,

gratitude


aud to hear/ listen audible, audition Latin

cred to believe credit,

incredible

Latin


archae,

arche,

archi

primitive/

ancient

archaeologist,

archives,

achetype

Greek

belli war belligerent,

bellicose

Latin

claim,

clam

to declare/

call

out/ cry out

exclaim,

clamorous

Latin

crat,

cracy

rule/

strength/

power

democrat,

aristocracy

Greek

hemo,

hema

blood hematology,

hemophilia

Greek

luna moon lunar, lunatic Latin

mar sea maritime,

submarine

Latin

mort death mortuary,

mortality

Latin

path feeling/

suffering/

disease

apathetic,

pathology

Greek

pel to drive/

push

expel, propeller Latin

struc,

struct

to build construct,

instructor

Latin See Affix

Matrix for the

root struct on

final page of this

document.

vis, vid to see vision, evidence Latin

voc,

voke

to call advocate, revoke Latin

cogn to know cognition,

recognize

Latin

loc,

loqu

to speak/

talk/ say

colloquial,

ventriloquist,

loquacious

Latin



Information

bene well/ good benediction,

beneficial

Latin

cardi heart cardiac,

cardiology

Latin

ego self egocentric,

egoism

Latin

don,

donat

give/ gift donate, donation Latin

luc,

lum

light translucent,

illuminate

Latin

mania madness/

frenzy/

abnormal

maniac,

kleptomania

Greek

desire/

obsession

nate,

nat

born native, innate Latin

neg no/ deny negative, negate Latin

neo new neonatal Greek

nov new novice Latin

phys nature physics,

physical

Greek

psych mind/ soul psychic,

psychopath

Greek

reg guide/ rule regime, regent Latin

sci to know/

learn

science,

conscience

Latin

sol alone solitary,

soliloquy

Latin

tact,

tang

to touch contact, tangible Latin

terr land terrain, territory Latin

vac empty vacate, evacuate Latin

ver,

veri

true/ genuine verdict,

veritable

Latin


Prefixes & Suffixes: Secondary Derivational Method

When the words are formed by adding a syllable or letters to a basic word, either in the beginning or at

the end, or both, we obtain secondary derivatives. When so called syllable or letters are fixed to the front

of the root word, these are called prefixes. When the foresaid syllable or letters are fixed to the back of

the root word, they are called suffixes. Thus the secondary derivational method employs two tools to coin

new words which are given below-

1. Prefixes

2. Suffixes

PREFIX

1-Note: These prefixes are added to indicate the attitude of the object or person represented by the basic

word-

Prefix

( of attitude)

Meaning Examples

anti-

pro-

counter-

against, opposed to

in favour of, for.

against, opposite,

opposing, in reverse

anti-social, anti-septic, anti-biotic, anti-national, anti-

climax, anti-civic, anti-body, anti-war, anti-biotic,

anti-social, anti-terrorism, anti-septic

pro-marriage, pro-moral education, pro-you, pro-

abortion, pro-active, pro-band, pro-bate, pro-

biotic, pro-cathedral, pro-war, pro-education, pro-

global peace

counter-sign, counter-attack, counter-force, counter-

accuse, counter-act, counter-advertise, counter-agent,


co-

ambi-

with, together, jointly,

joint

both, on both sides,

around, akin to

counter-argue, counter-assault, counter-attack,

counter-balance, counter-bid ,counter-change,

counter-check, counter-claim, counter-complaint,

counter-demand, counter-flow, counter-plan

co-exist, co-worker, co-author, co-operate, co-act, co-

administrate, co-anchor, co-author, co-chairman, co-

conspire, co-conspirator, co-create, co-develop, co-

director, co-editor, co-driver, co-pilot, co-worker, co-

exist, co-operator, co-founder, co-habitants, co-

incidence, co-insure

ambi-guity, ambi-version, ambi-vert, ambi-concern,

ambi-dexterity, ambi-sexual, ambi-valence, ambi-

version, ambi-vert, ambi-gender ,ambi-tive

2-Note: these prefixes negate or reverse the meaning of the words-

Prefix

( negative or

reversative)

Meaning Examples

a- on: in: at ; a-bed


(adv, ……) in(such) a state or

condition,

in (such) manner,

in the process of

a-fire, a-back, a-base,

a-loud,

a-writing

un-

(adj, n, v, adv)

not, opposite of,

contrary to, do the

opposite of

un-natural, un-lock, un-true, undo, untie, uncover

non-

(n……)

not, other than, reverse

of, absence of

non- cooperation, non-vegetarian, non-sense, non-

payment

de-

(v, n,

do the opposite of,

remove from.

get off , take away

de-pollute , de-form, de-grade, de-compose, de-value,

de-hydrate, dethrone, derail, detrain,

dis-

(v, n, adj, adv..)

do the opposite of,

deprive of,

exclude/expel, not

dis-allow, dis-like, dis-connect, dis-honest, dis-trust,

dis-please, dis-obey, dis-parity, dis-miss, dis-pel, dis-

cord

in-

im- (before ‘b, m, p’

il- ( before ‘l’)

ir- ( before ‘r’ )

(adj, n, adv,…)

not, opposite of, do the

opposite of

non-, un-,

in: take within: take

into: get/take toward

in-efficient, in-different, in-effective

im-moral, im-mortal, im-mature, im-pure, im-proper,

im-balance,

il-legible, il-legal,

ir-regular, ir-religious, ir-rational

im-bed, im-bibe (drink, take into mind), im-bosom,

3-Note: these prefixes modify the degree or the size of person or thing or quality or action denoted by

the basic word-


Prefix

(of degree and size)

Meaning

Examples

arch-

(n, adj,…)

chief, primitive,

original, primary,

biggest

arch-angel, arch-bishop, arch-demon, arch-duchesses,

arch-rival,

super-

(n, adj, v, adv)

over and above: higher

in quality, quantity, or

degree; extra,

surpassing all

super-man, super-natural, super-human, super-market,

super-able, super-abound, super-abundance, super-

cautious, super-charge, super-bank, super-track

ultra-

(adj, adv, prep…)

beyond the limits of ,

beyond what is

ordinary, proper, or

moderate.

extremely,

ultra-thin, ultra-fat, ultra-violet, ultra-sonic, ultra-

bright, ultra-casual, ultra-clean, ultra-cold, ultra-

competitive, ultra-conservative, ultra-high, ultra-

talkative, ultra-wise, ultra-modern,

extra-

(n, adj, …adv, v ..)

outside, beyond,

except,

extra-curricular, extra-ordinary, extra-marital, extra-

academic, extra-legal, extra-logical, extra-net, extra-

polar, extra-sunset, extra-sunrise, extra-desire,

hyper-

(n, adj, adv, v, …)

above: beyond: super-,

excessively, be/live in

more than 3

dimensions,

hyper-sensitive, hyper-tension, hyper-space, hyper-

active, hyper-acute, hyper-alert, hyper-aware, hyper-

conscious, hyper-critical, hyper-efficient, hyper-

excited, hyper-esthetic, hyper-manic, hyper-crazy,

out-

(n, adj, v, adv..)

exceeding, beyond

limits of, surpassing,

doing faster, doing

better

out-act, out-bid, out-brag, out-do, out-break, out-burst,

out-buy, out-cast, out-caste, out-catch, out-climb, out-

come, out-compete, out-crop, out-cry, out-date, out-

dazzle, out-debate


under-

(n, v, adj, adv,…)

below, or beneath,

mean, too little, not

enough

under-value, under-estimate, under-stand, under-

perform, under-statement, under-act, under-achieve,

under-age, under-arm, under-bid, under-cloths, under-

dog, under-think, under-cover,

sub-

(n, adj, v, adv..)

under: beneath: below;

secondary, next lower

than, junior to/ inferior

to; less in quality,

quantity, degree.

sub-editor, sub-inspector, sub-agent, sub-divide, sub-

branch, sub-caste, sub-categorize, sub-direct, sub-

centre, sub-chapter, sub-chaser, sub-class, sub-

classify, sub-climax, sub-college,

semi-

(n, adj, adv, v..)

half : partly:

incompletely: demi-,

hemi- , quasi-: partial:

semi-abstract, semi-annual, semi-aquatic, semi-

automatic, semi-circle, semi-circular, semi-civilized,

semi-classical, semi-conductor, semi-conscious, semi-

conservative, semi-dome, semi-dry, semi-final, semi-

literate, semi-lunar,

mini-

(n,

smaller or briefer than

usual, normal, or

standard

mini-bus, mini-skirt, mini-mini-bar, mini-bike,

mini-car, mini-computer, mini-dress, minimize, mini-

state, mini-van, mini-cam, mini-marts

4-Note: these prefixes add the dimension of time and order to the basic word-

Prefix

(of time and order)

Meaning

Examples

pre-

(n, adj, adv, v,…)

( at least for two)

actions

before: earlier than:

prior to: in advance,

beforehand:

pre-admission, pre-marital, pre-war, pre-occupied,

pre-decided, pre-election, pre-adult, pre-announce,

pre-approve, pre-arranged, pre-breakfast, pre-cancel,

pre-cancellation, pre-caution, pre-cede, pre-clinical,

pre-colonial,

fore-

(n, adv, prep, adj, ..)

before: earlier than: of

an earlier period:

beforehand: in front of:

front part of: in

fore-cast, fore-see, fore-tell, fore-arm, fore-close, fore-

court, fore-father, forego, fore-gather, fore-goer, fore-

know, fore-judge, fore-man, fore-woman, fore-noon,

fore-night, fore-ordain, fore-play, fore-run, fore-said,

fore-sight, fore-time,


advance: advance:

chief:

post-

(n, adv, v, adj, prep..)

after: subsequent:

subsequent to: later;

later than : behind:

following after:

post-war, post-graduate, post-mortem, post-abortion,

post-atomic, post-arrest, post-date, post-debate, post-

deliver, post-delivery, post-divorce, post-doctoral,

post-midnight, post-modern, post-operative, post-

paid, post-position, post-riot, post-romantic, post-

script, post-test, post-exam, post-treatment

re- again: back: Re-tell, re-speak, re-exam, re-marry, re-cover, re-

settle, re-write, re-build, re-direct, re-think, re-abuse,

re-start, re-starter, re-re-absorb, re-accept, re-act, re-

acquire, re-actor, re-action, re-address

ex-

(n, adj, adv, v, prep..)

former: out of : outside:

out from: do out of/

from

exclude, ex-man, ex-president, ex-director, ex-ex-

actor, ex-act, ex-cavate, ex-clave, ex-communicate,

vice-

(n…)

one that takes the place

of: deputy in place of

vice-president, vice-principle, vice-admiral, vice-

presidency, vice-regent, vice-consul

ante-

(n, adj, adv, ….)

before: earlier: earlier

than: prior: prior to:

preceding: forward

ante-room, ante-date, ante-dated, ante-mortem, ante-

natal,

5-Note: these prefixes are added to convey the idea of number of the things denoted by a basic word-

Prefix

(of number)

Meaning

Examples

uni-


one: single: alone uni-lateral, uni-sex, uni-color, uni-corn, uni-cycle, uni-

direct, uni-form, uni-formly, uni-forming, uni-linear,

mono- one: single: alone: mono-logue, mono-syllabic, mono-gram, mono-

lingual, mono-log, mono-mania, mono-phony, mono-

pole, mono-polize, mono-theist, mono-tone, mono-

tonus, mono-tonic,


bi-


two: of two: into two

parts: twice, doubly, on

both sides, coming/

occurring two times,

bi-cycle, bi-lingual, bi-polar, bi-focal, bi-monthly, bi-

weekly, bi-sect, bi-cut, bi-annual, bi-annually, bicolor,

bi-component, bi-convex,bi-cultural, bi-fold, bi-

furcated,

tri-

(n, adj, adv, v, ..)

three: of three : into

three: thrice: three

times in a period.

tri-cycle, tri-color, tri-angle, tri-syllabic, tri-angular,

tri-angularly, tri-angulate, tri-archy, tri-athlete, tri-

corn, tri-cot, tri-dimensional, tri-gonal,

tri-graph,

tetra- four: of four: into four:

four times in a period

tetra-gonal, tetra-pod, tetra-arch, tetra-archy, tetra-

divide, tetra-weekly, tetra-annual, tetra-monthly, tetra-

legged, tetra-eyed, tetra-headed,

penta- five: of five: into five:

five times in a period,

penta-angle, penta-angular, penta-annual, pentagon,

pentagonal, pentagonally, penta-archy, penta-athlete,

penta-athlon, penta-tonic, penta-polis, penta-teuch

hexa-, hex- six , of six : into six: six

times in a period,

hexa-chord, hexa-angle, hexa-angula, hexa-angularly,

hexagon, hexagonal, hexagonally, hexa-athlete, hexa-

athol, hexa-polis, hexa-hedron, heha-hedrons, hexa-

hydrate, hexa-meter, hexa-meteric, hexa-pod, hexa-

teuch,

octa-, octo-, oct- eight, of eight: into

eight: eight times in a

period

octa-chord, octa-angle, octa-angula, octa-angularly,

octagon, octagonal, octagonally, octa-athlete, octa-

athol, octa-polis, octa-hedron, heha-hedrons, octa-

hydrate, octa-meter, octa-meteric, octa-pod, octa-

teuch,

multi-, poli- many, of many: into

many: many times in a

period

multi-chord, multi-angle, multi-angular, multi-

angularly, multigon, multigonal, multigonally, multi-

athlete, multi-athol, multi-polis, multi-hedron, heha-

hedrons, multi-hydrate, multi-meter, multi-meteric,

multi-pod, multi-teuch,

poli-chord, poli-angle, poli-angular, poli-angularly,

poligon, poligonal, poligonally, poli-athlete, poli-

athol, poli-polis, poli-hedron, heha-hedrons, poli-

hydrate, poli-meter, poli-meteric, poli-pod, poli-teuch,


6-Note: these prefixes are added to indicate the position or direction of a thing-

Prefix (of place) Meaning Examples

trans-


across, from one place

to another:

on or to the other side

of: across: through:

beyond

trans-plant, trans-locate, trans-act, ( carry on, carry

from one side to other), trans-atlantic, trans-border,

transcribe, transect, transsexual( trans+ sexual), trans-

figure, trans-fix, trans-form, trans-fuse, trans-gender,

transship ( trans+ship), trans-migrate, trans-migration,

trans-migrant

inter-

(n, adj, adv, v,….)

between/ of two:

among/ of many: in the

middle of: reciprocal:

reciprocally: within:

inter-act, inter-active, inter-action, inter-actively,

inter-activity, inter-agency, inter-bank, inter-bed,

inter-believe, inter-faith, inter-faithful, inter-caste,

inter-change,

sub-


beneath: under: below;

subordinate:

secondary; subdivision

of : somewhat: some:

almost: nearly

sub-adult, sub-agent, sub-aquatic, sub-hot, sub-cold,

sub-artic, sub-audible, sub-base, sub-edit, sub-editor,

sub-contract, sub-divide, sub-branch, sub-way, sub-

side, sub-marine, sub-merge, sub-path, sub-target,

7-Note: these prefixes add an uncomplimentary and derogatory aspect to the meaning of the root word-

Prefix

(of depriving,

degrading,

derogating )

Meaning Examples

mis- wrong: wrongly; bad:

badly; unfavorable:

mis-guide, mis-lead, mis-place, mis-judge, mis-take,

mis-act, mis-address, mis-advise, mis-aim, mis-target,

mis-allocate, mis-anthrope, mis-anthropic, mis-


unfavorably; opposite

of; lack of; not

anthropically, mis-anthropy, mis-apply, mis-

apprehend, mis-attribute, mis-behave, mis-belief, mis-

calculate, mis-call, mis-chance, mis-conceive,

mal- bad: badly; abnormal:

abnormally;

inadequate:

inadequately

mal-administer, mal-administrative, mal-content, mal-

edict, mal-function, mal-treat, mal-treatment, mal-

pseudo- false; temporary,

substitute, spurious:

outwardly similar, not

genuine, deceitful ,

illegitimate

pseudo-name, pseudo-classical, pseudo- morph,

pseudo-pod; pseudo-scorpion,

8-Note: some more prefixes

Prefix

( of multi-faces)

Meaning Examples

an- without, anonymous, anemic, an-arch, an-archy, an-archical,

circum- around: about circum-ambient, circum-ambiently, circum-center,

circumcise, circumference, circum-fuse, circum-

navigate, circum-vent, circumstance,

com- ( b, p, m)

col- (l,..)

con-( all other sounds)

with, together, jointly commingle, com-passion, comminute, commission,

commix, communicate,

dia- through: across dia-base, dia-chronic, dia-chronically, diachrony, dia-

critic, dia-meter, dia-pause,


meta- beyond, occurring later

than: after; more

comprehensive:

transcending; change :

transformation

meta-physics, meta-physical, meta-physically, meta-

phosis, metabolic, metabolize, meta-fiction, meta-

galaxy, meta-mathematics, meta-analysis,

meta-phase, meta-phrase, meta-physics, meta-thesis,,

meta-sciences,

peri- all around: about; near;

enclosing: surrounding

peri-cycle, derider, peri-dot, peri-helion, peri-lymph,

peri-neurium, peri-phery, peri-pheral, per-pherally,

per-plast, per-plasm, per-que, per-scope, peri-scopic,

peri-winkle, per-clean,

retro- backward: back;

situated behind

retro-grade, retro-action, retro-active, retro-actively,

retrocede, retro-fire, retro-fit, retro-flex, retro-pack,

retro-reflective, retrospect, retro-rocket,

tele- distant: at a distance:

over a distance

tele-vision, tele-visit, tele-visitors, tele-talk, tele-

phone, tele-pathy, tele-cast, tele-com, tele-

communication, tele-commuter, tele-conference, tele-

fax, tele-flim, tele-graph, tele-mart, tele-market, tele-

meter, tele-path,

with- against: in opposition

to ; away

with-draw, with-hold, with-drawal, with-holder, with-

holding, with-stand,

auto- self: same one; self-

acting: automatic; self

made,

auto-rickshaw, auto-cycle, auto-biography, auto-

biographer, auto-suggestion, auto-catalysis, auto-

correct, auto-correct, autocrat, auto-cross, auto-graph,

automata, automate, auto-make, auto-maker,

automation, auto-mobile, autonomy

SUFFIX

It can change the word class and meaning of a word. Suffix may be used to form -

Noun From Verb

Adjective From Noun

Adjective From Verb

Noun From Adjective

1-Noun from Verb


Suffix

(Noun from Verb)

Examples

-ment appoint-ment, creat-ion, selec-tion, arrange-ment, agree-ment, amend-

ment, amuse-ment, amaze-ment, conceal-ment, commit-ment,

judg-ment, move-ment, appease-ment, argu-ment,

announce-ment ,

-ion/-tion associat-ion, creat-ion, combina-tion, selec-tion, rejec-tion,cultiva-

tion, elec-tion, inven-tion, dicta-tion ,revela-tion, collec-tion,

narra-tion,

2-Noun from Adjective

Suffix

(Noun from Adjective)

Examples

-ity abil-ity, abund-ance, busi-ness, activ-ity ,civil-ity, equal-ity, human-

ity, local-ity, inferior-ity, mortal-ity,real-ity, rigid-ity,stupid-ity, timid-

ity

-ance abund-ance, brilli-ance, dist-ance, ignor-ance,

-ness busi-ness, bold-ness, good-ness, happi-ness, red-ness, rude-ness,

weak-ness, one-ness

3-Adjective from Noun


Suffix

(Adjective from Noun )

Examples

-y air-y, mother-ly, classic-al,bush-y, cloud-y, dust-y, grass-y, leaf-y,

rain-y, ros-y, thorn-y, wind-y, worth-y, oil-y

-ly father-ly, brother-ly, mother-ly, hour-ly, man-ly, year-ly

-al accident-al, ceremoni-al, classic-al, faci-al, logic-al, prejudici-al,

practic-al

4-Adjective from Verb

Suffix

(Adjective from Verb )

Examples

-able admir-able, thank-ful, worth-less, agree-able, attain-able, avoid-abl,

believ-able, compar-able, consider-able, lov-able, mov-able, read-able

-ful thank-ful, boast-ful, help-ful, use-ful, house-ful, beauti-ful, pain-

ful, power-ful

-less worth-less, help-less, thank-less, use-less, pain-less

3. Compounding Method

Compound words are formed by compounding two or more bases. The words formed by compounding

i.e. combining basic words, are treated as a unit. For example,


table + cloth = tablecloth

water + man = waterman

chair + man = chairman

Compound words can be put into three groups:

1. Noun Compounds

2. Adjective Compounds

3. Verb Compounds

1-Noun Compounds:

Noun+ Noun hand-loom, story-book, maid-servant, milk-man, window-pane, rice-mill,

atom-bomb, lunch-box, lunch-time, flower-vase, rose-bud, bed-room, bar-

boy, bar-woman, bus-driver, mine-worker, computer-table, head-phone,

hand-cloth,

Noun+ (Verb+ er) store-keep+er, pain-killer, neck-twister, bus-diver, school-teacher,

Noun+ Verb Water-fall, snow-drift, night-fall, heart-beat, day-break, day-dream, cream-

bite,

Verb+ Noun Tell-tale, break-fast, pick-pocket, turn-coat, view-point, cut-throat, make-

shift, spend-thrift,

Adjective + Noun Short-hand, white-paper, black-list, black-board, gentle-man, young-lady

Adverb + Noun Early-bird, fore-sight, after-life, up-land, inmate,

Noun/Verb+ Adverb Lock-up, stand-still, break-down, make-up, cut-out, draw-back

Gerund + Noun Walking-stick, playing-card, dressing-room. Drinking-water, revolving-

chair, sleeping-room,

Noun + Gerund Horse-riding, hand-gliding, bull-fighting, sight-seeing, snow-fighting,

Pronoun + noun He-man, she-goat, self-interest, he-boy,


Possessive Noun + Noun Fool’s paradise, doomsday, sportsman, bull’s eye

2-Adjective Compounds

Noun + Adjectives Pitch-dark, snow-white, air-tight, life-long, parrot-green, sky-blue, blood-

red, world-wide, skin-deep, water-proof, sun-hot, ice-cold, water-tight,

Noun + Past Participle Home-made, care-worn, heart-felt, hen-pecked, air-borne, bed-ridden, book-

crammed,

Noun + Present

Participle

Life-saving, mind-blowing, mind-bogging, heart-touching, time-saving,

path-breaking, plot-making, story-telling

Adjective + Adjective Red-hot, fool-hardy, Indo-German, Anglo-Indian,

Adjective + Noun One-way, one-day, ten-rupee,

Adjective + Past

Participle

Ill-tempered, hot-tempered, short-tempered, sweet-tongued, soft-hearted,

narrow-minded, high-born, large-hearted,

Adverb + Past Participle well-planned, ill-executed, short-sighted,

3-Verb Compounds

Noun + Verb Day-dream, brow-beat, hood-wink, back-bite, hand-wash, water-mark

Adverb + Verb Under-estimate, under-mine, over-take, fore-tell, up-hold,

Adjective + Verb White-wash, cold-shoulder, safe-guard, fulfill, dark-beat

Narration/Speech

Speech is usually divided between two types: direct speech and reported speech (also known as indirect

speech).


When we express someone’s words in our own words, it is called – “Indirect Speech” and when we express

someone’s words as it is, it is called – “Direct Speech“.

Example: They said, “We will be partying tonight.” (Direct Speech)

They said that they would be partying that night. (Indirect Speech)

Direct Speech

Direct speech refers to the direct quotation of something that someone else said. It is sometimes known

as quoted speech. Because the quotation happened in the past, we put the reporting verb into the past

simple tense, but we don’t change the verbs used within the quotation. We also punctuate sentences in a

certain way when we use direct speech in writing.

Reported Speech (Indirect Speech)

When we tell other people what someone else told us without directly quoting that person, it is called

reported speech. (It is also sometimes known as indirect speech or indirect quotation.)

We still use reporting verbs in reported speech, but we no longer use quotation marks because we are

reporting a version of what was said. We also do not use commas to set the reported speech apart, though

we often (but not always) introduce it with the word that. For example:

• Janet said she would go to the station herself.

• He told us that he wanted to be alone.

Reporting verbs

Both direct and indirect speech use what are known as reporting verbs, the most common of which are

say and tell. When we use tell, we need to use another person’s name or a personal pronoun as an indirect

object. Other reporting verbs include ask, instruct, explain, mention, suggest, claim, and many more.

Some of the rules for changing “Direct Speech” into “Indirect Speech” are:

Reporting verb is changed according to the form and sense of the sentence.

Inverted commas are removed in the indirect-speech.

Connective word is used in the beginning of the reported speech.

Verb of the reported speech is changed according to the form and sense of the sentence.

Persons & Helping Verbs of the reported speech are changed.

Rules of change of Pronouns

Nominative Possessive Objective Reflexive

I My Me Myself


We Our Us Ourselves

You Yours You Yourself

He His Him Himself

She Her Her Herself

They Their Them Themselves

Pronouns are changed as per the SON rule where SON refers to:

S stands for Subject

O stands for Object

N stands for No change.

Here, First person changes to subject of Reporting Verb Second person changes to Object of Reporting

Verb There is no change if it is a Third person.

Rule No 1.

1st Person of pronoun of Reported speech is changed according to the Subject of Reporting verb of the

sentence.

Direct: He says, “I am in ninth class.”

Indirect: He says that she is in ninth class.

Rule No 2.

2nd Person of pronoun of Reported speech is changed according to Object of Reporting verb in the

sentence.

Direct: He says to me, “you have done your work”

Indirect: He tells me that I have done my work.

Rule No 3.

3rd Person of Pronoun of Reported speech is not changed.

Direct: She says, “He does not work hard”

Indirect: She says that he does not work hard.


Rules of change of verb or Tense

Rule No.1

When reporting verb is given in Present or Future tense then there will be no change in the verb or tense

of Reported speech in the sentence.

Direct: The teacher says, “Ram performs on the stage”

Indirect: The teacher says that Ram performs on the stage.

Direct: The teacher is saying, “Ram performs on the stage”

Indirect: The teacher is saying that Ram performs on the stage.

Rule No.2

When the reporting verb is given in Past tense then the tense of the verb of Reported Speech will change

into corresponding Past tense.

Direct: The teacher said, “I am suffering from cancer.”

Indirect: The teacher said that she was suffering from cancer.

Changes from past form in an indirect speech from the verb in Reported speech.

Simple present changes to Simple Past

Present Continuous changes to Past Continuous

Present Perfect changes to Past Perfect

Present Perfect Continuous changes to Past Perfect Continuous

Simple Past changes to Past Perfect

Past Continuous changes to Past Perfect Continuous

In Future Tense will/Shall changes to would

Can changes to Could

May changes to Might

Exceptional cases of Rule 2

Exception 1:

When the Reporting speech has Universal Truth or Habitual fact then there is no change in the Tense.

Direct: Our teacher said, “The Mars is round”

Indirect: Our teacher said that the mars is round.( Universal Truth)


Exception 2:

When the reporting speech has Past Historical Fact then there is no change in the Tense.

Exception 3:

When the Reporting speech has two actions to be happening at a time when there is no change in the

Tense.

Direct: He said “My sister was making lunch when I was studying”

Indirect: He said that his sister was making lunch when she was studying.

Exception 4:

When Reporting speech has some Imagined Condition then there is no change in the Tense.

Direct: He said, “If I were rich, I would help him.”

Indirect: He said that if he were rich he would help him.

Some other changes that take place when we change Direct Speech to Indirect Speech.

Here Changes to There

Now Changes to Then

This Changes to That

These Changes to Those

Today Changes to That day

To-night Changes to That night

Yesterday Changes to The previous day

Last night Changes to The previous night

Last week Changes to The previous week

Tomorrow Changes to The next day


Next Week Changes to The following week

Ago Changes to Before

Thus Changes to so

Hence Changes to Thence

Hither Changes to Thither

Come Changes to Go

Note:-In an indirect speech we talk about such incidents that have happened after the time of reporting

and had happened away from the place of reporting therefore the words that show nearness has to be

replaced by the words that show distance.

Exception in these changes

1.Come is changed to go if there is some word given after come that shows nearness.

2. When this, here and now points to such a thing, place or time that is in front of the speaker then no

change takes place in Indirect Narration.

Rules for Change in Narration of different type of sentences

Assertive Sentences

Rule 1

When there is no object in the subject after Reporting verb there it should not be changed.

When there is some object in a sentence after Reporting verb then say is changed to tell, says to tells and

said to told.

As per the context said to can be replaced by replied, informed, stated, added, remarked, asserted, assured,

pleaded, reminded, reported or complained etc.

Rule 2

We put conjunction that in place of “ ”.

We generally Change the pronouns of the Reported speech as enlisted earlier.

Examples –


Direct: He said to me, “I shall sleep now”

Indirect: He told me that he would play then.

Interrogative Sentences

Rule 1

When an interrogative sentence is meant to ask questions, then reporting verb said/said to is changed to

asked.

We change Said to into enquired or demanded

Rule 2

When a question is formed with the help of any of the helping verbs like is/are/am, was/were, has/have,

do/does, will/would etc then “ __” are to be replaced by if or whether

When the question is formed with the help of words starting with “Wh” like who, whose, what, whom,

when etc (also known as W family) or How then to replace “___” no conjunction is used.

Rule 3

In such sentences question form of the sentence is removed and full-stop is put at the end of the sentence.

The Helping verb is /are/am, was/were etc should be put after the subject in a sentence.

When the interrogative sentence is expressing positive feeling then do/does of the Direct speech is

removed while converting it into Indirect speech in a sentence.

When the interrogative sentence is expressing negative feeling then do/does of the Direct speech is

changed into did while converting it into Indirect speech in a sentence.

Conditional Sentences

Conditional sentences are in the conditional mood (a sub-category of the subjunctive mood), which is used

for hypothetical scenarios that are dependent on a certain condition or conditions. They are usually

constructed using if to identify the conditions that must be met.

There are four “degrees” of conditionals, all of which vary in structure and meaning.

Zero Conditional

A zero conditional sentence uses the present simple tense to talk about what is always or generally true. It

is classified as a conditional because it creates a hypothetical situation to describe what would be true each

time something happens.

The general structure for the zero conditional is: “If + subject + present tense of


predicate verb, subject + present tense of main verb.”

For example:

• “If you throw a ball in the air, it comes back down.” (Always true: A ball

comes back down every time you throw it in the air.)

• “If we get up early, we always go jogging.” (Generally true: We jog every time

we get up early.)

First Conditional

The first conditional is very similar in structure to the zero conditional. We still use if plus the present

simple to create the condition, except that we now use the future simple tense (will + bare infinitive) to

describe a probable result of the condition.

Thus, the structure is: “If + present simple tense, will + infinitive.”

First Conditional

The first conditional is very similar in structure to the zero conditional. We still use if plus the present

simple to create the condition, except that we now use the future simple tense (will + bare infinitive) to

describe a probable result of the condition.

Thus, the structure is: “If + present simple tense, will + infinitive.”

For example:

• “If I see him, I will tell him.”

• “If I win the lottery, I will buy a new house.”

We can also create negative first conditionals by using the negative of the present simple in the if clause,

and the negative of will in the future simple clause.

For example:

• “If I do not go, I will not see him.”

• “If I don’t see him, I won’t have to say goodbye.”

• “If he doesn’t arrive soon, we won’t have time to catch the 9:30 train.”

We can also reorder the sentence to have the future tense clause at the beginning of the sentence, and the

if conditional clause at the end. Additionally, we can use modal auxiliary verbs other than will (such as

must, can, could, may, might, or should) to create different shades of certainty in the future simple tense.

Let’s take a look at some examples:


• “I will go if he calls me.” (Will expresses a certainty.)

• “I must go if he calls me.” (Must expresses a personal obligation for the

speaker.)

• “I can go if he calls me.” (Can expresses either permission from a third party

or the fact that speaker is free from other commitments.)

• “I might go if he calls me.” (Might expresses a 50% possibility.)

• “I may go if he calls me.” (May is similar to might, but it is more formal and

the possibility is slightly less.)

• “I should go if he calls me.” (The speaker feels a mild obligation.)

• “You should go if he calls you.” (The speaker is recommending that you go or

is giving you a personal opinion.)

• “I can’t go if he calls me.” (The speaker is not able or does not have

permission.)

• “I shouldn’t go if he calls me.” (The speaker feels a mild obligation not to.)

• “I might/may not go if he calls me.” (We very rarely contract might not in

modern English, and we almost never contract may not.)

Interrogative sentences (questions)

To form a question in the first conditional, we invert the subject with the modal

auxiliary verb.

• “If I he calls me, should I go?”

• “Could I leave early if Jake covers my shift?”

• “If I finish my homework on time, may I go to the party?”

• “If I come with you, will you buy me lunch?”

Second Conditional

We use the second conditional to speak about a hypothetical situation or outcome resulting from the

condition. Unlike the first conditional, we use the second conditional to talk about things that cannot or

are unlikely to happen.


To create the second conditional, we use the past simple tense after the if clause, followed by would + the

bare infinitive for the result of the condition. In addition to would (which we use to describe something

we would definitely do), we can also use could for what we would be able to do, as well as might for what

it is possible (but unlikely) we would do.

For example:

• “If I went to London, I would visit Trafalgar Square.”

• “If I won the lottery, I could buy a new house.”

• “If you had a phone, you could call me every day.”

• “If I was/were* older, I might stay up all night long.”

(*Note that in more formal English, it is standard to use were in conditional sentences using the past tense

of be, irrespective of it having a singular or plural subject. However, in everyday writing and speech, it is

common to use was for singular subjects.)

We can also put the second conditional in the negative to describe something that would not be the case

if something else were also not the case. To form the negative, we use the negative of the past simple in

the if clause, and make would negative in the clause describing the result of the condition.

For example:

• “If our father didn’t work so hard, we wouldn’t be able to afford this house.”

• “If I didn’t live in London, I could never speak English so well.”


To form questions in the second conditional, we invert would/could/might with

the subject. For example:

• “If you had a million dollars, would you buy an expensive boat?”

• “Would you travel to South America if you spoke Spanish?”

We can also put a question word before would in this form:

• “What would you do if your family wasn’t so wealthy?”

• “Where might you go if you won the lottery?”

• “If you could have dinner with a famous person, who would you choose?”

Third Conditional

Third conditionals are used to establish a hypothetical situation in the past,

followed by a hypothetical outcome that did not really happen—typically, the

outcome is the opposite of what actually happened.


To form the third conditional, we use the past perfect tense for the if conditional

clause, and would have + the past participle of the verb for the hypothetical

outcome.

(As with the second conditional, we can also use could or might instead of

would. Additionally, we can use should have + the past participle to describe an

outcome that ought to have happened.)

For example:

• “If I had been more prepared, I would have passed that test.”

In reality, the speaker was not prepared, and so they did not pass the test. By

creating a condition in the past using the past perfect tense, they can articulate

how they might have achieved a different outcome if they were more prepared.

Here are some other examples:

• Truth: “She was not there and couldn’t help you.”

• Conditional: “If she had been there, she could have helped you.”

• Truth: “I was late for work yesterday because I overslept.”

• Conditional: “If I hadn’t overslept, I wouldn’t have been late for work.”

• Truth: “You knew you had a test today.”

• Conditional: “If you knew you had a test today, you should have studied

harder.”


To form a question in the third conditional, we invert would/could/might/should

with the subject and add a question word before it (if necessary).

For example:

• “Would you have come to the party if you had known about it?”

• “What might you have done if you had known the truth?”

• “Where could you have gone if you hadn’t come here?”

The Mixed Conditional

A very commonly used “fifth” conditional is what’s known as the mixed


conditional, which is a cross between the third conditional and the second.

There are two ways to form a mixed conditional, depending on the meaning we

wish to achieve.

If it is being used to describe how an unreal situation in the past might have

affected an unreal outcome in the present, we use the past perfect tense in the if

conditional clause and would / could + the bare infinitive of the verb for the

result of the condition.

For example:

• “If I had studied more (the condition is in the past), I would be a doctor (the

result of the condition is in the present).”

• “If I had been born in Italy, I would be Italian.”

• “If he hadn’t lost his job, he wouldn’t be unemployed.”

If the mixed conditional is being used to describe how an unreal condition in the

present might have affected an unreal outcome in the past, we use the past

simple tense in the if conditional clause and would have / could have + the past

participle of the verb for the result of the condition.

For example:

• “If I wasn’t/weren’t so shy (condition in the present), I would have asked her

on a date (unreal outcome in the past).”

• “If she was/were a better driver, she’d have gotten her license by now.”

• “If we worked a little harder, we could have finished this project already.”

Quiz

(answers start on page 610)

1. What verb tense is used in the if clause for the second conditional?

a) Past simple tense

b) Past perfect tense

c) Future simple tense

d) Future perfect tense


2. Which of the following correctly completes this sentence using the third

conditional?

“If I had been earlier, ___________________”

a) I would miss the train.

b) I missed the train.

c) I would not have missed the train.

d) I would not be missing the train.

3. Which two conditionals can form a mixed conditional?

a) Zero and first conditional

b) First and second conditional

c) Second and third conditional

d) First and third conditional

4. Which of the following modal verbs is most commonly used to create

conditional sentences?

a) can

b) will

c) do

d) be

5. Which of the conditionals does not describe an unreal situation?

a) Third conditional

b) Second conditional

c) First conditional

d) Zero conditional

6. What kind of conditional is the following sentence an example of?

“I would have studied marine biology if I weren’t afraid of water.”

a) Mixed conditional

b) Third conditional

c) Second conditional


d) First conditional

PUNCTUATION

Punctuation is simply about a series of conventions that make it easier for readers to follow your train of

thought. A complete sentence (one thought or idea) is indicated by a full stop (.). A pause in the flow of

thought, for example, to allow additional information, is indicated by a comma (,). A semicolon (;) is used

to indicate a fuller pause than a comma, but not the final end of the sentence. A colon (:) is used to indicate

the beginning of a list.

Full Stop (.)

Full stops are used to divide text and create boundaries by marking the end

of a sentence.

• Make sure that your full stops look like full stops and that they are distinct

from commas.

• Make sure that the letter following a full stop is always a capital letter and

looks like one.

• Remember, feedback from your lecturers that points out that there are too

many commas in your writing may well mean that your commas are doing the

wrong job. After you have completed one sequence of thought, indicate this

with a full stop. Then move on to the next one.

Commas

Commas are used to divide up groups of words within a sentence. They are

extremely important and help to keep units of writing together. This helps to

clarify understanding and avoids frustrating the reader.

The main function of the comma is to:

• Break up parts of longer sentences - for example:

After the main points had been presented, the students were asked for

their comments.

(N.B. The comma in this example neatly divides the meaning into two parts. If

there were no comma, the reader would read, “presented the students6.” As


a word group, and this would not make sense without re-reading for

clarification.)

There would, however, be no comma in the following sentence:

They decided to go to the library and find further information about the

topic of the essay.

In this case, a pair of ideas is linked by the word ‘and’, no pausing occurs in speech, and no punctuation

(i.e. comma) is needed to clarify the meaning.

• Present items in a list. For example:

I would like to watch the video, take notes and then be ready to ask

questions.

• Divide words which refer to the subject of a sentence. For example:

The President of the Society, Julie Jones, received a standing ovation after

her speech.

• Punctuate certain relative clauses (i.e. parts of a sentence beginning with

‘who’, ‘which’, or ‘whose’). For example:

The College, which is situated in the centre of Canterbury, has an

excellent academic reputation.

In this example, the part of the sentence between the commas is designed to

add extra information to the statement about the college.

A comma is not always used with words like ‘who’ or ‘which’. Consider the

following example:

I like lecturers who give high grades for my work.

In this example the meaning is derived from linking up the ‘lecturers’ and ‘who

give high grades…’, not from separating out these two parts of the sentence.

Try reading this sentence with a comma (pause) before the word ‘who’. Does

the sentence make sense with this comma?

Some words or phrases (in traditional grammar, at least!) expect a comma

after they have been used: e.g. However, nevertheless, for example, etc..


Colons and Semi-Colons (:, ;)

Colons should be used only:

• To introduce a list. For example:

An essay usually includes the following components: an introduction, a

main body of text and a conclusion.

• To show a link between the units of meaning, like a hinge. For example:

The results of the referendum were very clear: there was a need for a

change in policy.

Semi-colons are extremely useful in long sentences, but be careful not to

over-use them. They are typically used as follows:

In the library there were several students reading journal articles; a

couple of lecturers checking the stock, and a librarian returning books to

the shelves.

• To provide a break in a sentence, while showing the relationship between

the two parts. For example:• To express an idea which is too short to merit a new sentence. For

example:

Wherever possible, students should try to organise their academic work

by using ‘planning tools’; these can help to clarify ideas.

In some cases semi-colons are followed by linking words, as in:

They were unsure about the outcome of the assignment they were about

to undertake; nevertheless, they would try their best.

The semi-colon can be a powerful tool in helping you to organise your writing,

and present your ideas clearly and meaningfully. However, it will lose its

effectiveness if over-used. Think carefully about how you will use it and

remember to use it sparingly.

Apostrophes (')

Incorrect use of the apostrophe in students’ writing is a very common mistake,


and very irritating! Apostrophes should be used:

• When letters have been left out of a word. For example:

The library’s still open. (meaning “The library is still open.”)

It won’t be necessary. (meaning “It will not be necessary.”)

• To show possession (belonging to). For example:

Einstein’s theory (meaning “The theory of Einstein”)

When you are using an apostrophe to show possession, then the position of

the apostrophe depends on whether you have a singular or plural noun to

denote the possessor.

In these examples, the apostrophe is attached to a singular noun:

That pen is Simon’s.

Jasmine’s examination papers

In these cases, apostrophe ‘s’ is added after the noun to show possession.

This is the correct position for a singular noun.

(Note: there is no apostrophe in the word “papers” above - this is because this

is a simple plural– there are no letters missing and no possession is shown!)

If the relevant noun is in the plural, the apostrophe is placed after the ‘s’:

The students’ belongings …

Psychologists’ theories have suggested …


UNIT 2( CO2)

Presentation and Interaction Skills

Speech Delivery, Interjecting: Objectives& Methodology; Group Discussion: Objectives & Methods;

Theme Presentation: Methods; Argumentative skills: Pattern and Ingredients; Debate & Discussion:

Unity, Coherence & Emphasis. Public Speaking: Audience Analysis: Approach and Style. Interviews:

Types; Focus & Objectives.

IMPORTANCE OF SPEECH DELIVERY

Once you have selected and researched your topic, and prepared and organized your presentation, you will

need to work on your delivery. Without diligent work on the initial parts of the speech process, however,

even the most impressive delivery has little meaning. On the other hand, combined with a well-prepared

and practiced presentation, delivery can be a key to your success as a speaker.

Effective delivery shows your audience that you have researched your topic and understand what you are

speaking about. An effective delivery allows you to pull it all together—to showcase your work and to

speak with confidence during your delivery.

Four Methods of Speech Delivery

Impromptu

Impromptu speaking is the presentation of a short message without advance preparation. Impromptu

speeches often occur when someone is asked to “say a few words” or give a toast on a special occasion.

You have probably done impromptu speaking many times in informal, conversational settings.

Here is a step-by-step guide that may be useful if you are called upon to give an impromptu speech in

public.

• Take a moment to collect your thoughts and plan the main point you want to make.

• Thank the person for inviting you to speak.

• Deliver your message, making your main point as briefly as you can while still covering it adequately

and at a pace your listeners can follow.


• Thank the person again for the opportunity to speak.

• Stop talking.

As you can see, impromptu speeches are generally most successful when they are brief and focus on a

single point.

Extempore

Extemporaneous speaking is the presentation of a carefully planned and rehearsed speech, spoken in a

conversational manner using brief notes. By using notes rather than a full manuscript, the extemporaneous

speaker can establish and maintain eye contact with the audience and assess how well they are

understanding the speech as it progresses. The opportunity to assess is also an opportunity to restate more

clearly any idea or concept that the audience seems to have trouble grasping.

For instance, suppose you are speaking about workplace safety and you use the term “sleep deprivation.”

If you notice your audience’s eyes glazing over, this might not be a result of their own sleep deprivation,

but rather an indication of their uncertainty about what you mean. If this happens, you can add a short

explanation; for example, “sleep deprivation is sleep loss serious enough to threaten one’s cognition, hand-

to-eye coordination, judgment, and emotional health.” You might also (or instead) provide a concrete

example to illustrate the idea. Then you can resume your message, having clarified an important concept.

Speaking extemporaneously has some advantages. It promotes the likelihood that you, the speaker, will

be perceived as knowledgeable and credible. In addition, your audience is likely to pay better attention to

the message because it is engaging both verbally and nonverbally. The disadvantage of extemporaneous

speaking is that it requires a great deal of preparation for both the verbal and the nonverbal components

of the speech. Adequate preparation cannot be achieved the day before you’re scheduled to speak.

Manuscript

Manuscript speaking is the word-for-word iteration of a written message. In a manuscript speech, the

speaker maintains his or her attention on the printed page except when using visual aids.

The advantage to reading from a manuscript is the exact repetition of original words. As we mentioned at

the beginning of this chapter, in some circumstances this can be extremely important. For example, reading

a statement about your organization’s legal responsibilities to customers may require that the original

words be exact. In reading one word at a time, in order, the only errors would typically be

mispronunciation of a word or stumbling over complex sentence structure.

However, there are costs involved in manuscript speaking. First, it’s typically an uninteresting way to

present. Unless the speaker has rehearsed the reading as a complete performance animated with vocal

expression and gestures (as poets do in a poetry slam and actors do in a reader’s theater), the presentation

tends to be dull.


Keeping one’s eyes glued to the script precludes eye contact with the audience. For this kind of “straight”

manuscript speech to hold audience attention, the audience must be already interested in the message

before the delivery begins.

It is worth noting that professional speakers, actors, news reporters, and politicians often read from an

autocue device, such as a TelePrompTer, especially when appearing on television, where eye contact with

the camera is crucial. With practice, a speaker can achieve a conversational tone and give the impression

of speaking extemporaneously while using an autocue device. However, success in this medium depends

on two factors: (1) the speaker is already an accomplished public speaker who has learned to use a

conversational tone while delivering a prepared script, and (2) the speech is written in a style that sounds

conversational.

Delivery Tips On those occasions when you do need to use a manuscript, here are several tips to help you

deliver your message effectively:

• Indicate in writing on your manuscript where to pause or emphasize certain words.

• Write your speech in short, easy-to-scan phrases.

• Use only the upper one-half or two-thirds of the paper for your manuscript.

• Establish eye contact with listeners, especially at the ends of sentences; don’t look over their heads.

• Use your normal, natural speed of delivery. Avoid speeding up partway through the speech.

• If you’re afraid you’ll lose your place, unobtrusively use your index finger to keep your place in the

manuscript.

• Speak with natural vocal variation; vary your pitch, inflection, and rhythm so that you don’t sound as

though you are reading.

• Practice with your manuscript.

• Use appropriate natural gestures and movement.

Memorization

Memorized speaking is the rote recitation of a written message that the speaker has committed to memory.

Actors, of course, recite from memory whenever they perform from a script in a stage play, television

program, or movie scene. When it comes to speeches, memorization can be useful when the message

needs to be exact and the speaker doesn’t want to be confined by notes.

The advantage to memorization is that it enables the speaker to maintain eye contact with the audience

throughout the speech. Being free of notes means that you can move freely around the stage and use your

hands to make gestures. If your speech uses visual aids, this freedom is even more of an advantage.

However, there are some real and potential costs. First, unless you also plan and memorize every vocal


cues (the subtle but meaningful variations in speech delivery, which can include the use of pitch, tone,

volume, and pace), gesture, and facial expression, your presentation will be flat and uninteresting, and

even the most fascinating topic will suffer. You might end up speaking in a monotone or a sing-song

repetitive delivery pattern. You might also present your speech in a rapid “machine-gun” style that fails

to emphasize the most important points. Second, if you lose your place and start trying to ad lib, the

contrast in your style of delivery will alert your audience that something is wrong. More frighteningly, if

you go completely blank during the presentation, it will be extremely difficult to find your place and keep

going.

Characteristics of Effective Delivery

You have learned the importance of effective delivery and have identified four methods of delivery. You

now know that for most speaking situations, you should strive for a conversational style. But you still may

have a number of specific questions about enhancing the effectiveness of your delivery. Typical concerns

include “What do I do with my hands?” and “Is it all right to move around while I speak?” and “How can

I make my voice sound interesting?” Although these concerns might seem daunting, being confident about

your ability to present a well-prepared and well-rehearsed speech is the best antidote to jitters about

delivery. Practice and a focus on communicating your message to your audience are vital for effective

communication and great for your confidence.

Eye Contact

Of all the aspects of delivery discussed in this chapter, the most important one in a public-speaking

situation for North Americans is eye contact. Eye contact with your audience opens communication,

makes you more believable, and keeps your audience interested. Each of these functions contributes to the

success of your delivery. Eye contact also provides you with feedback about how your speech is coming

across.

Making eye contact with your listeners clearly shows that you are ready to talk to them. Most people start

a conversation by looking at the person they are going to talk to. The same process occurs in public

speaking.

Once you have started talking, continued eye contact lets you know how your audience members are

responding to your speech. You don’t need to look at your listeners continuously. As the need arises, you

should certainly look at your notes, but also look at your listeners frequently, just to see what they’re

doing.

Gestures

The next time you have a conversation with someone, notice how both of you use your hands and bodies

to communicate. Important points are emphasized with gestures.


Paralinguistic Features of Speech Delivery

Vocal Delivery

Have you ever listened to a radio announcer and imagined what he or she looked like, only later to see a

picture and have your mental image of the announcer drastically altered? Vocal cues play an important

part in creating the impression we have of a speaker. On the basis of vocal cues alone, you make inferences

about a person’s age, status, occupation, ethnic origin, income, and a variety of other matters. Your voice

is one of the most important delivery tools you have as a public speaker for conveying your ideas to your

audience. Your credibility as a speaker and your ability to communicate your ideas clearly to your listeners

will, in large part, depend on your vocal delivery.

Vocal delivery includes pitch, speaking rate, volume, pronunciation, articulation, pauses, and general

variation of the voice. A speaker has at least two key vocal obligations to an audience: Speak to be

understood, and speak with vocal variety to maintain interest. Speaking to Be Understood To be

understood, you need to consider four aspects of vocal delivery: volume, articulation, dialect, and

pronunciation.

Volume: The fundamental purpose of your vocal delivery is to speak loudly enough that your audience

can hear you. The volume of your speech is determined by the amount of air you project through your

larynx, or voice box. More air equals more volume of sound. In fact, the way you breathe has more impact

on the sound of your voice than almost anything else does. To ancient orators, a person’s breath was the

source of spiritual power. To breathe is to be filled with a positive, powerful source of energy.

To breathe properly, you need to understand how to use your breathing muscles. Your diaphragm, a

muscle in your upper abdomen, helps to control sound volume by increasing air flow from your lungs

through your voice box. If you put your hands on your diaphragm and say, “Ho-ho-ho,” you will feel your

abdominal muscles contracting and the air being forced out of your lungs. Breathing from your

diaphragm—that is, consciously expanding and contracting your abdomen as you breathe in and out,

rather than merely moving your chest as air flows into your lungs—can increase the volume of sound as

well as enhancing the quality of your voice. Taking a few breaths from the diaphragm before speaking

can also help you to calm excess energy and speak with more confidence.

Articulation: The process of producing speech sounds clearly and distinctly is articulation. In addition to

speaking loudly enough, say your words so that your audience can understand them. Without distinct

enunciation, or articulation of the sounds that make up words, your listeners may not understand you or

may fault you for simply not knowing how to speak clearly and fluently.

Group Discussion: Objectives & Methods

A group discussion refers to a set of persons brought together to express their opinion and tothe subsequent

exchange of views on the allocated subject.


Group discussion is a group interactive selection process, which the employers use to gauge certain

personality traits of prospective candidates.

Group discussion (GD) is a comprehensive technique to judge the suitability of an individual and his

appropriateness for admission, scholarship, job, etc. GD assesses the overall personality – thoughts,

feelings and behaviour - of an individual in a group. A topic is presented to the group members for

discussion. While the discussion is going on, a group of panelists observe them. Through this observation

they judge intellectual, social, leadership, communicative skills of candidates taking part in the GD.

Group discussion (GD) is basically an interactive oral process. Here, the exchange of ideas, and feelings

takes place through oral communication. Each member of the group listens to their members as well as

gives his or her views orally. He or she has to use clear language, persuasive style, and has to use voice

and gesture effectively. This means that participants need to be proficient in oral communication in order

to take effective part in a group discussion.

GD is a group process, that is, it involves both person-to-person as well as person-to-group interactions.

Every group member has to develop goal-oriented or group oriented interaction. Effective interactions in

discussion should lead to unification between the activities of individuals as a work team and towards the

achievement of common group goals. A participant should be concerned with the ego needs of other

participants, unity of the group, and the overall objectives of the discussion.

GD is a purposeful and goal-oriented activity. The goals or objectives of a discussion are generally

decided before the discussion takes place. This means that each participant is usually aware of the purpose

or purposes of the discussion in advance.

Group Discussion: aims & objectives

Group Discussion is a dialogic learning process : cooperative, not competitive : sharing thoughts,

opinions, views : digging new insights : every member be given an opportunity to speak : unstructured

A G.D is a dialogic learning process. It is a dialogic learning process. What do we mean by this word

dialogic? Dialogic is, you know, it is not one person who continues to speak throughout. Moreover, there

are so many people, it is in the form of a dialogue and this dialogic form is between so many people. Now,

when we talk about this dialogic form, even when there is a debate, there is again a sort of discourse and

the discourse is between for and against, but at the same time you will find there is a lot of competition in

debate, there is a competition.

In a GD, So, a competitive tone is there at times. People in order to outshine the other candidates try to

put forth their views in such a manner, at times the language is muffled also. Muffled with meaning,

muffled, which sometimes you know the language also becomes satirical, but in aGD it is a cooperative

atmosphere. So, it is a cooperative atmosphere, among all the participants of the GD. Now, here let me

tell you because you also might be thinking how many people, what amount of time is given to you for

GD. So, in depending upon the number of participants usually you will find, when a GD is organized, first


is there is a seating arrangement, this seating arrangement is actually provided by the people who are

conducting this GD.

GROUP DISCUSSION:

Group discussion elicits the views of all participants and evolves a consensus through active and intense

interaction. Even if somebody is passive, and somebody else is indifferent, it is the responsibility of other

participants to involve them in the discussion in order to elicit their views on the topic before arriving at

a conclusion. Often, introverted people keep the best views to themselves; a sensitive leader among the

participants will not only note this but also gently persuade them to come out. Overall, the purpose and

aim of group discussion is to elicit views from all and then arrive at a consensus. Consensus is the

collective agreement on an issue after successive stages of conflict, agreement, disagreement, negotiation,

and reconciliation. This is done through a very intense and interactive process.

Understand that group discussion is essentially about group—NOT individual—discussion! Hence, in a

group discussion, an individual cannot choose to have a discussion with his known friend or somebody

whom s/he likes to talk to. In fact, group discussion tests how one can push oneself out of the comfort

zone and talk to strangers and win over them with logical and persuasive argument. That is why, a diffident

candidate who only murmurs and avoids discussing gets eliminated in the preliminary round itself. A

candidate, however self-centered s/he might be, should never ignore the fact that there are other

participants who are equally interesting in sharing their views.

Understand that it is group discussion—NOT public speaking or debate or interview. How do we

differentiate discussion from public speaking? When we say discussion, it involves so many people

interacting with each other. In public speaking, the audience judges a speaker without competing with

him. In group discussion, there are judges who assess the participants with whom the other persons are

competing with equal interest. In public speaking, the speaker has already been conferred leadership by

the audience. In group discussion, leaders are what the audience (or the judges) are looking for.

The skills that are judged in a GD

• How good you are at communicating with other

• How easily you behave and interact with the other group members

• How open minded you are

• How flexible or rigid you are in accepting the viewpoints of others in the group

• Your leadership skills

• Your analytical abilities

• Problem solving & critical thinking skills


• Time management skills

• Your skills at putting forth your ideas in an unbiased manner

• Social attitude and confidence

Do’s of participating in a GD

• Think before you speak.

• Pick up clues from the discussion and intelligently add points that come to your mind with regards to the

topic, in case you don’t know much about the topic.

• Back up your points with facts and figures if needed.

• Be gentle and sure in your presentation of views.

• Speak to-the-point and make sure that you do not repeat the points.

• Be calm and composed while speaking.

• Listening to others is also an important aspect of participation in the group discussion, so listen to others.

• Have respectful attitude towards the viewpoints of others.

• Your body language should convey your ease of behaviour.

• Sometimes the discussion may take a hostile turn. In such a case it is a good idea to intervene to make

the situation relaxed. This act of yours will show your leadership and problem solving skills.

Don’ts of participating in a GD

• Do not initiate the discussion if you do not know the topic well.

• Do not go overboard in exhibiting your knowledge even if you know the topic well.

• Do not interrupt other members when they are speaking.

• Do not change your opinion about the topic just because most of the other participants are having an

opinion different from yours.

• Do not feel unconfident if a speaker prior to you has presented the points more effectively than you.

• Do not ask irrelevant questions.

• Do not let your personal biases about the topic enter the discussion

Strategies/Methods of Group Discussion


As group discussion is a systematic and purposeful oral process characterized by the formal and structured

exchange of views on a particular topic, issue, problem, or situation, it should be well planned and Well

conducted. Some strategies have been described here for participating in group discussions.

Getting the GD Started

A mentioned before, there is generally no elected or formal leader in a GD. So. there is no one to get the

GD started. In a selection GD, the group, which may consist a six to ten persons. is given a topic to discuss

within 30 to 45 minutes. After announcing the topic, the total GD time, and Use appropriate strategies tor

of explaining the general guidelines and procedures governing the GD, the examiner participation In group

withdraws to the background leaving the group completely free to carry on with the discussion on its own

without any outside interference.

In the absence of a designated leader to initiate the proceedings of the discus. sion, the group is likely to

waste time in cross talks, low-key conversations, cross-consultations, asides, and soon. The confusion

may last until someone in the group takes an assertive position and restores the chaos into order. It could

be you.

In order to get the GD started, the assertive, natural leader will have to remind the group of its goal and

request them to start the discussion without wasting time. A few examples of the opening lines are given

below:

• Well friends, may I request your kind attention? I am sure all of us are keen to begin the GD and complete

it within the allotted time. Let me remind you that we have only thirty minutes to complete the task. So,

let us get started.

• My dear friends, may I have your attention please? As you all know, we have to complete the discussion

in 45 minutes and we have already used up five minutes. I think we should start the discussion now.

• Hello everybody. I am sorry to interrupt but I have something very important to say. We are here to

discuss the topic — "Reduction of IIM fees is a retrograde step"—and the time given to us is just 30

minutes. Let us begin, shall we?

• Hello friends! May I have your kind attention for a few seconds, please? I am sure agree that we are here

to exchange our views on the reservation policy of the government will t wand we have to complete the

discussion within 35 minutes. As we have already used up more than five minutes, we should begin the

discussion now. Shall we start?

Once the GD has been successfully initiated, the leader should propose the procedures to be fol-lowed

during the discussion. The procedures may include time management, order of speaking, length and nature

of individual contributions, and nature of group interactions. It is very important to follow a plan that

includes time for every individual speaker as well as for the exchange of views, suggestions. and solutions.

All members of the group should be in agreement on these pertinent items. While trying to get the GD

started, the leader should attempt to create an atmosphere in which all members feel free to participate.


Contributing Systematically

The success of a group discussion depends on systematic contribution by each member of the group. In

order to make systematic contribution to the group deliberations, all the group members should understand

the process of reflective thinking. They should be able to identify the stage of discussion ( that is,

individual stage where each member as to systematically present his or her views without any disturbance

; or group interaction stage, where members have to exchange views and opinions in order to reach to a

group consensus) and contribute accordingly. When a participant makes a contribution, he/she should

ensure that his/her contribution:

relates to what has previously been said by other members.

focuses on the theme of the discussion,

deals with the specific point under consideration.

Is directed towards the overall objective of the GD, and

is as per the requirement of the particular stage of discussion

Moreover, contributions must reflect the depth of understanding and knowledge of the subject as well as

the participant's ability to analyze it. Each participant must see the topic from his/her perspective so that

his/her background and personal experiences give it a new interpretation, which may prove valuable to

the group for taking a decision.

Creating a Friendly Cooperative Atmosphere

Creating an atmosphere conducive to positive discussion is the responsibility of each member of the croup.

A friendly, cooperative atmosphere encourages effective and positive deliberations that lead to successful

conclusion. Although a GD is a serious and formal occasion, there is no need to make it too serious and

boring. It is desirable to make it an enjoyable experience for all. Members of a group discussion can do

much to create a conducive and friendly atmosphere. The following suggestions may be helpful in this

regard:

• All participants should help the group to make the discussion lively and pleasurable.

• Participants should develop a consensus regarding group standards early in the discussion.

• In order to maintain friendly attitudes, participants should demonstrate a sense of fair play by treating

others as they would like themselves to be treated.

• Participants must conduct themselves with decorum and dignity.

• All participants must show interest in what others say.


• Every participant should make sure that other members feel free to express their views, opinions,

comments and feelings.

• Members must be kept informed of their own progress and they should be appreciated for contributing

effectively to the group goals.

• Participants should avoid being too formal with each other.

Theme Presentation: Methods

While speaking has more formality than talking, it has less formality than reading. Speaking allows for

flexibility, meaningful pauses, eye contact, small changes in word order, and vocal emphasis. Reading is

a more or less exact replication of words on paper without the use of any nonverbal interpretation.

Speaking, as you will realize if you think about excellent speakers you have seen and heard, provides a

more animated message.

Methods of Presentation Delivery

Impromptu Presentation

Impromptu speaking is the presentation of a short message without advance preparation. You have

probably done impromptu speaking many times in informal, conversational settings. Self-introductions in

group settings are examples of impromptu speaking: “Hi, my name is Steve, and I’m an account manager.”

Another example of impromptu presenting occurs when you answer a question such as, “What did you

think of the report?” Your response has not been preplanned, and you are constructing your arguments

and points as you speak. Even worse, you might end yourself going into a meeting and your boss says, “I

want you to talk about the last stage of the project. . . “ and you had no warning.

The advantage of this kind of speaking is that it’s spontaneous and responsive in an animated group

context. The disadvantage is that the speaker is given little or no time to contemplate the central theme of

his or her message. As a result, the message may be disorganized and difcult for listeners to follow.

Here is a step-by-step guide that may be useful if you are called upon to give an impromptu presentation

in public:

1. Take a moment to collect your thoughts and plan the main point you want to make.

2. Thank the person for inviting you to speak. Avoid making comments about being unprepared, called

upon at the last moment, on the spot, or feeling uneasy.

3. Deliver your message, making your main point as briefly as you can while still covering it adequately

and at a pace your listeners can follow.

4. Thank the person again for the opportunity to speak.


5. Stop talking (it is easy to “ramble on” when you don’t have something prepared). If in front of an

audience, don’t keep talking as you move back to your seat.

Impromptu presentations: the presentation of a short message without advance preparation. Impromptu

presentations are generally most successful when they are brief and focus on a single point.

Manuscript presentation:

Manuscript presentations are the word-for-word iteration of a written message. In a manuscript

presentation, the speaker maintains their attention on the printed page except when using visual aids. The

advantage of reading from a manuscript is the exact repetition of original words. In some circumstances

this can be extremely important. For example, reading a statement about your organization’s legal

responsibilities to customers may require that the original words be exact.

A manuscript presentation may be appropriate at a more formal affair (like a report to shareholders), when

your presentation must be said exactly as written in order to convey the proper emotion or decorum the

situation deserves.

However, there are costs involved in manuscript presentations. First, it’s typically an uninteresting way to

present. Unless the presenter has rehearsed the reading as a complete performance animated with vocal

expression and gestures, the presentation tends to be dull. Keeping one’s eyes glued to the script prevents

eye contact with the audience. For this kind of “straight” manuscript presentation to hold audience

attention, the audience must be already interested in the message and presenter before the delivery begins.

It is worth noting that professional speakers, actors, news reporters, and politicians often read from an

autocue device, commonly called a teleprompter, especially when appearing on television, where eye

contact with the camera is crucial. With practice, a presenter can achieve a conversational tone and give

the impression of speaking extemporaneously and maintaining eye contact while using an autocue device.

However, success in this medium depends on two factors: (1) the presenter is already an accomplished

public speaker who has learned to use a conversational tone while delivering a prepared script, and (2) the

presentation is written in a style that sounds conversational and in spoken rather than written, edited

English.

Extemporaneous presentation:

Extemporaneous presentations are carefully planned and rehearsed presentations, delivered in a

conversational manner using brief notes. By using notes rather than a full manuscript, the extemporaneous

presenter can establish and maintain eye contact with the audience and assess how well they are

understanding the presentation as it progresses. Without all the words on the page to read, you have little

choice but to look up and make eye contact with your audience.

Presenting extemporaneously has some advantages. It promotes the likelihood that you, the speaker, will

be perceived as knowledgeable and credible since you know the speech well enough that you don’t need


to read it. In addition, your audience is likely to pay better attention to the message because it is engaging

both verbally and non-verbally. It also allows flexibility; you are working from the strong foundation of

an outline, but if you need to delete, add or rephrase something at the last minute or to adapt to your

audience, you can do so.

The disadvantage of extemporaneous presentations is that it in some cases it does not allow for the verbal

and the nonverbal preparation that are almost always required for a good speech. Adequate preparation

cannot be achieved the day before you’re scheduled to present, so be aware that if you want to present a

credibly delivered speech, you will need to practice many times. Because extemporaneous presenting is

the style used in the great majority of business presentation situations, most of the information in the

subsequent sections of this chapter is targeted toward this kind of speaking.

Memorized Presentation

Memorized speaking is the recitation of a written message that the speaker has committed to memory.

Actors, of course, recite from memory whenever they perform from a script in a stage play, television

program, or movie scene. When it comes to speeches, memorization can be useful when the message

needs to be exact and the speaker doesn’t want to be conned by notes.

The advantage to memorization is that it enables the speaker to maintain eye contact with the audience

throughout the speech. Being free of notes means that you can move freely around the stage and use your

hands to make gestures. If your speech uses visual aids, this freedom is even more of an advantage.

However, there are some real and potential costs.

First, unless you also plan and memorize every vocal cue (the subtle but meaningful variations in speech

delivery, which can include the use of pitch, tone, volume and pace), gesture, and facial expression,) your

presentation will be flat and uninteresting, and even the most fascinating topic will suffer. Second, if you

lose your place and start trying to ad lib, the contrast in your style of delivery will alert your audience that

something is wrong. More frighteningly, if you go completely blank during the presentation, it will be

extremely difficult to find your place and keep going. Obviously, memorizing a typical seven-minute

presentation takes a great deal of time and effort, and if you aren’t used to memorizing, it is very difficult

to pull off. Realistically, you probably will not have the time necessary to give a completely memorized

speech. However, if you practice adequately, your approach will still feel like you are being

extemporaneous.

Nuances or Modes or Methods of Delivery / Presentation:

Good planning is the backbone of good presentation. Equally important or perhaps more important is the

manner of delivery. It was all about the selection of appropriate method and nuance of Presentation that

Antonio, after the assassination of Julius Caesar, delivered a funeral speech and won the mob by his

oratory.


The mob that was earlier supporting Brutus and others suddenly turned against them. It is, of course, the

power of speech that may turn a dull topic into interesting one whereas poor delivery or bad presentation

may spoil the entire presentation howsoever significant it is. So, once the speaker has planned and

developed the content of his presentation, he should begin practicing his delivery, since it is not as

important as, what to say, as it’s how to say?

There are a variety of delivery methods but a speaker should choose those which are easier to handle,

some such methods are listed below:

1) Memorizing the Manuscript

2) Reading the Manuscript

3) Speaking from notes

4) Extemporaneous / Impromptu Speaking

1) Memorizing the Manuscript:

(Manuscript – Hand written matter, a copy of a book before it is printed)

This method of presentation can be one of the most effective methods of presentation. But it requires an

extra ordinary power to memorize because if the presenter forgets his text, his speech will sound stilled /

unnatural / too formal. Besides he will become a butt of ridicule. He, therefore, should avoid memorizing

long speeches. Memorizing a quotation, an opening paragraph, or a few concluding remarks will

strengthen his delivery and impress the audience.

2) Reading the Manuscript:

It means read out the written material aloud. This method is often used whenever a complex or technical

presentation is made such as the description of some machine or the policy matters of an organization.

Reading intelligibly is an art, which can also be learnt after much practice. Once the manuscript of a

presentation is prepared, the reader should do a lot of practice and rehearse again and again. In verbatim

(word by word) reporting, the reader and listener contact is often interrupted. Moreover, such word for

word reporting becomes dull and monotonous. For effective manuscript presentation, the reader should

follow the below mentioned suggestions:

A. Be familiar with the text by reading it again and again.

B. Learn right pronunciation of the technical terms used.

C. Maintain proper flow of the language for which proper pause and voice modulation can be used.

3) Speaking from Notes:


Making presentation with the help of an outline is a very common method of presentation. The speaker

prepares notes on a sheet or cards and then with the help of appropriate audio visual aids, he makes his

presentation.

This process makes the delivery easy and impressive. The speaker while making presentation maintains

eye-contact with the audience and never for a moment the presentation becomes mechanical, dull or

monotonous. Practice indeed makes perfect. An inexperienced speaker should do proper rehearsal before

making presentation.

4) Extemporaneous / Impromptu Speaking:

The words extemporaneous or impromptu means done without preparation or planning. The term

impromptu speech, thus, means a speech delivered without any preparation done beforehand i.e.

unrehearsed delivery in speech.

Such impromptu speeches of formal mode should be avoided. They can be made after some caution. “You

might have to give an impromptu or unrehearsed speech if you’re called on to speak unexpectedly or if

you have agreed to speak but neglected to prepare your speech. Avoid speaking unprepared unless you

have spoken countless times on the same topic or are an extremely good public speaker. When you are

asked to speak ‘off the cuff’, take a moment to think through what you will say. Then avoid the temptation

to ramble.”

BODY-LANGUAGE /KINESICS

Body language is also known as Kinesics. It means the study and role of the body movements such as

winking, shrugging, kicking etc in communication. We have graphed some traits of

Kinesics as follows-

Personal Expression: It is physical appearance which makes first impression upon the audience.

In addition, personality creates impression upon the people whom we speak.

Facial Expression: Facial expression plays an important role in oral communication. It expresses

happiness, anger, surprise, boredom, fear, sadness, hatred, liking, disliking, rejection, love, agreement,

frustration etc.

Head Movements: Movements of head speak a lot rather than words. Nodding of the head shows honor,

confidence and self-respect. The low-bent head shows politeness and modesty. The jerk of the head shows

either rejection or confirmation.


Posture or Body Position: It refers to the way one stands, one sits and walks. When someone stands erect,

it shows confidence. When someone sits with ease and grace, it shows his majesty and royalty. When

someone walks with ease and grace, it shows him energetic and confident.

Slump Posture shows unwillingness and uneasiness.

Eye-Contact: The eyes are the windows of the mind. They express passion, moods and other physical and

mental traits.

Gesture: These are those physical movements that someone makes often unconsciously. One should take

care about the same at the time of making communication with people.

Paralinguistic Features

Paralinguistic features are non-verbal vocal clues that help in giving urgency to our voice. It is a part of

communication as it adds human touch to our words. Therefore, it is essential to understand the

characteristic nuances of voice namely quality, volume rate, pitch, pronunciation and pauses.

VOLUME: Loudness or Softness of Voice

RATE: Words Spoken Per Minute

PITCH: No of Vibrations per Second, Rise and fall of Voice

PAUSE: A Short Silence

PRONUNCIATION: A way to speak word distinctly

MODULATION: A Way to Adjust Tone, Pitch and Volume

SILENCE: A Total Absence of Voice and Speech Delivery


Argumentative skills: Pattern and Ingredients

The terms argument and argumentation reflect the two senses in which the term argument is used, as both

product and process. An individual constructs an argument to support a claim. The dialogic process in

which two or more people engage in debate of opposing claims can be referred to as argumentation or

argumentative discourse to distinguish it from argument as product. Nonetheless, implicit in argument as

product is the advancement of a claim in a framework of evidence and counterclaims that is characteristic

of argumentative discourse, and the two kinds of argument are intricately related

Argumentation skills integrate both the capacity to make use of a linguistic repertoire and the capacity to

use language with a communicative purpose. Although a communicative purpose can be achieved without

the use of augmentation skills, we hold the view that argumentation must be conceived as a dialogic

process in which opposing or similar claims meet, as well as a discourse mechanism whereby the user of

the language can demonstrate his/her ability to use knowledge acquired for effective communication.

People use arguments on a daily basis for different purposes, like persuasion, negotiation, debate,

consultation, and resolving differences of opinion; thus, “argumentation or the use of arguments plays a

critical role in the development of critical thinking and in developing a deep understanding of complex

issues and ideas”. Actually, argumentation is a fundamental cognitive skill required for the 21st century

thinking citizen.

The ability to generate and evaluate sound arguments has received increasing recognition as fundamental

to good thinking, since “argumentation is a dialogue in which participants may take many different

positions and change their minds as it proceeds”. Therefore, argumentation skills are not detached from

Hymens and Bachman’s notion of communicative competence that has to do with the functional use of

language. Both authors emphasize interaction among learners and the use of meaningful and

contextualized language.

Five organs of Argument

Constructing a persuasive argument is no easy task, but knowing the parts of an argument can structure

your thinking as you begin to put one together. Here are the five parts of an argument:

1. Claims

2. Reasons

3. Evidence

4. Warrants

5. Acknowledgment and Response


Claims

Your claim is your main point. It should either seek to change how the audience thinks or how the audience

acts. The audience should be able to agree or disagree with your claim, and they should understand the

need for the claim. Sometimes a claim can seem more serious and necessary than it actually is. For

example, take the claim that the Fourth Amendment should not be repealed. While technically a claim, it

isn't a claim that carries much significance because there is no serious debate in the U.S. concerning the

repeal of the Fourth Amendment. There is a serious debate, however, concerning the meaning, spirit, and

breadth of the Amendment, with serious debates centring on specific issues within the topic of gun control.

It's your job to communicate the exigency, or necessity, of the claim to your audience.

Reasons and Evidence

You need reasons and evidence to convince audiences. Reasons and evidence answer the fundamental

question: Why are you making this claim? The evidence should support your reasons, and your reasons

should be appropriate to your audience. You should choose the reasons and evidence that are also the most

likely to convince your specific readers or listeners. Knowing the general values and priorities of your

readers will help you determine what they will count as compelling reasons and evidence. Evidence should

also be reliable and based on authoritative and trustworthy sources. It should be appropriately cited and

ample enough to convince, designed to appeal to your target audience's values and priorities.

Here are some useful strategies for using evidence to support your arguments:

Build on what readers already know.

Present evidence from general to specific.

Keep support appropriate and clear.

Rely on authoritative sources.

Use diagrams, graphs, and other visuals when appropriate.

Don’t assume that evidence speaks for itself. Explain its significance to your audience

Warrants

Warrants express justifying principles, shared beliefs, or general assumptions. They are the spoken or

unspoken logic that connects your reasons to your evidence.

Take for example, the argument:

I need new shoes because these new ones have holes in them and it’s the rainy season.

One who accepts this argument is one who likely shares the following warrant:

When shoes can no longer protect the feet, they need to be replaced.


To some, this is common sense that justifies the claim for new shoes. But even in cases where your

audience shares your warrant, evidence is still needed to connect the warrant with the claim. In other

words, the evidence must show that the shoes are indeed in bad condition for the audience to agree.

Sometimes an audience will share the same warrant as you but disagree with the evidence you present.

For example, the audience might not believe that the shoes are in as bad of shape as the arguer believes.

In that case, the argument is likely to fail for lack of convincing evidence.

Other times, an audience won’t share a warrant with you. For example, a person might not believe in

replacing damaged shoes, but rather repairing them. One who has a fix-it-first attitude might respond in

the following way:

“Who says you need to buy new shoes? I can get those repaired for a fraction of the price.”

As you see, warrants are important for getting an audience to accept specific conclusions. For this reason,

warrants may need their own evidence, or backing, to make your audience more likely to accept them.

Acknowledgment and Response

Acknowledging and responding to opposing viewpoints can help your argument in a few ways:

It helps you build trust with your audience

It gives your argument additional context.

It challenges you to moderate or qualify your claim

It invites you to find common ground

When stating the opposing viewpoint, it’s important to do so fairly. Misrepresenting the opposing

viewpoint is not just unethical, but it will likely cause your audience to lose trust in your argument.

After stating the opposing viewpoint, look for parts of the argument that actually seem right—try to

acknowledge valid concerns. Doing so may lead you to make concessions to the other side, which will

challenge you to moderate your claim and encourage common ground.

Of course, you also have the opportunity to respond to points you feel are not valid from the opposing

viewpoint through refutation and counterpoints. Counterpoints should include their own supporting

evidence as well.


CHECKPOINTS/GUIDELINES FOR WRITING A GOOD ARGUMENT

I have explained the issue. My audience understands the debate I am participating in.

I have conveyed the urgency of the issue. I have shown that there is a clear need for an argument.

I have stated my claim clearly and concisely.

I have introduced the reasons and evidence that will support my claim.

My evidence is arranged persuasively. The order of my argument enhances its persuasiveness for

my audience.

I use credible, authoritative sources to support my claims.

I have supported my claims thoroughly. I have not left out important evidence.

I have avoided the trap of letting the evidence speak for itself. I have made the connection between

my claim and the evidence clear for my audience.

I use emotional appeals (pathos) in a responsible and ethical manner.

I have qualified (or moderated) my claims.

I have fairly represented the opposing viewpoints.

I have offered counterpoints and refutations. My counterpoints are supported by evidence.

My argument seeks common ground with the opposing viewpoint. My solutions aim for a better

future for both sides of the debate.

My argument is ethical, moral and legal. I don’t seek to “win” my argument while ignoring how

some groups might be adversely affected.

I have presented my argument as a tool for gaining further understanding of the issue.

I haven't pretended that my argument is the final (or even only) solution, but rather a way toward

gaining consensus on an important issue.

The style and diction of my argument is suitable to my audience. I have given the draft of my

argument to someone else for feedback.

I have used feedback and suggestions to strengthen my argument.


Debate & Discussion: Unity, Coherence & Emphasis

Debate refers to “the systematic presentation of opposing arguments about a specific issue”

Benefits of Debates

1. Debates can help you practice and demonstrate your critical thinking skills.

2. Debates can help you learn to discuss complicated topics calmly, clearly, and competently

3. Debates can help you cultivate your persuasion skills

4. Debates help deepen your understanding of topics when you "actively" listen to opposing views

5. Debates help sharpen communication skills – you can learn to say more with fewer words

6. Debates can be mind-opening – "actively" listening to opposing opinions can help you think out of the

box – they can offer a broader range of alternatives, excite imagination, and ignite creativity

7. Debates help remind you that while business is about competition it is also about compromise and

cooperation

8. Debate teams can offer a sense of comradeship, demonstrating the value o f teamwork.

9. To those with a truly open-mind, debates can broaden and deepen reasoning and communicating skills.

They can enhance the ability to think and communicate clearly and quickly.

Debates are not...

1. Debates are not wars

2. Debates are not arguments

3. Debates do not mean one team must win and one must lose (both can be successful or both can be

losers)

REMEMBER:

You learn more from the person who disagrees with you than from the one who agrees.

Dialogue, Debate and Discussion

Ann offers 3 labels for conversations that you can use to help understand what’s going on::

1. Dialogue

2. Debate

3. Discussion


Dialogue is listening with an Open Spirit

A dialogue is listening with an open spirit.

There’s no set idea.

It’s about listening with an open mind and asking questions that lead to understanding (the goal is not to

win.) Ann writes:

“The first and most difficult task of dialogue involves parking the ego and listening with an open spirit.

From this receptivity can come questions which lead to understanding.”

Debate is a verbal “Fight”. It’s about winning an argument.

“Dialogue is the opposite of debate, a verbal “fight,” the goal of which is to win an argument by besting

an opponent.

The focus is on listening for flaws in the “opponent’s” argument rather than listening to understand

something new or from a different perspective.

Ego is typically at the center of this win-lose conversation.”

Discussion is the “Breaking Apart” of Issues

A discussion is the “breaking apart” of issues. It’s about pushing a winning idea. Ann writes:

“Dialogue is also different from discussion, the “breaking apart” of issues, individuals or situations to gain

agreement.

Discussions tend to be fast-paced, persuasive conversations in which one person tries to convince the other

of a point of view or solution.

Ego, control and power over others are often at the forefront of this style of talking.”

Public Speaking: Audience Analysis; Approach and Style

Here we do not deal with the history of public speaking, Ancient Greece, Plato and Aristotle, least

of all the Sophists, but the aim is to bring you closer to public appearance and public speaking skills as

they are woven throughout all spheres of work and life, indispensable to anyone who has contact

with other people. So, if you haven't decided to live on a deserted island, which are very few left, or

have taken a vow of silence, which would not be very helpful because people can perform in

public without any spoken word, we encourage you to join us in this journey through the secrets

of public speaking and oratory, and slowly but surely master this essential skill.


Unfortunately, it must be noted that at the present time, although perhaps not that it was any different in

other times, almost all generations are growing up in an environment where they do not actively get in

contact with teachings of public speaking and what it might mean, what the art of rhetoric is for and

Why it should be studied. Realistically, it can't be expected that young people growing up with the

knowledge and skills of public speaking and rhetoric, because it is a very small percentage of parents

than can actively teach these skills to their children. On the other hand, even the school system,

through primary and secondary schools, including colleges, except certain majors, does not mention,

much less teaches those skills.

Therefore, we are faced with the fact that many businesses fail and many goals are not achieved,

especially in international business relations and diplomacy. Our public discourse look like "reality

show". There is general illiteracy in society and cacophony of various "slangs" to the level of

glorifying vulgarity and disrespect of every civilised and moderate mutual addressing.

One of the ways that this situation can change for the better, at least in this one visible segment of

public speaking, is to learn at least some basic rules and skills of oratory and beautiful civilised dealing

with our environment and, in general, to learn to communicate better. Whilst the most important moment

of communication is transfer of information, which should be reliable, verified, controlled, but also

dynamic and subject to change. Well, in order to come up with an answer how to successfully master the

techniques of public speaking, it is first necessary to answer the following

A century ago, in his book „Handbook of Public Speaking”, John Dolman noted that public speaking

is significantly different from theatre performances - that „ is not conventionalised imitation of life,

but life itself, a natural function of life, a real human being in a real communication with neighbours,

and the best is when it is the most realistic“.

Some official definition of public speaking would be: "Public speaking (sometimes termed oratory

or oration) is the process or act of performing a presentation (a speech) focused around an individual

directly speaking to a live audience in a structured, deliberate manner in order to inform, influence, or

entertain them. Public speaking is commonly understood as the formal, face-to-face talking of a

single person to a group of listeners. It is closely allied to "presenting", although the latter is more

often associated with commercial activity. Most of the time, public speaking is to persuade the

audience."

Audience Analysis

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Understand the value of acknowledging your audience.

2. Understand how to choose a worthwhile topic.

3. Explain how to adapt your speech to your audience’s needs.


4. Explain the value of speaking with credibility.

Interviews: Types; Focus & Objectives

The very word ‘interviews’’ many of you when you come across such a word, you have different sorts of

inhibitions, but then one thing is certain that all of us have to appear at interviews. Now, those of you who

are yet to get a job, might be thinking how to succeed in an interview. And those who are in jobs already,

they might be waiting for new positions, but yet they will also have to face interviews. Even when you

become a part of the organization or workplace, you have to appear at different sorts of interviews. And

all these sorts of interviews have different purposes also, in your own life also, even in your private life,

social lives, you have to appear at interviews right from a child’s admission to a good school, to an

appointment either in a hospital or in a hostel, or for some other occasions also you have to appear at

interviews.

Let us try to understand what interviews are and what actually the expectations in an interview are.

Because as I said interviews are not confined only to jobs or to admissions, but then there are various

occasions which necessitate an interview. So, if you know clearly, what interviews are and you also know

the expectations of interviews, you will be better prepared and armed, so that you can face the value of

questions which are aimed at knowing you.

An interview is a mutual exchange of information between an employer and you, as a candidate for a

position. An interview is a two-way process. You evaluate the employer while he/she evaluates you. Since

there is no one way of interviewing, you will have to develop your own style. In order to present yourself

well during the interview, you must be prepared. Preparation builds confidence and enables you to give a

better presentation of your qualifications.

Personal Interview is the foremost tool to judge the abilities of a person. In the face-to-face contact

between the interviewer & interviewee, it is possible to record more than only verbal responses; which

are often superficial. When human beings communicate directly with each other, much more information

is communicated. The nature of words used, facial expressions & body language- together contribute in

judging a person.

This term ‘interview’ comes from a French word which is interview or sometimes inter and view.

Interview actually means to see the other person. Now, an interview is actually a sort of face-to-face, if

you might have heard from others it is actually a face-to-face communication. Most of the time this is oral,

the people who are interviewing you, meaning there by the interviewers people who are appearing at

interview, they will be called interviewee, and those who are taking your interview, they will be called

interviewer. Now, an interview is an oral tool to test the candidate’s traits, qualities for different purposes.

An interview is an oral tool to test the candidate’s traits, qualities for different purposes. An interview may

be regarded as a systematic method by which a person enters more or less imaginatively into the inner life

of comparative strangers.


Purpose/Objectives Of An Interview

An interview is a mutual exchange of information between an employer and you, as a candidate for a

position. The primary objectives are to:

• Supplement resume information

• Show that you understand your strengths and weaknesses and have a sense of direction

• Enable the employer to evaluate your personality and attitudes in terms of the demands of the

organization and the position

• Allow you to gain information about the organization and the job that is not available through other

sources

• Give you and the employer an opportunity to discuss the desirability of further contact or an offer of

employment

Types of the interview

A job interview is an interview consisting of a conversation between a job applicant and a representative

of an employer which is conducted to assess whether the applicant should be hired Interviews are one of

the most popularly used devices for employee selection

Interviews vary in the extent to which the questions are structured, from a totally unstructured and free-

wheeling conversation, to a structured interview in which an applicant is asked a predetermined list of

questions in a specified order; structured interviews are usually more accurate predictors of which

applicants will make suitable employees, according to research studies.

An informational interview is an informal conversation you can have with someone working in an area of

interest to you. It is an effective research tool and is best done after preliminary online research. It is not

a job interview, and the objective is not to find job openings.

You may feel awkward reaching out to people you don't know. However, most people actually enjoy

taking a few moments out of their day to reflect on their professional life and give advice to someone with

an interest in their field.

Job Interview

When people think of interviews, an employment interview is probably what comes immediately to mind.

Employment interviews are those in which a potential employer interviews a potential employee. Both

parties have a great deal riding on the success of an interview. The potential employee is not only seeking

employment but also determining whether the job is one that would be accepted if offered. The potential


employer is searching not only for a qualified applicant but also for someone who would actually benefit

the organization. Potential employers also want to convince potential employees that the position is one

they should accept if offered.

Exit Interviews

Exit interviews are those that occur when a person chooses to leave a place of employment. The

conventional wisdom is that someone who is leaving may be more likely to provide honest answers about

organizational cultures, policies, supervisors, compensation, and other aspects of the workplace. If used

correctly, these interviews can provide employers with valuable insight that can be incorporated to

improve employee satisfaction and thus the productivity and success of an organization. These interviews

are also increasingly common in education and among multiple types of groups, such as volunteer

organizations.

Persuasive interviews

Persuasive interviews are those that have influence as the ultimate goal. The interviewer may appear to be

gaining information but is actually attempting to influence the thoughts or actions of the interviewee. This

form of interview may sound a bit manipulative and perhaps underhanded, but it is quite common. When

salespeople ask your opinion about a product or service, they often do so in a way that attempts to sway

you toward what they want you to purchase. At other times, what appears to be a survey is in reality an

attempt to persuade. Political workers have frequently been accused of dirty tricks under the guise of

conducting straightforward surveys.

They attempt to plant a seed of doubt or concern in the mind of the interviewee. For instance, imagine

being asked, “If the incumbent were convicted of running a cockfighting ring, would this influence your

vote in the upcoming election?” Depending on your opinion of roosters or animal cruelty in general, it

would or would not affect your vote, but such questions often influence voter perceptions of candidates

and result in rumors being circulated

Individual Interviews

The most common interview format is one interviewer interviewing one candidate, either by phone, via

video or in person.

Approaches/Strategies/Methods To Interviewing

Structured Interview

The goal of this approach is to reduce bias and assist the employer in making an objective decision.

Typically, each candidate is asked the same set of questions, responses are recorded, and ratings are

assigned to each response.


Unstructured Interview

In this format of interview, questions are based on the applicant's resume, so different questions will be

posed to each applicant. Without structured guidelines, the conversation can be free flowing, thus making

this method of interviewing the most prone to bias. Although this type of interview may seem more casual,

you must still be well prepared and know the points you want to make. Be careful not to provide

information you would not have communicated if the interview was more structured.


UNIT -03 (CO3)

Interpersonal Communication Skills

Features: Methods; Principles; Requisites; Team- work; Skills: Empathy, Emotional Intelligence,

empathy and listening skills. Time Management; Attitude; Responsibility, Leadership qualities: Integrity;

Values; Trust; Self Confidence & Courage; Communication and Networking; Speed reading; Problem

Solving & Trouble- Shooting

Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal communication is the interaction and exchange of information between two or more people. This

can be verbal and/or non-verbal communication.

Key interpersonal communication skills

Effective interpersonal communication skills are required to form connections and establish relationships. There

are many different types - we have described eleven of the most important skills:

Interpersonal communication in the workplace plays an important role in employee satisfaction,

motivation, collaboration and business success.

Interpersonal communication is the process of exchange of information, ideas and feelings between two

or more people through verbal or non-verbal methods.

It often includes face-to-face exchange of information, in a form of voice, facial expressions, body

language and gestures. The level of one’s interpersonal communication skills is measured through

the effectiveness of transferring messages to others.

Commonly used interpersonal communication within an organization includes daily internal employee

communication, client meetings, employee performance reviews and project discussions. In

addition, online conversations today make a large portion of employees’ interpersonal communication

in the workplace.

Effective interpersonal communication methods

https://blog.smarp.com/5-ways-effective-internal-communication-can-boost-employee-productivity

https://blog.smarp.com/5-ways-effective-internal-communication-can-boost-employee-productivity

https://blog.smarp.com/workplace-communication-20-ways-to-effectively-communicate-with-your-employees

https://blog.smarp.com/workplace-communication-20-ways-to-effectively-communicate-with-your-employees


Interpersonal communication is the ability to engage in expressing feelings, thoughts or information to

another person. With interpersonal you can communicate in three main basic ways: Verbal

Communication, Non-verbal Communication and Written Communication.

Verbal Communication

Communicating verbally is a major means to sending messages between teachers, students and teachers.

Examples of verbal are face to face meetings, telephone calls, departmental meetings, video chats and

presentations.

Non-verbal Communication

Non-verbal communication is less commonly used. However, gestural communication such as sign

languages allows people without hearing to be connected to the educational community.

All these ways of interpersonal communication are ways of connecting with others and building

relationships between staff members such as teachers, students and parents.

Four Principles of Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal communication is inescapable.

Interpersonal communication is irreversible. You can't really take back something once it has been

said. …

Interpersonal communication is complicated. No form of communication is simple. ...

Interpersonal communication is contextual

Teamwork

Teamwork is the collaborative effort of a group to achieve a common goal or to complete a task in the

most effective and efficient way.

The movement towards teamwork was mostly due to the Hawthorne studies, a set of studies conducted in

the 1920s and 1930s that highlighted the positive aspects of teamwork in an organizational setting. After

organizations recognized the value of teamwork and the positive effects it had on their companies, entire

fields of work shifted from the typical assembly line to the contemporary High Performance

Organizational Model.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_line

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_performance_organization

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_performance_organization


For a business to function effectively people must work well together in order to achieve a common goal. Some

people struggle with teamwork because they believe that they know how to do the job better than anyone else

and they do not trust others to do their roles. This can create conflict and hurt the overall effectiveness of the

team.

If this is something you find difficult assist your colleagues whenever you can and ask your colleagues for their

opinions and ideas - be enthusiastic when colleagues offer their own ideas.

A leader that can’t work with a team is a failure!

Leaders that develop great teams around them have two things that they do well:

They have a lot of emotional intelligence and

They are able to provide a clear vision for the team.

Basic team dynamics

Open communication to avoid conflicts.

Effective coordination to avoid confusion and the overstepping of boundaries.

Efficient cooperation to perform the tasks in a timely manner

High levels of interdependence to maintain high levels of trust, risk-taking, performance.

Training to Improve Teamwork

1. Forming

This stage is described by approach/avoidance issues, as well as internal conflicts about being

independent vs. wanting to be a part of the team.

Team members usually tend to 'play it safe' and minimize their risk taking in case something goes

wrong.

Teamwork in this stage is at its lowest levels.

2. Storming

The second stage is characterized by a competition for power and authority, which is the source of

most of the conflicts and doubts about the success of the team.

If teamwork is low in this stage, it is very unlikely that the team will get past their conflicts. If there

is a high degree of teamwork and willingness to collaborate, then the team might have a brighter

future.

3. Norming


The third stage is characterized by increasing levels of solidarity, interdependence, and cohesiveness,

while simultaneously making an effort to adjust to the team environment.

This stage shows much higher levels of teamwork that make it easier for the above characteristics to

occur.

4. Performing

This final stage of team development includes a comfortable environment in which team members are

effectively completing tasks in an interdependent and cohesive manner.

This stage is characterized by the highest levels of comfort, success, interdependence, and maturity, and

therefore includes the highest levels of teamwork.

Advantages of Team Works

Problem Solving:A group of people can bring together various perspectives and combine views and

opinions to rapidly and effectively solve an issue. Due to the team's culture, each team member has a

responsibility to contribute equally and offer their unique perspective on a problem to arrive at the

best possible solution.[20] Overall, teamwork can lead to better decisions, products, or services. The

effectiveness of teamwork depends on the following six components of collaboration among team

members: communication, coordination, balance of member contributions, mutual support, effort, and

cohesion.

Healthy competition: A healthy competition in groups can be used to motivate individuals and help

the team excel.

Developing relationships: A team that continues to work together will eventually develop an

increased level of bonding. This can help members avoid unnecessary conflicts since they have

become well acquainted with each other through teamwork.By building strong relationships between

members, team members' satisfaction with their team increases, therefore improving both teamwork

and performance.

Individual qualities: Every team member can offer their unique knowledge and ability to help

improve other team members. Through teamwork the sharing of these qualities will allow team

members to be more productive in the future.

Motivation:Working collaboratively can lead to increased motivation levels within a team due to

increasing accountability for individual performance. When groups are being compared, members

tend to become more ambitious to perform better. Providing groups with a comparison standard

increases their performance level thus encouraging members to work collaboratively.[

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teamwork#cite_note-Chin_2015-20

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teamwork#cite_note-22


Importance of teamwork

Teamwork motivates unity in the workplace

Teamwork offers differing perspectives and feedback

Teamwork provides improved efficiency and productivity

Teamwork provides great learning opportunities

Teamwork promotes workplace synergy

Skills

Empathy is, at its simplest, awareness of the feelings and emotions of other people. It is a key element of

Emotional Intelligence, the link between self and others.

Empathy goes far beyond sympathy which might be considered “feeling for” someone. Empathy, instead,

is “feeling with” that person, through the use of imagination.

Empathy is a capability we all have—perhaps to greater or lesser degrees—that allows us to put ourselves

in the place of another person and experience their feelings. We all crave connectedness and it seems our

brains are hard-wired to mirror others’ experiences. Research shows children as young as two demonstrate

understanding that others have different perspectives than their own. Even babies prefer to hear sounds

from other babies rather than older voices—evidence of our human desire for affinity and alignment.

Benefits of Empathy: There are important benefits of empathy.

Identity:Empathy affects our own identity. We tend to understand ourselves through the people we spend

time with and we derive our sense of self from the types of people with whom we have the closest

relationships.

Cooperation: Empathy also facilitates cooperation which is critical for teams to function effectively. In a

new study, when empathy was introduced into decision making, it increased cooperation and even caused

people to be more empathetic. Empathy fostered more empathy.

Innovation:Empathy can expand your horizons and extend your thinking. By understanding an unfamiliar

point of view, you can stretch and test new perspectives and ideas—a process key for successful

innovation and important to ensuring your thinking doesn’t stagnate.

Influence:In addition to the benefits of empathy to the community, empathy is also good for you

individually because it can help you sell and influence others. Putting yourself in others’ shoes and

understanding their perspectives facilitates discussion. Empathy also allows you to use their perspective

as a common starting point toward influencing them to your point of view.

Empathy is important especially when you disagree with others and it can admittedly require effort. In

addition, it is easier to empathize when you are similar or when you share things in common with another

person. But is it perhaps more important and beneficial when your empathy lets you see something

different than your own view and learn from another perspective. Empathizing may not change your mind,

but it can help you appreciate others and connect in new ways.

https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/hide-and-seek/201505/empathy-vs-sympathy

https://academic.oup.com/scan/article/8/6/670/1611749

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/05/180515105634.htm

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/05/180509082004.htm

https://news.virginia.edu/content/human-brains-are-hardwired-empathy-friendship-study-shows

https://elifesciences.org/articles/44269

https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037/xge0000595


Emotional intelligence (otherwise known as emotional quotient or EQ) is the ability to understand, use,

and manage your own emotions in positive ways to relieve stress, communicate effectively, empathize

with others, overcome challenges and defuse conflict.

We define EI or EQ as the ability to:

Recognize, understand and manage our own emotions

Recognize, understand and influence the emotions of others

In practical terms, this means being aware that emotions can drive our behavior and impact people

(positively and negatively), and learning how to manage those emotions – both our own and others –

especially when we are under pressure.

When would I need to manage my Emotional Intelligence?

Giving and receiving feedback

Meeting tight deadlines

Dealing with challenging relationships

Not having enough resources

Dealing with change

Dealing with setbacks and failure

Empathetic listening

Empathic listening is a structured listening and questioning technique that allows you to develop and

enhance relationships with a stronger understanding of what is being conveyed, both intellectually and

emotionally. As such, it takes active listening techniques to a new level.

Empathic listening?

Empathic listening is the practice of being attentive and responsive to others’ input during conversation.

Also called active listening or reflective listening, empathic listening requires you to be considerate of the

other party’s input. One main quality of empathic listening is giving support and encouragement rather

than advice or criticism. Listening empathically entails making an emotional connection with the other

person and finding similarities between their experience and your own so you can give a more heartfelt

response.

Qualities of an empathic listener

Here are some important qualities you’ll likely need in order to listen empathically:

Presence: More than just be physically in the same space with the speaker, presence entails being

focused closely on the conversation. To be present, it is important to minimize external distractions

and refrain from planning your responses while the other person is talking.

Compassion: The main component to being an empathic listener is identifying with the other

person’s emotional experience. Even if you haven’t experienced the same situation as the speaker,

http://ihhp.wpengine.com/developing-emotional-intelligence


you can try to find similarities anyway. For instance, if a coworker states that they are having trouble

adjusting to an increased workload, you may identify by thinking of a time when you had more

chores at home.

Wisdom: If someone is sharing something emotionally important with you, it’s likely because they

trust your judgment and experience. Wisdom includes both understanding the speaker’s input and

examining the circumstances around the problem to better grasp all the factors involved. For

example, if one of your colleagues is having a conflict with another person in the department, you

can acknowledge one person’s stress while also considering that the other party has their own

challenges and is likely not trying to be offensive.

Non-judgment: An important part of listening empathetically is to refrain from criticizing the other

party, either out loud or to yourself. You may find that you disagree with something the speaker

has said, but consider they have their own reasons for acting how they do.

Trustworthiness: If you’re in a situation where the other person is speaking to you about emotional

matters, it’s crucial to keep what they say in confidence. However, if they ask that you support them

by mediating a conflict with another party, you may discuss the details of the conversation if it helps

you achieve the speaker’s goal.

Patience: Even with close colleagues and friends, it can be challenging to disclose emotional

experiences. It may take the speaker some time to find the words for what they want to say and feel

comfortable enough to express them. Be patient and allow them the time they need to speak freely.

Responsiveness: Although empathic listening means listening to the other party without

interjecting your input, there will likely be a time when the speaker wants to hear what you think.

In these cases, it may help to clarify by asking, for instance, “Would you like to hear what I think

about this?” or “What kind of feedback would you like from me?”

Time Management Definition

“Time management” is the process of organizing and planning how to divide your time between

specific activities. ... By using the time-management techniques in this section, you can improve

your ability to function more effectively – even when time is tight and pressures are high.

Good time management enables an individual to complete more in a shorter period of time, lower

stree and leads to career success.

Benefits of Time Management:

Stress Relief

More Time

More productivity

More opportunities

Goal Achievement


Better Quality of Life

Attitude

Attitude is a psychological construct, a mental and emotional entity that inheres in, or

characterizes a person. They are complex and are an acquired state through experiences. It is an

individual's predisposed state of mind regarding a value and it is precipitated through a responsive

expression towards oneself, a person, place, thing, or event (the attitude object) which in turn

influences the individual's thought and action.

Generally attitude is considered as a state of mind and the way we receive the things and how do

we react in different situation.

Attitude can be broadly classified into two types:

Positive Attitude: Positive attitude means to see the brighter side of the situation.

Negative Attitude: Negative Attitude means to see the darker side of the situation.

Leadership

Leadership is both a research area and a practical skill encompassing the ability of an individual,

group or organization to "lead", influence or guide other individuals, teams, or

entire organizations.

A leader is someone who can see how things can be improved and who rallies people to move

toward that better vision. Leaders can work toward making their vision a reality while putting

people first. Just being able to motivate people isn’t enough — leaders need to be empathetic and

connect with people to be successful. Leaders don’t have to come from the same background or

follow the same path. Future leaders will actually be more diverse, which brings a variety of

perspectives.

The Characteristics & Qualities of a Good Leader

Integrity.

The importance of integrity should be obvious. Though it may not necessarily be a metric in

employee evaluations, integrity is essential for the individual and the organization.

Ability to delegate.

Delegating is one of the core responsibilities of a leader, but it can be tricky to delegate

effectively. The goal isn’t just to free yourself up — it’s also to enable your direct reports, facilitate

teamwork, provide autonomy, lead to better decision-making, and help your direct reports grow.

Communication.

A Leader must be able to listen to, and communicate with, a wide range of people across roles,

social identities, and more. The quality and effectiveness of communication across your

organization directly affects the success of business.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_(philosophy)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_object

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Team

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization


Self-awareness

Self-awareness is paramount for leadership. The better you understand yourself, the more

effective you can be.

Gratitude

Being thankful can make you a better leader. Gratitude can lead to higher self-esteem, reduced

depression and anxiety, and even better sleep. Few people regularly say “thank you” at work, even

though most people say they’d be willing to work harder for an appreciative boss. Learn how to

give thanks and practice more gratitude in the workplace.

Learning agility.

Learning agility is the ability to know what to do when you don’t know what to do. If you’re a

“quick study” or are able to excel in unfamiliar circumstances, you might already be learning agile.

But anybody can foster learning agility through practice, experience, and effort. Explore how great

leaders are great learners, with strong learning agility to get started.

Influence

Being able to convince people through logical, emotional, or cooperative appeals is a component

of being an inspiring, effective leader. Influence is quite different from manipulation, and it needs

to be done authentically and transparently. It requires emotional intelligence and trust-building.

Empathy.

Empathy is correlated with job performance and a critical part of emotional intelligence and

leadership effectiveness.

Courage

It can be hard to speak up at work, whether you want to voice a new idea, provide feedback to a

direct report, or flag a concern for someone above you. That’s part of the reason courage is a key

skill for good leaders. Rather than avoiding problems or allowing conflicts to fester, courage

enables leaders to step up and move things in the right direction. A psychologically safe

workplace culture encourages speaking the truth.

Communication and Networking

A communication Network is a collection of methods that users employ to pass on valuable

information. The communication network is the sum of all the means and methods that an organization

employs to communicate.

https://www.ccl.org/articles/white-papers/great-leaders-are-great-learners-how-to-develop-learning-agile-high-potentials/

https://www.ccl.org/articles/white-papers/great-leaders-are-great-learners-how-to-develop-learning-agile-high-potentials/

https://www.ccl.org/articles/leading-effectively-articles/emotional-intelligence-and-leadership-effectiveness/

https://www.ccl.org/articles/leading-effectively-articles/emotional-intelligence-and-leadership-effectiveness/

https://www.ccl.org/webinars/how-leaders-and-leadership-collectives-can-increase-psychological-safety-at-work/

https://www.ccl.org/webinars/how-leaders-and-leadership-collectives-can-increase-psychological-safety-at-work/


In the context of career development, networking is the process by which people build

relationships with one another for the purpose of helping each other achieve professional goals.

When you network, you exchange information:

You may share business cards, résumés, cover letters, job-seeking strategies, and leads about open

jobs, information about companies and organizations, and information about a specific field.

You might also share information about meet-up groups, conferences, special events, technology

tools, and social media.

You might also solicit job “head-hunters,” career counsellors, career centres, career coaches, alumni

associations, family members, friends, acquaintances, and vendors.

Networking can occur anywhere and at any time. In fact, your network expands with each new

relationship you establish. And the networking strategies you can employ are nearly limitless. With

imagination and ingenuity, your networking can be highly successful.

Networks in Communication

Following are the most common networks in various organizations:

Vertical Network

This is a kind of a formal network. So consequently it is suitable for communications between different levels

of employees.

For example a higher ranking manager and a lower-ranking official.

This network thus enables two-way communication wherein immediate feedback is a common practice. This

is a direct link between the employees and their subordinates and thus the chance of miscommunication is

very low.

Circuit Network

In this type of network, two people or nodes will communicate with each other continuously. One of the

nodes will produce messages and the other a feedback to the messages. The communication is thus two people

communicating with each other, sending messages and feedbacks and thus forming a loop or a circuit.

This circuit or loop is what we call the circuit network. Usually, the two people that are interacting via this

form of networks are of the same hierarchical level. This is different from the Vertical Network where the

feedback and the messages are two-way communication.


Chain Network

A company or the organization is like a platoon. It has its leader at the front and the troop following right

behind. For communications that are for the more than two nodes or more than two levels of employees, we

can employ this method of communication.

Here the network traces a chain of command. This may start with a senior or a high ranking employee or a

manager, who hands it over to the next level and so on. For example, the communication starts from a C E O

and trickles down to the employees of a lower level.

The C E O may pass the information on to the managers who will pass it to the lower levels without alteration.

Notice that the message which generates at the higher level has to trickle down to the lowest level without

any alteration.

Since in this communication, a large number of nodes or repetition points may be involved, there is a great

chance of error and miscommunication.

In addition to this, the chain network is very time consuming and often results in messages that are not

understood by at least some people in the chain.

Wheel and Spoke Network

This is like the vertical communication but with the difference that there are several people communicating

with a central figure or person. Here a single controlling authority is involved in a vertical type

communication and radiates instructions and orders to several of his employees who are working under him.

This is an improvement over the chain communication and provides a direct link between the top command

and the employees. However, due to the nature of this communication, it constitutes a form of the micro-

management and will thus be very taxing.

An advantage of the wheel and spoke network is that it relays instructions and orders directly from the highest

level to any subordinate levels. There are no middle parties or disruptions to the communication channel.

Due to the micromanaging nature of this type of communication is only suitable for small organizations.

Larger businesses will not have the resources to deploy this mechanism.

It should also be kept in mind that this way of communication is very effective and the miscommunication is

the least.

Star Network

The star communication network has several participants. Each of these participants enables two-way

communication between each of the nodes or people that are participating in the network.


Consider this as a wheel and spoke network that does not have a central focus point. The members of this

network are free to communicate. They can exchange data and information with each other without any

hurdles or restrictions.

Which type of networks to be used and which type of networks are suitable, depends on the size of the

organization and the nature of the projects.

The basis of good communication is a loyal and sincere transmission and reception of information. This will

also require a well-defined set of processes and policies in the organization.

Speed Reading

Reading: Reading skill refers to the ability to understand written text. Reading is generally defined as a

cognitive process that contains decoding symbols to attain meaning. Reading is also important part of

communication. In this process a person can be aware or get knowledge of other creativity. There are

various purpose of reading such as General Reading, Academic Reading and Professional Reading:

A normal rate for learning is 100-200 wpm, and for comprehension it is 200-400 wpm. Speed reading is

normally done at a rate of around 400-700 wpm. Anything above 500-600 wpm means sacrificing

comprehension, although this varies from person to person.

Reading is a lively process of making senses of words and sentences one reads. Reading process involves

three stages.

Skimming

Skimming is reading a text quickly to get a general idea of meaning. It refers reading quickly without

pausing to study in detail. In Skimming what we read is more important than what we leave out. Goal of

skimming is a bird's-eye view of the material,

Example

A learner taking a reading exam decides to approach text by looking at the title, introductions, and any

diagrams and sub-headings, then skim reading to get a clear general idea of what the text is about.

Scanning : (According to British Council)

Scanning is reading a text quickly in order to find specific information, e.g. figures or names.

Sometimes facts may be buried within long text passages that have relatively little else to do with the

topic. So a good speaker skims the material first to decide if it is likely to contain the facts he needs. In

scanning a reader needs to focus on table of contents, summaries, indexes, headings, and typographical

cues.

Decision making and problem-solving skills


Most jobs have elements of problem-solving - this is where you think of solutions to deal with a problem. This

type of creative thinking can help maintain harmony within a team. The general structure to problem-solving

is:

Identifying the problem

Exploring all of the solutions

Deciding on which solution to implement

Implementing the solution

Reviewing the outcome

Conflict resolution

It's likely that you'll need to resolve a conflict at some point. Active listening and problem-solving are useful for

this as you'll need to hear from all sides objectively and you'll need to come to a positive resolution.

Resolving conflict is not always a negative experience - it can be very constructive and provide you with an

understanding of underlying problems, for example, perhaps a team member is having difficulties at home

which is making them more irritable.

By forming a plan with those involved, you can help them move forward and manage their difficulties. They

may have never experienced this constructive help before your mediation.

Troubleshooting

Troubleshooting is a systematic approach to problem solving that is often used to find and correct issues

with complex machines, electronics, computers and software systems.

Troubleshooting is the process of diagnosing the source of a problem. It is used to fix problems

with hardware, software, and many other products. The basic theory of troubleshooting is that you start

with the most general (and often most obvious) possible problems, and then narrow it down to more

specific issues.

Many product manuals have a "Troubleshooting" section in the back of the manual. This section contains

a list of potential problems, which are often phrased in the form of a question. For example, if your

computer's monitor is not producing an image, you may be asked to answer the following troubleshooting

questions:

1. Is the monitor plugged in to a power source?

2. Is the monitor turned on?

3. Is the monitor cable plugged into the computer?

4. Is the computer turned on?

5. Is the computer awake from sleep mode?

If the answers to all the above questions are yes, there may be some additional questions such as:

1. Does your computer have a supporting video card?

https://thedigitalprojectmanager.com/12-conflict-resolution-techniques-workplace/

https://techterms.com/definition/hardware

https://techterms.com/definition/software

https://techterms.com/definition/monitor

https://techterms.com/definition/videocard


2. Have you installed the necessary video card drivers?

3. Is the monitor resolution set properly?

Typically, each of these questions will be followed by specific advice, whether the answer is Yes or No.

Sometimes, this advice is presented as a flowchart diagram. This means each question is followed by a

series of other questions, depending on the answer. However, in many cases, only single solutions are

provided for each question.

Troubleshooting is something we all have to do at some point, though some of us have to troubleshoot

product problems more often than others. The good news is that, the more you do it, the more you learn

and the better you get at fixing problems. Since many products have similar troubleshooting steps, you

may find that after awhile, you don't even need the manual to find solutions to the problems you encounter.

Four steps to troubleshooting

Step 1: What exactly is the problem?

2) Gather more details, eliminate variables

Step 3: Reproduce the problem, develop hypothesis of root cause

Step 4: Attempt a fix based on findings

https://techterms.com/definition/driver

https://techterms.com/definition/resolution

https://techterms.com/definition/flowchart


Unit -04 (CO4)

Attitude: Definition, Nature and Characteristics

An attitude is a positive; negative or mixed evaluation of an object that is expressed at some level of

intensity. It is an expression of a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of a person, place, thing or event.

These are fundamental determinants of our perceptions of, and actions toward all aspects of our social

environment. Attitudes involve a complex organization of evaluative beliefs, feelings, and tendencies

toward certain actions.

How much we like or dislike something determines our behavior towards that thing.

We tend to approach, seek out or be associated with things we like; we avoid, shun or reject things we do

not like.

Some examples of attitudes are- he has a positive attitude about the changes, she is friendly and has a good

attitude, he was showing some attitude during practice today, so the coach benched him, I like my friends

that means I am expressing my attitudes towards my friends, etc.

Definition of Attitude

Attitude is the manner, disposition, feeling and position with regard to a person or thing, tendency or

orientation especially in the mind.

According to Gordon Allport, “An attitude is a mental and neural state of readiness, organized through

experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual’s response to all objects and

situations with which it is related.”

Frank Freeman said, “An attitude is a dispositional readiness to respond to certain institutions, persons or

objects in a consistent manner which has been learned and has become one’s typical mode of response.”

Thurstone said, “An attitude denotes the sum total of man’s inclinations and feelings, prejudice or bias,

preconceived notions, ideas, fears, threats, and other any specific topic.”

Anastasi defined attitude as, “A tendency to react favorably or unfavorably towards a designated class of

stimuli, such as a national or racial group, a custom or an institution.”

According to N.L. Munn, “Attitudes are learned predispositions towards aspects of our environment. They

may be positively or negatively directed towards certain people, service or institution.”

Characteristics of Attitude

Attitude can be described as a tendency to react positively or negatively to a person or circumstances.


Thus, the two main elements of attitude are this tendency or predisposition and the direction of this

predisposition.

It has been defined as a mental state of readiness; organize to through experience which exerts a directive

or dynamic influence on the responses.

These can also be explicit and implicit.

Explicit attitudes are those that we are consciously aware of and that clearly influence our behaviors and

beliefs. Implicit attitudes are unconscious, but still, have an effect on our beliefs and behaviors.

As said by psychologists Thomas which imposes limits as a level attitude trend is positive and negative,

associated with the object of psychology.

Object psychology here includes symbols, words, slogans, people, institutions, ideas and so on.

Characteristics of Attitude are;

1. Attitudes are the complex combination of things we tend to call personality, beliefs, values,

behaviors, and motivations.

2. It can fall anywhere along a continuum from very favorable to very unfavorable.

3. All people, irrespective of their status or intelligence, hold attitudes.

4. An attitude exists in every person’s mind. It helps to define our identity, guide our actions, and

influence how we judge people.

5. Although the feeling and belief components of attitude are internal to a person, we can view a

person’s attitude from his or her resulting behavior.

6. Attitude helps us define how we see situations, as well as define how we behave toward the

situation or object.

7. It provides us with internal cognitions or beliefs and thoughts about people and objects.

8. It can also be explicit and implicit. Explicit attitude is those that we are consciously aware of an

implicit attitude is unconscious, but still, have an effect on our behaviors.

9. Attitudes cause us to behave in a particular way toward an object or person.

10. An attitude is a summary of a person’s past experience; thus, an attitude is grounded in direct

experience predicts future behavior more accurately.

11. It includes certain aspects of the personality as interests, appreciation and social conduct.

12. It indicates the sum total of a man’s inclinations and feelings.

13. An attitude is a point of view, substantiated or otherwise, true or false which one holds towards an

idea, object or person.

14. It has aspects such as direction, intensity, generality or specificity.

15. It refers to one’s readiness for doing Work.

16. It may be positive or negative and may be affected by age, position, and education.

Components of Attitude

Attitudes are simply expressions of much we like or dislike various things. Attitudes represent our

evaluations, preferences or rejections based on the information we receive.


3 components of attitude are (1) Cognitive Component, (2) Affective Component and (3) Behavioral

Component.

Factors Influencing Attitudes

By attitudes, we mean the beliefs, feelings, and action tendencies of an individual or group of individuals

towards objects, ideas, and people.

Attitudes involve some knowledge of a situation.

However, the essential aspect, of the attitude is found in the fact that some characteristic feeling or emotion

is experienced and, as we would accordingly expect, some definite tendency to action is associated.

Subjectively, then, the important factor is the feeling or emotion.

There are a number of different factors that can influence how and why attitudes form. These are-

Social Factors.

Direct Instruction.

Family.

Prejudices.

Personal Experience.

Media.

Educational and Religious Institutions.

Physical Factors.

Economic Status and Occupations.

Types of Attitudes

Attitude is something that lies between emotions and thought processing. It may be positive or negative.

In organizational behavior; 3 types of attitudes are;

1. Job Satisfaction,

2. Job Involvement, and

https://www.iedunote.com/components-of-attitudes

https://www.iedunote.com/components-of-attitudes

https://www.iedunote.com/types-of-attitudes


3. Organizational Commitment.

Functions of Attitudes

The most important function of an attitude can only be ascertained by considering it in relation to the

person who holds it and the environment in which they operate.

Daniel Katz outlines 4 functions of attitude areas:

1. Adjustment Function.

2. Ego-Defensive Function.

3. Value-Expressive Function.

4. Knowledge Function.

Barriers to Change Attitudes

Employees’ attitudes can be changed and sometimes it is in the best interests of management to try to do

so.

For example, if employees believe that their employer does not look after their welfare, the management

should try to change employees’ attitude and help to develop a more positive attitude towards them.

However, the process of changing the attitude is not always easy.

Actually, the barriers are the limits which prevent the organization from achieving its predetermined goals.

So every organization should be aware of these and should take corrective actions.

Barriers to Change Attitudes are;

Prior Commitment.

Insufficient Information.

Balance and Consistency.

Lack of Resources.

Improper Reward System.

Resistance to Change.

Workplace and Attitudes

Taking this a step further, we can assemble some ideas of how these three components can impact the

workplace.

The challenge in the workplace is that now these components are tied to work functions, policy, procedures

and organizational structure, as well as the people and individuals present in the organization.

https://www.iedunote.com/functions-of-attitude


For example, we could have thoughts or beliefs (cognitive) about managers in general, and those thoughts

or beliefs could manifest themselves is not trusting a manager (effective), and thus we would never want

to develop a close relationship with a manager (behavioral).

It is important to make the point here that these are attitudes – and yes, they can be wrong. Just because

we have an attitude that does not mean it is correct. It is just how we feel about a person or situation.

Obviously not every manager is trustworthy, but if we let our negative attitudes dictate how we view and

react to managers, we will never be able to see if some are really good people and can be trusted.

Certainly having a good relationship based on trust with the manager is a great thing to have in the

workplace.

Attitudes vs. Behavior

Attitude refers to feelings, beliefs and behavior predispositions directed towards people, groups, ideas or

objects.

It influences the behavior of the individuals. It decides how to act or behave in a particular situation.

Attitude is a kind of habit. It is the usual way of doing things.

Everything in an organization will get better if the attitude of everyone gets better. Successes and failures

in life depend upon the attitude of the individuals.

If attitudes are positive, then human relations will be positive. It is internal and very difficult to change.

Behavior is the way a person responds to his attitude. This response is either positive or negative,

depending on how that views his position.

For example, an employee who disagree?

With his supervisor may ignore office protocol.

In addition, an employee who dislikes another coworker or has little respect for a coworker may display

this attitude by speaking harshly to this individual.

Behavior can be influenced by a number of factors beyond attitude, including preconceptions about self

and others, monetary factors, social influences, and convenience.

It is the actions or reactions of a person or animal in response to external or internal stimuli. It indicates

the manner in which something functions or operates.


Conclusion

Finally, we can say that attitudes are evaluative statement favorable or unfavorable related to the person,

object or events.

Although there are some differences regarding attitudes, based on the opinions of the above, it can be

concluded that the attitude is a state in which man moves to act or do anything in response to a situation

or condition of the objects in the surrounding environment.

Actually, it is a statement toward something, or someone exhibited in one’s beliefs, feelings, or intended

behavior. It is a social orientation an underlying inclination to respond to something either favorably or

unfavorably.

The Process of Persuasion

Persuasion is really a pretty simple process with four basic parts. First, it begins with a person (the source

or persuader) who wants something that he or she doesn’t have already. Persuasion is goal-directed; so all

persuaders have goals that they seek, which is the second part in the process of persuasion. Third,

persuasion actually works or occurs through messages, which are directed to the audience to help achieve

the persuader’s goal. Fourth, persuasion is always aimed at an audience, which is made up of those people

who can help the persuader accomplish his or her goal.

5 steps of persuasion

What comes to your mind when you think about influencing and persuading people? Something

negative, right? Although some people might try to persuade and influence by being abrasive or

aggressive, nothing can be achieved without effectively communicating with, influencing, and

persuading employers, employees, clients, suppliers, and customers.

True persuasion and influence means that you are able to convince others of the merit of your ideas without

needing to bully or disrespect others. Instead, you learn to understand what a particular person needs to

hear, believe, or see in order to be persuaded. Then you are able to deliver the missing information or

communication in the way that the other person is actually able to hear it.

But what does it take to truly persuade someone? Below you can find one famous theory of how persuasion

works.

Monroe’s Motivated Sequence of Persuasion Steps

In the 1930s, John Monroe developed a series of steps that he believed were the keys to persuading another

individual. The steps are: Attention, Need, Satisfaction, Visualization and Action.

http://bookboon.com/blog/2011/10/gain-success-by-influencing-and-persuading/

http://bookboon.com/blog/2012/05/6-tools-for-advanced-communication/


Attention

To get someone to listen to your argument, you need to get their attention. You have about five seconds

when talking to someone to engage their attention before they will lose focus. You can do this in several

ways.

Use their name with a tone that conveys urgency or importance

Use emotion to demonstrate your position – smile, frown, be exasperated – whatever emotion

conveys the strength of your position

Physically touch them if you have the level of rapport where this is appropriate. Put your hand on

their forearm or shoulder to draw their attention.

Bring up a topic that you know they are passionate about and segue into your argument – but be

sure there is a valid connection so you don’t seem to be changing the topic too quickly

Start with a statement that conveys the benefit of your position for the other person

Need

Once you have the other person’s attention, work to keep it. You can lose their attention as quickly as you

have it if the other person doesn’t see the need to continue listening. To keep the other person’s attention,

you have to be familiar with what is important to them. What do they want? What do they value? Why

should they care about your side of the argument? Once you can answer these questions, you are ready to

‘hook’ the listener by focusing on what they care about.

Satisfaction

In this step, you describe to the listener how your position will meet the need you addressed in the previous

step. Will your solution solve their problem? Will it prevent them from having to deal with additional

problems? In other words, what benefits will the listener receive if they are persuaded by your argument.

Or what negative consequences will they avoid?

Visualization

Visualization means that you can create a picture for the listener of what the situation will look like once

they have been persuaded to accept your position or agree to your decision. Help them do this by

describing what the world will be like ‘after’ they agree with you. For example, use language like:

Imagine what it will be like when you no longer have to…

Can you see how this would reduce your work load (solve your problem, increase your profits,

etc.)

Picture yourself leaving work on time once we make this change (or some other way their life will

improve once they agree with you)


Action

Once you sense that you are approaching agreement, you need to cement it by suggesting the next step or

action that will put your solution in motion. Don’t wait – act as soon as you can so that the other person

is not left stewing and thinking things over more (and perhaps changing their mind).

Audience Analysis

Number of Audience: It helps us to arrange ample place. It helps to arrange

many other things.

Nature of Audience: The speaker should know the nature of the audience before

he starts speaking. He should know whether or not the listeners are active. He

should know whether or not they are attentive to his speech delivery. If they are

attentive, it will encourage the speaker.

Needs of Audience: It shows liking or disliking of the listeners. It shows different

types of need of the audience. It describes preference of the audience for the

subject matter and other facilities.

Level of Knowledge: It decides the language of delivery. It means the speaker

should deliver his speech in the language that his audience can understand.

Attitude of Both Audience & Speaker: Audience should have positive attitude

towards the physical appearance of the speaker. They should have positive attitude

towards the manner of his presentation. They should ever encourage the speaker.

The speaker should avoid criticism of the audience and their gloomy faces.

Specific Techniques for Specific Audience

1. Define Your Target Audience

To reach your target audience, you must first define your target audience. And, for this, you need to

understand your customers.

You can do this by building a consumer persona. A customer or buyer persona is a generalized

representation of how your ideal buyers would be like.


You list their demographic and psychographic attributes and preferences to gain a better understanding of

your target audience.

Then you can market your brand and products only to those who are most likely to be genuinely interested

in them. This means that there will be higher chances of getting leads and conversions. This will help you

increase revenue by investing less.

2. Create Useful and Relevant Content

The best way to reach your target audience is by providing them with useful and relevant content. Writing

about topics that are of interest to your intended audience is a sure shot way of grabbing their attention.

The more targeted and relevant your content is, the easier it will be for you to reach your target audience

and engage them.

Content marketing plays a major role in helping you generate leads and conversions. It can be

implemented in various ways to get your desired results.

Here are some of the most common methods:

Video marketing – Videos are highly engaging and interactive in nature. A good quality video

can catch the attention of the viewer easily.

Blog posts and articles – Written content may not work as well as videos and images, but it still

helps you get the attention of your audience. Just make sure that you write about topics that are of

interest to your target audience and are useful to them.

Social media content – You can connect with your target audience through social media as well.

Through a combination of images, videos, and text, you can engage and reach them more

efficiently.

3. Leverage Influencers

Influencer marketing has quickly become the go-to marketing style for digital marketers. You can utilize

the power of social media influencers to reach your target audience more effectively. In this form of

marketing, you partner with influencers to market your brand to their audiences.

https://grin.co/blog/create-content-for-social-media


Influencer marketing is a very effective marketing technique that can help you attain numerous marketing

goals. If you partner with relevant influencers from your niche, you can reach potential customers who

might be interested in your brand or niche. This allows for qualified lead generation and helps you reach

your target audience.

4. Use Targeted Advertising

You can reach your target audience more effectively by using targeted advertising. Whether it is Google

ads or social media ads, they all provide advanced targeting options to help you reach your target audience.

You can target the ads based on demographics, location, and interests of your audience.

This will make sure that your ads are only displayed to those who are likely to show interest in your brand.

This means you don’t need to spend a fortune on ads to reach your target audience who are more likely to

convert than anyone else.

5. Referral Marketing

Many businesses use a referral system to expand their reach and generate leads. A referral system can help

you harness the power of your own customer base to expand your reach. You can give a referral code to

your customers and incentivize them to share it with others. This way, you can reach your target audience

quickly and with lower investment.

You can, of course, play around with your incentives. You could offer a discount to your new user and

the referrer or could even give them a special offer. This not only incentivizes the new customer but also

the referrer to make a purchase from you again.

The people who join through such a system may genuinely be interested in your brand and products. This

method has helped businesses to grow and establish their network on a larger scale.

6. Reach Your Target Audience on Social Media via Hashtags

With people spending more time on social media platforms, you can’t ignore the importance of them to

reach your target audience. However, to target people who might be interested in your brand, you need to

use hashtags.


Relevant, industry-specific hashtags can help you broaden the reach of your social media content. And, it

will help make sure it’s displayed to people who might actually be interested in it.

For example, if you have a luxury hotel brand, you could use hashtags like #luxurytraveler or

#luxurytravel. This will help you reach people who might actually be interested in booking your services.

Also, remember to use more specific hashtags than generic ones. In the above example, using generic

hashtags like #travelblogger or #traveler might not be much effective. That’s because these people might

be interested in travel, but most of them might not be interested in luxury travel.

Conclusion

Reaching your target audience is an important step in marketing your business and your products. It is

only when you reach your target audience effectively that you’ll be able to drive more sales conversions.

Leverage these effective techniques to reach your target audience and grow your business.

Do you have any questions related to the steps mentioned above? Please share them in the comment

section below. We’ll try our best to answer them for you.

Steps to persuasion/Influence

In the 1930s, John Monroe developed a series of steps that he believed were the keys to persuading another

individual. The steps are: Attention, Need, Satisfaction, Visualization and Action.

Attention

To get someone to listen to your argument, you need to get their attention. You have about five seconds

when talking to someone to engage their attention before they will lose focus. You can do this in several

ways. Use their name with a tone that conveys urgency or importance

Use emotion to demonstrate your position – smile, frown, be exasperated – whatever emotion conveys the

strength of your position


Physically touch them if you have the level of rapport where this is appropriate. Put your hand on their

forearm or shoulder to draw their attention.

Bring up a topic that you know they are passionate about and segue into your argument – but be sure there

is a valid connection so you don’t seem to be changing the topic too quickly. Start with a statement that

conveys the benefit of your position for the other person

Need

Once you have the other person’s attention, work to keep it. You can lose their attention as quickly as you

have it if the other person doesn’t see the need to continue listening. To keep the other person’s attention,

you have to be familiar with what is important to them. What do they want? What do they value? Why

should they care about your side of the argument? Once you can answer these questions, you are ready to

‘hook’ the listener by focusing on what they care about.

Satisfaction

In this step, you describe to the listener how your position will meet the need you addressed in the previous

step. Will your solution solve their problem? Will it prevent them from having to deal with additional

problems? In other words, what benefits will the listener receive if they are persuaded by your argument.

Or what negative consequences will they avoid?

Visualization

Visualization means that you can create a picture for the listener of what the situation will look like once

they have been persuaded to accept your position or agree to your decision. Help them do this by

describing what the world will be like ‘after’ they agree with you. For example, use language like:

Imagine what it will be like when you no longer have to…

Can you see how this would reduce your work load (solve your problem, increase your profits, etc.)

Picture yourself leaving work on time once we make this change (or some other way their life will improve

once they agree with you)


Action

Once you sense that you are approaching agreement, you need to cement it by suggesting the next step or

action that will put your solution in motion. Don’t wait – act as soon as you can so that the other person

is not left stewing and thinking things over more (and perhaps changing their mind).

A guide to the Psychology of Influence and Persuasion of Human Behavior

Negotiation: Definition; Process of Negotiation

Negotiation is a dialogue that is supposed to create an agreement or resolve a disagreement.

Negotiation is a process that is developed when negotiation counterparts (at least two), who have interests,

some of which are common and others divergent, desire to reach an agreement.

Negotiation is a method by which people settle differences. It is a process by which compromise or

agreement is reached while avoiding argument and dispute. In any disagreement, individuals

understandably aim to achieve the best possible outcome for their position (or perhaps an organisation

they represent).

A negotiation is a strategic discussion that resolves an issue in a way that both parties find acceptable. In

a negotiation, each party tries to persuade the other to agree with his or her point of view.

Soft Negotiation:

Participants are friends.

The goal is agreement.

Hard Negotiation:

Participants are adversaries.

The goal is victory.

Negotiation Includes:

1. Listening

2. Ability to identify the interests of both sides

3. Persuasion

4. Diplomacy

5. Building and preserving relationships


Objectives:

1. Identify and discuss individual sources of negotiating strength

2. Practice skills that can influence the outcome of the negotiation

3. Develop an awareness of the importance of personality traits, trust and self-awareness in effective

negotiating

Negotiation Process

Preparation1:

a) Know what your interests are and why you value them?

b) What is the issue at hand?

c) What are the ”needs” vs. “ wants”?

d) Know the strengths and weaknesses of your position and Self awareness, personality

characteristics, emotional intelligence

Preparation2:

a) See things from the other’s point of view- why they are negotiating?

b) Research the interest of the other side

c) What are their needs (security, autonomy, recognition)

d) Be aware of the unpleasant consequences for both sides if your idea/proposal is not accepted

e) If you succeed who else might be affected, harmed, advanced?

Negotiation Process

Planning1:

a) Brainstorm all alternatives that could satisfy your needs

b) Be creative and expand the pie

c) Know who is supportive and who is not/less

d) Does this person has the authority to make the decision?

e) Are there any penalties for bluffing?

f) Are there time limits associated with negotiations?

Negotiation Process

Planning2:

a) Imagine how it would feel to achieve your goal

b) Role play your opening with a trusted colleague and rehearse the problematic areas

c) Be the devil’s advocate

d) Plan ways to break it/Buy time

e) “I need to think over what you just said so can I have a couple of minutes?”


Negotiation Process

During1:

a) Bring the list of your main points and a set of questions

b) Try not to interrupt; the more they reveal, the more you ’ll learn

c) Re-state as impartially as you can “ as I hear it…)

d) Stay open to new information

e) Take notes

Negotiation Process

During2:

a) Focus on interests. Not people, not gains

b) Use objective criteria to make decisions and be sure the other party does as well

c) Redirect personal attacks onto the problem at hand.

Negotiation Process

During3:

a) Listen actively and reflectively

b) Listen also for what is not said

c) Learn from what the other side says

d) Stay open to new information

e) Synthesize the information you hear and use it in your own argument,

Negotiation Process

During4:

a) Be prepared to walk away if an agreement is not reached.

b) Write a note or memo if contract or agreement is required. (e.g., “If I don’t hear by x, will assume

that it stands”)

The Six-Step

(Negotiation)Process

a) State the problem/issue.

b) Identify real needs (interests)on both sides.

c) Restate the problem/issue(I think the real issue is…).

d) Present possible solutions.

e) Decide on the best solution.

f) Reach consensus.


Qualities or Characteristics of a Good Negotiator

Good negotiators are calm, cool, collected, creative, ethical, firm, and fair. When the situation demands

it, they must be flexible. A negotiator must be a good listener, not a quick talker. He or she must have

knowledge of many things and must be patient and persistent. Negotiators must have special abilities of

perception in order to “read the feel” and to sense what is in the air. They must be able to feel what is

going on.

They must be able to make their presence known. They must not be perceived just as an empty chair.

Sometimes, a person sits on a chair, and you see through the person, and just see the chair; that is not

good. Such a person should not be part of the delegation. A good negotiator must be reasonable and

respectful. He must possess a sense of humour. If not, you will end up having high blood pressure, like

me. You have to be able to laugh it off, even when situations are serious. You must be sincere and honest.

The most important thing, and people forget it, is that before you speak, you must be thankful. Thankful,

even to the person you are fighting, for having come to the table. So before negotiations start, thank each

other and cool off tempers. This will induce the other side to let its guard down; in this way, you can

disarm them.

A good negotiator plays a role of a leader. He must communicate the information to the rest of the team.

If the leader leaves, and the delegation is not well informed, all may be lost. You must have a solid idea

of what the problem is; otherwise you cannot solve it. Third, you need to be able to work well in a team.

The members of the delegation must be team players. They should not overrate their own importance.

You have to listen to each other.


You must be able to communicate and anticipate. From this exercise, you realize that with others you can

do anything, if you have the correct leadership, the right perception, and the correct communication skills.

a) Core Characteristics

1. Active listening – To do active listening, we must overcome some of our tendencies and habits

that interfere with good listening.

2. Acknowledging what has been said and felt – Have you effectively demonstrated to the other

negotiators that you have heard and understood what they have said? Use paraphrasing and

summarizing.

3. Listen to understand, speak to be understood – Have you thought about ways to communicate with

the other party by using words (and at the right time) in a way that they will understand?

4. Speak about yourself, not them – Have you let them know what are the crucial issues for you and

your community and how you feel about the problem at hand? Use “I” statements.

5. Speak for a purpose – Have you thought through the timing and impact of what you wish to say?

Be clear and concise.

Summing Up

Some of the most significant skills required for successful negotiation are −

Efficient speaking

A positive attitude

Efficient listening

Respect for the other parties

A sense of humour

Good negotiators are calm, cool, collected, creative, ethical, firm, and fair


UNIT-5 (C05)

UNIT V- Communication Skills Introduction to oral communication, Nuances & Modes of Speech

Delivery, Public speaking: confidence, clarity, and fluency, Non-verbal Communication: Kinesics,

Paralinguistic features of Voice-Dynamics, Proxemics, Chronemics, and Presentation Strategies:

planning, preparation, organization, delivery.

Communication Skills:

The word ‘communication’ has been taken from Latin word ‘communicare’ which means to impart, to

share: sharing ideas, facts, and information and so on. The information can be a lot of different things

depending on the context. The information can flows with the help of words, gestures, drawings, paintings,

songs, music. The means can be: speeches, emails, blogs, forums, text messages, voice messages, poems,

essays, books, newspapers, ads, articles, and practically anything you can speak through, write on or draw

on. Communication requires a sender, a message, and an intended recipient. The sender and the receiver

can be people, animals or devices.

Types of Communication

Communication can occur via various processes and methods and depending on the channel used and the

style of communication, there can be various types of communication:

Types of Communication Based on Communication Channels

Based on the channels used for communicating, the process of communication can be broadly classified

as verbal communication and non-verbal communication.

Verbal Communication

Verbal communication is further divided into written and oral communication:


The oral communication refers to the spoken words in the communication process. Oral communication

can either be face-to-face communication or a conversation over the phone or on the voice chat over the

Internet. Spoken conversations or dialogs are influenced by voice modulation, pitch, volume and even the

speed and clarity of speaking.

Written communication can be either via snail mail, or email. The effectiveness of written

communication depends on the style of writing, vocabulary used, grammar, clarity and precision of

language.

Nonverbal Communication

Non-verbal communication includes the overall body language of the person who is speaking, which will

include the body posture, the hand gestures and overall body movements. The facial expressions also play

a major role while communication since the expressions on a person's face say a lot about his/her mood.

On the other hand gestures like a handshake, a smile or a hug can independently convey emotions. Non

verbal communication can also be in the form of pictorial representations, signboards, or even

photographs,sketches and paintings.

Process of Communication:

Source...

As the source of the message, you need to be clear about why you're communicating, and what you want

to communicate. You also need to be confident that the information you're communicating is useful and

accurate.

Message...

The message is the information that you want to communicate.

Encoding...

This is the process of transferring the information you want to communicate into a form that can be sent

(e.g.. language and body) and correctly decoded at the other end.

Channel...

Messages are conveyed through channels, with verbal including face-to-face meetings, telephone and

videoconferencing; and written including letters, emails, memos and reports.

Decoding...

Just as successful encoding is a skill, so is successful decoding (involving, for example, taking the time to


read a message carefully, or listen actively to it.) Just as confusion can arise from errors in encoding, it

can also arise from decoding errors. This is particularly the case if the decoder doesn't have enough

knowledge to understand the message.

Receiver...

Receiver is the audience to whom the message is transferred. The role of receiver is to decode the message

and then to give feedback accordingly.

Feedback...

Your audience will provide you with feedback, verbal and nonverbal reactions to your communicated

message. Feedback is the response of the receiver.

WHAT IS SPEECH DELIVERY?

Public speaking, delivery refers to the presentation of the speech you haveresearched, organized, outlined,

and practiced. Delivery is important, of course, because itis what is most immediate to the audience.

Delivery relies on both verbal communicationand nonverbal, it is useful to discuss, as the styleof the

speech should be connected to its presentation.

The importance of speech delivery:

Once you have selected and researched your topic, and prepared and organized your presentation, you will

need to work on your delivery. Without diligent work on the initial parts of the speech process, however,

even the most impressive delivery has little meaning. On the other hand, combined with a well-prepared

and practiced presentation, delivery can be a key to your success as a speaker. Delivery can communicate

your confidence and preparedness to your audience. Effective delivery shows your audience that you have

researched your topic and understand what you are speaking about. An effective delivery allows you to

pull it all together—to showcase your work and to speak with confidence during your delivery.

There are eight important aspects of delivery: overcoming anxiety, setting the tone, considering language

and style, incorporating visual aids, being aware of time, choosing a delivery method, projecting a

speaking persona, and finally, practicing and putting your speech into action.

Preparing Carefully

Experts have discovered that it is not the amount of time you spend preparing, but how you prepare. People

who are extremely anxious about giving a speech tend to spend most of their time preparing notes. On the

other hand, speakers who have less apprehension and are more effective prepare careful notes, but they

also spend considerable time analysing their anticipated audience.

a) Practice Your Speech Before You Give It

b) Focus on a friendly face

c) Try relaxation techniques

Setting the Tone:

Tone refers to the mood or feeling the speaker creates. Sometimes the tone is set by the occasion. For

example, speaking at a wedding and speaking at a funeral require different tones, and these tones are

determined more by the situation than by the speaker. In other situations—such as speaking in front of a

city council to praise them for making a courageous decision about building a new library or park or


criticizing them for doing so during a time of tight budgets—the occasion allows the speaker to determine

the tone of a part of a meeting. In these kinds of situations, the speaker has the ability to set the tone.

Considering Language and Style: As a speaker, the language you use to give your speech will shape the style of your speech. Style refers to

the type of language and phrasing a speaker uses, and the effect it creates. Your style can be ornate and

indirect; such a style was common in the nineteenth century but is less so today. For example, consider

the ornate style used in this selection from Daniel Webster’s 1825 “Bunker Hill Monument Oration”:

There are two main elements of style are clarity and appropriateness. Your speech style has the element

of clarity if listeners are able to grasp the message you intended to communicate. Using precise language

increases clarity. In everyday conversation, speakers often use words and phrases without much attention

to precision.

Nuances of speech Delivery:

Speaking allows for meaningful pauses, eye contact, small changes in word order, and vocal emphasis.

There are the methods of delivery that can help you balance between too much and too little formality

when giving a public speech.

There are four main kinds of speech delivery- Impromptu, Extempore, Manuscript and Memorized.

Impromptu Speech -An Impromptu speech is delivered at the spur of the moment and is spontaneous. It

is an unprepared speech, an example of which can be a toast at a wedding or a reception party.

Extempore Speech - An Extempore speech is a style used in public speaking which uses an outline for

the speech and some prior preparation. It is a mix of spontaneous and prepared speech in the sense that

the speaker can change the speech as it goes. The speaker may speak using main points or a brief outline.

Manuscript Speech- When a speaker reads from a prepared speech, using a manuscript, the style of

speaking falls under this category. The entire speech may be read out from notes or printed material. An

example would be a televised news report which a teleprompter reads out during a newscast. Memorized

Speech- When a speaker delivers a speech by memorising it or committing it to memory, it can be termed

as a memorized speech.

This kind of delivery has its pros and cons. Such a speech may either appear effortless or not very natural

to the audience.

Ways to Improve Speaking Skills

1) Face the speaker and maintain eye contact.

2) Be attentive and relaxed.

3) Keep an open mind.

4) Listen to the speaker to picture the words that are being said.

5) Give the speaker regular feedback.


6) Practice active listening by being responsive and attentive.

7) When listening to someone talk about a problem, refrain from suggesting solutions.

8) Wait for the speaker to pause before you ask questions to clarify their stance. Ask questions to ensure

understanding.

9) You can nod and show your understanding through appropriate facial expressions.

10) Pay attention to the non-verbal cues as well.

KINESICS

In face to face interaction, body language plays an important role. We began to form an impression about

a speaker as soon as we see him/her. The way s/he is dressed, the way s/he walks,the way he smiles,the

way he stands,-all these things show his personality, his skills…. kinesics is the study of the movement of

human body in the process of communication.

Kinesics (the language of body) contains below points-

Personal appearance

Facial expressions

Eye contact

Movement

Postures

Gestures

Kinesics helps in effective communication as it helps to improve our body language and interaction

quality. It helps to know what our personal appearance helps in your effective communication. It helps in

learning the facial expressions while speaking to particular vs to a community. It helps in maintaining eye

contact, proper posture, and effective gesture throughout the whole communication process. .

Thus these little things make our lectures or interaction effective and efficient. And hence of course

kinesics is helpful for advancing our communication skills.

Role of kinesics in Communication: Kinesics is one of the main powerful ways that humans

communicate non-verbally. Spoken language and voice is only 7% to 38% of communication.


Kinesics is used to portray moods and emotions effectively. One of the best examples for kinesics that we

use in our daily routines is:

subtle cues like eye contact, hand gesture, posture, and mirroring (people copying each other’s postures

during conversation) show a person’s interest in the conversation

usually, those who use hand gestures may be more self-confident and energetic or may be perceived as

such

studies have even shown that sitting or standing in more open and widespread postures reduces stress

levels

kinesics can also make some people seem dominant and others submissive; those who have a confident

posture usually are seen as more dominant

In a face to face interaction, body language plays an important role. We begin to form an impression of a

speaker as soon as we see him. The way he is dressed, the way he walks, the way he smiles, the way he

stands,-all these things show his personality.

These movements reflect an individual’s thought process and regulate communication. The key to

effective gestures and postures is they need to appear natural and authentic. If the body language appears

to be faked then others will perceive you as unauthentic.

In a current application, kinesics behavior is sometimes used as signs of deception by interviewers looking

for clusters of movements to determine the veracity of the statement being uttered, although kinesics can

be equally applied in any context and type of setting to construe innocuous messages whose carriers are

indolent or unable to express verbally.

Body language is especially meaningful in an interview as your interviewer will be paying as much

attention to nonverbal cues as to what you have to say.


“Body language is a very powerful tool. We had body language before we had speech, and

apparently, 80% of what you understand in a conversation is read through the body, not the

words.” – Deborah Bull

Kinesics helps in effective communication as it helps to improve our body language and interaction

quality. It helps to know what our appearance helps in your effective communication. It helps in learning

the facial expressions while speaking to a particular person. It helps in maintaining eye contact, proper

posture, and effective gesture throughout the whole communication process.

Paralinguistic Features in communication and Voice Dynamics:

Paralinguistic elements in a person's speech convey meaning beyond the words and grammar used.

Examples of paralinguistic features include pitch, rate, quality of voice and amplitude.

Paralinguistic is the part of communication outside of the words themselves – the volume, speed,

intonation of a voice along with gestures and other non-verbal cues. Whenever there is confusion or

stereotyping in cross-cultural communication, Para-linguistics is most often responsible. Paralinguistics

can be broken down into categories. The following are the most important for the classroom. x Gestures

x Facial expressions x Eye contact x Kinesics or body language x Proxemics Gestures: Gestures are

commonly used in the classroom to help convey a message to second language learners. Be careful!

Gestures have different meanings in different cultures.

Proxemics

In the field of somatic psychology, nonverbal communication is a key element. Nonverbal communication

is the ability to read and understand people’s nonverbal signals. Have you heard the phrase “actions speak


louder than words”? Well, it’s true! 60–70% of our communication is nonverbal while only 30–40 % makes

up the verbal component. That’s why we sometimes don’t trust someone even if their words are saying

“trust me”.

Proxemics describes an individual’s perception of and use of space, both personal (how much space do

they take up) and social (distance from another).

It has emerged with the studies of animal behavior conducted in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Just as

animals use urine and physical posturing to define their territory, Hall posited, so do humans use personal

space and concrete objects to establish theirs. Proxemics is one of five non-verbal communication theories,

the others being semiotics (sign language), kinesics (body language), haptics (touch) and chronemics

(time).

Strategies of Effective Presentation:

1. Introduction

2. Defining purpose

3. Analysing audience and locale

4. Organizing contents

i. Introduction

ii. Main body

iii. Conclusions

5. Preparing outline

6. Visual aids

A. Understanding Nuances of delivery

a) Extemporaneous

b) Manuscript

c) Impromptu

d) Memorization

B. Kinesics (Body’s physical movement)

a) Personal appearance

b) Posture

c) Gesture

d) Facial expression

e) Eye contact

C. Paralinguistic (non-verbal cues)

a) Quality

b) Volume

c) Pace/rate

d) Pitch

e) Articulation

f) Pronunciation

g) Voice modulation and etc.


Presentation: Purpose

Presentation teaches us how to deliver our views and thoughts before audiences. Its

main purpose may be described as follows-

It creates awareness by sharing information among people.

It motivates and educates the people.

Its main purpose is to sell a product/service.

It persuades people to follow a course of action.

It informs people about an idea, event, incident etc.

It describes a business opportunity to gain support for some course

of action.

It collects people’s views on new plans, policies and products to bring

changes.

PURPOSE

To Create Awareness by Sharing

To Motivate and Educate

To Sell Something

To Persuade People to Follow a Course of Action To

Inform People about an Idea, Event, Incident Etc

To Describe a Business Opportunity to Gain Support for Some Course of Action

To Collect People’s Views on New Plans/ Products to Bring Changes.


Audience and Locale.

Number of Audience: It helps us to arrange ample place. It helps to arrange many other

things.

Nature of Audience: The speaker should know the nature of the audience before he starts

speaking. He should know whether or not the listeners are active. He should know whether

or not they are attentive to his speech delivery. If they are attentive, it will encourage the

speaker.

Needs of Audience: It shows liking or disliking of the listeners. It shows different types of

need of the audience. It describes preference of the audience for the subject matter and

other facilities.

Level of Knowledge: It decides the language of delivery. It means the speaker should

deliver his speech in the language that his audience can understand.

Attitude of Both Audience & Speaker: Audience should have positive attitude towards

the physical appearance of the speaker. They should have positive attitude towards the

manner of his presentation. They should ever encourage the speaker. The speaker should

avoid criticism of the audience and their gloomy faces.

Decide the

language of

delivery

Decide the

choice of easy

words

Decide the

ATTITUDE KNOWLEDGE

LEVEL

LANGUAGE OF

DELIVERY

OR

NEEDS RE NATU NUMBER

Liking or

Disliking

Varying Needs

Subject Matter

Preference

Facilities

Of Physical

Appearance of the

Speaker

Of the manner of

his presentation

Encouraging the

speaker

Looking for

smiling faces

Avoiding

Active Audience

Passive

Audience

Sleepy Audience

Witty Audience

Help to arrange

sound system

Help to arrange

ample place

Help to arrange

many other things


It is a place of presentation. It is the place wherefrom the speaker delivers his speech. Here

the presenter speaks from the podium. It is also known as public address system. It includes

sitting arrangement, temperature controlling system, and lighting system. It may be an open

place or lawn equipped with all facilities.

Finally we can conclude that to know about audience properly, we should have knowledge

of their numbers, nature, needs, level of knowledge and their attitude. All these traits decide

the language of delivery and selection of inputs.

Place of Presentation

Speaking From a Podium

Public Address System

Sitting Arrangement System

An Open Place Lawn Etc

Proper Stage

Audio video Aids


Some steps to make a presentation successful.

Objective-Decision: The presenter should decide the objective of the presentation. He

should very carefully select the topic of the presentation. The topic should be beneficial to

the audience.

Self-Control: The presenter should not be nervous on the stage. He should take deep

breath, then look at the audience and finally start his presentation.

Poise: The presenter should keep himself in good command of body language. Body

language is the soul of presentation. No presentation can be successful without proper and

tactful movements of body.

Awareness of the Audience: The presenter should be aware of the number of the audience,

their nature, their needs, their attitude and their level of understanding. This will help him

to select appropriate subject of the presentation. This will help him to choose the mode of

the presentation.

Awareness of Time & Place: Time and place play important role in making presentation

successful. The presenter should have knowledge about the time and place of the

presentation. He should reach the place well before the time so that he could ensure whether

or not the things are well arranged. He should have the knowledge of the place so that he

could find out it easily.

Objective-decision

Self-control

Poise

Awareness of the Audience

Awareness of Time & Place

Tactfulness

Persuasiveness

Enthusiasm

Honesty

Flexibility

STEPS

TO

SUCCESSFUL


Tactfulness: The presenter should be tactful enough in the art of presentation. He should

learn some tacts to entertain the audience even though the topic is much critical.

Persuasiveness: It is ability to make the audience hear our points of view. It is an art of

persuading the audience. They will agree with the presenter if he knows the art of

persuasiveness.

Enthusiasm: The presenter should never lose the sight of the objective of the presentation.

He should keep up the spirit of the presentation.

Honesty: The presenter should be honest in giving information to the audience. He should

try his best to provide the audience with complete and correct information of the things.

Flexibility: The presenter should not be rigid if there is a different point of interpretation

from the audience. In the end of the presentation, he should invite the audience to ask him

questions. He should answer their questions with patience and honesty. He should also

welcome their criticism.

Body-Language/ Kinesics

Body language is also known as Kinesics. It means the study and role of the body

movements such as winking, shrugging, kicking etc in communication. We have graphed

some traits of Kinesics as follows-

Personal Expression: It is physical appearance which makes first impression upon the

audience. It includes the following features-

Physical Appearance

Physique

Attractiveness

KINESICS

Personal Appearance

Facial Expression

Head Movements

Posture or Body Position

Eye Contact

Gestures

Body Shape

Smell & Touch


Personal Hygiene

All these above traits make personality. And personality creates impression upon the

people whom we speak.

Facial Expression: Facial expression plays an important role in oral

communication. It includes the following traits:-

Smiling

Frowning

Raising of eye-brows

Tightening of jaw muscles

It expresses happiness, anger, surprise, boredom, fear, sadness, hatred, liking, disliking,

rejection, love, agreement, frustration etc.

Head Movements: Movements of head speak a lot rather than words. Nodding of the head

shows honor, confidence and self-respect. The low-bent head shows politeness and

modesty. The jerk of the head shows either rejection or confirmation.

Posture or Body Position: It refers to the way one stands, one sits and walks. When

someone stands erect, it shows confidence. When someone sits with ease and grace, it

shows his majesty and royalty. When someone walks with ease and grace, it shows him

energetic and confident. Slump Posture shows unwillingness and uneasiness.

Eye-Contact: The eyes are the windows of the mind. They express passion, moods and

other physical and mental traits.

EYE

CONTACT

Sincerity

Intelligenc

e Attitude

Feelings

Level of Interest

Gesture: These are those physical movements that someone makes often

unconsciously. The following graph includes some gestures-


ECTOMORPH NESOMORPH ENDOMORPH

Thin Strong Fat

Tall Athletic Round

Youthful Muscular Soft

Body shape: It is also known as physical shape. It is basically classified in three parts as

graphed above.

Physical body speaks a lot about the personality of a man. If a man is youthful and tall like

the present president of America ‘Barrac Obama”, he is supposed to be a leader and a

dominant person. If a man is fat and round, he is supposed to be a lazy person.

Smell & Touch: Touching people in different ways, silently communicates many things

about the man who touches and also the man who is touched. The pat on the shoulder shows

encouragement. The slap on the cheeks shows anger and revenge.

Proxemics

It is a language, which tells the meaning of varied distances, people make between each

other. It is also known as space-language. We will define this space language through the

graph as given below:-

GESTURES

Playing With a Key-ring

Twisting a Key Chain Clasping

one’s Hand Tightly Shrugging

Shoulders Thumps-up

Nodding Head

Shaking Head


0-02ft Intimate

02-4ft Personal

08-12ft Social

12- Eyesight Public

If two persons are from 01 to 02 feet away from each other, they are supposed to be

intimate. If they are from 02 to 4 feet away from each other, they are supposed to be

personal. If they are from 08 feet to 12 feet away from each other, they are supposed to be

social. If they are from 12 feet to eyesight away from each other, they are supposed to be

public.

Audio-visual aids for presentation

Audio-visual aids are often used to provide the audience with a situation near to reality so

that they get the ideas rapidly. These aids help in making spoken words clear because the

ideas are put across through more than one of the five physical senses. The audio and visual

aids are graphed below-

AUDIO-AIDS

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

Audio tape recorder

Audio CDs, CD

ROMs

I-PODS

MP3

Transistors

Public

System

Address

a- Microphones b-

Amplifiers

c- Loud speakers

VISUAL-AIDS

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

Visual Aids

Handouts

Tables

Graphs & Charts

Chalk Board/ White

Board

Flip Charts

Slides

Posters

OHP

AUDIO & VISUAL-AIDS

• T.V.

• Computer

• Mobile Phones

• Cinema Hall

• MP4, MP5


Audio-Visual Aids

Audio-visual aids are very effective means to explain difficult things in a very simple

manner. The presenter can make deep impression upon the audience with the help of audio-

visual aids. We have to keep some precautions before we start presentation using audio-

visual aids. These precautions are as follows-

1. Make certain whether or not everyone can see or hear of these aids.

2. Explain visual aids if there is any similarity between two visual aids.

3. Organize visual aids as the part of the presentation.

4. Emphasize visual aids to make long expression upon the audience.

5. Talk to the audience while using visual aids.

6. Don’t give your full attention to the audio-visual aids otherwise you will bore the

audience.

7. To entertain the audience, we have to keep both audio-and visual aids and audience

at proper attention, similarly.

8. Determine if the audience is large or small and how they will be seated.

Organizing contents of presentation

ORGANISING CONTENTS

OF

PRESENTATION

COVER PAGE

Name of the Organization

Name of the Topic

Name of the Presenter

Name of the Teacher / Instructor

Date of Submission

INDEX

Introduction

Discussion

Bibliography

Appendix

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Journals


Magazines

Research Articles

Technical Papers

APPENDIX

COVER PAGE: Cover page includes the name of the organization wherein the presenter

works or he submits the paper of presentation to this organization. We write the name of

the writer who has prepared the paper for presentation. We clearly mention the topic for

presentation in bold letters. Then we write the name of the person to whom we submit the

paper of presentation. At last we mention the date of submission on the same page.

INDEX: We basically includes three elements in index

1. Introduction

2. Discussion

3. Conclusion

INTRODUCTION: We introduce the audience about the basic things and the background

of the topic of the presentation. We briefly summarize the gist of the presentation.

DISCUSSION: Here we discuss the topic broadly. We highlight each and every point

clearly.

CONCLUSION: It comes out of the two previous elements- Introduction and Discussion.

Herein we make suggestions to the audience. We also tell them how much this topic is

significant for the growth of the nation.

QUESTION & ANSWER SESSION: This content is very much important in the course

of the presentation. Herein the presenter invites the audience to ask him question. He

answers their question very clearly and with patience. He clears his own doubts through

this query session. And the audiences are also satisfied with his presentation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: This is the list of the books, journals, magazines, research papers,

articles, websites etc which the presenter consults during his making of the presentation.

He mentions the names of the writer of the books and also their publication and editors in

the list.

APPENDIX: The presenter adds the detailed summary of the points mentioned in the

presentation in the appendix.

The outline of presentation

OUTLINE


OF PRESENTATION

INTRODUCTION

MAIN BODY

CONCLUSION

QUERIES

A significant aspect of the outline of the presentation is to know how to start our

presentation and what to speak first. It does not refer to how we greet our audience. Main

thing is to start with which point.

We have to keep in mind the audio-visual aids management for the presentation. We have

suggested some tips to manage them for presentation as follows-

For smaller groups of 5 to 20 participants, flip chart is an acceptable option.

Audio- Tape is a good option for a group of 20 and more than 20 participants.

Handouts are useful for large or small crowds but avoid distribute them during presentation.

Nuances of speech delivery

NUANCES- Suitable changes, difference, variance in the expression, application etc For

Example

Here TIME & DISTANCE are two nuances of SPEED. If we make slight change in TIME,

SPEED will either decrease or increase.

Important is how to say, not what to say in the delivery of the speech. It is mandatory to

study all possible, nuances of speech delivery to make the presentation effective,

successful, lively and memorable.

Nuances of delivery are those variables, which affect the mode of presentation. These

variables or nuances are graphed below-

TIME

SPEED

DISTANCE


EXTEMPORE

SANS SCRIPT SCRIPT

IMPROMPTU

Carefull

y

prepared

Requirin

g

Rehearsa

l

Natura

l

Speech

Delivery

Made-

on

Impulse

Written

o

n Paper

Original

Manuscript

Memorization

Cramme

d

Delivery


We have graphed four modes of presentation. Every mode has its own importance and

value in presentation. We will further discuss advantages and limitations of every mode of

presentation

MODES OF

PRESENTATION

EXTEMPORANEOUS MODE OF PRESENTATION

It is more valuable mode of presentation. It has some qualities, which are given below-

It has flexibility of language. One can express the subject of presentation in one’s

own language.

The presenter can use supporting materials during his presentation.

He has enough time so he can make eye contact with most of the audience.

As he delivers his speech without script, so he needs not to stand at podium. He can

move freely on the stage.

IMPROMPTU MODE OF PRESENTATION

In this mode of presentation, the presenter does not prepare the speech in advance.

He speaks to the audience all of a sudden. This speech is natural. It is spontaneous in nature.

The presenter gets chance to express himself.

Limitations

The presenter has not sufficient time for the preparation in advance.

Due to lack of time, he can’t organize his ideas properly.

As he is invited to suddenly deliver the speech, so he can’t gather supporting

materials (quotations, proverbs, statics, illustrations)

SCRIPT MODE OF PRESENTATION

This is the third mode of presentation. Herein the presenter delivers his speech with script.

It has some advantages and limitations too.

Advantages

The presenter can’t skip important messages because first he reads then speaks.

He can prolong his accurate and original speech.

He can refine his language by frequent rehearsals.

Limitations

He has not enough time to make proper eye contact with the audience.

This mode is not flexible because he can’t use his own dialect (self language


SANS SCRIPT MODE OF PRESENTATION

In this mode, the operator reads manuscript several times and crams it by heart then he

delivers it without any script. This mode has some advantages and limitations too.

Advantages

1. Herein it is easy to maintain eye contact with the audience.

2. He can use body language properly.

3. He can finish his speech well in time.

Limitations

1. It requires too much time to prepare the speech.

2. The crammed speech can bore the audience.

3. Language is not flexible.

4. No adaptation is possible.

5. It can upset him if he forgets any word or sentence

Nuances of Voice dynamics

Nuances are very slight differences in traits and contents, modes and manners of

presentation. We will apply nuances in the following attributes of presentation and see their

effects afterwards.

GALGOTIAS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

VOLUME : Loudness or

Softness of Voice

RATE : Words Spoken

Per Minute.

PITCH : No of Vibrations per Second. Rise and fall of

Voice

PAUSE : A Short Silence

PRONUNCIATION: A way to speak word

distinctly

MODULATION: A Way to Adjust Tone, Pitch and Volume

SILENCE: A Total Absence of Voice and Speech Delivery.

VOLUME: If locale is open, the volume should be high. Low volume is preferred in small and

enclosed locale. Too high volume shows boorishness (rusticity) and too low volume shows

timidity. It shows lack of confidence. It shows that the speaker is not well prepared. Nuances

of the volume are used to retain the interest of the audience.

RATE: Normal rate of voice is 120- 150 per minute. If the rate is less than 120 words per

minute, the speech delivery is called dull and monotonous. If the rate is more than 150 words

per minute, the speech delivery is called rashly and aggressive. The speaker should vary

speaking pace. He should use pauses to create emphasis.

PITCH: It is the rise and the fall of the voice. If the pitch is low, it shows sadness, dullness,

guilt etc. If the pitch is high, it shows excitement, joy, anger, triumph etc. The speaker should

use variety of pitches to hold the attention of the audience PAUSE: It helps the speaker move

from one thought to another. It lets the speaker reflect on the message and digest it. The speaker

should apply the pauses at the end of important thoughts.

PRONUNCIATION: The speaker should speak word distinctly. If the words are lengthy, he

should split in small parts then pronounce them.

VOICE MODULATION: It is a way to regulate, vary or adjust the tone, pitch and volume of

the voice. It is applied to bring flexibility and vitality to the voice. Word stress and sentence

stress modulate the voice.

SILENCE: It is a good way to arrest the attention of the audience suddenly. The presenter is

needed to make a long pause amid his speech delivery.

revised first year syllabus 2020-21

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