Revision lectureRevision lecture

EN302: European TheatreEN302: European Theatre

European TheatreEuropean Theatre Hans-Thies Lehmann, Hans-Thies Lehmann, Postdramatic TheatrePostdramatic Theatre::

‘‘For centuries a paradigm has dominated European For centuries a paradigm has dominated European theatre that clearly distinguishes it from non-European theatre that clearly distinguishes it from non-European theatre traditions. For example, Indian Kathakali or theatre traditions. For example, Indian Kathakali or Japanese Noh theatre are structured completely Japanese Noh theatre are structured completely differently and consist essentially of dance, chorus and differently and consist essentially of dance, chorus and music, highly stylized ceremonial procedures, narrative music, highly stylized ceremonial procedures, narrative and lyric texts, while theatre in Europe amounted to the and lyric texts, while theatre in Europe amounted to the representation, the ‘making present’ of speeches and representation, the ‘making present’ of speeches and deeds on stage through mimetic dramatic play. Bertolt deeds on stage through mimetic dramatic play. Bertolt Brecht chose the term ‘dramatic theatre’ to designate the Brecht chose the term ‘dramatic theatre’ to designate the tradition that his epic ‘theatre of the scientific age’ tradition that his epic ‘theatre of the scientific age’ intended to put an end to. In a more comprehensive sense intended to put an end to. In a more comprehensive sense (and also including the majority of Brecht’s own work), (and also including the majority of Brecht’s own work), however, this term can be used to designate the core of however, this term can be used to designate the core of European theatre tradition in modern times. (2006: 21)European theatre tradition in modern times. (2006: 21)

PlotPlot Aristotle’s Aristotle’s hamartiahamartia, , anagnorisisanagnorisis, and , and peripeteiaperipeteia Aristotle described structure as the ‘most Aristotle described structure as the ‘most

important of all’ dramatic elements:important of all’ dramatic elements: ‘‘A beginning is that which does not itself follow A beginning is that which does not itself follow

anything by causal necessity, but after which anything by causal necessity, but after which something naturally is or comes to be. An end, on the something naturally is or comes to be. An end, on the contrary, is that which itself naturally follows some contrary, is that which itself naturally follows some other thing, either by necessity, or as a rule, but has other thing, either by necessity, or as a rule, but has nothing following it. A middle is that which follows nothing following it. A middle is that which follows something as some other thing follows it. A well something as some other thing follows it. A well constructed plot, therefore, must neither begin nor constructed plot, therefore, must neither begin nor end at haphazard, but conform to these principles.’end at haphazard, but conform to these principles.’

Importance of causality (Importance of causality (Oresteia, Miss Julie, Oresteia, Miss Julie, GalileoGalileo))

ConflictConflict AgonAgon / thesis and antithesis: / thesis and antithesis:

Antigone and Creon are forced to choose between Antigone and Creon are forced to choose between family and state.family and state.

Pentheus must choose between order and chaos: Pentheus must choose between order and chaos: ‘When I come out, I’ll either be fighting, or I’ll put ‘When I come out, I’ll either be fighting, or I’ll put myself in your hands.’ (p. 405)myself in your hands.’ (p. 405)

Phèdre is torn between passion and reason. Her Phèdre is torn between passion and reason. Her mother and father symbolise two different drives: mother and father symbolise two different drives: sexuality and moral judgement. ‘Reason reigns no sexuality and moral judgement. ‘Reason reigns no longer over me… I have lost my self-dominion’ (p. longer over me… I have lost my self-dominion’ (p. 180-1).180-1).

Melchior is offered an ambiguous choice at the end Melchior is offered an ambiguous choice at the end of of Spring AwakeningSpring Awakening; in choosing the Masked Man, ; in choosing the Masked Man, perhaps he makes the opposite choice to the ones perhaps he makes the opposite choice to the ones made by the protagonists at the ends of both made by the protagonists at the ends of both Hedda GablerHedda Gabler and and YermaYerma..

RecognitionRecognition Pursuit of ‘truth’ in Pursuit of ‘truth’ in OedipusOedipus: :

‘‘light’ (p. 187), ‘stubborn’ (p. 188), ‘terror’ (p. 196), light’ (p. 187), ‘stubborn’ (p. 188), ‘terror’ (p. 196), ‘both parent and murderer’ (p. 201), ‘no comfort’ (p. ‘both parent and murderer’ (p. 201), ‘no comfort’ (p. 202)202)

‘‘Seeing’ and TeiresiasSeeing’ and Teiresias Think about the endings of, for example, Think about the endings of, for example, The The

Spanish TragedySpanish Tragedy, , PhèdrePhèdre, , YermaYerma, or , or The SkrikerThe Skriker.. Catharsis: Catharsis:

‘…‘…the bringing about of affective recognition and the bringing about of affective recognition and solidarity by means of the drama and the affects solidarity by means of the drama and the affects represented and transmitted to the audience within its represented and transmitted to the audience within its frame’ (Lehmann 2006: 21).frame’ (Lehmann 2006: 21).

VirtueVirtue ‘‘Playwright’ was synonymous with ‘teacher’ in Playwright’ was synonymous with ‘teacher’ in

Ancient Greek.Ancient Greek. In his Preface to In his Preface to PhèdrePhèdre, Racine described classical , Racine described classical

tragedy as ‘a school in which virtue was taught not tragedy as ‘a school in which virtue was taught not less well than in the schools of the philosophers’:less well than in the schools of the philosophers’: It would be greatly to be desired that modern writings were It would be greatly to be desired that modern writings were

as sound and full of useful precepts as the works of these as sound and full of useful precepts as the works of these poets. This might perhaps provide a means of reconciling to poets. This might perhaps provide a means of reconciling to tragedy a host of people famous for their piety and their tragedy a host of people famous for their piety and their doctrine who have recently condemned it and who would no doctrine who have recently condemned it and who would no doubt pass a more favourable judgement on it if writers doubt pass a more favourable judgement on it if writers were as keen to edify their spectators as to amuse them, were as keen to edify their spectators as to amuse them, thereby complying with the real purpose of tragedy. thereby complying with the real purpose of tragedy.

Racine’s view of tragedy is founded upon reason, Racine’s view of tragedy is founded upon reason, decorum and moral utility.decorum and moral utility.

VirtueVirtue Aristotle on comedy:Aristotle on comedy:

‘‘Comedy is, as we have said, an imitation of characters of a Comedy is, as we have said, an imitation of characters of a lower type, - not, however, in the full sense of the word bad; for lower type, - not, however, in the full sense of the word bad; for the ludicrous is merely a subdivision of the ugly. It may be the ludicrous is merely a subdivision of the ugly. It may be defined as a defect or ugliness which is not painful or defined as a defect or ugliness which is not painful or destructive. Thus, for example, the comic mask is ugly and destructive. Thus, for example, the comic mask is ugly and distorted, but does not cause pain.’distorted, but does not cause pain.’

Henri Bergson (‘Laughter’, 1900):Henri Bergson (‘Laughter’, 1900): ‘‘Always rather humiliating for the one against whom it is Always rather humiliating for the one against whom it is

directed, laughter is really and truly a kind of social “ragging”. directed, laughter is really and truly a kind of social “ragging”. … In laughter we always find an unavowed intention to … In laughter we always find an unavowed intention to humiliate, and consequently correct our neighbour.’ (1900: 148)humiliate, and consequently correct our neighbour.’ (1900: 148)

Moral of Moral of TartuffeTartuffe: : ‘‘Learn to distinguish between virtue, / Real and feigned.’ (p. 72)Learn to distinguish between virtue, / Real and feigned.’ (p. 72)

VirtueVirtue

Molière’s ‘Preface’ to Tartuffe (23 March 1669) describes the play as ‘a skilful poem which, by agreeable lessons, reprimands men’s defects’: ‘If the mission of comedy is to correct men’s vices, I

fail to see why some should be privileged. In the State, this one is of an importance much more dangerous than all the others; and we have seen that the theatre is a great force for correction.’

‘It is a great blow to vice to expose it to everyone’s laughter. We can easily stand being reprehended, but we cannot stand being mocked. We are willing to be wicked, but we will not be ridiculous.’

ImitationImitation

Mimesis contrasted with diegesis in Mimesis contrasted with diegesis in classical thoughtclassical thought

Central to the project of NaturalismCentral to the project of Naturalism Role of symbolism (Role of symbolism (Hedda Gabler, Spring Hedda Gabler, Spring

Awakening, YermaAwakening, Yerma)) Both Zola and Brecht proposed a ‘theatre Both Zola and Brecht proposed a ‘theatre

for the scientific age’ – what did this mean for the scientific age’ – what did this mean in each case?in each case?

Impact of photography? Film? TV? Impact of photography? Film? TV? Internet?Internet?

Unseen forcesUnseen forces Do dramatic characters have agency, or are Do dramatic characters have agency, or are

they driven by unseen forces?they driven by unseen forces? Conflict between gods in classical tragedy;Conflict between gods in classical tragedy; Revenge / classical gods / Christian God in Revenge / classical gods / Christian God in The The

Spanish TragedySpanish Tragedy;; God-as-audience and power of prophecy vs. God-as-audience and power of prophecy vs.

freedom to ‘overcome the stars’ (p. 36) in freedom to ‘overcome the stars’ (p. 36) in Life Is Life Is A DreamA Dream;;

Gods and guilt in Gods and guilt in PhèdrePhèdre: : ‘‘Heaven lit in my heart an ill-omened fire’ (p. 213); Heaven lit in my heart an ill-omened fire’ (p. 213); ‘‘I know my baseness, and do not belong / To those bold I know my baseness, and do not belong / To those bold

wretches who with brazen front / Can revel in their wretches who with brazen front / Can revel in their crimes unblushingly.’ (p. 184).crimes unblushingly.’ (p. 184).

Determinism and entrapment: society, heredity, Determinism and entrapment: society, heredity, physiology and psychology in Naturalism and physiology and psychology in Naturalism and beyond.beyond.

‘‘Naturalism on the Naturalism on the Stage’Stage’

Zola published his manifesto on this subject in Zola published his manifesto on this subject in 1881, in an essay titled ‘Naturalism on the Stage’.1881, in an essay titled ‘Naturalism on the Stage’.

He claimed to be reflecting the scientific and He claimed to be reflecting the scientific and rational spirit of the age in which he lived; ‘the rational spirit of the age in which he lived; ‘the impulse of the century,’ he argued, ‘is toward impulse of the century,’ he argued, ‘is toward naturalism’ (1881: 5):naturalism’ (1881: 5): ‘‘I am waiting for someone to put a man of flesh and bones I am waiting for someone to put a man of flesh and bones

on the stage, taken from reality, scientifically analyzed, on the stage, taken from reality, scientifically analyzed, and described without one lie. … I am waiting for and described without one lie. … I am waiting for environment to determine the characters and the environment to determine the characters and the characters to act according to the logic of facts combined characters to act according to the logic of facts combined with logic of their own disposition. … I am waiting, finally, with logic of their own disposition. … I am waiting, finally, until the development of naturalism already achieved in until the development of naturalism already achieved in the novel takes over the stage, until the playwrights the novel takes over the stage, until the playwrights return to the source of science and modem arts, to the return to the source of science and modem arts, to the study of nature, to the anatomy of man. (1881: 6)study of nature, to the anatomy of man. (1881: 6)

‘‘Naturalism on the Naturalism on the Stage’Stage’

Zola proposed that naturalistic drama Zola proposed that naturalistic drama should focus on ‘natural man’:should focus on ‘natural man’: ‘…‘…put him in his proper surroundings, and put him in his proper surroundings, and

analyze all the physical and social causes analyze all the physical and social causes which make him what he is… he is a which make him what he is… he is a thinking animal, who forms part of nature, thinking animal, who forms part of nature, and who is subject to the multiple influences and who is subject to the multiple influences of the soil in which he grows and where he of the soil in which he grows and where he lives. That is why a climate, a country, a lives. That is why a climate, a country, a horizon, are often decisively important.’ horizon, are often decisively important.’ (1881: 10)(1881: 10)

Modern tragedyModern tragedy

Raymond Williams’ Raymond Williams’ Modern TragedyModern Tragedy (1966) analyses some of the ways in (1966) analyses some of the ways in which various modern plays might which various modern plays might be conceived as having adapted the be conceived as having adapted the conventions of classical tragedy.conventions of classical tragedy.

Williams defines tragedy as ‘the Williams defines tragedy as ‘the conflict between an individual and conflict between an individual and the forces that destroy him’ (2006: the forces that destroy him’ (2006: 113).113).

Liberal TragedyLiberal Tragedy

For example, Williams describes For example, Williams describes Ibsen’s drama as ‘Liberal Tragedy’:Ibsen’s drama as ‘Liberal Tragedy’: ‘…‘…the hero defines an opposing world, full the hero defines an opposing world, full

of lies and compromises and dead of lies and compromises and dead positions, only to find, as he struggles positions, only to find, as he struggles against it, that as a man he belongs to this against it, that as a man he belongs to this world, and has its destructive inheritance world, and has its destructive inheritance in himself.’ (2006: 124)in himself.’ (2006: 124)

In this view, society is at fault: it is In this view, society is at fault: it is seen as false and oppressive, a trap seen as false and oppressive, a trap from which it is impossible to escape.from which it is impossible to escape.

Liberal TragedyLiberal Tragedy

HEDDA GABLER

General Gabler’s memory

Intellectual boredom

Oppressive environment

Regional location

Impending motherhood

Judge Brack’s ‘leverage’

Patriarchy

Social class / expectations

Tesman / identity as

‘wife’

Threat of scandal

Private TragedyPrivate Tragedy Strindberg’s drama, on the other hand, belongs Strindberg’s drama, on the other hand, belongs

to a category that Williams calls ‘Private to a category that Williams calls ‘Private Tragedy’, a form which ‘begins with bare and Tragedy’, a form which ‘begins with bare and unaccommodated man’:unaccommodated man’: ‘‘All primary energy is centred in this isolated All primary energy is centred in this isolated

creature, who desires and eats and fights alone. creature, who desires and eats and fights alone. Society is at best an arbitrary institution, to prevent Society is at best an arbitrary institution, to prevent this horde of creatures destroying each other. And this horde of creatures destroying each other. And when these isolated persons meet, in what are called when these isolated persons meet, in what are called relationships, their exchanges are forms of struggle, relationships, their exchanges are forms of struggle, inevitably. Tragedy, in this view, is inherent.’ (2006: inevitably. Tragedy, in this view, is inherent.’ (2006: 133)133)

The association between love and destruction is ‘so The association between love and destruction is ‘so deep that it is not, as the liberal writers [like Ibsen] deep that it is not, as the liberal writers [like Ibsen] assumed, the product of a particular history: it is, assumed, the product of a particular history: it is, rather, general and natural, in all relationships.’ rather, general and natural, in all relationships.’ (2006: 134)(2006: 134)

Private TragedyPrivate Tragedy

MISS JULIE

Environment, heredity, body, psyche, etc. JEAN

Environment, heredity, body, psyche, etc.

CHRISTINE

Environment, heredity, body, psyche, etc.

[Clip from Mike Figgis version, 1999 – track 4]

Private TragedyPrivate Tragedy

JEAN

Jean’s heredity, body, psyche, etc. are better equipped for survival…

MISS JULIE

Private TragedyPrivate Tragedy Strindberg himself was ambivalent about Strindberg himself was ambivalent about

Miss JulieMiss Julie’s credentials as a modern ’s credentials as a modern tragedy: tragedy: ‘…‘…the time may come when we shall have the time may come when we shall have

become so developed and enlightened that we become so developed and enlightened that we shall be able to observe with indifference the shall be able to observe with indifference the harsh, cynical and heartless drama that life harsh, cynical and heartless drama that life presents – when we shall have discarded those presents – when we shall have discarded those inferior and unreliable thought-mechanisms inferior and unreliable thought-mechanisms called feelings, which will become superfluous called feelings, which will become superfluous and harmful once our powers of judgment and harmful once our powers of judgment reach maturity.’ (1888: 92)reach maturity.’ (1888: 92)

Tragic Deadlock and Tragic Deadlock and StalemateStalemate

Williams describes the ‘deadlock’ of liberal tragedy:Williams describes the ‘deadlock’ of liberal tragedy: The hero ‘sees what has to be done, and tries to do it. He is The hero ‘sees what has to be done, and tries to do it. He is

left to struggle alone, is misunderstood and is broken. He also left to struggle alone, is misunderstood and is broken. He also breaks others, in his own fall.’ (2006: 172)breaks others, in his own fall.’ (2006: 172)

He argues that this deadlock, ‘familiar to us from Ibsen’, is He argues that this deadlock, ‘familiar to us from Ibsen’, is ‘transformed by Chekhov into a new condition: that of ‘transformed by Chekhov into a new condition: that of stalemate’:stalemate’: ‘‘In a deadlock, there is still effort and struggle, but no In a deadlock, there is still effort and struggle, but no

possibility of winning: the wrestler with life dies as he gives possibility of winning: the wrestler with life dies as he gives his last strength. In a stalemate, there is no possibility of his last strength. In a stalemate, there is no possibility of movement or even the effort at movement; every willed action movement or even the effort at movement; every willed action is self-cancelling.’ (2006: 172)is self-cancelling.’ (2006: 172)

Williams on Williams on Three SistersThree Sisters: ‘The breakdown of meaning is : ‘The breakdown of meaning is now so complete that even the aspiration to meaning now so complete that even the aspiration to meaning seems comic.’ (2006: 174)seems comic.’ (2006: 174)

Tragic Deadlock and Tragic Deadlock and StalemateStalemate

HAMMHAMM: We’re not beginning to… to… mean : We’re not beginning to… to… mean something? something?

CLOVCLOV: Mean something! You and I, mean something! : Mean something! You and I, mean something! (Brief laugh.)(Brief laugh.) Ah that’s a good one! Ah that’s a good one!

HAMMHAMM: I wonder. : I wonder. (Pause.)(Pause.) Imagine if a rational being came back to earth, Imagine if a rational being came back to earth, wouldn’t he be liable to get ideas into his head if wouldn’t he be liable to get ideas into his head if he observed us long enough. he observed us long enough. (Voice of rational being.)(Voice of rational being.) Ah, good, now I see what Ah, good, now I see what it is, yes, now I understand what they’re at! it is, yes, now I understand what they’re at! (Beckett, p. 108)(Beckett, p. 108)

Tragic Deadlock and Tragic Deadlock and StalemateStalemate

Peter Brook on Beckett:Peter Brook on Beckett: ‘‘Beckett does not say ‘no’ with satisfaction; he forges his Beckett does not say ‘no’ with satisfaction; he forges his

merciless ‘no’ out of a longing for ‘yes’ and so his despair merciless ‘no’ out of a longing for ‘yes’ and so his despair is the negative from which the contour of its opposite can is the negative from which the contour of its opposite can be drawn. …When we attack Beckett for pessimism it is we be drawn. …When we attack Beckett for pessimism it is we who are the Beckett characters trapped in a Beckett who are the Beckett characters trapped in a Beckett scene. When we accept Beckett’s statement as it is, then scene. When we accept Beckett’s statement as it is, then suddenly all is transformed. There is after all quite another suddenly all is transformed. There is after all quite another audience, Beckett’s audience; those in every country who audience, Beckett’s audience; those in every country who do not set up intellectual barriers, who do not try too hard do not set up intellectual barriers, who do not try too hard to analyse the message. This audience laughs and cries out to analyse the message. This audience laughs and cries out – and in the end celebrates with Beckett; this audience – and in the end celebrates with Beckett; this audience leaves his plays, his black plays, nourished and enriched, leaves his plays, his black plays, nourished and enriched, with a lighter heart, full of a strange irrational joy.’ (1990: with a lighter heart, full of a strange irrational joy.’ (1990: 66)66)

Brecht’s rejection Brecht’s rejection of ‘dramatic theatre’of ‘dramatic theatre’

Brecht:Brecht:We ask you expressly to discover We ask you expressly to discover

That what happens all the time is not natural.That what happens all the time is not natural.

For to say that something is natural For to say that something is natural

In such times of bloody confusion In such times of bloody confusion

Of ordained disorder, of systematic arbitrarinessOf ordained disorder, of systematic arbitrariness

Of inhuman humanity is to Of inhuman humanity is to

Regard it as unchangeable. (Regard it as unchangeable. (The Exception and the The Exception and the RuleRule, p. 37), p. 37)

‘‘For art to be “un-political” means only to For art to be “un-political” means only to ally itself with the “ruling” group.’ (1977: ally itself with the “ruling” group.’ (1977: 196).196).

Brecht’s rejection Brecht’s rejection of ‘dramatic theatre’of ‘dramatic theatre’

As Brecht argued in his As Brecht argued in his Short Organum Short Organum for the Theatrefor the Theatre:: The theatre as we know it shows the structure The theatre as we know it shows the structure

of society (represented on the stage) as of society (represented on the stage) as incapable of being influenced by society (in the incapable of being influenced by society (in the auditorium). … Shakespeare’s great solitary auditorium). … Shakespeare’s great solitary figures, bearing on their breast the star of figures, bearing on their breast the star of their fate, carry through with irresistible force their fate, carry through with irresistible force their futile and deadly outbursts; they prepare their futile and deadly outbursts; they prepare their own downfall; life, not death, becomes their own downfall; life, not death, becomes obscene as they collapse; the catastrophe is obscene as they collapse; the catastrophe is beyond criticism. (1977: 189)beyond criticism. (1977: 189)

Brecht’s rejection Brecht’s rejection of ‘dramatic theatre’of ‘dramatic theatre’

According to Brecht, it was the role of the According to Brecht, it was the role of the theatre to debunk such notions. As ‘the theatre to debunk such notions. As ‘the Philosopher’, Brecht’s spokesperson in Philosopher’, Brecht’s spokesperson in The The Messingkauf DialoguesMessingkauf Dialogues, puts it:, puts it:

THE PHILOSOPHER.THE PHILOSOPHER. The causes of a lot of The causes of a lot of tragedies lie outside the power of those who tragedies lie outside the power of those who suffer them, so it seems.suffer them, so it seems.

THE DRAMATURG.THE DRAMATURG. So it seems? So it seems?

THE PHILOSOPHER.THE PHILOSOPHER. Of course it only seems. Of course it only seems. Nothing human can possibly lie outside the Nothing human can possibly lie outside the powers of humanity, and such tragedies have powers of humanity, and such tragedies have human causes. (Brecht 1965: 32)human causes. (Brecht 1965: 32)

Brecht’s rejection Brecht’s rejection of ‘dramatic theatre’of ‘dramatic theatre’

‘‘The dramatic theatre’s spectator says: Yes, I have The dramatic theatre’s spectator says: Yes, I have felt like that too – Just like me – It’s only natural – felt like that too – Just like me – It’s only natural – It’ll never change – The sufferings of this man appal It’ll never change – The sufferings of this man appal me, because they are inescapable – That’s great art; me, because they are inescapable – That’s great art; it all seems the most obvious thing in the world – I it all seems the most obvious thing in the world – I weep when they weep, I laugh when they laugh.’ weep when they weep, I laugh when they laugh.’

‘‘The epic theatre’s spectator says: I’d never have The epic theatre’s spectator says: I’d never have thought it – That’s not the way – That’s thought it – That’s not the way – That’s extraordinary, hardly believable – It’s got to stop – extraordinary, hardly believable – It’s got to stop – The sufferings of this man appal me, because they The sufferings of this man appal me, because they are unnecessary – That’s great art: nothing obvious are unnecessary – That’s great art: nothing obvious in it – I laugh when they weep, I weep when they in it – I laugh when they weep, I weep when they laugh.’ (1977: 71)laugh.’ (1977: 71)

Playing with formPlaying with form

SKRIKER.SKRIKER. … May day, she cries, may pole axed … May day, she cries, may pole axed me to help her. So I spin the sheaves shoves me to help her. So I spin the sheaves shoves shivers into golden guild and geld and if she shivers into golden guild and geld and if she can’t guessing game and safety match my name can’t guessing game and safety match my name then I’ll take her no miss no me no. Is it William then I’ll take her no miss no me no. Is it William Gwylliam Guillaume? Is it John Jack the ladder Gwylliam Guillaume? Is it John Jack the ladder in your stocking is it Joke? Is it Alexander in your stocking is it Joke? Is it Alexander Sandro Andrew Drewsteignton? Mephistopheles Sandro Andrew Drewsteignton? Mephistopheles Toffeenose Tiffany’s Timpany Timothy Toffeenose Tiffany’s Timpany Timothy Mossycoat? No ’t ain’t, says I, no tainted meat Mossycoat? No ’t ain’t, says I, no tainted meat me after the show me what you’ve got. me after the show me what you’ve got. (Churchill, p. 9)(Churchill, p. 9)

Playing with formPlaying with form

Mary Luckhurst:Mary Luckhurst: ‘‘Attempts on her LifeAttempts on her Life … matches Beckett in its … matches Beckett in its

interrogation of theatre as a practice, and drives interrogation of theatre as a practice, and drives Brechtian concepts of alienation to an extreme.’ Brechtian concepts of alienation to an extreme.’ (2003: 59)(2003: 59)

Interestingly, Martin Crimp once named Interestingly, Martin Crimp once named Caryl Churchill as his favourite living Caryl Churchill as his favourite living playwright – in part, for her recognition of playwright – in part, for her recognition of the ‘playfulness of play’ (‘The Playwright’s the ‘playfulness of play’ (‘The Playwright’s Playwright’, Playwright’, GuardianGuardian, 21 September 1998)., 21 September 1998).

Postdramatic theatrePostdramatic theatre The absence of dramatic characters in The absence of dramatic characters in

Attempts on her Life Attempts on her Life means there is no means there is no ‘agon’ in the traditional sense – but we do ‘agon’ in the traditional sense – but we do hear conflict in the simultaneous hear conflict in the simultaneous construction of competing narratives. construction of competing narratives.

The absence of plot allows Crimp to avoid The absence of plot allows Crimp to avoid making any assertions about causality making any assertions about causality (though he certainly plays with ideas (though he certainly plays with ideas about what has ‘caused’ Anne’s reported about what has ‘caused’ Anne’s reported actions).actions).

ReferencesReferences Brecht, Bertolt (1965) Brecht, Bertolt (1965) The Messingkauf DialoguesThe Messingkauf Dialogues, trans. J. , trans. J.

Willett, Chatham: W. & J. Mackay & Co.Willett, Chatham: W. & J. Mackay & Co. Brecht, Bertolt (1977) Brecht, Bertolt (1977) Brecht on TheatreBrecht on Theatre, trans. J. Willett, , trans. J. Willett,

London: Eyre MethuenLondon: Eyre Methuen Brook, Peter (1990) Brook, Peter (1990) The Empty SpaceThe Empty Space, London: Penguin., London: Penguin. Lehmann, Hans-Thies (2006) Lehmann, Hans-Thies (2006) Postdramatic TheatrePostdramatic Theatre, Abingdon: , Abingdon:

Routledge.Routledge. Luckhurst, Mary (2003) ‘Political Point-Scoring: Martin Crimp’s Luckhurst, Mary (2003) ‘Political Point-Scoring: Martin Crimp’s

Attempts on her LifeAttempts on her Life’, ’, Contemporary Theatre ReviewContemporary Theatre Review, 13:1, 47-60., 13:1, 47-60. Strindberg, August (1888) ‘Preface to Miss Julie’, in Meyer, M. Strindberg, August (1888) ‘Preface to Miss Julie’, in Meyer, M.

[trans.] (2000) [trans.] (2000) Strindberg, Plays: OneStrindberg, Plays: One, London: Methuen Drama, , London: Methuen Drama, pp. 91-103.pp. 91-103.

Williams, Raymond (2006) Williams, Raymond (2006) Modern TragedyModern Tragedy, Peterborough, , Peterborough, Ontario: Broadview Press.Ontario: Broadview Press.

Zola, Emile (1881) ‘Naturalism on the Stage’, in Cole, T. [ed.] Zola, Emile (1881) ‘Naturalism on the Stage’, in Cole, T. [ed.] (2001) (2001) Playwrights on Playwriting: from Ibsen to IonescoPlaywrights on Playwriting: from Ibsen to Ionesco, New , New York: Cooper Square Press, pp. 5-14.York: Cooper Square Press, pp. 5-14.