reynold a. nicholson - the mystics of islam

8/9/2019 Reynold A. Nicholson - The Mystics of Islam

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CONTENTS

Introduction

1. The Path

2. Illumination And Ecstacy

3. The Gnosis

4. Divine Love

5. aints And !iracles

". The #nitive tate

$i%lio&ra'hy


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INTRODUCTION

The title o( this %oo) su((iciently e*'lains +hy it is included in a eries ,e*em'li(yin& the

adventures and la%ours o( individual see)ers or &rou's o( see)ers in -uest o( reality., u(ism the

reli&ious 'hiloso'hy o( Islam is descri%ed in the oldest e*tant de(inition as ,the a''rehension o(

divine realities, and !ohammedan mystics are (ond o( callin& themselves Ahl al/0a-- ,the

(ollo+ers o( the eal., Al/0a-- is the term &enerally used %y u(is +hen they re(er to God. Inattem'tin& to set (orth their central doctrines (rom this 'oint o( vie+ I shall dra+ to some e*tent on

materials +hich I have collected durin& the last t+enty years (or a &eneral history o( Islamic

mysticism//a su%ect so vast and many/sided that several lar&e volumes +ould %e re-uired to do it

anythin& li)e ustice. 0ere I can only s)etch in %road outline certain 'rinci'les methods and

characteristic (eatures o( the inner li(e as it has %een lived %y !oslems o( every class and condition

(rom the ei&hth century o( our era to the 'resent day. Di((icult are the 'aths +hich they threaded

dar) and %e+ilderin& the 'athless hei&hts %eyond %ut even i( +e may not ho'e to accom'any the

travellers to their ourney,s end any in(ormation that +e have &athered concernin& their reli&ious

environment and s'iritual history +ill hel' us to understand the stran&e e*'eriences o( +hich they

+rite.

In the (irst 'lace there(ore I 'ro'ose to o((er a (e+ remar)s on the ori&in and historical

develo'ment o( u(ism its relation to Islam and its &eneral character. 6ot only are these matters

interestin& to the student o( com'arative reli&ion some )no+led&e o( them is indis'ensa%le to any

serious student o( u(ism itsel(. It may %e said truly enou&h that all mystical e*'eriences

ultimately meet in a sin&le 'oint %ut that 'oint assumes +idely di((erent as'ects accordin& to the

mystic,s reli&ion race and tem'erament +hile the conver&in& lines o( a''roach admit o( almost

in(inite variety. Thou&h all the &reat ty'es o( mysticism have somethin& in common each is mar)ed

%y 'eculiar characteristics resultin& (rom the circumstances in +hich it arose and (lourished. 7ust as

the 8hristian ty'e cannot %e understood +ithout re(erence to 8hristianity so the !ohammedan ty'e

must %e vie+ed in conne*ion +ith the out+ard and in+ard develo'ment o( Islam.

The +ord ,mystic, +hich has 'assed (rom Gree) reli&ion into Euro'ean literature is re'resented in

Ara%ic Persian and Tur)ish the three chie( lan&ua&es o( Islam %y ,u(i., The terms ho+ever are

not 'recisely synonymous (or ,u(i, has a s'eci(ic reli&ious connotation and is restricted %y usa&e

to those mystics +ho 'ro(ess the !ohammedan (aith. And the Ara%ic +ord althou&h in course o(

time it a''ro'riated the hi&h si&ni(icance o( the Gree)//li's sealed %y holy mysteries eyes closed in

visionary ra'ture//%ore a hum%ler meanin& +hen it (irst &ained currency 9a%out :;; A.D.


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durin& the ei&hth century +as (ear//(ear o( God (ear o( 0ell (ear o( death (ear o( sin//%ut the

o''osite motive had already %e&un to ma)e its in(luence (elt and 'roduced in the saintly +oman

a%iCa at least one cons'icuous e*am'le o( truly mystical sel(/a%andonment.

o (ar there +as no &reat di((erence %et+een the u(i and the orthodo* !ohammedan ealote*ce't that the u(is attached e*traordinary im'ortance to certain oranic doctrines and develo'ed

them at the e*'ense o( others +hich many !oslems mi&ht consider e-ually essential. It must also

%e allo+ed that the ascetic movement +as ins'ired %y 8hristian ideals and contrasted shar'ly +ith

the active and 'leasure/lovin& s'irit o( Islam. In a (amous sentence the Pro'het denounced mon)ish

austerities and %ade his 'eo'le devote themselves to the holy +ar a&ainst un%elievers and he &ave

as is +ell )no+n the most convincin& testimony in (avour o( marria&e. Althou&h his condemnation

o( celi%acy did not remain +ithout e((ect the con-uest o( Persia yria and E&y't %y his successors

%rou&ht the !oslems into contact +ith ideas +hich 'ro(oundly modi(ied their outloo) on li(e and

reli&ion. Euro'ean readers o( the oran cannot (ail to %e struc) %y its author,s vacillation and

inconsistency in dealin& +ith the &reatest 'ro%lems. 0e himsel( +as not a+are o( these

contradictions nor +ere they a stum%lin&/%loc) to his devout (ollo+ers +hose sim'le (aithacce'ted the oran as the Ford o( God. $ut the ri(t +as there and soon 'roduced (ar/reachin&

results.

0ence arose the !urites +ho set (aith a%ove +or)s and em'hasised the divine love and &oodness

the adarites +ho a((irmed and the 7a%arites +ho denied that men are res'onsi%le (or their actions

the !uCtailites +ho %uilt a theolo&y on the %asis o( reason reectin& the -ualities o( Allah as

incom'ati%le +ith 0is unity and 'redestinarianism as contrary to 0is ustice and (inally the

AshCarites the scholastic theolo&ians o( Islam +ho (ormulated the ri&id meta'hysical and doctrinal

system that underlies the creed o( orthodo* !ohammedans at the 'resent time. All these

s'eculations in(luenced as they +ere %y Gree) theolo&y and 'hiloso'hy reacted 'o+er(ully u'on

u(ism. Early in the third century o( the 0e&ira//the ninth a(ter 8hrist//+e (ind mani(est si&ns o( the

ne+ leaven stirrin& +ithin it. 6ot that u(is ceased to morti(y the (lesh and ta)e 'ride in their

'overty %ut they no+ %e&an to re&ard asceticism as only the (irst sta&e o( a lon& ourney the

'reliminary trainin& (or a lar&er s'iritual li(e than the mere ascetic is a%le to conceive. The nature o(

the chan&e may %e illustrated %y -uotin& a (e+ sentences +hich have come do+n to us (rom the

mystics o( this 'eriod.

HLove is not to %e learned (rom men it is one o( God,s &i(ts and comes o( 0is &race.H

H6one re(rains (rom the lusts o( this +orld save him in +hose heart there is a li&ht that )ee's

him al+ays %usied +ith the ne*t +orld.H

HFhen the &nostic,s s'iritual eye is o'ened his %odily eye is shut he sees nothin& %ut God.H

HI( &nosis +ere to ta)e visi%le sha'e all +ho loo)ed thereon +ould die at the si&ht o( its

%eauty and loveliness and &oodness and &race and every %ri&htness +ould %ecome dar)

%eside the s'lendour thereo(.H 8om'are Plato PhJdrus 97o+ett,s translation


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H6othin& sees God and dies even as nothin& sees God and lives %ecause 0is li(e is

everlastin& +hoever sees it is there%y made everlastin&.H

HB God I never listen to the cry o( animals or to the -uiverin& o( trees or to the murmurin&

o( +ater or to the +ar%lin& o( %irds or to the rustlin& +ind or to the crashin& thunder +ithout

(eelin& them to %e an evidence o( Thy unity and a 'roo( that there is nothin& li)e unto Thee.H

HB my God I invo)e Thee in 'u%lic as lords are invo)ed %ut in 'rivate as loved ones are

invo)ed. Pu%licly I say ,B my God, %ut 'rivately I say ,B my $eloved,H

These ideas//Li&ht no+led&e and Love//(orm as it +ere the )eynotes o( the ne+ u(ism and in

the (ollo+in& cha'ters I shall endeavour to sho+ ho+ they +ere develo'ed. #ltimately they rest

u'on a 'antheistic (aith +hich de'osed the Bne transcendent God o( Islam and +orshi''ed in 0is

stead Bne eal $ein& +ho d+ells and +or)s every+here and +hose throne is not less %ut more in

the human heart than in the heaven o( heavens. $e(ore &oin& (urther it +ill %e convenient to ans+er

a -uestion +hich the reader may have as)ed himsel(//Fhence did the !oslems o( the ninth centuryderive this doctrineM

!odern research has 'roved that the ori&in o( u(ism cannot %e traced %ac) to a sin&le de(inite

cause and has there%y discredited the s+ee'in& &eneralisations +hich re'resent it (or instance as a

reaction o( the Aryan mind a&ainst a con-uerin& emitic reli&ion and as the 'roduct essentially o(

Indian or Persian thou&ht. tatements o( this )ind even +hen they are 'artially true i&nore the

'rinci'le that in order to esta%lish an historical conne*ion %et+een A and $ it is not enou&h to

%rin& (or+ard evidence o( their li)eness to one another +ithout sho+in& at the same time 91< that

the actual relation o( $ to A +as such as to render the assumed (iliation 'ossi%le and 92< that the

'ossi%le hy'othesis (its in +ith all the ascertained and relevant (acts. 6o+ the theories +hich I have

mentioned do not satis(y these conditions. I( u(ism +as nothin& %ut a revolt o( the Aryan s'irit

ho+ are +e to e*'lain the undou%ted (act that some o( the leadin& 'ioneers o( !ohammedan

mysticism +ere natives o( yria and E&y't and Ara%s %y raceM imilarly the advocates o( a

$uddhistic or Nedantic ori&in (or&et that the main current o( Indian in(luence u'on Islamic

civilisation %elon&s to a later e'och +hereas !oslem theolo&y 'hiloso'hy and science 'ut (orth

their (irst lu*uriant shoots on a soil that +as saturated +ith 0ellenistic culture. The truth is that

u(ism is a com'le* thin& and there(ore no sim'le ans+er can %e &iven to the -uestion ho+ it

ori&inated. Fe shall have &one (ar ho+ever to+ards ans+erin& that -uestion +hen +e have

distin&uished the various movements and (orces +hich moulded u(ism and determined +hat

direction it should ta)e in the early sta&es o( its &ro+th.

Let us (irst consider the most im'ortant e*ternal i.e. non/Islamic in(luences.

I. 80ITIA6ITO

It is o%vious that the ascetic and -uietistic tendencies to +hich I have re(erred +ere in harmony +ith

8hristian theory and dre+ nourishment there(rom. !any Gos'el te*ts and a'ocry'hal sayin&s o(

7esus are cited in the oldest u(i %io&ra'hies and the 8hristian anchorite 9rahi%< o(ten a''ears in the

rle o( a teacher &ivin& instruction and advice to +anderin& !oslem ascetics. Fe have seen that the

+oollen dress (rom +hich the name ,u(i, is derived is o( 8hristian ori&in vo+s o( silence litanies

9dhi)r


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sayin& ,Fhat hath %rou&ht you to this 'li&htM, They ans+ered ,Kear o( the Kire., 7esus said

,Oe (ear a thin& created and it %ehoves God that 0e should save those +ho (ear., Then he le(t

them and 'assed %y three others +hose (aces +ere 'aler and their %odies leaner and as)ed

them sayin& ,Fhat hath %rou&ht you to this 'li&htM, They ans+ered ,Lon&in& (or Paradise.,

0e said ,Oe desire a thin& created and it %ehoves God that 0e should &ive you that +hich

ye ho'e (or., Then he +ent on and 'assed %y three others o( e*ceedin& 'aleness and

leanness so that their (aces +ere as mirrors o( li&ht and he said ,Fhat hath %rou&ht you tothisM, They ans+ered ,Bur love o( God., 7esus said ,Oe are the nearest to 0im ye are the

nearest to 0im.,H

The yrian mystic Ahmad i%n al/0a+ari once as)ed a 8hristian hermit

H,Fhat is the stron&est command that ye (ind in your cri'turesM, The hermit re'lied ,Fe

(ind none stron&er than this HLove thy 8reator +ith all thy 'o+er and mi&ht.H,H

Another hermit +as as)ed %y some !oslem ascetics

H,Fhen is a man most 'erseverin& in devotionM, ,Fhen love ta)es 'ossession o( his heart,

+as the re'ly ,(or then he hath no oy or 'leasure %ut in continual devotion.,H

The in(luence o( 8hristianity throu&h its hermits mon)s and heretical sects 9e.&. the !essalians or

EuchitJ< +as t+o(old ascetic and mystical. Briental 8hristian mysticism ho+ever contained a

Pa&an element it had lon& a&o a%sor%ed the ideas and ado'ted the lan&ua&e o( Plotinus and the

6eo/'latonic school.

II. 6EBPLATB6I!

Aristotle not Plato is the dominant (i&ure in !oslem 'hiloso'hy and (e+ !ohammedans are

(amiliar +ith the name o( Plotinus +ho +as more commonly called ,the Gree) !aster, 9al/hey)h

al/Oaunani


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its develo'ment Dhu Ql/6un the E&y'tian is descri%ed as a 'hiloso'her and alchemist//in other

+ords a student o( 0ellenistic science. Fhen it is added that much o( his s'eculation a&rees +ith

+hat +e (ind (or e*am'le in the +ritin&s o( Dionysius +e are dra+n irresisti%ly to the conclusion

9+hich as I have 'ointed out is hi&hly 'ro%a%le on &eneral &rounds< that 6eo'latonism 'oured into

Islam a lar&e tincture o( the same mystical element in +hich 8hristianity +as already stee'ed.

III. G6BTI8I!8(. Goldiher H6eu'latonische und &nostische Elemente im 0aditH in Reitschri(t (Sr

Assyriolo&ie **ii. 31 ((.

Thou&h little direct evidence is availa%le the cons'icuous 'lace occu'ied %y the theory o( &nosis in

early u(i s'eculation su&&ests contact +ith 8hristian Gnosticism and it is +orth notin& that the

'arents o( !aCru( al/ar)hi +hose de(inition o( u(ism as ,the a''rehension o( divine realities, +as

-uoted on the (irst 'a&e o( this Introduction are said to have %een a%ians i.e. !andJans d+ellin&

in the $a%ylonian (enland %et+een $asra and Fasit. Bther !oslem saints had learned ,the mystery

o( the Great 6ame., It +as communicated to I%rahim i%n Adham %y a man +hom he met +hile

travellin& in the desert and as soon as he 'ronounced it he sa+ the 'ro'het hadir 9Elias


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IN. $#DD0I!

$e(ore the !ohammedan con-uest o( India in the eleventh century the teachin& o( $uddha e*erted

considera%le in(luence in Eastern Persia and Transo*ania. Fe hear o( (lourishin& $uddhist

monasteries in $al)h the metro'olis o( ancient $actria a city (amous (or the num%er o( u(is +ho

resided in it. Pro(essor Goldiher has called attention to the si&ni(icant circumstance that the u(i

ascetic I%rahim i%n Adham a''ears in !oslem le&end as a 'rince o( $al)h +ho a%andoned histhrone and %ecame a +anderin& dervish//the story o( $uddha over a&ain. The u(is learned the use

o( rosaries (rom $uddhist mon)s and +ithout enterin& into details it may %e sa(ely asserted that

the method o( u(ism so (ar as it is one o( ethical sel(/culture ascetic meditation and intellectual

a%straction o+es a &ood deal to $uddhism. $ut the (eatures +hich the t+o systems have in

common only accentuate the (undamental di((erence %et+een them. In s'irit they are 'oles a'art.

The $uddhist moralises himsel( the u(i %ecomes moral only throu&h )no+in& and lovin& God.

The u(i conce'tion o( the 'assin&/a+ay 9(ana< o( individual sel( in #niversal $ein& is certainly I

thin) o( Indian ori&in. Its (irst &reat e*'onent +as the Persian mystic $ayaid o( $istam +ho may

have received it (rom his teacher A%u CAli o( ind 9cinde


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A'art (rom the doctrine o( arma +hich is alien to u(ism these de(initions o( (ana 9vie+ed as a

moral state< and 6irvana a&ree almost +ord (or +ord. It +ould %e out o( 'lace to 'ursue the

com'arison (urther %ut I thin) +e may conclude that the u(i theory o( (ana +as in(luenced to

some e*tent %y $uddhism as +ell as %y Perso/Indian 'antheism.

The rece'tivity o( Islam to (orei&n ideas has %een reco&nised %y every un%iassed in-uirer and the

history o( u(ism is only a sin&le instance o( the &eneral rule. $ut this (act should not lead us tosee) in such ideas an e*'lanation o( the +hole -uestion +hich I am no+ discussin& or to identi(y

u(ism itsel( +ith the e*traneous in&redients +hich it a%sor%ed and assimilated in the course o( its

develo'ment. Even i( Islam had %een miraculously shut o(( (rom contact +ith (orei&n reli&ions and

'hiloso'hies some (orm o( mysticism +ould have arisen +ithin it (or the seeds +ere already there.

B( course +e cannot isolate the internal (orces +or)in& in this direction since they +ere su%ect to

the la+ o( s'iritual &ravitation. The 'o+er(ul currents o( thou&ht dischar&ed throu&h the

!ohammedan +orld %y the &reat non/lslamic systems a%ove mentioned &ave a stimulus to various

tendencies +ithin Islam +hich a((ected u(ism either 'ositively or ne&atively. As +e have seen its

oldest ty'e is an ascetic revolt a&ainst lu*ury and +orldliness later on the 'revailin& rationalism

and sce'ticism 'rovo)ed counter/movements to+ards intuitive )no+led&e and emotional (aith and

also an orthodo* reaction +hich in its turn drove many earnest !oslems into the ran)s o( themystics.

0o+ it may %e as)ed could a reli&ion (ounded on the sim'le and austere monotheism o(

!ohammed tolerate these ne+ doctrines much less ma)e terms +ith themM It +ould seem

im'ossi%le to reconcile the transcendent 'ersonality o( Allah +ith an immanent eality +hich is the

very li(e and soul o( the universe. Oet Islam has acce'ted u(ism. The u(is instead o( %ein&

e*communicated are securely esta%lished in the !ohammedan church and the Le&end o( the

!oslem aints records the +ildest e*cesses o( Briental 'antheism.

Let us return (or a moment to the oran that in(alli%le touchstone %y +hich every !ohammedan

theory and 'ractice must %e 'roved. Are any &erms o( mysticism to %e (ound thereM The oran as I

have said starts +ith the notion o( Allah the Bne Eternal and Almi&hty God (ar a%ove human

(eelin&s and as'irations//the Lord o( 0is slaves not the Kather o( 0is children a ud&e metin& out

stern ustice to sinners and e*tendin& 0is mercy only to those +ho avert 0is +rath %y re'entance

humility and unceasin& +or)s o( devotion a God o( (ear rather than o( love. This is one side and

certainly the most 'rominent side o( !ohammed,s teachin& %ut +hile he set an im'assa%le &ul(

%et+een the +orld and Allah his dee'er instinct craved a direct revelation (rom God to the soul.

There are no contradictions in the lo&ic o( (eelin&. !ohammed +ho had in him somethin& o( the

mystic (elt God %oth as (ar and near %oth as transcendent and immanent. In the latter as'ect Allah

is the li&ht o( the heavens and the earth a $ein& +ho +or)s in the +orld and in the soul o( man.

HI( !y servants as) thee a%out !e lo I am nearH 9or. 2.1:2


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nature to a 'urely (ormal chan&eless and a%solute unity a %are +ill devoid o( all a((ections and

emotions a tremendous and incalcula%le 'o+er +ith +hich no human creature could have any

communion or 'ersonal intercourse +hatsoever. That is the God o( !ohammedan theolo&y. That

+as the alternative to u(ism. There(ore Hall thin)in& reli&ious !oslems are mysticsH as Pro(essor

D. $. !acdonald one o( our %est authorities on the su%ect has remar)ed. And he adds HAll too

are 'antheists %ut some do not )no+ it.H

The relation o( individual u(is to Islam varies (rom more or less entire con(ormity to a merely

nominal 'ro(ession o( %elie( in Allah and 0is Pro'het. Fhile the oran and the Traditions are

&enerally ac)no+led&ed to %e the unaltera%le standard o( reli&ious truth this ac)no+led&ment does

not include the reco&nition o( any e*ternal authority +hich shall decide +hat is orthodo* and +hat

is heretical. 8reeds and catechisms count (or nothin& in the u(i,s estimation. Fhy should he

concern himsel( +ith these +hen he 'ossesses a doctrine derived immediately (rom GodM As he

reads the oran +ith studious meditation and ra't attention lo the hidden meanin&s//in(inite

ine*hausti%le//o( the 0oly Ford (lash u'on his in+ard eye. This is +hat the u(is call istin%at a

sort o( intuitive deduction the mysterious in(lo+ o( divinely revealed )no+led&e into hearts made

'ure %y re'entance and (illed +ith the thou&ht o( God and the out(lo+ o( that )no+led&e u'on the

inter'retin& ton&ue. 6aturally the doctrines elicited %y means o( istin%at do not a&ree very +elleither +ith !ohammedan theolo&y or +ith each other %ut the discord is easily e*'lained.

Theolo&ians +ho inter'ret the letter cannot %e e*'ected to reach the same conclusions as mystics

+ho inter'ret the s'irit and i( %oth classes di((er amon&st themselves that is a merci(ul

dis'ensation o( divine +isdom since theolo&ical controversy serves to e*tin&uish reli&ious error

+hile the variety o( mystical truth corres'onds to the mani(old de&rees and modes o( mystical

e*'erience.

In the cha'ter on the &nosis I shall enter more (ully into the attitude o( the u(is to+ards 'ositive

reli&ion. It is only a rou&h/and/ready account o( the matter to say that many o( them have %een

&ood !oslems many scarcely !oslems at all and a third 'arty 'erha's the lar&est !oslems a(ter

a (ashion. Durin& the early !iddle A&es Islam +as a &ro+in& or&anism and &radually %ecame

trans(ormed under the in(luence o( diverse movements o( +hich u(ism itsel( +as one.

!ohammedan orthodo*y in its 'resent sha'e o+es much to Ghaali and Ghaali +as a u(i.

Throu&h his +or) and e*am'le the u(istic inter'retation o( Islam has in no small measure %een

harmonised +ith the rival claims o( reason and tradition %ut ust %ecause o( this he is less valua%le

than mystics o( a 'urer ty'e to the student +ho +ishes to )no+ +hat u(ism essentially is.

Althou&h the numerous de(initions o( u(ism +hich occur in Ara%ic and Persian %oo)s on the

su%ect are historically interestin& their chie( im'ortance lies in sho+in& that u(ism is unde(ina%le.

7alaluddin umi in his !asnavi tells a story a%out an ele'hant +hich some 0indoos +ere e*hi%itin&

in a dar) room. !any 'eo'le &athered to see it %ut as the 'lace +as too dar) to 'ermit them to seethe ele'hant they all (elt it +ith their hands to &ain an idea o( +hat it +as li)e. Bne (elt its trun)

and said that the animal resem%led a +ater/'i'e another (elt its ear and said it must %e a lar&e (an

another its le& and thou&ht it must %e a 'illar another (elt its %ac) and declared that the %east must

%e li)e an immense throne. o it is +ith those +ho de(ine u(ism they can only attem't to e*'ress

+hat they themselves have (elt and there is no conceiva%le (ormula that +ill com'rise every shade

o( 'ersonal and intimate reli&ious (eelin&. ince ho+ever these de(initions illustrate +ith

convenient %revity certain as'ects and characteristics o( u(ism a (e+ s'ecimens may %e &iven.

Hu(ism is this that actions should %e 'assin& over the u(i 9i.e. %ein& done u'on him

reynold a. nicholson - the mystics of islam

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