richard smith_exploring post-marxist theory - a reading of jean baudrillard
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Exploring post-Marxist theory: a reading of Jean Baudrillard
Richard G Smith
Department of Geography
Leicester University
Leicester
LE1 7RH
England
Email: [email protected]
A full version of this paper (with a response from Marcus Doel) is forthcoming as
"Baudrillard unwound: the duplicity of post-Marxism and deconstruction" in
Environment and Planning D: Society & Space (pages 1 - 44)
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Abstract
The polarization of debate between Marxism, postmodernism, andpoststructuralism is ill judged and unproductive. In contrast to this stand-off
the case is made for a transgenic or transversal post-Marxism that opens upnew possibilities and avenues for critical theoretical development. Theargument is developed specifically through a reading of Baudrillard s oeuvre.It is argued that the oft-repeated claims for an epistemological breakbetween an early, Marxian Baudrillard and a later, postmodern Baudrillard isnot bourne out by his texts. Instead, Baudrillard's oeuvre is read to bestructured by a 'double spiral' which involves an antagonism between thesemiotic (or simulacrum) and the symbolic (that which stands to the side ofthe field of value and capitalist exchange). It is argued that Baudrillard's post-Marxism contains many possibilites for the development of critical theorywhen the semiotic logic at the heart of the political economy of the sign is
freed from the mystique of the unachievable utopia of symbolic exchange. Inparticular the paper points towards the contribution of Baudrillard's work forworking out a general theory of the reproduction of space.
Key words: post-Marxism, Baudrillard
Prolegomenon to post-Marxism
The critique slipped to the side by itself, not out of any decided intention.
Baudrillard (1995: 17)
The so-called crisis of Marxism continues and consequently some intellectuals
of the Left have begun to throw away past certainties, and think differently,
through the philosophies of postmodernism and poststructuralism. Through
various critiques of Marxist theory, politics, and practice, the possibility hasemerged of somehow being between Marxism, postmodernism, and
poststructuralism. Despite the apparent mutual exclusivity of epistemes and the
risk of being misunderstood, a number of people are working out their own
combinations of Marxism, postmodernism, and poststructuralism (e.g. Callari and
Ruccio, 1996; Jameson, 1991; Ryan, 1982; Soja, 1996). Indeed, it is increasingly
difficult to justify abandoning either Marxism, postmodernism, or poststructuralism.
Within a non-exclusive logic of both-and that eschews the immutable terms of
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either/or one is free to experiment. For example, while one may argue that some
form of Marxist class theory is central to understanding social inequality in late-
capitalism, that does not prevent one from recognizing that Foucault s historical
analyses have succeeded in casting a far darker shadow of suspicion over
liberal society than Althusser s laborious analyses of Marx s Capital (Lilla,
1994: 13). Indeed, it is clear that many postmodernists and poststructuralists have
extended or reacted to Marxism in a number of useful and interesting ways which
do not necessarily mean the jettisoning of a radical left-wing politics.
Sim (1998) draws a distinction between post-Marxistand post-Marxist positions.On the one hand, post-Marxists graft the critical-theoretical insights of, say,
deconstruction, feminism, postmodernism, and poststructuralism onto classical or
neo-Marxism (e.g. Laclau and Mouffe, 1985). This amalgamation of isms
means Marxism can be made relevant to a new cultural climate that is no longer
responding to classical Marxist doctrine (Sim, 1998: 2). While sympathetic to
these endeavours we can read an allegory by Baudrillard (1990: 206) as a critique
of such an expansive post-Marxist project of nuts-and-bolts reassembly.
The daughter of the famous Winchester ... heard a prediction that she would
die when her house was completed just revenge for the thousands of victims
which the only too famous carbine had created in the West over a century.
Then, like Penelope, she began to build a house without end, interminably
adding bedrooms, staircases, annexes. She died in the end, in the 1930s,
leaving behind a monstrous 150-bedroom house as a memorial to the
holocaust of the nineteenth century.
On the other hand, post-Marxists are those who, while being perceived to have
turned their backs on Marxism, remain haunted by Marx (cf. Derrida, 1994; Lyotard,
1993). This can be said for Baudrillard. For while he is viewed as having broken
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with Marx, Baudrillard has maintained a certain nostalgia for him. There is a
continuityto Baudrillard s oeuvre that demonstrates a ceaseless drive towards a
post-Marxist position.
In my reading of Baudrillard, however, the either/or distinction carved out by
Sim does not hold: Baudrillard is both post-Marxist and post-Marxist. This makes
him an exemplary figure with whom one can explore the space between Marxism,
postmodernism, and poststructuralism. Furthermore, this demonstates the
importance of reading for creating new ideas and understandings. For example,
rather than resorting to a reconstruction of post-Marxism, what happens if oneviews Baudrillard s account of hyperreality as a remarkably elegant description of
an ideology? What happens if one reads Baudrillard s rendition of simulacra and
simulation through the lens of his re-theorisation of Marx s account of the
commodity-form? Reading becomes vital as one cannot see the possibilities if
one breaks Baudrillard s work into separate Marxist and postmodernist chapters.
It is to such a reading that I turn.
Framing Baudrillard
You push and shove the material into the rigid area getting it into the
boundary on one side, and it bulges out on another .... until finally almost
everything sits unstably more or less in there; what doesn t gets heaved far
away so that it won t be noticed. Nozick (1974: xiii)
When re-presenting ideas be honest. There s were I started, here s where I
ended up; the major weakness in my work is that I went from there to here; in
particular, here are the most noticeable distortions, pushings, shovings, maulings,
gougings, stretchings, and chippings that I committed during the trip; not to
mention the things thrown away and ignored, and all those avertings of gaze
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(Nozick, 1974: xiii). Reading Baudrillard is to push and shove until a specified
shape is revealed. To read Baudrillard as a post-Marxist is to press, push, shove,
maul, and stretch, but also to throw away, abandon, clip, chip, and cut his thought
towards a particular end. Beyond the perimeter there is always that which
protrudes and remains, that which fails to be reduced to the over-arching narrative
of a metatheoretical discourse holding to a grand or great referent all the real s
big numbers (capital, democracy, justice, labour, sovereignty, use-value, utility,
etc.). All those metanarratives, depth models , Grand Theories, hermeneutics
of suspicion , specular watchtowers, and ways of reading the world that claim to
be able to dig-out the truth: essence behind appearance; latent (unconsciousdesire) behind manifest (symptom); authentic behind inauthentic; production
beneath superstructure; relations of force or power beneath the ideological or
normative shell; signified behind signifierin short, all realities laid bare by an
interpretative hermeneutichave a certain perimeter. However, this is not to say
that the best way to read Baudrillard is not through a close critical reading that
would reveal the overall structure of his philosophical system, the layers in his
writing, the themes that span his texts, the debts to previous thinkers, his
interventions in the politics of place, etc. After all, a critical , symptomatic or
intensive reading of Baudrillard s oeuvre enables one to pick and choose,
avoiding any limitations or frivolities.
The historical and theoretical question of reading Baudrillard's oeuvre can be
addressed through a denial of an epistemological break in his corpus which
divides it into Marxist and postmodern chapters. Instead of promoting Baudrillard
as a Marxist from a reading of his early writings or as a postmodernist through
a reading of his later writings , I read Baudrillard as a post-Marxist where the
two-camps are not opposed but reconciled. The bar that is read to divide is
removed in an effort to encourage cross-theorization and fertilization between
different epistemes. This cannot be done for all the so-called postmodernists and
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poststructuralists. Unlike Baudrillard, Derrida did not start out from an explicitly
Marxist position. Despite being haunted by Marx, Specters of Marx (1994)
represents Derrida s first major statement on Marx (his earlier publications
investigated the history and nature of writing). Similarly, Deleuze s initial works,
while considerations of key figures in the history of philosophy, such as Hume,
Nietzsche, and Kant, were not on Marx, and his subsequent works were deeply
indebted to Nietzsche, Leibniz, Bergson, and Spinoza. However, Lyotard was an
active Marxist in his early academic career. Between 1956 and 1966, he was on
the editorial committee of the socialist journal Socialisme ou Barbarie and involved
with the socialist newspaper Pouvoir Ouvrierwhich emerged from the schism ofthe earlier group in 1964. Furthermore, he opposed the French government over
the war in Algeria, and participated in the events of 1968. However, he is then said
to have rejected totalitarian thought (a category in which he would include Marxism
because, like Arendt, Marxism for Lyotard is equated as belonging to the same
logic that led to the Stalinist death camps) to become perhaps the key non-Marxist
philosopher of post-modernity in the 1980s. It is proposed that Lyotard started his
epistemological break in his doctoral thesis Discours, figure (1971) and then
broke in Libidinal Economy (1993) where he attempted to escape Marx through
Freud s economy of libidinal energy and the notion of the primary process.
Lechte (1994: 246) argues that [t]his extreme break with Marxism in Economie
libidinale becomes much more nuanced in the philosophy of postmodernism. In
fact, neither Lyotard nor Baudrillard are ex-Marxist ; they are post-Marxist .
Post-Marxism: exploring the spaces between
The word exploration is appropriately chosen. One view about how to write
a philosophy book holds that an author should think through all of the details of
the view he presents, and its problems, polishing and refining his view to
present to the world a finished, complete, and elegant whole. This is not my
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view. At any rate, I believe that there also is a place and a function in our
ongoing intellectual life for a less complete work, containing unfinished
presentations, conjectures, open questions and problems, leads, side
connections, as well as a main line of argument. There is room for words on
subjects other than last words. Nozick (1974: xii)
Jameson (1991: 297) observes that people often find the combination of Marxism
and postmodernism peculiar or paradoxical and somehow intensely unstable, so
that some are led to conclude that, in my own case, having become a
postmodernist I must have ceased to be a Marxist in any meaningful (or in otherwords, stereotypical) sense. Similarly, Gregory (1989: 356) observes that
postmodernism needs to be seen not as a negation of everything that went
before but rather as a critical commentary upon it. In Geographical Imaginations,
Gregory (1994: 317-318) confesses that: I should say at once that I find myself
caught in the middle: still very much interested in the development of historical
materialism; suspicious of claims that it provides the single master key to unlock
human history and geography; yet sceptical of some of the assumptions and
implications of postmodernism . Furthermore, Graham (1988: 63) argues
postmodernism is more than an anti-Marxist critique levelled at Marxism from
outside, it is an emerging tradition within Marxism. Marxism is dead. Long live
Marxisms ; and even Peet (1998: viii) now describes himself as a materialist
poststructuralist who has been largely persuaded by socialist feminism and
partly persuaded by poststructuralism, yet remain[s] unconvinced by most of
postmodernism, except Baudrillard, with whose notions of sign-domination [he]
basically agree[s] .
It is not easy to refuse to think in boxes, to refuse to accept that there is one box
called Marxism and others called postmodernism and poststructuralism .
You cannot win against the compartmentalization of knowledge, the binary
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thinking of those who see things clearly as either/or ( GET LEFT OR GET
RIGHT demands Harvey (1996: 3)), rather than both-and. You are either a
vulgar Marxist (the criticism from postmodernists and poststructuralists) or a
turncoat who has abandoned the project of the Left (the criticism from Marxists).
This is how the Left has caricatured Baudrillard. He was a brilliant Marxist who lost
his way, seduced by postmodernism; From a radical position on the Left, he
gradually moved towards a right-wing poststructuralism and postmodernism
(Sarup, 1993: 163). If only things were that simple!
One of the main myths about Baudrillard is that there are two profound breaks inhis oeuvre. The prevailing view that Baudrillard broke with Marx in The Mirror of
Production (1975), as Kellner (1989: 48) argues, is questionable: In Mirror,
Baudrillard makes a definitive break with Marxism for the first timethough one
can read his earlier works in retrospect as leading up to this breakand presents
his own theory as providing superior perspectives on contemporary society .
Furthermore, the logical corollary of this view is that Baudrillard paved the way for
an epistemological break in his subsequent text, Symbolic Exchange and
Death (1993), which led towards a postmodern position (e.g. Gottdiener, 1995;
Kellner, 1989). This is equally questionable. Just because Baudrillard describes
the end of modernity this does not mean he is proclaiming its end. For example,
Kellner (1994: 7) quotes Baudrillard on his ends from Symbolic Exchange and
Death (1993: 8): The end of labour. The end of production. The end of political
economy. The end of the signifier/signified dialectic the end of the exchange-
value/use-value dialectic The end of the linear dimension of discourse. The end
of the linear dimension of the commodity. The end of the classical era of the sign.
The end of the era of production. For Kellner, the discourse of the end
signifies Baudrillard s announcement of a postmodern break or rupture in
history . However, it is a very strange logic that sees an end as a break .
An end is just an end ! It is not the case of something existing and then no
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longer existing, rather these things have surpassed themselves. Baudrillard is
more Marxist than Marx (who, of course, said he wasn t anyway); post-Marxist.
In 1995, I suggested that one should not undertake a reading which views
Marxism, postmodernism, and poststructuralism as separate epistemes. This has
been argued more recently by Soja (1996), who proposes a Radical
postmodernism, whose non-exclusive logic would eschew the immutable
Aristotelian terms of either/or to explore the space between Marxism and
postmodernism through the logic of both-and. Thus, my reading of Baudrillard will
mind the gap , as Lyotard would say. It will collapse the bar (/) through,across, and in Baudrillard s writings to bridge the gap between two imaginaries in
an epistemology which knows the difference: In the consciousness of our failures,
we risk lapsing into boundless differences and giving up on the confusing task of
making partial, real connection. Some differences are playful. Some are poles of
world historical domination. Epistemology is about knowing the difference
(Haraway, 1985: 79). In this reading the binary separating epistemes is rejected
and the bar collapsed in an effort to encourage cross-theorization and cross-
fertilization between the different epistemes which hitherto have been hastily
polarised and marketed as hermetically-sealed entities. My desire is to inhabit
the tense and creative spaces between different and dissonant theoretical
traditions (Barnes and Gregory, 1997: 3).
Mind the gap
I do not believe in decisive ruptures, in an unequivocal epistemological
break .... Breaks are always, and fatally, reinscribed in an old cloth that must
continually, interminably be undone. ... And this in no way minimizes the
necessity and relative importance of breaks, of the appearance and definition
of new structures. Derrida (1981: 24)
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In For Marx(1979), Althusser noted a clear epistemological break in Marx s
oeuvre. A young Marx (of the 1844 Manuscripts and The Holy Family), a humanist
who wrote within an Hegelian-Feuerbachian problematic, and a mature Marx, who
finally, after a period of theoretical transition (with the Manifesto of the Communist
Party, the Poverty of Philosophy, and Wages, Price and Profit), developed a
science of historical materialism after 1857. For Althusser, the humanist and
utopian imaginary evident in Marx s earlier work could not be traced consistently
in his later work. Althusser argued that the epistemological break in Marx s
oeuvre was 1845, with his Theses on Feuerbach and The German Ideology, andsome two years after his Critique of Hegel s Philosophy of Right, which, for
Althusser, was more akin to a Feuerbachian critique of Hegel.
The consensus on reading Baudrillard is analogous to Althusser s reading of
Marx. Gottdiener (1994: 24) writes of a critical disjuncture in Baudrillard s
oeuvre. He draws a distinction between Baudrillard s early effort to study therelationship between semiotics and the commodification of everyday life, and the
later effort which abandons that project and replaces it with an impressionistic,
idealized and jargon-laden discourse . Numerous writers have identified this
coupure pistmologique in Baudrillard s oeuvre between a young Baudrillard
(who wrote within a neo-Marxist problematic) and a mature Baudrillard (who writes
with a postmodern imagination). Symbolic Exchange and Death (1993) is regarded
as the site of Baudrillard s postmodern turn where, after criticizing Marx in
The Mirror of Production (1975), he elaborated his emerging position which was to
become compatible with much postmodern thinking. For example, Kellner (in
Baudrillard, 1993: book cover) writes that Symbolic Exchange and Death is
easily Baudrillard s most important work. It is a key intervention in the debates on
modernity and postmodernity and the site of his postmodern turn . Similarly, Best
(1989: 36) argues that [t]he difference between Critique of the Political Economy
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of the Sign and The Mirror of Production was indeed sharp, but the real break in
Baudrillard s work did not occur until Symbolic Exchange and Death (1993), for it
is there that he made the transition (conceived on his own terms) from a modern to
a postmodern theorist . However, one should be suspicious of analytically-
acclaimed ruptures profondes and I would argue that Baudrillard s most
popular ideas can only be understood through his earliest writings. So, one can
both agree and disagree with Vine s (1989: 41) suggestion that fifty consecutive
pages of Baudrillard are essentially the whole of Baudrillard , because although
one cannot understand Baudrillard from reading just fifty pages (that would be an
unprecedented reiteration), it is the case that all of Baudrillard is present in thosepages.
Not reading Baudrillard through an epistemological break leads to the question
of how one can read his works to produce a post-Marxism. The answer lies in two
parts: first, reading symptomatically, which gets at the continuities that weave
together Baudrillard s oeuvre; and, second, by viewing his oeuvre as a double
spiral , rather than through the before and after of an epistemological break .
These led me to the dramatic discovery of the possibilities for new theoretical
development by reading Baudrillard as one, rather than two. Reading Baudrillard
without an epistemological break means that one can begin to produce a
general theory of the reproduction of space. One can see how Baudrillard s
general theory of the political economy of the sign is the basis of his ideas about
simulacra, simulations, reproductions, and hyperreality. A post-Marxist theory
developed from Baudrillard can give us a starting point from which to develop a
general theory of the reproduction of space in late-capitalist societies. However,
that is another story and we are getting ahead of ourselves. Let me explain
symptomatic reading before turning to the double spiral.
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Surface and symptomatic reading
The distinction Althusser (1979) draws between surface reading and
symptomatic reading is useful for reading Baudrillard because it helps us to
see the continuity of his thought . For example, Baudrillard s America (1988a)
has an invisible structure that consists of several theses from earlier works.
This structure has been deliberately overlooked by other commentators who we
can call (without any offence) surface readers . Gane (1991: 182), reads
America not symptomatically ... but as a mirror of Baudrillard s own form ofwriting, that is fatally, or poetically, for the text ofAmerica ... does not aim at depth
or at a dialectical analysis. The problem for the reader is to find, therefore, an
appropriate superficial form of reading. However, in Cool Memories (1990: 219)
Baudrillard writes that [f]orAmerica, only one method: given a certain number of
fragments, notes and stories collected over a given time, there mustbe a solution
which integrates them all, including the most banal, into a necessary whole,
without adding or removing any: the very necessity which, beneath the surface,
presided over their collection . It is therefore necessary to read not only with
breadth (as the text has a wide extent) but also with depth, to undertake a
symptomatic reading of America which looks beneath the surface to
distinguish a word from a concept, to distinguish the existence or non existence
of a concept behind a word, to discern the existence of a concept by a word's
function in the theoretical discourse, to define the nature of a concept by its
function in the problematic, and thus by the location it occupies in the system of
the theory (Althusser, 1979: 39). This combined reading could be termed an
extensive-intensive reading which is alert to Tournier s observation that [i]t
is a strange prejudice which sets a higher value on depth than on breadth, and
which accepts superficial as meaning not of wide extent but of little
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depth whereas deep , on the other hand, signifies of great depth , and not
of small surface (quoted in Deleuze, 1993: 261-262).
An extensive-intensive reading sees links across the so-called break in
Baudrillard s oeuvre. However, a transversal or post-Marxist reading of
Baudrillard is achieved not only by extensive and intensive reading, but also by
seeing the structure of the double spiral which serves to unite Baudrillard s
thinking throughout his writings. In this paper I am pushing away and forgetting
one half of the double spiral for the sake of clarity. Concentrating on the spiral of
the code throughout his work enables us to see the remarkable contribution thatBaudrillard has made to extending Marx s description of the commodity: by noting
that it is structurally homologous with the Saussurian sign and by developing all of
the consequences of this insight.
Double Spiral M b ius
Rather than reading Baudrillard through an epistemological break he could be
read, as he himself says, through a double spiral :
The double spiral moves from Le Systme des Objets to the Fatal Strategies:
a spiral swerving towards a sphere of the sign, the simulacrum and simulation,
a spiral of the reversibility of all signs in the shadow of seduction and death.
The two paradigms are diversified in the course of this spiral without altering
their antagonistic position. On the one hand: political economy, production, the
code, the system, simulation. On the other hand: potlatch, expenditure,
sacrifice, death, the feminine, seduction, and in the end, the fatal (Baudrillard,
1988b: 79).
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If one reads all of Baudrillard, then one can see that the spiral of the semiotic is
described by Baudrillard as the code of social standing in 1968, the code in
1970, the political economy of the sign in 1972, the structural law of value
in 1976, and as hyperreality , simulation , and simulacra from around
1981. Similarly, the spiral of the symbolic can also be seen to have evolved during
this time from the gift and ambivalence to seduction, fatal strategies, evil and
death. The spiral of the symbolic traces the complete history of Baudrillard s
opposition to the code as a Pataphysician at twenty situationist at thirty
utopian at forty transversal at fifty and viral and metaleptic at sixty
(Baudrillard, 1996a: 83).
So, Baudrillard provides the means to divide his oeuvre without resorting to an
Althusserian-style epistemological break between Marxism and
postmodernism/poststructuralism. The double spiral traces the destruction of
the symbolic by the semiotic and the ironic eruption of the former in the latter.
Gane (1993) first highlighted this aspect of Baudrillard s imaginary, and Genosko
(1994: 164) made a book of it, finishing with the opinion that Baudrillard is
primarily concerned with struggling against signification in the name of symbolic
exchange .
The double spiral is a metaphor for the opposition of the semiotic (the code,
etc.) to the symbolic (ambivalence, etc.). Let me explain: 1) symbolic exchange; 2)
the code; and 3) how the code destroys symbolic exchange (although vestiges
survive):
1. Symbolic exchange: Baudrillard mobilizes against the hegemonic system of the
code not class conflict or even consumer resistance but symbolic exchange. He
thinks of the symbolic, not as an analogical variant of the sign in the classic semio-
linguistic sense (like allegory, icon, indication or signal), but as an anti-
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semiological device: signs must burn (Baudrillard, 1981: 163). For Baudrillard,
the symbolic (a form of exchange that is ambivalent, non-equivalent, and non-
reductive) is what opposes the authority of the code, resisting integration into the
capitalist system of exchange and the field of value. Symbolic exchange is for
Baudrillard a revolutionary project that can transgress and deconstruct the
hegemonic discourse of the code because it is external to the collapsing of the
signifier and signified which excludes the possibility of judgement and criticism
(the code is in this respect analogous to Lefebvre s signal ). For me, however,
this is at best quixotic and at worst utopian. Baudrillard s anti-semiology is a
hollow gesture that falls all too easily into a utopia of the peaceful surrender of themeans of (re)production by capitalists. In For a Critique of the Political Economy of
the Sign (1981), before developing a full-blown theory of symbolic exchange in
Symbolic Exchange and Death (1993), Baudrillard notes, in my view correctly, that
the structural relation between commodity-form and sign-form is a system in the
framework of political economy and so is susceptible to a critique in the same
way as classical political economy because their form is the same, not their
content: sign form and commodity form (Baudrillard, 1981: 126). Thus, symbolic
exchange is a utopia, another possible world, and is not adequate as a critical
politics and practice. (For more on the origins of the idea of symbolic exchange as
utopia from Baudrillard s early writings in the journal Utopie, see Smith 1995,
1997.)
2. The code is derived from both the commodity-form described by Marx and the
sign described by Saussure, and is synonymous with hyperreality , simulacra
and simulations , and the structural law of value in Baudrillard s oeuvre. In
this way, Baudrillard s earliest works on the system of objects are related to his
later writings on virtual reality and cyberspace. Baudrillard first described a code
of social standing in The System of Objects (1996b), where he postulated that
consumer society is not defined by the quantity of goods, nor the satisfaction of
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needs although these are obviously preconditionsbut by the organization of
consumption as a signifying substance. He argued that the object or commodity
must become a sign that is never consumed in its materiality, but in its
difference (Baudrillard, 1968: 277). In his next book, Consumer Society(1998),
Baudrillard continued to speak of consumption as a code defined by a structural
and differential logic of signs rather than of human needs and pure commodities.
Here Baudrillard begins the systematic critique of needs (a phenomenology of
pleasure) and use-value (both of which belong to the epistemology of political
economy), enabling him to argue in terms of the domination of the code
(hyperreality) in late-capitalism without relying on a reduction of society to aputative utilitarian base. He continues to argue that consumption can be
historically and structurally defined as the exaltation of signs based on the denial
of the reality of things (Baudrillard, 1970: 148). In a consumer society, where
needs no longer serve as the defining structural axiomatic, the code is
substituted for all other would-be referents. In a telling paragraph for anyone who
has read his later texts, Baudrillard (1970: 195) observes:
An immense process of simulation has taken place throughout all of everyday
life .... One fabricates a model by combining characteristics or elements of
the real; and, by making them act out a future event, structure or situation,
tactical conclusions can be drawn and applied to reality. It can be used as an
analytical tool under controlled scientific conditions. In mass communications,
this procedure assumes the force of reality, abolishing and volatilising the latter
in favour of that neo-reality of a model materialised by the medium itself.
As always, Baudrillard recognizes that the most important change occurs at the
structural level, and not at the quantitative level. This interest in simulation as
encroaching on society is what Baudrillard becomes renowned for in his later texts
which explore hyperreality.
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3. Destruction of symbolic exchange by the code : Harvey (1989: 287) reads
Baudrillard s For a Critique of the Political Economy of the Sign (1981) as if it
were arguing that Marx s analysis of commodity production is outdated because
capitalism is now predominantly concerned with the production of signs, images
and sign systems rather than with commodities themselves . This is not the case.
Baudrillard draws our attention to the fact that the logic of the commodity and of
political economy is at the very heart of the sign while the structure of the sign
is at the very heart of the commodity form (Baudrillard, 1981: 146). The key
chapter is For a General Theory , where the logic of the commodity-sign form is
unfolded. It is this which structures Baudrillard s oeuvre as a double spiralling(and not as an epistemological breaking ) of the semiotic (code) and the
symbolic. The chapter opens by proposing four logics:
the functional logic of use-value (UV)
the economic logic of exchange-value (EcEV)
the differential logic of sign-value (SgEV)
the logic of symbolic exchange (SbE)
These have the respective principles of: utility(satisfaction of needs); equivalence;
difference (distinction); and ambivalence. From these Baudrillard proposes a
general anthropology of values based on the permutation and transformation of
these forms. There are 12 moments:
(1) UV - EcEV (4) EcEV - UV (7) SgEV - UV (10) SbE - UV
(2) UV - SgEV (5) EcEV - SgEV (8) SgEV - EcEV (11) SbE - EcEV
(3) UV - SbE (6) EcEV - SbE (9) SgEV - SbE (12) SbE - SgEV
This structural schema is an extension of Marx s logic. Moments (1), where
exchange-value is produced, and (4), where exchange-value is turned into use-
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value during consumption, are two moments in the classical Marxist cycle of
political economy. However, to this Baudrillard adds his theory of the political
economy of the sign. In moments (2) and (5) the commodity gains sign-value, and
we have the ascension of the commodity form into the sign form, the
transfiguration of the economic into sign systems and the transmutation of
economic power into domination and social caste privilege (Baudrillard, 1981:
124). In short, moments (2) and (5) are the transfiguration of use-value and
exchange-value into sign-value (the transformation of the object/commodity-form
into the sign-form), which, as models of social distinction and cultural
capital , may be converted back into use-value, moment (7), and exchange-value,moment (8).
Outlined above are Baudrillard s code(s) of value (use-value, exchange-value,
sign-value) which constitute the political economy of the sign. This is one side of
the double spiral . Moments (3), (6), and (9) mark the transgression of the sign-
form towards symbolic exchange via the destruction of use-value, exchange-value,
and sign-value, respectively. This does not produce a sign-value (as in moments
(2) and (5)) but a transgression of the field of value as such towards symbolic
exchange in the manner of the gift or festival. By contrast, moments (10), (11), and
(12) chart the process of breaking and reducing symbolic exchange, and the
reintroduction of economic and semiotic calculation:
the objects involved in reciprocal exchange, whose uninterrupted circulation
establishes social relationships, i.e., social meaning, annihilate themselves in
this continual exchange without assuming any value of their own (that is any
appropriable value). Once symbolic exchange is broken, this same material is
abstracted into utility value, commercial value, statutory value. The symbolic is
transformed into the instrumental, either commodity or sign. Any one of the
various codes may be specifically involved, but they are all joined in the single
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form of political economy which is opposed, as a whole, to symbolic
exchange (Baudrillard, 1981: 125).
Such is the erosion of the symbolic by the semiotic which defines and structures
all of Baudrillard s oeuvre. It is very important to realize that symbolic value
does not exist. For Baudrillard, symbolic exchange is outside of the field of value,
since value as such belongs to political economy and the code . Only the
radical rupture of the field of value can inaugurate symbolic exchange. To
summarize, consider the following equation:
EcEV = Sr / SbE
UV Sd
where the vertical implication is that exchange-value is to use-value as signifier
(Sr) is to signified (Sd), while the horizontal implication is that exchange-value is to
signifier as use-value is to signified. This is the homologous relation of the
commodity-sign form which describes general political economy. The bar (/) shows
that the ambivalent logic of symbolic exchange is excluded from the whole field of
value. Therein lies its revolutionary potential.
Overall, then, the double spiral is how Baudrillard reconstructs the shape of his
oeuvre in 1987 (Baudrillard, 1988b). Given that this structure appeared back in
1972 (Baudrillard, 1981), long before the so-called epistemological break , you
will understand why my overall reading of Baudrillard is asynchronic.
The other, by another1
If I am not mistaken, you were not disinclined to me and you would have
liked to like some piece of my work. That never happened; but this time you
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turn the pages and read approvingly a verse here and there perhaps
because you have recognized your own voice in it, perhaps because deficient
practice concerns you less than solid theory. Borges (1991: 21)
Reading Baudrillard in the way outlined above is my prolegomenon to future
explorations into the space between Marxism, postmodernism, and
poststructuralism. When one looks at the detail one sees that conceptual blocks
are not separate blocks at all. We must be innovative and flexible if we are to
develop fresh insights and move on from the current impasse in contemporary
geographical thought between Marxists, postmodernists, and poststructuralists.
In my reading a crime was committed for the purpose of clarity: Baudrillard was
framed. I heaved far away and abandoned the spiral of symbolic exchange to
visibly and honestly force a spiral that is always already related to the other spiral
apart. Ignoring symbolic exchange brings into focus the code as an interesting and
truly remarkable post-Marxist description (here base does not determine
superstructure in some teleological dialectic) of both the commodity-form (which
becomes the commodity-sign) and ideology (of which, through this reading,
hyperreality is a remarkable description) in late-capitalism. This paves the way for
other discoveries, such as a general theory of the reproduction of space. Now
read Baudrillard s books from right to left.
FLASH
Quickly, you find an angle from which it looks like an exact fit and take a
snapshot; at a fast shutter speed before something else bulges out too
noticeably. Then, back to the darkroom to touch up the rents, rips, and tears in
the fabric of the perimeter. All that remains is to publish the photograph as a
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representation of exactly how things are, and to note how nothing fits properly
into any other shape (Nozick, 1974: xiii).
Endnote
1 Baudrillard s L Autre par lui-mme (1987), which Semiotext(e) published as
The Ecstasy of Communication (1988b), can be translated as The other, by
himself .
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