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Rigby Focus Forward

© 2008

Scientific Research Base

Rigby An Imprint of HMH Supplemental Publishers

Rigby Focus Forward Scientific Research Base

Table of Contents Page

Introduction 1

Strand 1: Teaching Reading 2

• Comprehension strategy instruction 2

• Fluency 4

• Vocabulary development and high frequency words 6

• Phonemic awareness and phonics instruction 7

Strand 2: Teaching Writing 9

• Skills/conventions 9

• Process 10

• Use of manipulatives: Writing build-its 11

Strand 3: Using Effective Instructional Approaches 13

• Intervention 13

• Explicit instruction 14

• Scaffolding & Gradual release of responsibility 15

• Modeling 16

• Integrated skills 17

• Predictable routines 18

• Small group/whole class instruction 19

• Active learning: Turn and talks 20

Strand 4: Selecting Effective Texts 21

• Finely leveled texts 21

• Fiction and nonfiction texts 22

• High-interest books and age-appropriate topics 23

Strand 5: Meeting the Needs of All Students 25

• Student motivation 25

• Differentiation 26

• Struggling readers 27

• English language learners 28

Strand 6: Using Assessment Purposefully 30

• Diagnostic assessment 30

• On-going assessment 31

• Self-monitoring 32

Works Cited 34

Research Base

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Introduction

On January 8, 2002, President George W. Bush signed into law the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. This law contains the most comprehensive reforms of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) since it was enacted in 1965. One fundamental principle of the law is that schools and teachers implement teaching methods that have been proven to work – effective teaching methods that have been identified through sound research. The purpose of this document is to demonstrate clearly and explicitly the scientific research upon which Rigby Focus Forward is based. The National Reading Panel (2000) identified five pillars deemed essential for reading instruction: comprehension strategies, vocabulary, phonics, phonemic awareness, and fluency; Rigby Focus Forward provides comprehensive instruction in all five pillars. Rigby Focus Forward was also developed based on recommendations on proper reading instruction described by Kim’s (2003) Reading Next report and proper writing instruction detailed in Graham and Perin’s (2007) Writing Next report. This document is organized by six major instructional strands that underpin the series: teaching reading, teaching writing, using effective instructional approaches, using effective texts, meeting the needs of all students, and utilizing assessment effectively to guide instruction. These strands represent key components of young adolescent literacy instruction as identified by researchers. To show how the strands are connected to research and the contents of Rigby Focus Forward, we have organized this booklet by the following sections within each strand:

Defining the Strand This section summarizes the terminology and findings of the research. Excerpts from the Research that Guided the Development of Rigby Focus Forward This section identifies subtopics within each strand and provides an excerpt from relevant research on each subtopic within the strand. From Research to Practice This section explains how the research data is exemplified in Rigby Focus Forward. For each subtopic, you will find a chart identifying page numbers of illustrative examples of the research-based instructional methodology. Immediately following the chart, you will find facsimiles of representative examples of this methodology from the Student Editions, Teacher’s Guide/Editions, and/or supplementary resources.

At the end of this booklet, you will find a list of all works cited here.

Research Base


What Does Scientifically Based Research Tell Us about Teaching Reading?

Defining the Strand: TEACHING READING

The goals of reading instruction between grades 3 and 8 are to develop the student’s ability to read independently – to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate a wide range of texts; to read for enjoyment as well as for information; and to make inferences, interpret, and apply what they have read. In order to reach these goals, students need to possess strong foundations in reading. Readers reading below grade level need a curriculum that provides instruction in strategies for comprehension, vocabulary development, fluency, and in the word-study skills they need for automatic access to printed texts. Comprehension Strategy Instruction

EXCERPTS FROM THE RESEARCH THAT GUIDED THE DEVELOPMENT OF RIGBY FOCUS FORWARD

“The rationale for the explicit teaching of comprehension skills is that comprehension can be improved by teaching students to use specific cognitive strategies or to reason strategically when they encounter barriers to understanding what they are reading. Readers acquire these strategies informally to some extent, but explicit or formal instruction in the application of comprehension strategies has been shown to be highly effective in enhancing understanding. The teacher generally demonstrates such strategies for students until the students are able to carry them out independently.” (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 2000, p. 14) “Effective comprehension strategy instruction is explicit, or direct. Research shows that explicit teaching techniques are particularly effective for comprehension strategy instruction. In explicit instruction, teachers tell readers why and when they should use strategies, what strategies to use, and how to apply them. The steps of explicit instruction typically include direct explanation, teacher modeling (‘thinking aloud’), guided practice, and application.

• Direct explanation. The teacher explains to students why the strategy helps comprehension and when to apply the strategy.

• Modeling. The teacher models, or demonstrates, how to apply the strategy, usually by ‘thinking aloud’ while reading the text that the students are using.

• Guided practice. The teacher guides and assists students as they learn how and when to apply the strategy.

• Application. The teacher helps students practice the strategy until they can apply it independently.” (Center for the Improvement of Early Reading, 2003, p. 53).

“Effective adolescent literacy interventions must address reading comprehension. A number of excellent approaches have been shown to be effective in middle and high school contexts, but no one approach is necessarily better than another; the ideal intervention will tap more than one comprehension instructional approach. Possible approaches include:

• comprehension strategies instruction, which is instruction that explicitly gives students strategies that aid them in comprehending a wide variety of texts;

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• comprehension monitoring and metacognition instruction, which is instruction that teaches students to become aware of how they understand while they read;

• teacher modeling, which involves the teacher reading texts aloud, making her own use of strategies and practices apparent to her students.” (Biancarosa & Snow, 2006, pp.13-14)

RIGBY FOCUS FORWARD FROM RESEARCH TO PRACTICE

In addition to linguistic knowledge, students’ reading comprehension is dependent on background knowledge, the ability to make inferences, and the ability to choose and use appropriate strategies for decoding and comprehending. Rigby Focus Forward applies strategy instruction to different selections, preteaches strategies, and provides guided practice with strategies. Following a gradual release model, students move from watching models that teachers provide to practicing with the support of the teacher to practicing on their own. Rigby Focus Forward is structured around 8 comprehension strategies and 23 connected subskills with teachers concentrating on a different comprehension strategy and related subskills each week for both Group 1 and Group 2 (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume 1 p. T50). The beginning of each day’s lesson focuses on teaching of a comprehension strategy. This instruction follows a Teach, Read and Practice pattern; teachers introduce and model the skill, which is then followed by guided practice in applying the comp. strategy and a Turn and Talk that relates to the guided practice (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume, pp. T24-T27). Teachers begin (Day 1) by first stating the comprehension strategy by explicitly describing the strategy and then modeling how to use the strategy using the comprehension transparency). Teachers then slowly provide students the opportunity to apply the strategy as the teacher’s provide guided practice visually utilizing a graphic organizer (Day 2), then guiding students’ use of the strategy by having students Think Aloud when applying the strategy (Day 3). Teachers finally finish a week’s unit by having students apply the strategy themselves in pairs (Day 5) (For an example see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume 1, pp. 4-5). Teaching of the comprehension strategy continues throughout each day’s lesson as the teacher guides students use of the strategy during Small Group Reading Time as the teacher prompts students to use strategies while reading the Student Books and then assesses students’ understanding of comprehension strategy through student Worktexts ( see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide pp. T28-T31). See the following pages for examples of how Rigby Focus Forward provides instruction in different comprehension strategies comprehension helps students use a variety of comprehension strategies.

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Fluency EXCERPTS FROM THE RESEARCH THAT GUIDED THE DEVELOPMENT OF RIGBY FOCUS

FORWARD “When a reader struggles with word-by-word reading, having difficulty reading the sentences and phrases, it isn’t surprising that little in the way of higher-order literacy performance is evident. So much cognitive effort was deployed at the word and sentence level that little remained for thinking about the ideas, emotions, and images found in the text. Working to develop fluent reading is important for fostering more thoughtful literacy performances.” (Allington, 2001. p.86) Explicit instruction for struggling readers should involve multiple steps focusing on building students’ fluency by focusing on phonological awareness, recognizing letters, phonics, and extends vocabulary and language skills. (Chard, Pikulski, & McDonagh, 2006) Fluency instruction is the most successful when it is incorporated in an encompassing literacy program (Shanahan, 2006). Effective fluency instruction occurs when programs emphasize time students spend reading as reading is crucial to improves students ability to recognize words, read easier and faster and improves students’ reading comprehension (Samuels, 2002).

Reading Comprehension Strategies Teachers’ Guides

Making Connections Group 1 & Group 2 Volume 1: Week 1 (pp. 2-25)

Volume 2: Week 9 (pp. 194-217)

Creating Images Group 1 & Group 2 Volume 1:Week 2 (pp. 26-49)

Volume 2 Week 10 (pp. 218-241)

Asking Questions Group 1 & Group 2 Volume 1: Week 3 (pp. 50-73)

Volume 2: Week 11 (pp. 242-265)

Determining Importance Group 1 & Group 2 Volume 1: Week 4 (pp. 74-97)

Volume 2: Week 12 (pp. 266-289)

Synthesizing Group 1 & Group 2 Volume 1: Week 5 (pp. 98-121)

Volume 2: Week 13 (pp. 290-313)

Inferring Group 1 & Group 2 Volume 1: Week 6 (pp. 122-145) Volume 2: Week 14 (pp. 314-337)

Monitoring Understanding Group 1 & Group 2 Volume 1: Week 7 (pp. 146-169) Volume 2: Week 15 (pp. 338-361)

Using Fix-Up Strategies Group 1 & Group 2 Volume 1: Week 16 (pp. 362-385) Volume 2: Week 8 (pp. 170-193)

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The ability to read fluently—to read smoothly, at a good pace, with expression, appropriate phrasing, and understanding—reflects a reader’s ability to construct meaning from text. Fluency improves as automaticity—automatic and accurate word recognition—improves. Fluent readers spend less energy decoding texts and therefore have more cognitive energy to focus on vocabulary and providing comprehension. Rigby Focus Forward builds fluency throughout each day’s lesson and the program focuses on 5 specific fluency skills (see below) during Small Group Reading Time. During Small Group Reading Time, the teacher introduces and models the fluency skill (Teach), which is then followed by guided practice. Students then apply the fluency skill in pairs, reading aloud to a partner and providing feedback via a Turn and Talk (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume 1, pp. T28-T29). Further opportunity for students to build fluency can occur during both Whole Class Instruction and Independent Practice as students have the option of using the Rigby Intervention Fluent ReaderTM Software which provides students the opportunity to improve fluent reading by giving students the opportunity to:

• Read along with a fluent reader • Record and listen to their own reading • Self monitor their own progress • Answer comprehension questions

Students can have their teachers listen to their best reading when the teacher is available allowing teachers the flexibility of assigning and assessing student fluency practice on a need-to basis (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume 1, pp. T37). See the following pages for examples showing how Rigby Focus Forward helps students use a variety of fluency skills.

Fluency Skills Teachers’ Guides

Use Punctuation to Inform Meaning Group 1 & Group 2 Volume 1:(pp. 6-25;126-145)

Volume 2: (pp. 126-145; 222-241)

Change Your Voice to Reflect Content or Characters

Group 1 & Group 2 Volume 1: (pp. 30-49; 150-169) Volume 2: (pp. 6-25; 102-121)

Stress Words with Special Type Treatment Group 1 & Group 2 Volume 1: (pp. 50-73; 170-193)

Volume 2:(pp. 146-169; 266-289)

Convey Emotion and Meaning Group 1 & Group 2 Volume 1: (pp.74-97; 194-217)

Volume 2: (pp. 170-193; 290-313 )

Read in Phrases Group 1 & Group 2 Volume 1: (pp. 98-121; 218-241 ) Volume 2:(pp. 74-97; 314-337 )

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Vocabulary Development and High Frequency Words EXCERPTS FROM THE RESEARCH THAT GUIDED THE DEVELOPMENT OF RIGBY FOCUS

FORWARD “The findings on vocabulary yielded several specific implications for teaching reading. First, vocabulary should be taught both directly and indirectly. Repetition and multiple exposures to vocabulary items are important. Learning in rich contexts, incidental learning, and use of computer technology all enhance the acquisition of vocabulary. Direct instruction should include task restructuring as necessary and should actively engage the student.” (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 2000, p.14) “In our vocabulary research, the instruction we provided was designed around three features:

1. Frequent encounters with the words 2. Richness of instruction [instruction that goes beyond definitional information to get students actively

involved in using and thinking about word meanings]…” (Beck, McKeown, & Kucan , 2003, p. 73) “Over the course of our vocabulary research, we compared a group of students who had received rich instruction to two other groups of students: one group who had not been instructed, and another group who had received traditional, definition-based instruction. … the pattern of results was that students who received rich, frequent instruction did better on a variety of measures.” (Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2003, pp.77-78) “ In order to provide ELLs [English Language Learners] with access to content-area curriculum and in turn to increase their academic achievement, effective vocabulary instruction must be frequent, intensive, systematic, and complex. … Vocabulary instruction must be based on an understanding of:

• …how words relate to one another (word families) and can be transformed into different words through the manipulation of word parts (roots, suffixes, affixes, prefixes);

• the interrelatedness of content-area knowledge, including the need to know multiple meanings for many words;

• the need for vocabulary instruction to occur through oral, reading, and writing activities; and • the need for students to be equipped with strategies to learn words independently.”

(Francis, Rivera, Lesaux, Kieffer, & Rivera, 2006a, p. 21) “Functional sight-vocabulary is vital in learning to read for individuals with learning difficulties. Multifaceted approaches and activities that are relevant and meaningful to students help heighten and maintain their motivation to participate, persist, and learn.” (Morgan & Moni, 2007, p.229) “Passage sight vocabulary also played a robust role in the process of making form–meaning connections for new words during the reading tasks. The results consistently demonstrated that as passage sight vocabulary increased so did ability to correctly infer TW [Target Word] meanings.” (Pulido, 2007, p.81)


Students’ ability to communicate—to read and write—is dependent on having adequate vocabulary; and because students in the classroom may vary greatly in their reading skills, no single method of teaching vocabulary will be effective. Rigby Focus Forward provides students with numerous and varied opportunities to develop vocabulary. In Rigby Focus Forward, vocabulary is taught both directly and indirectly, including contextual strategies, word study, and repeated exposures to words.

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During each Small Group Reading Time, students are presented new vocabulary words each day as they read each day’s Student Book. These vocabulary words are content-related words/academic words, support comprehension of the book as a whole, or they support the comprehension strategy and/or literary analysis or nonfiction features assigned to a Student Book . The teacher introduces and explains these novel words during this reading time and then discusses these words with students to ensure students understand and comprehend the new vocabulary which is then reinforced during Independent Practice when students complete Worktexts (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume 1, pp. T31). Part of the process of learning to read fluently is the movement from laboriously attending to each letter in a word to sound out the individual phonemes that make whole words, to more proficiently recognizing word parts, word families, irregular or exception words, and high-frequency words so that the process of decoding can become rapid reading without conscious attention to individual letters and sounds. Building a body of known high-frequency words is one way that this happens. This body of words can then serve as a foundation upon which more challenging texts can be placed because students will already know and understand the high-frequency words. In Rigby Focus Forward, high-frequency words are taught and reinforced. Students are introduced to a variety of high-frequency words repeatedly during each Small Group Reading Time and the teacher provides guided practice with a variety of activities during this reading time so students can easily identify these words when reading future texts. See the following texts for examples showing how Rigby Focus Forward helps students use a variety of direct and indirect vocabulary strategies.

Word Study: Phonics and Phonemic Awareness


“Phonological awareness plays an important role in literacy acquisition. Recent research shows that it is a single, unified ability that manifests itself in a variety of phonological skills that emerge in a predictable sequence.” (Anthony & Francis, 2005, p.258)

Vocabulary Strategies Small Group Teaching Version Examples

Using Context Clues Group 1: Skeletons Book 26 Group 2: Locust Plague Book 48

Using Word Anchors Group 1: A Night Out Book 12

Group 2: Wheels Book 6

Using Synonyms and Antonyms Group 1: Animal Hospital Book 34

Group 2: Garbage Book 26

Using Familiar Root Words and Prefixes/Suffixes

Group 1: Money Travels Book 18 Group 2: Saying Goodbye Book 45

Using Parts of Speech Group 1: Hot and Cold Book 24

Group 2: The Game Book 50

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“The conclusion supported by these findings is that various types of systematic phonics approaches are significantly more effective than non-phonics approaches in promoting substantial growth in reading.” (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 2000, p. 93) “The conclusion that students with greater understanding of morphology are more successful at learning academic vocabulary and comprehending text is a strong argument for including morphology instruction in language and literacy programs, especially in urban settings.” (Kieffer & Lesaux, 2007, p.139)


Students’ ability to comprehend is dependent on their ability to quickly and automatically decode the words on the page. Without sufficient skills in phonics and phonemic awareness, students cannot achieve this goal. Instruction in phonemic awareness and phonics has been shown to be effective with early, beginning readers as well as with older, struggling readers and with English language learners. In Rigby Focus Forward, skills in phonics and phonemic awareness are taught to help students decode words quickly and automatically so that the work of comprehension can occur. Students are introduced to a variety of phonic skills repeatedly during each Small Group Reading Time as the teacher emphasizes different phonic skills during guided practice with each day’s text (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume 1, p. T29). Phonemic awareness instruction also occurs deign Whole Group instruction when teachers have the opportunity to review phonemes with students needing additional review (Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume 1, pp. T26). For examples of instruction in phonics/word study and phonemic awareness, see the following pages.

Phonemic Awareness/Phonics/Word Study

Teachers’ Guides

Word Awareness, Word Rhyming Volumes 1 & 2: (pp. 8, 104)

Phoneme Matching, Phoneme Isolation Volumes 1 & 2: (pp. 32, 152)

Phoneme Segmentation, Phoneme Blending

Volumes 1 & 2: (pp. 56, 60)

Phoneme Addition , Phoneme Substitution Volumes 1 & 2: (pp. 80, 174)

Phonograms Volumes 1 & 2: (pp. 104, 128)

Consonant and Vowel Digraphs Volumes 1 & 2: (pp. 152, 176)

Consonant Blends Volumes 1 & 2: (pp. 200, 224)

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What Does Scientifically Based Research Tell Us about Teaching Writing?

Defining the Strand: TEACHING WRITING

As students progress across the grade levels, they are called upon to write a wide variety of informational, persuasive and literary texts. If students lack the foundations of strong writing, they will not be able to meet the expectations of written products in the upper grade levels. Instruction and support in the writing process and specific writing conventions and skills is essential to develop students as writers. Educators want to develop readers who not only enjoy and appreciate good literature and informational texts, but also study, think about, reflect on, and respond clearly, logically, and effectively to what they read.

Excerpts from the Research That Guided the Development of Rigby Focus Forward

Skills and Conventions EXCERPTS FROM THE RESEARCH THAT GUIDED THE DEVELOPMENT OF RIGBY FOCUS

FORWARD “Mastering sentence-construction skills is essential to learning to write Limited sentence-construction skills may hinder a writer's ability to translate ideas into text. It may also inhibit or interfere with other composing processes, as developing writers must devote considerable cognitive effort to sentence construction.” (Saddler and Graham, 2005, p. 43). “One of the most powerful ways to enable students to develop the skills necessary to write effectively is to teach grammar within the context of writing. When students first learn the tools of writing and grammar-wrangling…they will undergo transformations from being uninformed (and often struggling) writers to becoming more informed, independent, and reflective writers.” (Polette, 2008, p. xiii). “Sentence combining involves teaching students to construct more complex and sophisticated sentences through exercises in which two or more basic sentences are combined into a single sentence. Teaching adolescents how to write increasingly complex sentences in this way enhances the quality of their writing” (Graham & Perin, 2007b, p.18).


Once students are able to see and understand the grammatical structures and the conventions of language as tools that they can use to communicate effectively and make sure that what they write clearly communicates to their audiences, they will be motivated and able to use standard academic English in their writing. Each day students participating in Rigby Focus Forward engage in systematic writing exercises which build students writing skills. Teachers use guided practice to instruct students on how to use skills and convention using a gradual release model. Students use the Whole Class Writing to progressively learn how to build coherent sentences and then turn those sentences into meaningful and complete paragraphs and written forms, such as personal narratives and nonfiction reports (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume 1, pp. T27; T54 & T55).

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For examples of writing skills and conventions emphasized in Rigby Focus Forward see the following pages.

Process EXCERPTS FROM THE RESEARCH THAT GUIDED THE DEVELOPMENT OF RIGBY FOCUS

FORWARD Goldstein and Carr (1996) compared students whose teachers used the group of writing techniques known as “process writing” and students whose teachers did not use such techniques and found students writing proficiency was significantly better when their teachers used process writing techniques when teaching. In their meta-analysis of effective writing instruction techniques, Graham and Perin (2007a) reported that a variety of writing techniques were found to produce significant improvements in student writing including strategic instruction, summarization, peer assistance, goal setting, word processing, combining sentences , prewriting activities, and process writing.


To be successful academically and in life, students need the ability to transform their experiences and ideas into written words. Teaching students to write effectively involves the use of a number of varied instructional techniques, strategies, and processes. Rigby Focus Forward provides explicit instruction in writing strategies for planning, drafting, editing, and revising. Each week, students in Rigby Focus Forward progress through the writing process. Teachers first introduce the writing form and/or the writing skill by reading the writing model and having students identify the parts of the writing model that are applicable to the skill. After being introduced to the writing forms/skill students begin prewriting (Day 2) as the teacher models how to generate ideas for writing by completing a graphic organizer. Students then are taught how to take ideas generated during prewriting and create written drafts ; on Day 3 teachers model writing forms and skills and then students complete their own written work. Together students engage in editing and revising on Day 4 as they work as a class to revise example writing forms then revise

Writing Grammar, Usage, & Mechanics

Teachers’ Guides

Sentence Construction Group 1 & Group 2

Volumes 1 & 2: (pp. 48-49)

Correct Use of Punctuation Group 1 & Group 2

Volumes 1 & 2: (pp. 96-97)

Subject-Verb Agreement Group 1 & Group 2

Volumes 1 & 2: (pp. 168-169)

Adjectives Group 1 & Group 2

Volumes 1 & 2: (pp. 192-193)

Adverbs Group 1 & Group 2

Volumes 1 & 2: (pp. 216-217)

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their own work. At the end of the week students publish their by completing student Worktexts and share their work with the entire class (For an example of this writing model see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume 1 pp. 57, 61, 65, 69, 73). For examples of how Rigby Focus Forward implements process writing for a variety of different types of writing exercises see the following pages. Use of Manipulatives: Writing Build-Its


In their description of research-based approaches to improving student achievement, Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, (2001) described that “The more we use both systems of representation – linguistic and nonlinguistic – the better we are able to think about and recall knowledge… It has even been shown that explicitly engaging students in the creation of nonlinguistic representations stimulates and increases activity in the brain…” (p. 73). “Written response to reading can greatly enhance comprehension, but poor readers must have their writing skills developed sequentially and cumulatively. Writing improves when students practice answering specific question types, elaborating subjects and predicates, combining simple sentences, constructing clauses, and linking sentences into organized paragraphs. These are the building blocks of clear expository writing.” (Moats, 2001, p. 39)


One challenge in instruction in reading and writing is the challenge of making internal mental processes external and concrete for students who are struggling with literacy skills. In the same way that using manipulatives in mathematics can support students’ acquisition of mathematical concepts, so can concrete manipulatives help support students’ development as writers. Rigby Focus Forward provides explicit guidelines for the use of manipulatives in writing instruction. Students actively engage in writing exercises during Whole Class Writing Time using Writing Build-ITs TM. Each student receives a packet of 16 Writing Build-Its. The Build-Its are two-sided, interlocking tools that provide

Forms of Writing Teachers’ Guides

Writing Responses Group 1 & Group 2

Volumes 1 & 2: (pp. 6-7)

Personal Narrative Group 1 & Group 2

Volumes 1 & 2: (pp. 268-269)

Story (Fiction) Group 1 & Group 2

Volumes 1 & 2: (pp. 292-293)

Nonfiction Reports Group 1 & Group 2

Volumes 1 & 2: (pp. 316-317)

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hands-on writing support. Side A is for sentence building and Side B is for paragraph and report building (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide pp. T8-T9). These innovate Writing Build-ITs TM develop students writing skills progressively during process writing as teachers use Build-ITs TM to demonstrate writing skills and have students construct sentences and later paragraphs using their own Build-ITs TM. By using these manipulatives, students are able to purposefully investigate using different words, forms, and purposes for writing by actively editing their writing to develop semantically correct sentences and coherent, meaningful paragraphs. For examples of how Rigby Focus Forward utilizes Writing Build-ITs TM to provide concrete writing experiences for students see the following pages. Whole Class Writing Time using Writing Build ITs TM.

Writing Focus Teachers’ Guides

Three- and Four-Part Sentences Group 1 & Group 2

Volumes 1 & 2: (pp. 41, 57)

Sentence Mastery: Sentence Types Group 1 & Group 2

Volumes 1 & 2: (pp. 81, 209)

Paragraph Writing: Key Idea Sentences Group 1 & Group 2

Volumes 1 & 2: (pp. 161, 169)

Types of Paragraphs in a Nonfiction Report Group 1 & Group 2

Volumes 1 & 2: (pp. 321, 381)

Two Kinds of Writing: Story and Nonfiction Report Group 1 & Group 2

Volumes 1 & 2: (pp. 225, 233)

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What Does Scientifically Based Research Tell Us about Effective Instructional Approaches?

Defining the Strand: Effective Instructional Approaches

Effective reading and language arts programs use instructional approaches that have been proven effective by research. A program that includes appropriate instruction for all students will include the following approaches: explicit instruction, providing needed support while students are learning and gradually releasing this support as students become more proficient, modeling of both process and product, integrating skills to make learning more meaningful, using predictable routines in the classroom, and effectively using both small-group and large-group instruction. Intervention


“Response to Intervention (RtI) is the practice of providing high quality instruction and interventions matched to student need, monitoring progress frequently to make decisions about changes in instruction or goals and applying student response data to important educational decisions. RtI should be applied to decisions in general, remedial and special education, creating a well-integrated system of instruction/intervention guided by student outcome data.” (National Association of State Directors of Special Education, 2008, p.1) “The first step in the RtI process, or Tier I, is implementing a research-based core curriculum. …We now know that explicit instruction in phonics, phonemic awareness, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension are essential aspects of a core curriculum, and including these components leads to improved student learning. …” (Griffiths, Parson, Burns, VanDerHeyden, & Tilly, 2007, p. 75)

“For struggling readers, diversity in instruction is essential. One reason is that these children are not a homogenous population; they differ greatly in their needs and responses to reading instruction of various sorts. Some need and benefit from traditional phonics. Some need and benefit from a different form of word-recognition instruction. Some will only learn to read words through instruction emphasizing sight words.” (Pressley, Gaskins, & Fingeret, 2006, p. 49)


The 2004 reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) called for multiple levels of instruction to meet the needs of all children in regular classroom settings. Response to Intervention (RtI) meets the requirements of this mandate. The process of using RtI is the process of implementing high-quality, research-based instruction, regularly and systematically assessing student progress, and adjusting instruction for each student as needed. Within this structure, students who need intervention in specific areas receive instruction that meets their needs. Students who need more intensive intervention are identified and they, too, receive instruction and support that meets their needs.

In Rigby Focus Forward students are identified who need intervention and correctly placed to receive the appropriate level of instruction after completing Rigby READs Intervention; students are either placed into Group 1 or Group 2. Group 1 instruction was designed for students reading at grade levels 1.0 to 2.5 with Student Books with a focus on basic phonics; Group 2 instruction was created for students reading at grade

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levels 2.5 to 4 with a focus on advanced phonice skills and word study . Both group receive complete reading and writing instruction as part of an integrated intervention program; during each day’s lesson students receive instruction in reading strategies and writing skills and writing process (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume 1 pp. T24-T29). Teachers in the program demonstrate, model and later allow students to engage in reading comprehensions strategies during Whole Class Instruction. Students in Rigby Focus Forward also engage in intense reading instruction read one book a day during Small Group Reading Time. During this time, students focus on applying comprehension strategies, phonics and word study skills, improving fluency, and building vocabulary (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume 1 pp. T28-T29).

Teachers’ model and guide students during Small Group Reading Time to provide differentiated instruction to target students with specific needs. (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume 1 pp. T11; T25).Students also receive direct and specific instruction during Independent Practice by completing Rigby Intervention Fluent ReaderTM Software (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume 1 p T.37). During the same lesson, students also receive writing instruction where they learn how to construct different types of sentences, paragraphs, and written forms during Whole Class Writing Time. During this writing time students actively learn how to construct coherent written sentences and other written forms using Writing Build-ITs TM. Differentiation in writing instruction occurs as instructors give students opportunities to work independently and can then support students who need additional assistance. Rigby Focus Forward incorporates multiple assessments that instructors can implement on a daily, weekly, and quarterly basis to measure student progress (see (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume 1 pp. T34-T36) and tailor program components to meet each students needs; teachers can use assessments to assign additional assignments and assign students to Reteaching Time to review skills which students have not yet mastered (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume 1 p. T26). .

Explicit Instruction EXCERPTS FROM THE RESEARCH THAT GUIDED THE DEVELOPMENT OF RIGBY FOCUS

FORWARD The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (2000) detailed that explicit instruction that includes “specific cognitive strategies” and teaches students to systematical reason when struggling “has been shown to be highly effective in enhancing understanding. The teacher generally demonstrates such strategies for students until the students are able to carry them out independently” (p. 14). Multiple studies have revealed that interventions that include explicit instruction produce significant advancements in reading comprehension and understand with more explicit interventions producing greater student achievement (Nelson & Manset-Williamson, 2006) 223) and are effective techniques for lower functioning students at various grade levels (Van Keer & Verhaeghe, 2005)


Asking students to read a text and/or explaining to students what is happening in a text may help students learn from that particular text, but these activities do not teach students how to read and comprehend on their own. To be effective, comprehension instruction must show students, directly and explicitly, how to comprehend a text: Reading instruction is more effective when explicit instruction is combined with strategy instruction.

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Rigby Focus Forward provides explicit instruction of numerous strategies that students can use independently to understand texts. Such strategies enable both struggling/dependent readers and independent readers to read and understand texts that are difficult for them. For examples of explicit strategy instruction, see the following pages in Rigby Focus Forward.

Scaffolding and Gradual Release of Responsibility EXCERPTS FROM THE RESEARCH THAT GUIDED THE DEVELOPMENT OF RIGBY FOCUS

FORWARD Graves & Avery (1997) concluded that “…scaffolding has repeatedly been identified as one of the most effective instructional techniques available...”(p. 138) . Scientific studies have also demonstrated that including multiple and varied scaffolding during reading lessons produce greater gains in reading comprehension (Lutz, Guthrie, & Davis, 2006), are most effective for teaching “higher-level cognitive strategies” which include multiple steps to complete (Rosenshine & Meister, 1992), and that combining oral reading and scaffolding produce greater student achievement (Kim & White, 2008). “Although scaffolds can be applied to the teaching of all skills, they are particularly useful, and often indispensable, for teaching higher-level cognitive strategies where many of the steps or procedures necessary to carry out these strategies cannot be specified.” (Rosenshine & Meister, 1992, p. 26) “The students’ engagement in complex processes is made possible by providing them with a variety of supports [e.g., well-structured assignments, models and examples, strategic sequencing of activities, peer-response groups] and gradually withdrawing the supports as students appear to become more fluent in their use.” (Hillocks, 1993, p. 255) “Strategy instruction is most effective when taught within a framework that emphasizes a gradual release of responsibility to the student; teachers provide high levels of support for students practicing new skills and then gradually decrease support as students become more independent in using the strategy.” (Francis, Rivera, Lesaux, Kieffer, & Rivera, 2006a, 24)

Explicit Instruction Teachers’ Guides

Direct Explanation Group 1 & Group 2

Volumes 1 & 2: (pp. 6, 30, 54)

Guided Practice Group 1 & Group 2

Volumes 1 & 2: (pp. 42, 66, 90)

Application Group 1 & Group 2

Volumes 1 & 2: (pp. 166, 238, 286)

Monitoring/Metacognitive Instruction Group 1 & Group 2

Volumes 1 & 2: (pp. 150, 154, 158)

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An instructional model that provides scaffolding to students includes the following features: logical structure, selection and sequencing of models and examples to reveal essential characteristics, progression from easier to more difficult content and from easier to more difficult tasks, additional information/elaboration as needed, peer-mediated instruction, and materials that guide students, such as key words, think sheets, and graphic organizers. The final feature of scaffolding is independence—scaffolding is removed and students apply what they have learned in a new situation. The Rigby Focus Forward program was designed and organized to provide students with scaffolding experiences that enable them to learn and apply crucial reading comprehension strategies and writing skills Each week, teachers begin (Day 1) by introducing reading comprehension strategy and writing skills by explaining the strategy an modeling the strategy both in Whole Class Instruction and during Small Group Reading Time. During the week (Day 2 and Day 3) teacher’s reintroduce both the reading strategies and writing skills and using guided practice to provide students the ability to apply skills and strategies during Whole Class Instruction and Small Group Reading; by the end of the week (Day 4), students are provided opportunities to complete activities and exercises that demonstrate they have a true understanding of learned material; students compose original written products and completing reading comprehension activities that demonstrate proper use of reading strategies. Scaffolding also occurs as the presentation of the reading strategies (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume 1 p.T50) being taught and the writing skills being covered (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume 1 p.T54) become more complex and the teacher applies the same weekly strategy to ensure students understand and can apply the more complex skills being taught. As noted above, the final feature in an effectively scaffolded curriculum is that the students are able to apply what they have learned independently in a new situation or context. This release of responsibility from the teacher to the student is gradual. At first the teacher assumes more of the responsibility and, then, as the student gains in skills and understandings, the student is able to assume most of the responsibility for learning and performance. For examples of how Rigby Focus Forward supports this gradual release of responsibility, see the following pages. For both Group 1 & Group 2 see Teacher’s Guide Volumes 1 & 2 (pp. 52-53; 124-125; 244-245). Modeling


“Teachers should also demonstrate how to apply each strategy successfully – what it is, how it is carried out, and when and why it should be used … Instead of just talking about a strategy, teachers need to illustrate the processes they use by thinking aloud, or modeling mental processes, while they read.” (Fielding & Pearson, 1994, p.65) “Students with LD [learning disabilities], however, often need explicit teaching of both prerequisite skills and the key concepts of content areas. Explicit teaching – clear teaching of important skills, information and appropriate strategies – involves showing, telling, using think-aloud protocols and self talk, as well as modeling

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and demonstrating by both teacher and peers so that a systematic and structured appropriate to teaching the desired content leaders students toward mastery and success.” (Graham, Pegg, & Alder 223) “The research on comprehension strategy teaching provides powerful evidence that most struggling readers (and many not so struggling readers) benefit enormously when we can construct lessons that help make the comprehension processes visible … students need demonstrations of effective strategy use...” (Allington, 2001, p. 98)


Students benefit from seeing and studying models of the product, behavior, or process they are trying to emulate. Effective teachers model and explain effective reading and writing behaviors and processes (strategies), in addition to providing models of desired products. Teachers effectively model both reading comprehension strategies and writing skills thought out Rigby Focus Forward. During Whole Class Instruction teachers model comprehension strategies using comprehensions transparency on Day 1 and Day 2 of weekly instruction. When the teacher has completed modeling these comprehension strategies teachers utilize Think Alouds which provide point-of-use modeling of the stagey (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume p. T24). Teachers also model writing skills using graphic organizers and other transparency to model specific writing skills and forms (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume p. T27). For examples of how Rigby Focus Forward provides teachers with suggestions and scripts for modeling effective processes and gives students countless opportunities to see effective reading and writing strategies see the following examples.

Integrated Skills EXCERPTS FROM THE RESEARCH THAT GUIDED THE DEVELOPMENT OF RIGBY FOCUS

FORWARD According to Ausubel, meaningful verbal learning is the acquisition of ideas that are linked to other ideas. In contrast, rote learning is the memorization of specific items of information associated from other items. Meaningful learning occurs when the ideas in a new schema are connected both to each other and to previously established schemas.” (Kauchak & Eggen, 2006, p. 318) Students in classrooms in which teachers apply the integrated-skills approach overwhelming approve of the strategy and find it to be an effective approach (Su, 2007).

Modeling Teachers’ Guides

Reading Strategies Group 1 & Group 2

Volumes 1 & 2: (pp. 78, 174, 246)

Writing Skills Group 1 & Group 2

Volumes 1 & 2: (pp. 9, 177, 297)

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Integrating skills is particularly important in English language arts classrooms because of the interconnectedness of reading and writing, speaking and listening. Instruction is more readily learned and retained when skills are integrated, allowing students to create pathways of learning and remembering in their minds. Rigby Focus Forward provides guidance for teachers in how to effectively integrate skills in instruction to facilitate learning. Weekly lesson plans are structured to provide teachers time during each day to address multiple related skills and strategies. During each lesson, teachers emphasize many interrelated skills including reading comprehension, literary analysis, fluency, phonemic awareness and phonics, and writing skills. For examples of sequences including integrated skill instruction see Week 1 and Week 2 At a Glance pages 4-5; 28-29. Rigby Focus Forward organizes and structures integrated skill instruction utilizing different resources and tools. Teachers use graphic organizers and overhead transparencies to integrate writing instruction with reading comprehension strategies learned during lessons, for an example see first week of lesson in Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume 1 pp. 9, 13, 17, 21, & 24. Students also complete student Worktext in which students find examples from their reading to help them in their writing and review their understanding of different skills including phonics, vocabulary development, and writing (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume pp. T31; 133) Predictable Routines


“Routines and arrangements, then, are things that the teacher does to make it more likely that the rules can and will be followed. We can think of these teacher-based pieces as the structures of effective instruction (grouping, curricula, interaction, etc.). When considered as instruction, consistency is a crucial component.” (Scott, Park, Swain-Bradway, & Landers, 2007, p. 227) “When students can predict the events throughout their school day, they are more likely to be engaged and less likely to display problem behavior. One way to increase predictability in a classroom is to establish routines… Other approaches to facilitate predictability include providing information about the content, duration, and/or consequences of future events....” (Kern & Clemens, 2007, p.67). Bohn, Roehrig, and Pressley (2004) found that more productive teachers were those who established structured classroom routines and implemented those routines early in the year and consistently followed the procedures and routines throughout the year.


Providing predictable routines for students sets the stage for increased learning and achievement. Students behave better, and therefore learn better, when they can predict the instructional routines in a classroom. Rigby Focus Forward provides suggestions for creating predictable instructional routines. Predictability in the classroom facilitates learning for all students. Each day’s lesson consists of four steps (Teacher’s Guide Volume 1, T20-T21) which provide dynamic learning experiences but, provides students with predictable routines so students can anticipate teacher’s presentation of material. These four steps provide teaching and learning in different settings including Whole Class Instruction and Small Group Reading Time and occur in a

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systematic and regular routine to reduce student anxiety and provide fluent transition from one learning experience to the next. During each day’s lesson, students can anticipate the classroom dynamic as lessons taught and material presented during the four steps evolve in intensity and complexity day to day. Further predictability occurs in Rigby Focus Forward for both Group 1 and Group 2 as students progress through weekly lessons in knowable process as teachers use a gradual release of responsibility first modeling skills to be taught in the beginning of the week and by the end of the week, students know they are expected to demonstrate skill proficiency. Small Group and Whole Class Instruction


“(Effective) Teachers form instructional groups that fit students’ academic and affective needs. Teachers:

a. Use whole group instruction when introducing new concepts and skills. b. Form smaller groups as needed to make sure all students learn thoroughly. … f. Make use of heterogeneous cooperative learning groups, structuring these so that there are both group

rewards and individual accountability. …” (Cotton, 1995, p.9-10), Educators themselves understand the effectiveness of using diverse group instruction as fellow teachers report that the more effective teachers include “diverse instructional activities” which includes using multiple classroom settings including small group and whole class instruction (Pressley, Yokoi, Rankin, Wharton-McDonald, & Mistretta, 1997).


Research suggests that the most effective teachers employ a range of instruction, in whole-class, small-group and individual formats, to meet the needs of all students. This kind of differentiation in instructional format allows for broad dissemination of shared information, as well as opportunities for discussion and individualization of instruction. During each day’s lesson in Rigby Focus Forward teachers utilize both Whole Class Instruction and Small Group Reading Time in an integrated and predictable routine (Teachers’ Guide Volume 1 T14-T17; T20-T21). Half of the class period is devoted Whole Class Instruction; first teacher’s begin each day’s lesson addressing the entire class introducing the skills and strategies to be learned modeling these skills. During Whole Class Instruction l students have opportunity to ask questions and generate examples from which the all students can discuss and learn. Time is then spent in Small Group Reading Time where the class is broken down into smaller, groups allowing the teacher to provide specific instruction and address individual student needs while also giving students the opportunity to learn from each other in a more intimate learning environment. Built into the Small Group Reading Time is time for student independent practice in which students practice newly learned vocabulary, phonics/word study skills, fluency and comprehension strategies . At the end of each day’s lesson, teachers reconvene the entire class for Whole Class Writing Time where teachers model components of the writing process and specific writing skills (Teachers’ Guide Volume T54-T55). After this Whole Class Instruction , students are given time to engage in independent writing time using Worktexts/Writing Build-ITs applying what was taught while teachers have the option of reviewing individual student’s work.

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Active Learning: Turn and Talks EXCERPTS FROM THE RESEARCH THAT GUIDED THE DEVELOPMENT OF RIGBY FOCUS

FORWARD “Having peers instruct or interact over the use of reading strategies leads to an increase in the learning of strategies, promotes intellectual discussion, and increases reading comprehension.” (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 2000, p. 4-45) Johnson and Johnson’s (1990) review of varied learning situations concluded that “achievement is higher in cooperative situations than in competitive or individualistic ones and that cooperative efforts result in more frequent use of higher-level reasoning strategies, more frequent process gain and collective induction, and higher performance on subsequent tests taken individually…” (p.33).


Taking part in active conversations about new learning forces students to articulate and evaluate their ideas and responses to information. This level of engagement is essential for new learning and for retention of what has been learned. The Rigby Focus Forward program emphasizes this type of engaged learning and discussion during Small Group Reading Time. Integrated into each leveled reader students engage in these Turn and Talks where two students partner up to discuss sections of the text, review learned materials from each text, and apply skills. In each Small Group Teaching Version, teachers are given prompts to have students discuss and apply various strategies and skills For examples of active learning between students during “Turn and Talks” in Rigby Focus Forward, see the following pages.

]

Active Learning: Turn and Talks Small Group Teaching Version

Applying Comprehension Strategies Group 1: Skeletons (p. 2, 5)

Group 2: (p.)

Genre: Understanding of Text Content Group 1: Skeletons (p. 7, 15)

Group 2: (p.)

Fluency Practice Group 1: Skeletons (p. 9)

Group 2: (p.)

Phonics/Word Study Practice Group 1: Skeletons (p. 11)

Group 2: (p.)

High Frequency Group 1: Skeletons (p. 13)

Group 2: (p.)

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What Does Scientifically Based Research Tell Us about Using Engaging Texts

Defining the Strand: USING ENGAGING TEXTS

To motivate students who have fallen behind in their literacy skills, the use of engaging, appropriate texts is essential. Texts that are too difficult will prove frustrating; texts that are inappropriate or uninteresting for students will disengage them from the comprehension process. An effective instructional program will match readers to engaging and age-appropriate texts that are written at the appropriate level for challenge without frustration. In addition, an effective program will provide a wide variety of genres of texts to broaden students’ abilities to enjoy, comprehend, and respond to both fictional and nonfictional texts. EXCERPTS FROM THE RESEARCH THAT GUIDED THE DEVELOPMENT OF

RIGBY FOCUS FORWARD

Finely Leveled Texts EXCERPTS FROM THE RESEARCH THAT GUIDED THE DEVELOPMENT OF RIGBY FOCUS

FORWARD …[I]t seems prudent to follow the consensus of professional opinion that books for early reading instruction should be leveled, and leveled along the curricular dimensions of the instructional emphasis the books are expected to support.” (Cunningham, Spadorcia, Erickson, Koppenhaver, Sturm, & Yoder, 2005, p.426) “Regardless of a child’s reading ability, if too many of the words of a text are problematic, both comprehension and reading growth itself are impeded.” (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998 p. 213) “Appropriate grade-level textbooks are important tools, but are more difficult for ELLs to read (Hornberger, 2003), so they must be supplemented by a selection of more accessible texts to reach multiple proficiency levels and connect to students’ background experiences.” (Short & Fitzsimmons, 2007, p. 38)


From the first day when students complete Rigby READs Intervention, Rigby Focus Forward concentrates on ensuring students enter the program at the correct reading level. Within each group, finely leveled texts provide the scaffolding struggling readers need to achieve step-by-step success and build their confidence (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume pp. T10-T11). The Student Books used in Rigby Focus Forward were leveled with consideration for the needs of the students for whom this program was developed. Rigby Focus Forward designed in conjunction with Rigby READs Reading Levels, PM Ultra Benchmark Levels, and Developmental Reading Assessment (DRA) Levels (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume 1, pp.T32-T33). Texts were chosen and written so texts become incrementally more difficult; texts are designed around students’ reading ability with the understanding that students at all reading levels need to be challenged but, do not want to be overwhelmed with texts that are too difficult. Students progress through Rigby Focus Forward building confidence in their reading ability while mastering reading comprehension strategies, improving fluency and building vocabulary one book at a time; students accelerate through three grade reading levels by reading one-book a day for a total of 160 books.

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Fiction and Nonfiction Texts EXCERPTS FROM THE RESEARCH THAT GUIDED THE DEVELOPMENT OF RIGBY FOCUS

FORWARD “The use of texts on multiple levels and of different genres can allow all students to do the engaged reading our principles call for. If multiple texts are used, students need to be supported in learning how to read across multiple texts.” (Ogle & Blachowicz, 2002, p.270) Students need access and experience with various types of texts “Because the structures found in content-area textbooks differ substantially from those in narrative texts, strategies students may have learned to implement with narrative prose do not necessarily transfer” (Klingner, Vaughn, & Boardman , 2007, p. 87).


Research suggests that the approaches students take to reading and comprehending fiction and nonfiction texts differ, and that students need experiences with and instruction in reading both kinds of texts. A majority of reading that students will do in school in the upper grades and in the world of work is nonfiction. In an effective literacy program, students need exposure to both high-quality fiction and well-written nonfiction texts. In Rigby Focus Forward students encounter a variety of different subtypes of fiction and nonfiction texts and are given specific instruction on using components of nonfiction writing (see Teachers’ Guide Volume 1, p. T53). For some examples of how Rigby Focus Forward provides access to both fiction and nonfiction texts, see the following.

Text Genre Small Group Teaching Version Examples

Narrative Nonfiction Group 1: I Remember When… Book 16 Group 2: Beginnings Book 28

Biography Group 1: Thomas Edison Book 61 Group 2: Galileo Galilei Book 48

Expository Text Group 1: The Water Cycle Book 54

Group 2: Taxation Book 23

Realistic Fiction Group 1: Secret Agent Book 70

Group 2: Danny’s Dream Book 72

Fantasy Group 1: Gemini Book 52

Group 2: Renovations Book 15

Myth Group 1:The Golden Touch Book 75

Group 2: The Giant’s Causeway Book32

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High-Interest Books and Age-Appropriate Topics EXCERPTS FROM THE RESEARCH THAT GUIDED THE DEVELOPMENT OF RIGBY FOCUS

FORWARD “For interest, it was quite apparent from students’ responses that interest and positive affect for reading invariably were associated with high cognitive recall and comprehension of text. Thus, when students were interested they were highly cognitively engaged…” (Guthrie, Hoa, Wigfield, Tonks, Humenick, & Littles 306) Schiefele’s (1999) review of text interest and student learning found that interest in the text was a strong predictor of student learning regardless of the how long the text was, ifficulty of text, and students reading ability. “The text you choose, then, must engage readers and at the same time provide opportunities to extend their reading ability. You must simultaneously consider:

• Readers’ present strategies. • Readers’ interests and background knowledge. • Text complexity in relation to readers’ current skills. • The language of the text in relation to readers’ experience. • The content of the text in relation to readers’ background knowledge…” (Fountas & Pinnell, 2001, p. 223)


Struggling and reluctant readers need texts that engage their interest and motivate them to continue. Fiction with interesting characters, exciting plots, and familiar themes will engage these readers, as will well-written nonfiction texts written on topics of interest to students. In the same way that young students who are reading above level may not be prepared to deal with the more mature themes of more difficult texts written for older readers, students who are reading below level may not be engaged with the more simplistic themes of less difficult texts written for younger readers. Rigby Focus Forward provides students with texts that are written at their reading level and on topics and themes that are appropriate and engaging for students at these grade levels (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume p. T13). For examples of how the Rigby Focus Forward program provides high-interest and age-appropriate books to students, see the following.

High Interest Topics Small Group Teaching Version Examples

Mystery Stories Group 1:The Jewelry Store Robbery Book 22

Group 2: New Neighbors Book 47

Natural Wonders Group 1: Caves Book 3

Group 2: Saving Coral Reefs Book 14

Adventure Stories Group 1: Buzz and Zip Get Lost Book 40

Group 2: Trapped Book 30

Monsters and Creatures Group 1: Death of the Dinosaur Book 59

Group 2: Scary Movie Book 5

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Foreign Lands Group 1: Antarctic Animals Book 28

Group 2: The African Grasslands Book 11

Culture and Diversity Group 1: Who Are You Book 13 Group 2: Aztec Beliefs Book 59

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What Does Scientifically Based Research Tell Us about Meeting the Needs of All Students

Defining the Strand: Meeting the Needs of All Students

Effective reading and language arts instruction successfully meets the needs of students with a wide range of ability levels, backgrounds, and learning styles. Such instruction seeks to motivate all students. Effective instruction will differentiate to provide targeted, individualized instruction to meet students’ unique situations and abilities. Effective curricular programs for intensive intervention will address the needs of students who are native speakers struggling with reading and writing, as well those who are English language learners. The No Child Left Behind Act is inclusive: Schools must reach all learners and meet their learning needs.

Student Motivation EXCERPTS FROM THE RESEARCH THAT GUIDED THE DEVELOPMENT OF RIGBY FOCUS

FORWARD “Effective teachers frequently use positive motivation. They employ a wide range of tactics for doing so…For example, they frequently praise students for specific accomplishments, attribute student achievements to student efforts (i.e., rather than innate abilities), construct lessons that are interesting (e.g., assign readings that excite students), match tasks to student abilities (i.e., ask students to do tasks that are moderately challenging to them), and connect reading and writing to content-area learning.” (Bohn, Roehrig, & Pressley, 2004, p. 270) Guthrie and Humenick’s (2004) review of motivating students to read reported that students’ motivation increases in situations in which students interact with challenging texts, collaborate with other students, and are involved with “hands-on activities” related to reading.


Motivation describes an internal process that allows a person to initiate work, to continue with that work, and to see it to its completion. Increasing student motivation and ownership of learning is essential because motivation influence how and what students learn. Rigby Focus Forward provides specific strategies and instructional approaches that are designed to increase student motivation and encourage student ownership of the learning process. During each day’s lesson, students read a challenging and engaging text during Small Group Reading Time. By completing the these interesting texts and demonstrating application of learned reading strategies students build confidence in their abilities and become motivated to continue reading and writing (See Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume 1 p. T10). Completing an entire book during each lesson, students establish their ability to complete tasks and they become motivated to continue to complete future tasks. In Rigby Focus Forward students also encounter multiple assessment opportunities (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume 1 pp. T34-T37) which provide students additional motivational experiences as students demonstrate mastery of reading strategies and writing skills receiving feedback from instructors providing a rewarding and enriching environment. Through achievement and positive comments from instructors, students come to internalize their success and become motivated to tackle future projects themselves.

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Differentiation


“Differentiation seems a common-sense approach to addressing the needs of a wide variety of learners, promoting equity and excellence and focusing on best-practice instruction in mixed-ability classrooms. This makes more sense than the timeworn method of aiming for students in the middle and hoping for the best on those on the upper and lower extremes.” (Tomlinson, 2000, 5) “Differentiation seems a common-sense approach to addressing the needs of a wide variety of learners, promoting equity and excellence and focusing on best-practice instruction…. This makes more sense than the timeworn method of aiming for students in the middle and hoping for the best on those on the upper and lower extremes” (Tomlinson, 2000, p. 5).

“Differentiation then is the process by which curriculum objectives, teaching methods, assessment methods, resources and learning activities are planned to cater for the needs of individual pupils” (George, 1993, p. 420).


Heterogenous classrooms contain students representing many different populations—advanced students, students having difficulty, unmotivated students, students whose strength or preference is a particular modality or intelligence, English-language learners, and students with a variety of learning disabilities. However, differentiating instruction for such a range of abilities and interests is complex and can be extremely difficult. Rigby Focus Forward helps teachers reach special populations through a variety of approaches. From the very beginning of the program, differentiation occurs as students are placed into Group 1 or Group 2 based on scores on Rigby READs Intervention. By using this diagnostic assessment, students are correctly grouped with other students who have similar reading abilities and skills (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide p.T34). Teachers also provide differentiated instruct each week during Reteaching Time. Using weekly assessments as a guide, teachers assign some students struggling with particular strategies and skills to receive additional instruction each day during Reteaching Time (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide p.T26). While students who maybe having difficulties with particular material from previous lessons are receiving the specific instruction they need, other students have the opportunity to complete activities tailored to their needs. Further differentiation occurs as instructors can monitor student reading progress during Independent Reading via students’ Independent Reading Logs; by assessing students reading teachers can assign more appropriate readings (for an example see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide p.16). Independent Practice also allows teachers to assign students that need phonics and phonemic awareness assists to use the Rigby Intervention Fluent ReaderTM Software an interactive program which monitors and tailors students lesson based on their progress in the program and teacher monitoring. Differentiation also occurs during Whole Class Writing Time as instructors save time during each lesson to independently review students writing during Independent Writing (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide p.T27). By monitoring students application of learned writing skills teachers can provide additional support to students having problems understanding the assignment, provide prompts to students who may need some initial assistance getting start, as well as provide motivation and support to students who are having no difficulties with the assignment.

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Struggling Readers EXCERPTS FROM THE RESEARCH THAT GUIDED THE DEVELOPMENT OF RIGBY FOCUS

FORWARD “For struggling readers, diversity in instruction is essential. One reason is that these children are not a homogenous population; they differ greatly in their needs and responses to reading instruction of various sorts” (Pressley, Gaskins, & Fingeret, 2006, p. 49) “The general principle is to use the same continuum of strategies with the struggling readers (including teacher read-alouds, sustained silent reading, share reading, guided reading, guided discussion…), but to augment these strategies with intensive instruction on the specific skills students need to succeed.” (Au, 2002, p. 399)


Any reader can struggle with a particular text that is too complex of contains unknown vocabulary. The struggling readers we worry about, however, are the ones who struggle with almost any text, who lack strategies to use to help them make sense of the text. We sometimes call these readers “dependent readers” because they lack the cognitive ability to read independently, are not motivated by the text or by reading, do not know that they might enjoy reading, and lack the ability or stamina to stick with reading that is difficult for them. To reach these students, Rigby Focus Forward models effective comprehension strategies; during Whole Class Instruction teachers present effective strategies and model such strategies for the entire class (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide p.T24). Students get the opportunity to directly apply these strategies and skills to reading texts during Small Group Reading Time while teachers guide students through each text. During this reading time, instructors again model reading strategies and then prompt students to use said strategies during the course of their reading. Further modeling occurs as teachers also, highlight high frequency words and helping students with new vocabulary (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide p.T28-T29). Rigby Focus Forward also gives students a wealth of opportunities to practice and apply the strategies. The intimate setting of the Small Group Reading Time provides struggling readers with a more comfortable atmosphere to interact directly with the teacher as well as learn from fellow classmates during Turn and Talk in which students work together to understand texts and apply the correct strategies (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide p.T29). Students also apply strategies during Whole Class Instruction where students are asked to provide examples and answer teacher questions throughout each week’s lesson as students take more ownership of applying reading strategies Rigby Focus Forward also provides teachers with several teaching resources designed with struggling readers in mind. Each day’s reading during Small Group Reading Time has been specifically written to meet the needs of students at a specific reading level. These finely leveled readers have been created to by challenging but not burdensome and have been written to aid struggling readers with features including large font, easy to follow text, and interesting and exciting graphics (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide p.T10-T11). Teachers are also provided with additional ancillary materials to model reading strategies. Detailed and easy to use overhead transparencies, including Model Passages and Graphic Organizers, allow teachers to demonstrate application of reading strategies and provide students with visual aids that provide further learning experiences ((see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide p.T24).

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English Language Learners (ELL) EXCERPTS FROM THE RESEARCH THAT GUIDED THE DEVELOPMENT OF RIGBY FOCUS

FORWARD “The review of the research and the model programs has found a number of instructional practices potentially effective for developing literacy in adolescent ELLs. The relevant characteristics of these learners. This discussion highlights nine promising practices.

1. Integrate all four language skills [reading, writing, listening, speaking] into instruction from the start… 2. Teach the components and processes of reading and writing… 3. Teach reading comprehension strategies… 4. Focus on vocabulary development… 5. Build and activate background knowledge… 6. Teach language through content and themes…

(Short & Fitzsimmons, 2007, p.34-37) “Adequate assessment of ELL students will include multiple measures in order to distinguish among content knowledge, literacy skills, language acquisition, and cultural background. Assessment should:

• provide formative assessment during the learning process to help shape instruction, foster academic growth, and enhance motivation

• promote metacognition with self-assessment • administer summative assessment to gather data about ELLs • assess content knowledge with evaluation measures designed for ELLs.”

(National Council of Teachers of English 5) “Instruction that provides substantial coverage in the key components of reading—identified by the National Reading Panel (NICHD, 2000) as phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and text comprehension—has clear benefits for language-minority students… Likewise, writing instruction has clear benefits for language-minority students, as it does for native English speakers.” (August & Shanahan, 2006, p. 3) “In summary, ELL children from middle-class backgrounds showed similar growth and achievement as native English speakers in word reading and phonological processing. ELL children also tended to use the same strategies to decode unfamiliar words … Furthermore, the same underlying skills and reading strategies were strongly related to reading acquisition in English for children from both language groups.” (Chiappe & Siegel 150)


Meeting the needs of English language learners in our classrooms is necessary in our global age. Providing effective instruction in English while also continuing learning across the content areas requires balance and focus. The integrated nature of Rigby Focus Forward meets the needs of ELLs as it incorporates instruction in reading, writing, and fluency via explicit instruction and modeling of reading strategies and writing skills to be learned. ELLs in Rigby Focus Forward learn reading comprehension strategies, develop vocabulary, and improve phonic awareness and fluency by completing varied reading and writing activates. These activities incorporate multiple modalities in both Whole Classroom and Small Group Settings (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide p.T16-T17). During these instructional periods teachers utilize active learning experiences

Rigby Focus Forward


such as Writing Build Its TM (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide p.T8-T9)and Turn and Talks (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide p.T29). Rigby Focus Forward helps teachers reach English language learners through a variety of approaches. The Teacher’s Guide was designed to provide teachers with prompts and instructional practices to guide teachers instruction of ELL students at point of use in each day’s lesson plan. During Whole Class Instruction, teachers are provide with differentiation strategies for ELL students of various language level, based on the learners Language Proficiency Level (TESOL, 2006), to ensure all students are able to understand the concepts and skills being taught (For example see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide p.T27). This differentiation provides ELLs with specific guidance and comfort to learn from one another and the teacher to improve fluency and writing ability. Additional attention to ELL learning is provided to the teachers in each copy of Small Group Teaching Versions used during Small Group Reading Time. Here teachers are prompted to consider the language capacity of ELLs and provides instructional practices aimed at improving learners reading ability and vocabulary based on learners’ language level. (see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide p.T28) The texts in the Small Group Reading Time also encourages development of English language vocabulary and application of reading strategies by having students read high interest and age appropriate texts that highlight high frequency words and build students vocabulary during Small Group.

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What Does Scientifically Based Research Tell Us about Assessment

Defining the Strand: Assessment

The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 has affected schools around the country. The federal government has asked schools to report their success in terms of what each student achieves and to use the knowledge gained from assessments “to craft lessons to make sure each student meets or exceeds the standards.” (US Department of Education, Introduction: No Child Left Behind)

Research has shown that students’ achievement improves when they are assessed regularly and the instruction they receive has been modified as a result to meet their specific individual needs. The use of assessment information to drive instruction has been shown to have significant positive effects on learning. In addition, teaching students the skills and strategies they need to be effective at monitoring their own learning enables students to monitor their comprehension and redirect their own learning to reach high levels of learning and achievement.


Diagnostic Assessment EXCERPTS FROM THE RESEARCH THAT GUIDED THE DEVELOPMENT OF RIGBY FOCUS

FORWARD “Assessment of reading comprehension should account for the contributions of both reader-based as well as text-based factors. Assessment of written expression should encompass the process by which text is produced, the written text itself…This allows us to make clinical decisions about instruction and intervention that are based on sound evidence and reasoning” (Singer, 2007, p. 96). “Consistent with the principle that new learning is shaped by prior knowledge and cultural perspectives, classroom practices should include assessment of students’ relevant knowledge and experience not only to inform teaching but also to draw students into the habit of reflecting on their own knowledge resources.” (Shepard, 2001, p. 1091) Snyder, Caccamise, and Wise (2005) indicate that reading assessment must take a “componential perspective” and include assessment of oral and silent reading comprehension in addition to “students’ alphabet knowledge, phonemic awareness skills, phonological processing, reading vocabulary, and reading fluency” (p. 37).


To provide differentiated instruction that is accurately matched with a student’s specific learning needs, student knowledge and skills must be evaluated prior to instruction. A placement test or diagnostic assessment can provide the information needed to ensure that instruction is targeted to a student’s specific needs from day one.

Rigby Focus Forward


The Rigby Focus Forward program provides a series of diagnostic assessments starting with students’ initial entrance into the program. Rigby READs Intervention (see Teacher’s Guide Volume 1, T34-T35) is a complete diagnostic system built directly into Rigby Focus Forward and it is used to evaluate students’ current reading levels and is first used to place students into either Group 1 or Group 2. Rigby READs Intervention is an easy to administer and score online program that provides teachers with detailed reports indicating students’ strengths and weakness and provides teachers with valid and reliable assessment of students’ skills in the areas of reading comprehension, phonics, and vocabulary. As part of Rigby Focus Forward students reading levels and development of reading and writing skills are evaluated multiple times throughout the program with Rigby READs Intervention to ensure students are making adequate progress throughout the program. As part of the Rigby READs Intervention, teachers have access to an online data management tool which provides detailed reports at the student and class level to ensure students are correctly placed into the appropriate level within the program. In addition, Rigby Focus Forward Assessment Guide also includes phonemic awareness screening to identify students who may need targeted phonemic awareness reteaching. On-going Assessment


“As instruction is occurring, teachers need information to evaluate whether their teaching strategies are working. They also need information about the current understanding of individual students and groups of students so they can identify the most appropriate next steps for instruction. Moreover, students need feedback to monitor their own success in learning and to know how to improve.” (National Research Council, 2001, pp. 225-226) Cotton (1995) describes that effective teachers engage in routine, regular assessment to gauge student learning using various types of assessment including formal and informal tests. “Active teacher monitoring of student performance is viewed as essential for maintaining student participation and encouraging learning. In a sense, it is what keeps the total instructional cycle effective. Teachers monitor student progress in various ways; the key for student learning appears to be the degree to which monitoring is active and frequent… (Christenson, Ysseldyke, & Thurlow, 1998, p. 26) “The purpose of this meta-analysis was to determine the effects of systematic formative evaluation of educational programs on academic achievement. Results indicated that the use of systematic formative evaluation procedures, within a group of studies that employed predominantly mildly handicapped subjects, significantly increased students’ school achievement, both statistically and practically.” (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2007, p. 205)


Assessment is not an end but rather a means to an end—improving instruction. Although large-scale assessments provide some of the information needed to improve instruction, informal assessments by teachers, diagnostic tests, ongoing assessments, and summative assessments provide the detailed knowledge of student strengths and weaknesses needed to design appropriate instruction. Effective assessment does not simply appear at the end of a unit of study but continues throughout that unit, actively monitoring the student’s progress. On-going assessment provides the student with feedback so that they can monitor their own success in learning and know how to improve.

Rigby Focus Forward


In Rigby Focus Forward teachers have access to ongoing informal and formal assessments which can be delivered on a daily, weekly, and quarterly basis. Part of the ongoing daily assessment, teachers have the opportunity to assess students learning on a daily basis during Whole Class Instruction where teachers can prompt students with comprehension questions to ensure students understand what was just read. Built into the program teachers are provided with Conferences and Self-Selected Reading Time in which teachers review students’ Independent Reading Logs and provide additional support and are provided with rubric to assess students’ progress. Further, teachers are provided with grading rubrics for informal assessments to inform teachers of students’ understanding of classroom questions during Reteaching Time (For an example see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume 1 p. 40). Teachers and students also have the opportunity to assess progress by assigning daily Worktexts which teachers can use to gauge student learning and understanding of reading comprehension strategies, vocabulary, and phonic instruction. These daily assignments are also crucial to determine students’ current understanding of key strategies and skills and to place students in the appropriate reteaching group for the following weeks reteaching groups in Whole Class instruction. Teachers are also provided with Weekly assessments that allow teachers to evaluate students skills and give students the opportunity to reflect on their own progress. see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume p. T35). The assessment guide included with Rigby Focus Forward also contains quarterly tests teachers have the option of incorporating into the program to use as a guide to determine student retention and application of materials recently taught and continually monitor student progress. Further, as part of the Rigby READs Intervention students complete formal diagnostic assessments after 16 weeks of instruction to determine if students can progress to the next level of the program (Group 1) or have mastered the skills necessary to reenter an integrated classroom (Group 2). Self-Monitoring


“Studies of good reader-poor reader differences in text processing … suggest that poor readers fail to (1) conceptualize reading as a search for meaning, (2) monitor their comprehension to ensure that they are deriving meaning, (3) engage in strategic behavior to bring meaning to text and restore meaning when there has been a breakdown in comprehension, and (4) modify their choice of strategies to meet the varying demands of reading. This profile suggests the need for instruction which will … promote comprehension monitoring.” (Palincsar & Brown, 1987, p. 69) “Monitoring is a critical step in self-regulation of comprehension processes. That is, it is not enough for student to be taught comprehension processing; students must also come to understand where and when to use the processes and be motivated to do so.” (Block & Pressley, 2000, p. 387) “Thus we conclude: if formative assessment is to be productive, pupils should be trained in self-assessment so that they can understand the main purposes of their learning and thereby grasp what they need to do to achieve.” (Black & Wiliam, 1998, p. 143)


Rigby Focus Forward


Students who are motivated to monitor their own progress can better understand the main purposes of their learning and fully grasp what it is that they need to achieve. Students can use strategies to evaluate themselves that are similar to the ones the teacher uses and, in return, they can assume control of their own learning. Rigby Focus Forward encourages this type of self-assessment; one Worktext a week provides students in each group with the opportunity to assess themselves and provide teachers with feedback regarding their understanding of comprehension strategies and build student confidence about their abilities. Self monitoring also occurs after completing Worktexts when students reread the daily texts as students immediately review their understanding of comprehension strategies and vocabulary development (For an example see Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume 1 p.T34-T35) . Students have further occasion to review their understanding of previously learned materials during Reteaching Time providing them the chance to demonstrate skills they have learned and also review skills that they have yet not mastered (See Whole Class Teacher’s Guide Volume 1 p. T26).

Rigby Focus Forward


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