RoadmapBattery Production Equipment

2030

Battery Production

Update 2018

Phone +49 69 6603-1186

Fax

E-Mail

Internet

+49 69 6603-2186

jennifer.zienow@vdma.org

http://battprod.vdma.org

Dr. Sarah Michaelis, Ehsan Rahimzei

Authors

VDMA Battery Production

PEM of RWTH Aachen

Fraunhofer ISI

Battery LabFactory

Braunschweig (BLB) and

TU Braunschweig

Prof. Dr. Achim Kampker, Dr. Heiner Heimes, Christoph Lienemann, Christian Offermanns, Mario Kehrer

Dr. Axel Thielmann, Tim Hettesheimer, Christoph Neef

Prof. Dr. Arno Kwade, Wolfgang Haselrieder, Sina Rahlfs, Roland Uerlich, Nicolas Bognar

Editors

Dr. Sarah Michaelis, Ehsan Rahimzei, Laura Abraham, Jennifer Zienow

Professional support

Thorge Thönnessen, Marc Kirchhoff, Peter Schulz, Volker Seefeldt

Publisher and production

VDMA Verlag GmbH, Frankfurt am Main

Printing

h. reuffurth Gmbh, Mühlheim am Main

Copyright 2018

The work, including its parts, is protected by copyright.

Picture Credits

Front Cover

Other pictures

© Kadmy/stock.adobe.com

„Stone by stone breaking through the Red Brick Walls.“

See image captions.

Imprint

Publisher

VDMA Battery Production

Lyoner Str. 18

60528 Frankfurt am Main

VDMA Battery Production is your contact for all questions

to machine and plant engineering relating to battery

production. The member companies of the department

supply machines, systems, machine components, tools

and services for the entire process chain of battery

production: From raw material preparation, electrode

production and cell assembly to module and battery

system production. The current focus of VDMA Battery

Production is on Li-Ion technology.

We research technology and market information, organise

customer events and roadshows, hold our own events,

such as the annual conference, which has established

itself as an important industry meeting place, and are in

dialogue with research and science on current topics and

on joint industrial research.

http://battprod.vdma.org

The Chair of Production Engineering of E-Mobility

Components (PEM) at RWTH Aachen University is

synonymous with successful and forward-looking

research and innovation in the field of electric vehicle

production. The group Battery Production of Professor

Kampker's chair deals with the manufacturing processes

of the lithium-ion cell as well as with the assembly

processes of the battery module and pack. The focus is on

integrated product and process development approaches

to optimize cost and quality drivers in manufacturing and

assembly processes. Through a large number of national

and international industrial projects as well as central

positions in well-known research projects, the PEM of

RWTH Aachen offers extensive expertise in the fields of

battery cells and battery modules and packs.

https://www.pem-aachen.de/

The Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation

Research ISI conducts practical research and sees itself as

an independent thought leader for society, politics and

business. Our expertise lies in sound scientific

competence and an interdisciplinary and systematic

approach. Our assessments of the potentials and limits

of technical, organisational or institutional innovations

help decision-makers from business, science and politics

to set the strategic course and thus support them in

creating a favourable environment for innovations.

http://www.isi.fraunhofer.de

The Battery LabFactory Braunschweig (BLB) is an open

research infrastructure for the research and development

of electrochemical storage devices from laboratory to

pilot scale. The research spectrum covers the entire value

chain from material, electrode and cell production to

recycling. The existing infrastructure enables us to

investigate fundamental and application-oriented

research and development issues. The focus is on flexible

production and process technology to increase the energy

density, quality and safety of batteries. For this purpose,

the engineering and scientific competences of eight

institutes of the TU Braunschweig, the PTB and institutes

of the TU Clausthal as well as the LU Hannover are

bundled in the BLB.

https://www.tu-braunschweig.de/forschung/zentren/

nff/batterylabfactory

Battery Production

Roadmap

Battery Production Equipment 2030

Update 2018

In cooperation with

Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research ISI

Chair of Production Engineering of E-Mobility Components PEM

Battery LabFactory Braunschweig BLB and TU Braunschweig

Contents

CONTENTS 3

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Executive summary

IntroductionRoadmapping: the whole picture

Technology roadmapping in mechanical and plant engineering

Methodology

Lithium-ion technology as a reference scenario

Workshops at VDMA

MarketsMarkets, demand, supply

Frugal innovation vs. full digitalization

Cell formats: advantages and disadvantages of the various formats

What are the possibilities of the new 21700 format?

Product requirements and specifications Performance parameters for applications in electromobility

Performance parameters for stationary applications

Requirements of battery manufacturers

The solutions offered by mechanical and plant engineering Cost degression

Increasing quality

Challenges and the required technological breakthroughs (red brick walls) Red brick walls: an overview

Grand challenges

2018 — assessment of red brick walls from 2016

History of the development of the red brick wall assessment

Red brick walls 2018 in detail

The lithium-ion batteries of tomorrow — what will the future bring? Lithium-ion technologies

Beyond lithium-ion technology

Conclusions

Conclusions and recommendations for action Recommendations for action

References

AppendixList of workshop participants, evaluation by questionnaire or interview 96

4 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The references and unique selling points of the

production solutions create the ideal conditions

for establishing a sustainable and long-term

position in the future-oriented field of battery

production and becoming more attractive as a

solutions partner worldwide. Production

research in mechanical engineering provides the

basis for competitive cell production. It is the key

to process innovation and to the strategically

vital development of unique selling points. The

roadmap process makes a valuable contribution

to this by specifying concrete needs in

production up to 2030 and formulating initial

proposals for solutions.

In 2014, VDMA Battery Production published its

first technology roadmap that focused on

production technology rather than the

development of products themselves. The

roadmap attracted worldwide attention and

many of its suggestions were taken up;

implementation of these has already started.

We have continued a target-oriented dialog

between battery producers, production

researchers, and the mechanical and plant

engineering industry, also drawing on

experience with foreign experts. Because the

battery sector is so dynamic, gathering the

findings and information we gain from this in a

full revision of the roadmap every two years is

very important to us.

In 2016, for the first time we not only studied

the market itself but also added a careful

evaluation of factory capacities and the

solutions these offer worldwide. This has now

been updated in this roadmap, in which the

focus of observations turns increasingly to

China. Machinery and plants in the high price

segment need to impress with regard to the

total cost of ownership — especially in countries

like China. The chapter “Frugal innovation versus

full digitalization” is intended to serve as food

for thought about how the price pressure there

can be confronted.

The roadmapping method introduced in 2014

has been retained. An evaluation of the

necessary technological breakthroughs (“red

brick walls”) identified in 2016 formed the

starting point for the update. Next, the future

requirements for the battery manufacturing

sector were discussed from today’s point of view

and solution approaches relating to mechanical

and plant engineering compiled. Working on the

basis of the first roadmap, a total of 16 red brick

walls were identified and revised to reflect the

current state of the art in technology. All the red

brick walls can be traced back to the core

challenge of increasing quality while reducing

costs (1) and thus to process stability (2),

increasing production throughput (3) (by

upscaling or increasing process speeds), and

sustainability (4). Together, these four aspects

form the “grand challenges.”

The recommendations for action for the German

mechanical and plant engineering industry

compiled in 2014 and 2016 remain both correct

and important. The need for research illustrated

in our roadmap should be met with targeted

cooperation between industrial partners and

research organizations. Recent years have seen

the issue of sustainability gain in importance. It

is vital not to lose sight of the overarching

objective of reducing CO2 emissions. Access to

series production remains essential in order to

qualify developments directly in large-scale

production and acquire references. As before,

one of the key challenges is to generate positive

public opinion in order to encourage investment

in battery production.

VDMA Battery Production will continue to

actively drive forward the roadmapping process

as well as the subsequent implementation.

Executive summary

INTRODUCTION 5

Roadmaps are a proven method of creating

clarity — they supply a coherent picture of a

future vision, (ideally) represent consensus

across a broad industrial field, act as an

investment guide, and encourage pre-

competition cooperation between all the actors

concerned.

Following the initial publication of the roadmap

in 2014 and the update in 2016, VDMA Battery

Production has continuously maintained and

encouraged dialog between all the actors

involved. For the purposes of this 2018

publication, the contents of the 2016 roadmap

were reviewed, completely revised and

expanded to include new material. The

fundamental methodology has remained

unchanged.

Roadmapping: the whole picture

Technology roadmapping is a strategic tool in

innovation management. Forecasts of future

megatrends and markets1 (“know why”) can

benefit everyone who is able to generate specific

requirements for products (“know what”), the

technologies to be deployed (“know how”) and

the required research and development

programs over a defined period of time (“know

when”) [Phaal2003a].

This generates separate “travel routes” which

can be considered in each case with separate but

related roadmaps2: Requirements are

formulated by working from top to bottom,

while solutions are created working from

bottom to top. The overall roadmapping process

accordingly leads from an overarching scenario

through to products and feasibility and on to

specific needs for research, which can be

visualized in a milestone chart3 [Phaal2003b].

If we adapt this to our present case, the

following picture emerges: End customer

markets such as the automotive industry,

electricity suppliers, and mobile machinery

represent the blue “Market” route. The green

“Product” route is the battery. The yellow route

specifies the production technology and the red

route designates production research.

Technology roadmapping in mechanical and plant engineering

User markets and battery technologies have

already been studied worldwide in numerous

roadmaps [NPE2016, LIB2015, BEMA2020].

Although they also emphasize the importance of

production for the sector’s progress, they are not

technology roadmaps for production technology

in the truest sense.

In 2014, VDMA Battery Production published a

first technology roadmap [Maiser2014] that

focused on the further development of

production technology and not on product

development itself. The dialog oriented to this

objective between battery producers, production

researchers, and the mechanical and plant

1 Popular examples include digitalization, urbanization, climate change, individualization etc. 2 Identified by different colors in the milestone chart 3 Strictly speaking, our roadmapping follows the development path shown in the milestone chart in reverse.

Introduction

Roadmapping: from an overarching scenario through to products and feasibility and on to specific needs for research. Development paths in a milestone chart [Phaal2003b]

What everyone wants to know:

Resarch needs

“BatteryProducers View“

“Machinery View“

“End User View“ Requirements

for battery manufacturers

M1

P1 P2 P3

P4

T1 T2

T3 T4

RD3

RD4

RD5

RD6

M2

RD1 RD2

Time

Timeline(know-when)

Solutions for end customers/ requirements

for machine builders

Solutions for battery manufacturers/ demand

production equipment research

Purpose(know-why)

Purpose(know-what)

Purpose(know-how)

Implemen-tation

6 INTRODUCTION

engineering industry remained the basis of

further discussion and has been continued ever

since.

Starting point, objectives and target groups

The expectations placed on all players along the

battery value chain are high. Competition to

create the best production technology is running

at full speed, and cooperation along the process

chain is essential for progress. Experience from

the consumer sector continues to represent a

considerable advantage for the production of

large-scale energy storage devices. Continual

innovation and rigorous internationalization

strategies have played a major part in

generating the first successes of German battery

manufacturers in the important markets of Asia

and North America.

These companies benefit from the experience of

related industries4. This makes it possible to take

new approaches and introduce revolutionary

ideas.

We described the objectives of the roadmapping

process in detail in our roadmap published in

2014 [Maiser2014]. These objectives remain

valid:

To determine the current situation of the

mechanical engineering industry: latest

progress and future challenges

To comprehensively specify the need for

research into production technology

Benchmarking, expansion of product

portfolios, and encouragement of the

formation of consortia for new and

established players

Recommendations for action for all actors

4 For example semiconductor, photovoltaic, and automotive production, as well as the food and packaging industry.

As a general principle, the persons or

organizations that benefit the most will be

those that participate actively in the dialog

[Groenveld1997, Phaal2009].

Methodology

VDMA’s experience with roadmapping

[ADRIA2005, VDMA-PV2010] has underlined the

importance of clearly specified methodology for

the roadmapping process. We have adapted the

roadmapping process used in the semiconductor

industry to the needs of battery production. At

the heart of this method is the concept of

formulating roadmaps separately for customers

and production equipment manufacturers. This

prevents a situation in which customers make

their requirements dependent on the feasibility

of process technology and technology suppliers

make statements about process solutions only

when there is a prospect of volume production.5

The importance of “red brick walls”

Compiling the requirements placed on battery

manufacturers and on feasibility from the point

of view of process development within the

defined time grid reveals the following for each

individual process step:

(1) Process solutions are already available in the

field

(2) Process solutions are available only at a pilot

stage

(3) Process solutions have been demonstrated or

exist as temporary solutions

(4) Process solutions are currently unknown

If solutions are unknown in several process steps

that are required to meet a manufacturer

requirement, a metaphorical “red brick wall”

5 A more detailed description can be found in the roadmap published in 2014 [Maiser 2014].

INTRODUCTION 7

arises. This indicates that technological

breakthroughs are necessary.

Research efforts must now be targeted at

overcoming the red brick walls in order to fulfill

the manufacturers’ requirements. The

identification of red brick walls is thus a core

task within the roadmapping process. From this

it is possible to derive specific and clearly

defined research requirements.

Multidimensional roadmaps —

focus on mechanical and plant engineering

The milestone chart shown above effectively

results in a separate chart for each battery

technology. This makes our roadmap

multidimensional (see illustration) and it would

be too complex to discuss production

technology in the necessary depth.

To allow an intensive study of the process chain,

we have accordingly focused on the battery

technology that has already been introduced on

an industrial scale: lithium-ion technology (LIB,

shown in color in the chart).

As production research requires technologies

that are ready for series production, our

roadmap addresses the lithium-ion generations

1 to 3 (see table). Within these generations, the

production technology is upwards-compatible.

This means that any conclusions can be applied

directly to the next generation, since the

changes primarily affect the chemical

composition of the active components.

The term “generation 4” is used to designate all-

solid-state and lithium-sulfur (Li-S) technologies,

while generation 5 indicates lithium-air. These

technologies are still at the development stage.

Changes would be needed to some sub-sections

of production for these generations. Detailed

information can be found in the all-solid-state

process flyer.

In view of the competitive environment for

German companies, we shall also limit ourselves

to considering large-scale cells for high-capacity

and high-energy applications.

If we regard a milestone chart as a roadmap for production technology, further charts emerge for each battery technology. This work is concerned with the challenges associated with the volume production of the first to third generations of lithium-ion technology; the generations are defined in accordance withthe roadmap of the German National Platform for Electric Mobility (NPE). Source: VDMA

8 INTRODUCTION

Lithium-ion technology as a reference scenario

For a long time, the already very well-developed

4.1 V LIB was the reference system for “classic”

LIBs for use both in electromobility and in

stationary applications. The 4.2 V LIB has now

become established, and experiments with the

4.35 V LIB are ongoing. In these cells, however,

the performance is still increasing at the

expense of service life. High-voltage cells with a

voltage of 4.5 or more do not currently exist.

In electrochemical terms, the current reference

system is based on a cathode made of lithium

nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) or lithium

ion phosphate (LFP) and an anode made of

graphite or graphite with a small percentage of

silicon. Lithium titanate is also suitable as an

alternative anode material, particularly for use

in large-scale stationary storage devices or in

HEVs6 in the field of electromobility.

Large-scale cells for mobile and stationary use

will be based on LIB technology in the future.

The overall picture in battery technology

research and development shows that the

potential of the current generations of “classic”

large-scale lithium-ion batteries is far from

exhausted. Improvements could be achieved

through the use of high-voltage cathodes with

appropriate electrolytes or graphite anodes with

a higher percentage of silicon, for example.

In view of its broad design base and the

associated wide range of applications, the LIB

reference technology described will remain the

reference system for many years to come.

6 HEV: hybrid electric vehicle

Workshops at VDMA

The roadmap is revised every two years to

ensure it is up to date. The first step in this

process is a two-day workshop to evaluate the

existing RBWs in line with the following criteria:

current situation, relevance for battery

manufacturers, and cost/benefit ratio.

Comments and suggestions can also be added.

Following this, the results were discussed in a

plenary session.

Just as in 2016, the evaluation session on the

first day of the workshop was followed by work

on the requirements for the manufacturers of

production systems from today’s point of view.

Alongside the mechanical and plant engineering

industry, battery manufacturers, the automotive

industry and research institutes were also

involved.

On the second day, the solutions offered by the

mechanical and plant engineering industry were

formulated. The required technology

breakthroughs were discussed and considered

based on the 2016 roadmap and the results of

the first day. The discussion also included the

timeline for achieving each objective.

To complement the workshops, expert

interviews with the customer sector were later

held, just as in 2016. This additional evaluation

by experts ultimately ensures consistent content

in the workshop results and the newly defined

RBWs.

Conclusion: This roadmap formulates solutions

that could be provided by the German

mechanical and plant engineering sector and

describes the need for research to prepare for

large-scale production of high-performance

lithium-ion energy storage devices in the period

up to 2030.

MARKETS 9

Markets

As a starting point for this update to the

“Roadmap for Battery Production Equipment

2030” published in 2014 and 2016, we once

again studied the developments in the battery

market and production capacity. What do the

forecasts look like, both in general and with

regard to specific applications such as electric

vehicles, industrial applications, and stationary

energy storage devices, as seen at the present

time? Which battery technology will be the

major driver of market growth in the coming

years or decades and therefore has the greatest

need for appropriate production solutions?

Who is involved in production today and in the

future and what plans for factories exist

worldwide? What are the driving factors behind

the requirements that battery manufacturers

place on their suppliers?

These questions can be answered by studying

markets, supply and demand, and the product

specifications of battery manufacturers.

The analysis of markets and demand is based

on current published roadmaps for user

markets and market studies. The data

documented in the following has, relative to the

roadmap published in 2016 [Michaelis2016],

been updated to the year 2018 and continues to

confirm the existence of trends that had begun

to emerge even then.

Markets, demand, supply

The possible applications of electrical energy

storage technologies in general and lithium-ion

batteries (LIB) in particular are many and

various, ranging from consumer electronics,

electromobility, and stationary energy storage,

all the way up to the large batteries used

directly in industry [Thielmann2015a, b, c].

Since their introduction to consumer electronics

7 We assume 115 GWh (+/- 10 percent).8 Cars, commercial vehicles, etc.

at the start of the 1990s, lithium-ion batteries

have almost 30 years of development behind

them. This is transferred to various specific

applications through intensive further

development of larger cylindrical cells (size

21700), large-scale pouch cells, and prismatic

batteries. All these cell formats have their

advantages and are used both in electric

vehicles and in industrial and stationary

applications [Hettesheimer2017]. It can be still

expected that lithium-ion battery technology

will be developed to full maturity within the

coming 10 to 20 years. This means that, for the

next two decades, there will still be

considerable development potential in this

technology, which will be optimized step by

step in the coming years.

LIB cells: global demand

The global demand for LIB cells in 2017 was 100

to 125 GWh7 [Avicenne2018], [Takeshita2018],

[Thielmann2017]. Around 57-69 GWh can be

attributed to electromobility8 and

approximately 1.5-5 GWh to stationary

applications. In the area of portable/mobile

applications9, the size of the LIB market in 2017

was between 45 and 50 GWh. There are

statistical uncertainties related to the source

and market study concerned and differences in

the determination of product-specific unit sales

and average battery sizes.

The LIB market has seen average annual growth

of 25 percent over the last few years. Based on

this, demand in 2018 should be up to 150 GWh.

9 Portable i.e. 3C: consumer devices, communication, computers

10 MARKETS

The biggest source of demand and dynamics is

electro-mobile applications, which have seen

growth rates of around 40 percent in recent

years and are expected to remain at an average

of 30-40 percent in the next few years, too.

Demand is thus now significantly higher than

for the 3C applications (see figure above).

LIB markets — electromobility

When it comes to electromobility for private

cars, particular attention is currently being paid

to the development of plug-in hybrids (PHEV)

and battery electric vehicles (BEV). Alongside

nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries, LIBs are

increasingly being used in hybrid electric

vehicles (HEV). Even when only LIBs are used,

however, demand for cell capacity is low

compared to PHEVs and BEVs.

In 2017, sales figures for electric vehicles (PHEV

and BEV) rose to 1.2 million (33-36 GWh).

Almost 3.2 million electric vehicles were on the

world’s roads by the end of 2017. Sales figures

could rise to 1.6-1.8 million BEVs/PHEVs in

2018, creating demand of more than 50 GWh.

In terms of development in cell demand, the

market for LIBs through BEVs is by far the most

important. Should electromobility develop in

line with optimistic estimates, the

terawatt/hour (TWh) boundary for LIB cell

demand for electric vehicles overall could be

10 The bottom figure applies only to electric buses in China, the top figure for buses and commercial vehicles in China.

broken as early as 2025 to 2030

[Thielmann2017].

In the case of commercial vehicles (e.g. vans,

buses) and mobile work machines (e.g. forklift

trucks), dynamic developments similar to those

in the electric car segment can be expected for

LIBs, opening up an equally attractive growth

market. The batteries installed in commercial

vehicles can range between 50 and over 250

kWh or even considerably higher. Although

quantities are only a third of those for cars, this

market for LIBs could become equally large

given that the batteries have two to three times

the capacity.

Outside China, sales of electric commercial

vehicles such as delivery vans, post vans,

garbage trucks, trucks etc. is 50,000-60,000 and

causes demand of a few GWh. This is expected

to become much more dynamic in the next few

years.

Most battery cells for buses and commercial

vehicles are currently used in the Chinese

market. Since 2015, this market has been of a

similar size to the market for electric cars. Since

2014, the market has grown from just under 2

gigawatt hours (GWh) to around 11-13 GWh

(2015), 16-20 GWh (2016) and 20-24 GWh

(2017) [Takeshita2018, Yole2018]. Demand in

2019 is forecast to be 24-29 GWh.10 If this trend

continues, the Chinese market will have

switched completely to electric buses in the

next few years. Market forecasts anticipate a

Global LIB demand by segment (left: in GWh, right: by market share): The 3C market includes small-scale pouch, prismatic, and cylindrical cells up to size 18650. Demand in this segment is not taken into account in the further analyses — only LIB demand in electromobile and stationary applications. Large-scale pouches, prismatic cells and cylindrical cells of size 21700 are used there.

Source: Fraunhofer ISI [Thielmann 2017 based on various market studies [market studies 2013-2017, Avicenne 2018, Takeshita 2018, Yole 2018, etc.]].

0

25

50

75

100

125

150

2015 2016 2017 2018 *

Global LIB Demand by Segments (in GWh)

3C (portable) xEV (Cars)Commercial EV (CN Bus, Truck, else) E(motor)bikesMotive (else) ESS

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

2015 2016 2017 2018 *

Global LIB Demand by Segments (Share in %)

3C (portable) xEV (Cars)Commercial EV (CN Bus, Truck, else) E(motor)bikesMotive (else) ESS

MARKETS 11

sustained annual demand of 100,000-300,000

electric buses in China (10-30 GWh). However,

the Chinese government’s reduction in

subsidies for electric vehicle manufacturers

shows that there is no guarantee that this

market demand will remain as dynamic and

stable in the coming years.

Demand is now increasing in other countries,

too, and with it the prospect of an expansion in

e-mobility with lightweight and heavy-duty

commercial vehicles. This is an opportunity for

Chinese cell manufacturers such as BYD, CATL

etc. in particular to expand in markets outside

China.

Demand for electric bicycles (e-bikes) was 9

million (3-4 GWh) in 2017 [Thielmann2017].

Sales figures for e-scooters and e-motorbikes

are currently far below this, at 30,000 (0.5

GWh). However, an interesting market is

expected to arise here in the future with battery

capacities of 2 to more than 15 kWh.

LIB markets — stationary applications

Stationary storage devices are playing an ever

more critical role in energy supply, especially

given the expansion of renewable energies. In

regions with poor connections to grids,

autonomous systems are often the only way to

provide an energy supply.

Different market studies provide different

estimates of the demand for LIB cells for

stationary applications [Thielmann2017],

ranging from less than 2 to more than 5 GWh in

2017, with growth between 20 and 60 percent.

However, all the forecasts predict high growth,

11 UPS, insular solutions, grid stabilization, PV home storage, PV and wind parks for direct sale of renewable energies, personal use optimization, etc.

starting from a low market volume of less than

1 GWh before 2013.

The market is very diverse in terms of the uses

of off-grid and on-grid applications11

[Thielmann2015 a, c]. Demand for individual

applications such as grid stabilization could be

satisfied again in just a few years, while other

applications promise long-term demand.

All in all, there is a broad portfolio of energy

storage solutions for stationary applications.

Demand for LIBs stems from the replacement of

existing technologies (especially Pb batteries)

and the increasing demand for local storage

solutions. In the medium to long term, existing

storage solutions are expected to be put under

pressure or even pushed out altogether by the

falling cost of LIBs [Thielmann2015a].

However, the development of second life

business models could also lead to a flattening

in demand in the future. The grid connection

(V2G, G2V) of electric vehicles will also demand

a new and precise definition of stationary

energy storage systems (ESS).

LIB supply: production capacities

In order to make a reliable statement as to how

well producers can meet this demand, a

realistic estimate of global production capacity

is vital. From this, it will then be possible to

derive an indication of whether and when new

factories need to be built or, more precisely,

whether investment in a factory would be

worthwhile.

The installed global LIB production capacity for

electromobility, industrial and stationary

applications has been determined based on a

12 MARKETS

wide range of studies, press releases and

information from cell manufacturers

themselves (see figure on p. 13). These show

that 200 to 360 GWh could be accrued by the

end of 201812. An average of 100 GWh is

expected to be added in each of the next few

years [cellmanufacturers2018].

Comparison of LIB demand and supply: a

comprehensive view

To continue the comparison of LIB production

capacity and demand [Michaelis2016,

Thielmann2017], the figure on p. 13 compares

the cell production capacity announced by

August 2018 with global LIB demand.

In estimating demand, both the units actually

installed and those held in stock in factories or

by customers should ideally be taken into

account. If there is oversupply, customers’

warehouses remain empty and orders are

placed later. Where there is undersupply, orders

are often placed for more units than are

actually required. Demand is unrealistically

inflated, since orders may subsequently be

canceled.

Price development is a major factor in

determining how dynamic demand is. It has

long been the practice in the semiconductor

industry to study average sales prices (ASP).

These are closely linked to the costs of

production. Similar forecast models have now

also been developed in the battery industry

[Maiser2015, Michaelis2016, Thielmann2017].

12 Includes production capacities for large-scale pouch and prismatic cells as well as cylindrical (21700) cells. The 18650 cells from Panasonic installed by Tesla in recent years are also

Moreover, prices and willingness to invest are

also significantly influenced by developments in

the world economy as a whole.

Production capacity cannot be made fully

available in a short time; factories are “ramped

up” gradually. They cannot produce at full

capacity in the year in which production begins,

and may not begin at the start of the year

anyway. In order to take this ramp-up phase

into account in our chart, we have added a year

of offset to the announced start of production.

The time required from the construction of a

factory through to the quality certification of

production processes and products and full

operation varies from eighteen months for a

“copy and paste” factory to four years for a

factory with new production technology. Thus,

cell manufacturers can only react to fast-

changing demand with some delay. Reliable

forecasts are essential. Many manufacturers

therefore plan the development of their

factories in several stages right from the

beginning.

Based on the interaction of supply, demand,

and time-delayed reaction, we find typical

examples of the “pork cycle” that is familiar

from other industries.

The degree of utilization of the capacity of a

factory is never 100 percent. Once this figure

exceeds 85 percent on a sustained basis,

manufacturers tend to think about expanding

capacity. The rest serves as spare. When it

comes to actually used production capacity,

therefore, it is advisable to expect values only

up to 85 percent. In the case of the market for

LIB cells, which is seeing extremely dynamic

included. Small-scale pouch and prismatic cells and cylindrical cells for 3C applications are not included.

MARKETS 13

growth, cell manufacturers (particularly those

from China) are actually announcing further

stages of expansion at much lower levels of

capacity utilization.

Factories never produce only “good”

components. Well-established factories in the

semiconductor industry have a yield of over 90

percent. Some yields in battery production are

currently well below this. It is therefore also

advisable in our case to deduct at least 10

percent from the full capacity figure.

The quality of the cells is a further source of

uncertainty: Customers may have different

requirements and levels of acceptance

depending on the application. Depending on

the quality, cost, choice of cell chemistry and

size, not all the cells produced might be of

interest to all customers. Not every product can

be substituted by any other.

There are also regional factors, in particular

when high demand leads to growing logistical

challenges. In the future, cell factories will be

built closer to the sales

13 A utilization level of 85 percent was taken into account. Theaverage yield of today’s factories is assumed to be 90 percent. Gradual expansion announced by manufacturers and factoryramp-up are taken into account. The other effects are difficult or impossible to quantify and have not been considered.

market. As a backdrop to all this, there is also

sentiment in the industry and state measures

to attract and support business.

In the chart above, we have depicted both the

nominal factory capacity (blue and red solid

lines) and the more realistic values that take the

dampening effects described above13 into

account (dotted lines). The trend in demand is

shown in green, with a conservative, trend-

based and optimistic scenario in each case. If

the lines are above the green areas, there is

mathematical overcapacity; if they are below

them, production capacity is insufficient.

The red lines show the expansion of production

capacity in the basis scenario14. The blue lines

show the expansion, taking optional factory

expansions by established and new cell

manufacturers (new market participants) into

account.

LIB demand (excluding 3C applications) will

increase by more than 50 percent between

2017 (approx. 60 GWh) and 2018 (approx. 100

GWh). Demand between 2015 and 2018 did

indeed develop from the pessimistic scenario

(bottom green line) to the on-trend scenario

14 Basis scenario: production capacity planned by established cell manufacturers

LIB cells: Comparison of global demand for electromobility, industrial, and stationary applications (forecast from 2018, LIB demand does not take into account small-scale pouch, prismatic cells and cylindrical cells of size 18650 or smaller) with the existing and known planned production capacity (basis scenario, see also table) and published optional expansion plans from various manufacturers and new market players. Including empirical values for the capacity utilization and yield of factories (dotted curves) provides a realistic estimate of the extent to which production capacity can cover demand. Source: Calculations byFraunhofer ISI based on [cellmanufacturers2018].

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030

GWh

LIB Cells: Global demand for electromobility, industrial and stationaryapplications compared to productioncapacities 2010‐2030

demand trend capacity (established manufacturers) capacities (further expansion + newmanufacturers)demand optimistic production (established manufacturers) production (further expansion + newmanufacturers)

14 MARKETS

(middle green line) and is expected to remain

between the on-trend and optimistic scenarios

over the next few years. This would mean an

increase in demand from an additional 50 GWh

to 100 GWh annually from 2020.

The production capacity of established

manufacturers (red lines) covers this demand

until 2020 and, with increasing utilization, even

beyond. The further production capacity

expanded by established manufacturers will

then also be needed between 2020 and 2025. In

the years around 2025, new cell manufacturers

will ramp up and compete with established cell

manufacturers.

The table on page 15 shows the expansions in

cell production capacity planned or announced

for 2018 to 2030, listed by cell manufacturer,

the location of their headquarters, and the

planned production location. Due to the high

level of uncertainty regarding the extent to

which planned capacity will actually be built

and commissioned in the respective year,

minimum and maximum values are specified

for 2018 and 2020. This reflects the range of

information identified

[cellmanufacturers2018]. For 2025 to 2030, the

maximum production capacity announced is

listed.

The future expansion plans of CATL, BYD,

Panasonic, Samsung SDI and LG Chem show

that these leading cell manufacturers are

increasingly setting themselves apart from all

other market participants. Each of the “big

four” named above aims to establish at least 25

GWh of production capacity by 2020, and more

than 50 GWh in the years after that.

Panasonic’s15 long-term plans go as far as

capacity of almost 200 GWh. CATL is planning

15 Expansion by Tesla at various sites

16 CATL, LG Chem, SDI, SKI and probably BYD

to expand its capacities to up to 150 GWh in

China, Europe and through joint ventures. LG

Chem’s plans list a figure of 70 GWh in the

short term and more than 100 GWh in the

longer term. Including new joint ventures and

potential cell production in Europe after 2020,

BYD is planning to expand to 70 (to 80) GWh.

Mathematically, this would enable these four

cell manufacturers alone to cover global market

demand over the next few years.

By 2025, demand for LIB cells in Europe could be

between 100 and 200 GWh (conservative and

optimistic scenario). The on-trend scenario puts

demand at 150-160 GWh [Thielmann2017]. The

expansion plans of Asian and European cell

manufacturers touch 146-162 GWh after 2025.

Asian cell manufacturers16 plan to account for

76 to more than 92 GWh of this, while the

European manufacturers17 collectively

contribute up to 70 GWh. They could thus cover

a maximum of just under 50 percent of

demand. The production of cylindrical cells

(Northvolt and 20 GWh of the planned 34 GWh

by TerraE) will also serve growth markets that

go beyond the automotive industry (e.g. power

tools, e-bikes).

The number of cell manufacturers, currently

estimated at more than 100, is expected to

consolidate over the next few years, especially

on the Chinese market. Even today, some

Chinese manufacturers (e.g. Optimum) are

having to reduce or halt production due to the

reduction in subsidies for e-vehicles and the

stiff competition.

Comparing LIB sales with the existing

production capacity puts the average capacity

utilization of cell manufacturers worldwide

between 27 and 54 percent in 201718.

17 TerraE, Northvolt and smaller established Europeanmanufacturers

18 59-75 GWh demand for EV/ESS compared with 138-221 GWh production capacity

MARKETS 15

LIB cell production capacity in GWh for electromobility, industrial and stationary applications (large-scale pouch, prismatic cells, and cylindrical cells of size 21700) in 2018 and expansion announcements of established and new manufacturers up to 2020, 2025, and 2030 arranged by cell manufacturer, headquarters, and production location; basis scenario (min.) of existing and planned production capacity; manufacturers with <1 GWh of cell production are combined under “Others” and listed by country. Source: Fraunhofer ISI, based on [cell manufacturers 2018].

Cell manufacturer Headquarter Production location 2018 (min) 2018 (max) 2020 (min) 2020 (max) 2025 (max) 2030 (max)CATL China China 18 40 40 100 100 100BYD China China 16 28 60 80 110 110Lishen China China 10 15 17 20 40 40OPTIMUM China China 12 18 18 36 36 36時代上汽動?電池 (JV CATL und SAIC) China China 0 0 18 36 36 36National Battery Tech, Bejing China China 11,2 11,2 11,2 25,2 25,2 25,2Dynavolt China China 0 6 0 25 25 25Guoxuan High‐Tech China China 10,7 20 17 23 25 25BAK Battery China China 2 8 8 15 20 20Guoneng China China 4 8 4 20 20 20CNMPower China China 1,5 3 3 15 15 15Wanxiang (A123) China China 2 4 5 10 14 14CATL China Germany, Europe 0 0 0 0 14 14CALB (China Aviation Lithium Battery) China China 6 13,5 6 13,5 13,5 13,5EVE China China 7,5 9 9 13 13 13Coslight China China 5 5 5 12,5 12,5 12,5Tianneng China China 1,5 2,3 1,5 11 11 11Great Power China China 0,4 4 0,4 10 10 10Funeng Technology China China 0 10 0 10 10 10BYD& Changan (JV) China China 0 0 5 6 10 10Dongfeng Amperex (JV CATL & Dongfeng) China China 0 0 9,6 9,6 9,6 9,6BPP (Bejing Pride Power) to BAIC China China 0,31 0,31 0,31 7 7 7CENAT China China 1 5 1 5 5 5etrust China China 0 4 0 4 4 4Zhihang Jiangsu New Energy China China 3,5 3,5 3,5 3,5 3,5 3,5Phylion China China 3 3 3 3 3 3Narada China China 2 2 2 2,5 2,5 2,5Wina Battery China China 2,2 2,2 2,2 2,2 2,2 2,2DFD China China 1,9 1,9 1,9 1,9 1,9 1,9BYD China Europe 0 0China (others) China China 7 12 7 30 30 30LG Chem Korea Korea 10 12 18 18 18 18LG Chem Korea China 1 3 6 8 8 8 8LG Chem Korea USA 2,4 3 3 3 3 8LG Chem Korea Poland, Europe 1,25 5 15 24 24 24LG Chem Korea China 2 0 0 32 32 32 32Samsung SDI Korea Korea 2,8 2,8 5 5 5 5Samsung SDI Korea China 2,6 5,6 4 5,6 5,6 5,6Samsung SDI Korea Hungary, Europe 2,5 2,5 2,5 15 15 15SK Innovation Korea Korea 1,9 3 3,9 10 10 10SK Innovation Korea Hungary, Europe 0 0 7,5 7,5 7,5 7,5SK Innovation Korea China 0 0 0 7,5 7,5 7,5Korea (others) Korea Korea 1 1 1 1 1 1AESC Japan Japan 2,2 2,2 2,2 2,2 2,2 2,2AESC Japan USA 4 4 4 4 4 4AESC Japan UK, Europe 2 2 2 2 2 2Lithium Energy Japan (LEJ) Japan Japan 2,3 2,3 2,3 2,3 2,3 2,3Panasonic (18650) Japan Japan 7 7 7 7 7 7Panasonic Japan China 0 2,5 2,3 6 6 6Panasonic Japan Japan 1 1 1 3 8 8Panasonic‐Tesla 1 Japan USA 14 25 35 35 105 105Panasonic‐Tesla 2 Japan China 0 0 0 0 35 35Panasonic‐Tesla 3 Japan Europe 0 0 0 0 35 35Toshiba Japan Indien 0 0 0 1 1 1GS Yuasa Japan Hungary, Europe 0 0 0Japan (others) Japan Japan 1 1 1 1 1 1Farasis USA China 5 5 5 15 25 25Farasis USA Europe 0 0 0 0Boston Energy USA Australia 0 0 0 3 15 15Boston Energy USA USA 0 0 0 3 15 15Boston Power USA China 1,5 7 11 11 11 11JCI USA USA 1,65 1,65 1,65 1,65 1,65 1,65Microvast USA China 2 2 2 15 15 15USA (others) USA USA 1 1 1 1 1 1TerraE Germany Germany, Europe 0 0 0 1,5 20 34Northvolt Sweden Sweden, Europe 0 0 0 8 32 32Saft (with Solvay, Siemens, Manz) France Europe 0 0 0 0Germany/Poland (Lausitz) Germany/Poland DE/PL, Europe 0 0 0 0Europe (andere) Europe Europe 2 2 2 4 4 4Energy Renaissance Australia Australia 0 0 0 1 1 1Reliance India India 0 0 0 0 25 25Exide & LeClanche (JV) India India 0 0 0 1 5 5Foxconn Taiwan China 0 15 0 15 15 15Energy Absolute Thailand Thailand 0 0 0 1 25 50Total World World 203 360 438 831 1185 1229

16 MARKETS

Hotspot China

In recent years, China has caught up with

previous leaders Japan and Korea in terms of

both LIB demand and production capacity. LIB

cell sales in China amounted to 38-44.5 GWh in

2017, corresponding to 60-65 percent of global

LIB cell demand for EV and ESS applications.

China is expected to maintain this large share

of demand over the next few years. The

planned expansion of capacity in China (figures

above) demonstrates the dominance of Chinese

cell manufacturers, who are currently

maintaining an around 80 percent share of

global production capacity in China and are

expected to continue to do so over the next few

years. The USA, Europe, and other countries will

only begin to establish greater production

capacity in around 2025 to 2030, reducing

China’s share to 60 percent.

Cell manufacturers from Japan and Korea are

attempting to win back their market shares in

the long term. Chinese manufacturers almost

completely cover the demand in their own

country (domestic market) themselves,

although Japanese (Panasonic), Korean (LG

Chem, Samsung SDI), and Sino-American

(Boston Power, Microvast) companies are also

expanding there. The market share of Chinese

manufacturers in China is therefore expected to

fall from around 70 percent now to around 50

percent in the future.

The maximum scenario considered here

assumes that all the announced capacity is

added. The expected consolidation process is

therefore predicted to increase the market

share of non-Chinese manufacturers.

As the market for electromobility and thus

demand increasingly diffuses to regions outside

China, the share of demand is expected to fall

from more than 60 percent today towards 40

percent. Until then, however, companies that

are expanding worldwide, such as CATL and

BYD, have an outstanding opportunity to put

the production expertise they have gained in

their home markets to use on the Chinese

export markets. The quality of Chinese cells is

already considered (almost) equal to that of

Japanese and Korean cells.

Production capacity by location (top) and by country of manufacturer (right) Source: Fraunhofer ISI

MARKETS 17

What does a location have to offer to be

suitable?

As the figure above shows, Japanese and

Korean cell manufacturers are increasingly

establishing sites in Europe and the USA,

following demand (i.e. the locations of the

OEM). Chinese manufacturers predominantly

serve the enormous and growing domestic

market, but are also trying to gain a foothold in

Europe. On the other hand, Japanese and

Korean manufacturers have set their sights on

the Chinese market.

After 2020, further cell manufacturers in other

regions of the world (such as India and

Australia) will also try to establish production

sites in line with local demand.

A consideration of demand and the potential

for reducing the cost of battery cells and packs

reveals how important it is for cells to be

produced close to the sales market.

A location close to the market reduces

transport costs (particularly given the GWh

scales that will be seen in the future) and

thus logistics costs.

Although energy and staffing costs only

account for a few percent of the cost of a

battery, they undoubtedly played a part in

the decisions made by LG Chem, SDI, and

SKI to locate to Poland and Hungary.

Infrastructure costs (land, buildings, etc.)

make up a large part of the initial

investment and have to be written off

through amortization. Business promotion

policies set up by countries, regions, districts

or cities are a crucial bargaining chip in

making their location more attractive to cell

manufacturers.

As well as simple economies of scale,

automation is an important tool for further

optimizing process steps, process quality, yield

and throughput. Cell manufacturers’ proximity

to suppliers and the supply chain, providing an

opportunity to stand out in terms of material

and process quality, can also influence location

decisions. This would be a good way for the

German mechanical engineering industry to

offer added value for Asian and European cell

manufacturers and to establish references for

the future.

Source: Fraunhofer ISI

RoW

KR

CN

JP

US EU

1

10

100

1000

1 10 100 1000

LIB Cell Production by Production Location vs. Headquarter of Producer (GWh, max announcements)

2018202020252030

Tota

l Pro

duct

ion

Capa

city

of C

ell P

rodu

cer

Production Ramp-up by foreign Cell Producer

Moving Production Locationto other Countries

Production Capacity at Location

18 MARKETS

Frugal innovation vs. full digitalization

The frugal innovation approach targets the

essential core function of a product. Less is

more. Unlike current practices in many fields, a

frugal product is characterized not by new,

additional functions, but instead by being a

simplified, less complex version. The idea is for

the product to offer the best possible benefits

for the price [Radjou2014], with a focus on

target group-specific or application-oriented

functions [Zeschky2010]. At the same time,

frugal innovation is based on a new idea or

invention that is implemented in the product,

service or process, is applied successfully, and

penetrates the market (diffusion) [Dörr2011].

Frugal innovation is predominantly used in

product design and applies to the battery itself.

From a mechanical engineering point of view,

frugal innovations affect the product system

and the machines and plants it contains.

Battery production has a very complex process

chain that demands understanding of

numerous relationships between processes,

structures, and properties, and the ability to

implement them in the process technology.

This challenge can be tackled with two

approaches that bridge the divide between

frugal innovation and full digitalization.

In line with the principles of Industrie 4.0,

attempts are being made at optimization

through connected production lines with

continuous data acquisition and artificial

intelligence. Full digitalization is enabled by the

latest hardware and software solutions, which

add greater functionality and intelligence to the

production system and the machines and

plants within it.

This generally results in increased complexity

and thus vulnerability to failure in the system.

The frugal innovation approach aims to reduce

this complexity — a goal that can be achieved in

various ways. In no way does it rule out the

targeted, effective use of highly developed

technologies in frugal products and solutions

[Hitech2018]. Industrie 4.0 solutions can thus

also be used in a targeted way for frugal

innovation.

In the 2018 roadmapping process, the topic of

overengineering has become a major focus.

Excessive process requirements often result

from ignorance of the process. Although they

have a negative impact on cost, they tend to be

accepted more than a product that appears

unsafe. The frugal innovation approach is the

opposite of this, but also demands sufficient

understanding of the process. Continuously

collecting and analyzing data in line with the

principles of Industrie 4.0 can make a major

contribution to this. Based on this enhanced

understanding of the process and tailored to

the issue at hand, additional yet useful

functions can be incorporated into the

production process or processes can be

simplified.

The aim of a fully digitalized and automated

production line is to reduce costs by increasing

efficiency. In contrast, frugal innovation is an

opportunity to simplify processes and increase

throughput at lower cost.

MARKETS 19

Cell formats: advantages and disadvantages of the various formats

Comparing the cell formats

The practical applications of lithium-ion cells

range from entertainment electronics to

commercial vehicles and the automotive

industry. This broad spectrum of applications

necessitates a high level of variance in both cell

size and cell format. As shown in the figure,

there are three main cell formats: the pouch

cell, the cylindrical cell, and the prismatic cell.

All these cell formats undergo similar process

steps in production. However, certain plants

have to be precisely tailored and optimized for

the relevant cell formats. Winding the

cylindrical cell is a core difference from the

stacking process for the pouch cell. Prismatic

cells can be either wound or stacked. As the

winding process currently has more

advantages, it is used as standard for prismatic

cells.

The differences between the cell formats make

it impossible to implement variability in series

production. Instead, cell manufacturers have to

focus on a single format.

Since vehicles only offer a limited amount of

space for installation, the volumetric energy

density is one of the most important technical

parameters for energy storage in xEV

applications. The more energy can be stored in

the space, the greater the vehicle’s range.

One of the crucial factors here is the ratio of

active and inactive materials in the different

cell formats at cell and module level. Their basic

geometry gives cylindrical cells the highest

volumetric energy density. However, a similar

energy density to that of small-scale lithium-ion

cells has been achieved in large-scale pouch

cells in recent years. At modular level, the

cylindrical cell loses some of its advantage over

prismatic and pouch cells due to the packing

density in some module designs.

It is difficult to compare the service life across

different cell formats, as it depends heavily on

additional factors such as the cell chemistry and

the load on the lithium-ion cell. The major

factors influencing the cell’s service life are the

calendar service life and the cycle stability. A

longer cycle service life can be achieved by an

appropriate cell chemistry design. Where aging

occurs due to cyclic load, the swelling of the cell

puts a strain on the active materials.

All of these cell formats are available in a wide

range of variants. The aim is always to adapt

the battery cell to the available installation

space and the way the battery system will be

used (HEV, PHEV, EV) in the best possible way.

While prismatic and pouch cells are designed

individually for each application case, cylindrical

cells are primarily installed in electric cars and

commercial vehicles in two standard formats —

18650 and 21700.

Overview of cell formats Source: PEM, RWTH Aachen University

20 MARKETS

Comparison of cell formats

Source: PEM, RWTH Aachen University

Category Pouch Cell Cylindrical Cell Prismatic Cell

Volumetricenergy density oncell level

Currently highestenergy density withcylindrical cell

Currently highestenergy density withpouch cell

Currently lowestenergy density of the threecell formats

Volumetricenergy density onmodule level

High energy densitysimilar to cylindrical cell

High energy densitysimilar to pouch cell

Currently lowestenergy density of the threecell formats

Lifetime Good Good Good

Housing Aluminium compound foil Mainly nickel-plated steel Mainly aluminium

Dimensions Variable Design

Efficient use of space

High packing density

Less flexibility to the pouch cell

Inefficient use of space

Low packing density

Less flexibility to the pouch cell

Efficient use of installations

High packing density

Strength Unstable housing Expands during

pressure build-up

High tightness High stiffness Mechanically robust Withstands a certain

internal pressure without deformation

High tightness High stiffness Lower mechanical

stability than the round cell

Thermalregulation

Good surface to volume ratio

Efficient temperature control

High-energy cells: low heat dissipation

Lots of volume compared to the surface

Appropriate modular concepts are needed to

address the wide range of different cells

available. Integrating functions like the cell

rigidity is crucial here.

Since high cell rigidity, alongside function

integration, is necessary for safe installation

and good workability, it is one of the core

requirements of automotive manufacturers.

Because they have the highest rigidity,

cylindrical cells have the advantage over other

cell formats here. A prismatic cell is

manufactured in a similar way to a cylindrical

one. After winding, the electrodes and

separators are flattened to form the prismatic

shape. As the pouch film does not provide

rigidity, a frame has to be added to pouch cells.

The thermal properties of all cells can be

managed well. The main differences lie in the

cooling effort needed and the options for heat

transfer. Pouch cells enable good heat

dissipation through the current collectors, thus

offering the best cooling performance. In

cylindrical cells, the heat generated in the core

during charging can only be dissipated via the

cell housing and cell lid to a limited extent. The

prismatic cell format has the same problem.

Prismatic cells are usually cooled via the base,

although cooling between prismatic cells would

also be conceivable. Heat dissipation via the cell

housing currently meets the requirements of

automotive manufacturers. The cell housings

offer good heat conductivity, with most of the

heat developing at the cell contacts. However,

increasing charging currents are expected to

lead to increased heat development, potentially

necessitating additional cooling performance.

Unlike the other formats, a stacking process is

needed for the production of pouch cells. If the

cells are laminated first, they can also be

wound. Production of cylindrical cells is

currently faster and more cost-effective due to

the roll-to-roll and winding processes. The

prismatic cell format can be either wound or

stacked. Its benefits lie in module assembly, as

tension is only possible using a tension rod.

Their larger number of cells make module

assembly with cylindrical cells more difficult.

No radial tension is needed, however, as barely

any change in volume occurs [Warner2014].

The 21700 cell format is currently being used

more for round cells. One of the best-known

examples is the collaboration between

automotive manufacturer Tesla and cell

manufacturer Panasonic. Other manufacturers

such as Samsung SDI also produce cylindrical

cells in this format [Samsung2018]. A switch

from 18650 to 21700 is noticeable throughout

the sector. The question arises of what

motivates manufacturers to switch cell formats

and the extent to which this will become the

new standard in automotive applications.

MARKETS 21

What are the possibilities of the new 21700 format?

The cylindrical 18650 cell shape was originally

developed for 3C applications and not designed

for the automotive sector in which it is

currently used. This resulted in the

development of the cylindrical 21700 cell

format. Thanks to its cost and availability, the

cylindrical format generally offers a low entry

threshold for all applications — especially

commercial vehicles, power tools and similar

applications.

Below is a comparison of the two cylindrical

formats and an assessment of to what extent

switching formats brings benefits in terms of

costs, technical performance parameters,

safety, service life, and more efficient

integration into the module.

Costs

In 2016, the costs at pack level in the Tesla

Model S, which uses the 18650 cell format,

were less than €160/kWh. With the

commissioning of the Tesla Gigafactory in

Nevada, USA, prices will fall further in the

future. Optimized production processes enable

the 21700 cells produced there to be offered at

lower cost than the cylindrical cells currently

available for mobile applications (see figure

above).

Through future process and material

optimization, the costs are expected to fall to

€130/kWh over the next few years, even at

system level [DNK2018a, b].

Technical performance parameters

The battery system’s capacity and thus its

volumetric energy density are of elementary

relevance when it comes to increasing the

range of electric cars. The 18650 format Tesla

installs in its model S has a gravimetric energy

density of 250 Wh/kg and a capacity of up to

3600 mAh [Piepenbrink2016, DNK2018a, b].

The 21700 cell format is also becoming more

robust, as the increase in the geometric

dimensions has increased the ratio of active to

inactive material [Piepenbrink2016].

Increasing the size of the cell enables the

gravimetric energy density to be increased by

20 percent to up to 300 Wh/kg. According to

Tesla CTO J.B. Straubel, the volumetric density

can even be increased by around 30 percent

compared to the 18650 cell, putting it at 820

Wh/l [Kurzweil2015, Lima2017]. Capacities of

up to 4800 mAh are achieved. It is fair to

assume that material and electrode

optimization has also contributed to this

increase.

Geometry of the cell formats (left) and cost comparison of the 18650 and 21700 cell formats (right)

Source: PEM, RWTH Aachen University, based on [DNK 2018 a, b]

115

160

100

145

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

Cost on cell level (€/kWh) Cost on module level (€/kWh)

18650 cell format 21700 cell format

18650 Cell 21700 Cell

22 MARKETS

Technical performance parameters of the cell formatsSource: PEM, RWTH Aachen University

360

630250

480

820300

capacity (10 mAh)

vol. energy density (Wh/l)grav. energy density (Wh/kg)

18650 cell format

21700 cell format

Safety

When it comes to use in xEV applications, the

safety of the lithium-ion cells is the top priority

and must be guaranteed at all times. The

situation becomes critical if the cell generates

more heat than can be dissipated by the cooling

system, as this can cause a thermal runaway of

the cell. To prevent his, the cell or module has to

be disconnected from the grid for a period, so

that the cell can discharge its thermal energy

via the cooling system without further strain.

The thermal energy dissipation here is much

more expensive than the thermal energy

generation in the cell. When capacity is

increased by 10 percent, the temperature rises

by up to 20 percent [DNK2018a, b]. A more

powerful cooling system is therefore required

for the 21700 format to ensure the required

safety level.

Service life

The development of new cell materials will lead

to a rise in the calendar service life of both cell

formats.

The cyclic service life is particularly relevant.

Due to the increased load, deeper cycles have

an accelerating effect on the aging process.

Ideally, the average SoC during use would be

around 50 percent. Deviations from this

accelerate aging [Ecker2014].

Achievable cycle figures for the 18650 cell

format are currently between 8500 (5 percent

cycle depth), 1500 (50 percent cycle depth) and

440 (100 percent cycle depth) [Ecker2014].

Estimates suggest that increasing the capacity

by 10 percent would reduce the cell’s cycle

service life by 20 percent and the feasible

charging rate by 30-40 percent [DNK2018a, b].

Due to the larger specific capacity of the 21700

cell format, individual cells do not have to be

charged as frequently as those of the 18650 cell

format. This means fewer charging cycles

during the period of use; the cycle depth of the

charging processes falls. With the same level of

use, a falling cycle depth can result from the

increased specific capacity of the cell, which

gives the electric car a greater range and thus

enables lower discharge per trip. As a result, the

SoC changes less in everyday use and the cell is

exposed to lower chemical and mechanical

loads. The service life of the 21700 cell format

in xEV applications is thus expected to be

higher than that of the 18650 format.

Integration into the module

The 21700 cell format is intended to address

the aforementioned trade-off between the

complexity of the battery system and the

advantages of cylindrical cells. Comparing

different battery packs from Tesla

demonstrates this. The battery system in the

Model 3 consists of 2976 lithium-ion cells in

21700 cell format, installed in 4 modules to

form a 50 kWh battery.

This is a significant reduction in cells compared

to the Model S (16 modules, total of 8256 cells

of the 18650 cell format integrated into a 100

kWh battery) [Teslamag2017].

If one assumes a linear correlation between the

capacity and the number of lithium-ion cells

used, switching to the 21700 cell format

reduces the number of cells by 28 percent. This

also causes a reduction in the peripheral

elements and assembly steps.

MARKETS 23

Conclusion

There are many advantages to switching from

the 18650 to the 21700 format for cylindrical

cells. The change of cell geometry enables the

capacity and the energy density to be increased,

while integrating the cells into the battery

system becomes easier. This results in a

significant cost reduction, which will help

electric cars make their breakthrough on the

mass market in the next few years.

In addition, thanks to many years of experience

in 3C applications, the production process for

the 18650 format is very mature and can easily

be applied to the 21700 cell format.

However, creating an efficient value chain to

manufacture and market the cells will be a

challenge. Questions remain about whether

other cell manufacturers will join Panasonic

and Samsung SDI in switching to the 21700 cell

format.

Many cell manufacturers have organized their

factories to produce the 18650 cell format for

the next few years. State subsidies and the

recommendation of a standard for cell formats

will also play a key role [DNK2018a, b].

It remains to be seen which developments will

occur for pouch and prismatic cells compared to

the 21700 format and which cell format will be

chosen by those automotive manufacturers

who currently prefer the prismatic or pouch

format — largely because they are easier to

assemble at module level.

The cylindrical 21700 cell format is a good

combination in terms of performance, safety

and costs, but does not perform as well as the

prismatic and pouch cells when it comes to

assembly and variability. Whether the cell

format becomes the new standard for

cylindrical cells largely depends on the success

of Tesla over the next few years.

24 PRODUCT REQUIREMENTS AND SPECIFICATIONS

Product requirements and specifications

The central technical performance parameters

for electric energy storage devices are as

follows:

Gravimetric [Wh/kg] and volumetric

energy density [Wh/l]

Gravimetric [Wh/kg] and volumetric power

density [Wh/l]

Fast-charge capability in sizes

above 1 C (conventional <0.2 C)

Cyclic and calendar service life

Ambient conditions and tolerated

temperatures in [°C]

Safety expressed by a EUCAR level

Costs [€/kWh]

Other relevant criteria include the charging

capacity, the voltage stability during discharge,

the duration of a charging operation, and

degradation effects that lead to a reduction in

calendar service life. At a higher level,

specifications such as the environmental

compatibility of production, cost-effective and

environmentally friendly disposal and the

growing interest in re-manufacturing and the

component recycling associated with it are also

relevant factors.

The core issue is how to develop the energy

density of the lithium-ion cells further in order

to increase the range of electric vehicles and

thus make them more competitive compared to

those with combustion engines. For plug-in

hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) and hybrid

electric vehicles (HEV), the power density plays

a particularly important role. When it comes to

purely electric vehicles (EV), automotive

manufacturers’ (OEM) requirements regarding

the volumetric energy density have increased

significantly in recent years, as the dimensions

for installing the battery in the vehicle are

usually fixed and the energy density that can be

achieved at pack level is crucial to the range.

The battery capacity therefore can and must be

enhanced through improved volume utilization.

Developments and the experience gained

clearly show that lithium-ion cells provide a

platform technology whose development

potential is far from exhausted.

Performance parameters for applications in electromobility

Developments in the price of small-scale

lithium-ion cells, for example for consumer

electronics applications, show the potential for

optimizing the large-scale lithium-ion cells

currently used for mobile applications. Both

material innovations and the scaling effects of

mass production make this possible.

Currently around 250 Wh/kg, the gravimetric

energy density of the cylindrical cells is

expected to rise up to 350 Wh/kg in the future.

Large-scale pouch cells have begun to achieve

similar energy densities to small-scale lithium-

ion cells in recent years, as well as a similar

gravimetric energy density. The latest

generation of prismatic cells, however, only

achieves lower energy densities of around 200-

230 Wh/kg.

PRODUCT REQUIREMENTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 25

Development of gravimetric energy density of LIB cells by cell format [Thielmann2017]

The gravimetric energy densities of the various

cell formats are expected to align in the future,

which is why a threshold of up to 350 Wh/kg is

also predicted for large-scale prismatic and

pouch cells (see figure). At the system level, the

energy density will fall by another 15 percent

for cylindrical, 8 percent for prismatic, and 16-

18 percent for pouch cells.

There are also currently large differences

between the volumetric energy densities of

small and large-scale lithium-ion cells (see

figure on page 26). Cylindrical cells are currently

at around 700-750 Wh/l and will achieve up to

1000 Wh/l in the future, while the expected

increase for prismatic cells is from 230-350

Wh/l (currently) to 800 Wh/l (in the long term)

and for pouch cells from 250-450 Wh/l

(currently) to 1000 Wh/l (in the long term).

Compared to the cell level, the volumetric

energy density at module level falls by 20-22

percent for the prismatic cell, 30-50 percent for

the pouch cell, and around 50 percent for the

cylindrical cell.

The relevance of the gravimetric power density

varies for the different drive trains. Unlike in

purely electric vehicles, where the volumetric

energy density and a high charging

performance are crucial criteria, for hybrid drive

concepts a high power output in the lithium-ion

cell is particularly relevant in order to enable

acceleration peaks.

The gravimetric power density at pack level is

currently 300-600 W/kg for BEVs, 500-1500

W/kg for PHEVs and 1000-2000 W/kg for HEVs.

If the other performance parameters rise, the

gravimetric power density of the lithium-ion

cells needs to at least stay at the same level.

The calendar service life varies in all types of

electric vehicle, as it depends heavily on the

load on the battery. A service life of 8 to 10

years is assumed today. Efforts are being made

to improve this to 10-15 years in the short term

and 15 to 20 years in the long term, in order to

achieve the duration of use of present-day

vehicles with internal combustion engines. The

cyclical service life of a lithium-ion cell is

specified by the number of cycles, in

combination with the discharge depth. The

assumed values are 1000-2000 charging cycles

at an 80 percent discharge depth for BEVs,

4000-5000 charging cycles at an 80 percent

discharge depth for PHEVs, and 15000-20000

discharge cycles at a 2 to 8 percent discharge

depth for HEVs. Rising fast-charge capability

also increases the load on the cell and thus the

requirements for the cyclic service life.

The power density takes ambient conditions

into account at a minimum temperature of -

20°C. This is around five times lower than the

gravimetric power density of the respective

type of electric vehicle at room temperature.

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Wh/kg500

350

400

450

Literature data cylindrical cylindrical (min) cylindrical (max)Literature data prismatic prismatic (min) prismatic (max)Literature data pouch pouch (min) pouch (max)

26 PRODUCT REQUIREMENTS AND SPECIFICATIONS

Development of volumetric energy density of LIB cells by cell format [Thielmann2017]

The EUCAR level is used to estimate safety at

battery system and cell level. To achieve a

EUCAR safety level ≤4, the cell must be fracture-

proof, fireproof and explosion-proof. A loss of

weight, an escape of electrolyte (solvent and

salt) of more than 50 percent, and venting are

acceptable at this level. These essential safety

standards can be met through cell chemistry,

for example through the use of safe electrolytes

or “shutdown” separators, which prevent

further ion transport if the cell overheats.

As well as the cell chemistry, the design of the

lithium-ion cell, the battery modules and the

battery packs plays a crucial role. At cell level,

safety valves prevent excessive pressure within

the cell and thus cell explosion. At battery

module level, the power circuit can be

interrupted with thermal fuses to prevent the

cell from overheating. The construction of the

individual housings gives the cell mechanical

stability [Balakrishnan2006].

Studies show that the cell costs for small-scale

lithium-ion cells are already around €115/kWh

at cell level today. Costs are expected to fall to

less than €100/kWh in the next few years.

The manufacturing costs for large-scale

prismatic and pouch cells are currently higher

than this, at €150-200/kWh. However, just as

with the increasing energy density, it is to be

assumed that the various cell formats will

assimilate and that costs will thus fall to less

than €100/kWh by 2030.

Further processing of the lithium-ion cells when

assembling the battery modules and battery

packs increases the price by a factor of 1.3 to

1.5. Scaling effects in mass production will

reduce costs further. Future technologies

beyond lithium-ion cells will have to compete

with these significantly reduced costs.

Many of the predicted developments can also

be found in Fraunhofer ISI’s energy storage

roadmap [Thielmann2017], which also explains

the prospects for future battery technologies. In

line with the expected developments in cell

formats [Hettesheimer2017], the roadmap by

the German National Platform for Electric

Mobility [NPE2016] also shows that in the

future it will be possible to meet the OEMs’

expectations for improved batteries in terms of

both technology and cost with optimized

lithium-ion cells.

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Wh/l1000

Literature data cylindrical cylindrical (min) cylindrical (max)Literature data prismatic prismatic (min) prismatic (max)Literature data pouch pouch (min) pouch (max)

PRODUCT REQUIREMENTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 27

Performance parameters for stationary applications

Compared to mobile energy storage devices,

stationary energy storage devices cover a much

wider range of relevant storage classes,

extending from smaller local storage devices

under 10 kWh to large central storage devices

with multiple gigawatt hours

[Thielmann2015c]. It is therefore important to

know, even within a certain segment, which

specific application is involved. It is possible to

conduct a general classification based on the

field of application: energy or power storage

[Kaschub2017].

Power storage devices that have to absorb and

discharge large currents place particularly

tough criteria on the cyclic service life, while

energy storage devices that offer large storage

quantities need a long calendar service life.

For both types of storage it is generally

assumed that the requirements for costs will be

high and will need to be studied for all stages of

the product life cycle in order to calculate total

costs of ownership. Fulfilling the service life

requirements has a major impact on the level of

investment and operating costs. The efficiency

of an energy storage system also plays a major

role, as the energy stored needs to be fed back

into the electricity grid with as little loss as

possible in order to achieve sustainable energy

supply.

Significant application cases for stationary

energy storage include local PV battery systems,

peak shaving, direct sale of renewable energies,

control solutions, and multi-purpose design.

The state of the art for the reference technology

and its area of application is comprehensively

documented with regard to the storage

solution currently used in the roadmap by

Thielmann et al. [Thielmann2015c].

Due to further cost reduction, lithium-ion cells

optimized for mobile applications are also

becoming increasingly attractive in the

stationary segment. If the performance

parameters generally meet the requirements of

the stationary applications, they could be used

increasingly in this segment, too. “Second-use”

concepts are also being discussed in this

context [Fischhaber2016].

Requirements of battery manufacturers

Product requirements and the performance

parameters derived from these for high-energy

and high-performance applications are

documented in available sources and

incorporated in the roadmapping process.

Detailed specifications by battery

manufacturers for production technology are

often subject to NDAs and difficult to access.

The customer standpoint and its requirements

for mechanical and plant engineering were

provided by involving both battery

manufacturers and the automotive industry.

Further important input for the roadmap comes

from the content of discussions at international

events and from presenting the roadmap at the

VDMA roadshows in South Korea and China.

Cell production

Battery manufacturers continue to demand the

most cost-efficient cell production possible. The

next chapter describes ways in which

mechanical and plant engineering companies

can reduce costs while at the same time

maintaining the high quality standards for

stationary and mobile applications. The way to

do this is to stabilize production processes and

avoid overengineering by adapting the

machines to the relevant application case as

effectively as possible.

28 PRODUCT REQUIREMENTS AND SPECIFICATIONS

In Europe in particular, the focus is increasingly

on developing sustainable and energy-efficient

processes. These can be improved, for example,

by reducing solvent content and further

developing the drying and forming processes.

Customers also want to see greater precision in

manufacturing. Manual processes can be

replaced with tailored automation, thus

reducing waste and further decreasing costs.

Finally, higher energy densities help reduce cell

costs per kilowatt hour even more.

Battery safety is an equally crucial aspect. In cell

production, this is guaranteed by high quality

standards. As well as end-of-line inspection and

certified, standardized inspection criteria,

optimizing product and plant hygiene can help

improve safety in production.

Manufacturers are aware of the major

optimization potential offered by the

appropriate automation and digitalization of

factories and there is an increasing desire to

exploit this.

Module and pack production

Increasing production capacity is a central topic

in module and pack production. At the same

time, the requirements for the flexibility of the

production line are also rising. The

requirements for the contacting technology are

based particularly on the fast-charge capability,

as large currents have to be managed.

In connection with second life business models,

the battery also needs to be recyclable.

Statutory provisions and the lack of primary

sources of the crucial draw materials in

Germany are reinforcing this desire. There is

demand for dismantling technologies, while

options for maintenance or for setting up

battery servicing facilities are also being sought.

Ultimately, the battery is to become a “smart

product” — one that collects data about its own

manufacturing process and is able to pass it on

in later processing steps. Business models could

then be developed based on a data analysis. To

achieve this, mechanical and plant engineering

companies need to provide ways to

communicate data about the production

process with the product.

THE SOLUTIONS OFFERED BY MECHANICAL AND PLANT ENGINEERING 29

The solutions offered by mechanical and

plant engineering

Cost degression

We are aware from numerous other industries

such as semiconductors or photovoltaics that

increasing production volumes lead to a

reduction in costs through the corresponding

learning effects. It can be taken as verified by

empirical evidence that there is an exponential

relationship between product costs and

accumulated production volume. This

relationship is described by what are known as

learning curves. Studies of this kind have been

in existence for some considerable time with

regard to cost developments in consumer

batteries, but these learning curve effects can

also be applied to lithium-ion automotive

batteries [Hoffmann2014, Liebreich2015].

The learning factor (price experience factor,

PEF) describes the achievable cost reduction

resulting from a doubling of the accumulated

production volume. For small-scale consumer

battery cells, this factor is around 15 percent. In

the automotive segment, the cell prices for

large-scale prismatic and pouch cells were used

to determine the learning curve. This is also

around 15 percent, approximately the same as

for small-scale consumer cells.

Hoffmann’s learning curve from 2014, which is

based on less data, also resulted in a PEF of 15

percent for the large-scale cells. This update

corroborates this.

Forecasts (see “Markets” chapter) indicate that,

in a few years, large-scale cells will have caught

up with cylindrical consumer cells in terms of

cumulative production quantity and overtaken

them in terms of absolute capacity produced

(Wh). At a cumulative production quantity of

one terawatt hour, which will be reached

between 2020 and 2025, this means a cell price

of €100/kWh. An increase in the production

quantity to more than ten terawatt hours after

2030 will enable costs of €50-60/kWh. One

often hears the argument that material prices

will put the brakes on cost reductions in the

long term. However, although material prices

do dominate the total price, experience from

related industries such as photovoltaics shows

that material savings or alternative materials

are then used so that prices do not tend to level

off [VDMA-PV 2018]. Deviations from the PEF

can be caused by technological changes in the

long term or material shortages in the short

term.

Learning curve and price experience factor for small-scale Li-ion battery cells (left) and large-scale Li-ion battery cells (right) Source: Fraunhofer ISI based on [Pillot 2018, Takeshita 2018]

10

100

1000

10000

0,01 0,1 1 1000 10000 1000

LIB ce

ll pr

ice [$/kWh]

10 100Cumulative production [GWh]

Small-scale LIB cells (especially cylindrical cells)

1991

2020‐2025>2030

2018

PEF approximately at 15 %

10

100

1000

10000

0,01 0,1 1 1000 10000 100000

LIB ce

ll pr

ice [$/kWh]

10 100Cumulative production  [GWh]

Large-scale LIB cells (pouch and prismatic cells)

2010

2020‐2025

>20302018

PEF approximately at 15 %

30 THE SOLUTIONS OFFERED BY MECHANICAL AND PLANT ENGINEERING

Technical innovations are not the only means of

managing cost degression. Better yields,

economies of scale, energy and resource

efficiency, and a higher degree of automation

all have their part to play and will be examined

in more detail below. Although the learning

curves shown relate exclusively to the battery

cells, the findings can be applied to the module

and system level, too.

Better yields

As material costs make up a large proportion

(up to 70 percent) of the cell cost, increasing the

yield is crucial to improving competitiveness

[Chung 2018, Kwade 2018 b]. Even if the speed

is improved, the yield needs to remain at least

the same — otherwise the advantage of

increasing throughput through process

integration and intensification would be lost.

In mature factories, the yield in the production

of Li-ion cells is around 90 percent [Brodd 2013].

Because the number of rejects from each

process step in production adds up, the number

of process steps is in direct correlation to the

yield. Costs can thus be lowered directly by

reducing unnecessary production steps.

Causes of reduced yield can include unstable,

non-robust production processes and the

resulting product deviations or defects (e.g.

deviations in area, edge elevation, positioning

errors, foreign particles). Further developing

and optimizing production processes, as

described in the red brick walls, can play a

crucial role in increasing yield.

One example of a cause of declining quality is

foreign particles. Their introduction can have

various causes. If implemented economically,

contamination control can play a significant

part in increasing yield and consequently in

reducing costs [Breger 2014].

When producing electrodes, it is crucial to

detect quality reductions in intermediates at an

early stage. This is the case when a defective

electrode is detected inline — e.g. using camera

technology — and removed from the production

process. Intermediate properties can be

monitored and process variance and reliability

assessed using inline measurement technology

in the form of quality gates at selected points.

The advantage that can be achieved by using

inline measurement technology needs to be

evaluated for each system individually, taking

into account the triggering of the quality signal,

the associated differentiation from rejects, and

the costs incurred [Schmitt 2008]. In addition,

analyzing measurement data can help to

identify interrelationships both inside and

outside the process. An accelerating effect is

therefore to be expected on the learning curve.

The impact of process parameters on the

quality of the intermediate can undergo

knowledge-based analysis and conclusions can

be drawn on the potential for optimizing

processes and products. For example, the

position, number and content of quality gates

can be adapted to enable an interactive and

self-optimizing control system for quality

management in cell production [Schnell 2016].

31

Economy of scale

The growing demand for LIBs will lead to an

expansion of production capacity. This

expansion can be implemented by increasing

either the number of machines (“numbering

up”) or the machine throughput (“scaling up”).

Scaling up helps to reduce costs significantly.

“Scaling effects are the cost savings that arise

for a particular production function as a result

of constant fixed costs when the output

increases. This is because, as the plant size

increases, the average total costs fall up to the

minimum optimum technical plant or company

size” [Voigt 2018]. In other words, when the

output is multiplied, the operating equipment

has not been simply multiplied too. A scale-up

can be implemented in various production

steps and is thus addressed in multiple RBWs.

Adapting the production steps to the

production capacity results in scaling effects in

battery production from an annual production

volume of just 200-300 MWh/a (see figure

above). Further increases have only an indirect

influence on the cost degression through

material costs saved, learning effects, and

innovations [Sakti 2015].

Consequently, scaling effects can be achieved in

Li-ion battery production not only at large

production sites with outputs of 35 GWh/a, but

also at smaller production sites with an annual

output of 1-1.5 GWh/a [Panasonic 2015].

Energy and resource efficiency

One of the core motivations for using batteries

in electric vehicles is to reduce CO2 emissions

and protect energy and resources throughout

the vehicle’s life cycle. However, producing

batteries — and especially producing cells —

requires energy-intensive processes. Coating,

drying, forming, and providing conditioned dry

room atmospheres are the most energy-

intensive process steps. Together, they account

for the majority of energy consumption in cell

production [Pettinger 2017].

From a business perspective, energy costs in

production are a significant factor that

accounts for up to 5 percent of the production

costs of a Li-ion cell [Schünemann 2015]. Energy

consumption in battery production is

particularly relevant from an environmental

point of view, as it is responsible for around 50

percent of the CO2 emissions during the life

cycle of a battery system [Ellingsen 2014].

On the other hand, the material accounts for up

to 75 percent of the costs of an Li-ion cell, so

there is plenty of motivation to achieve high

resource efficiency in production for economic

reasons alone [Schünemann 2015]. The key is to

minimize the production waste that accrues

throughout the process chain, e.g. through

ramp-up losses during coating and calendering,

or waste from assembly. Increasing the yield

also results in better resource efficiency.

Simulation of costs by annual production in MWh

Simulation of costs by annual production in MWh

Source: BLB based on [Sakti 2015]

THE SOLUTIONS OFFERED BY MECHANICAL AND PLANT ENGINEERING

32 THE SOLUTIONS OFFERED BY MECHANICAL AND PLANT ENGINEERING

The materials copper, cobalt, and nickel in

particular, as well as the solvents, also

contribute to different impact categories,

including eutrophication, human toxicity, and

biotoxicity [Ellingsen 2014].

Approaches to increasing energy and material

efficiency are interesting and necessary from

both an economic and an environmental point

of view. For the mechanical and plant

engineering industry, this means that resource-

efficient plants will become increasingly

attractive in the future as production capacity

grows. See RBW 10 for more detailed

information.

Another key factor in increasing energy and

resource efficiency is battery recycling [Kwade

2018 b]. This has the potential to have a

positive impact on the CO2 balance, costs, and

raw material supply of electric cars. In

particular, recycling could become the most

important source of raw materials in Europe,

which has little or no relevant natural resources

of its own [Miedema 2013]. In addition, the

boom in electromobility is expected to cause a

significant rise in used Li-ion batteries [Hoyer

2015]. A lot has been invested in researching

and developing efficient recycling processes in

recent years. More detailed information can be

found in RBW 16.

Higher degree of automation

Highly automated manufacturing concepts for

cost degression and quality enhancement are

being developed in a targeted way in battery

production, in order to continuously develop

lithium-ion batteries. Such concepts are shaped

by process intensification (shorter time frame),

integration, optimization, and substitution.

Fully automated individual processes are

already seen in industrial cell production

(assembly to final cell sealing) today. These are

usually arranged in a fixed chain in order to

achieve the lowest possible cycle times and

high throughputs.

The level of automation is closely linked to

digitalization. The aim is to increase product

quality and minimize waste in production

through intelligent manufacturing. This is

achieved using principles from Industrie 4.0,

such as cyber-physical systems, connected

processes, data feedback, and active machine

control based on measurement data.

Automation is closely linked to increasing

quality, which is examined in the next section.

Increasing quality

Quality has a direct impact on cost. In the

production process, increasing quality can help

improve yield and thus reduce costs, while also

leading to more premium products that attract

higher prices on the market. Cost reductions

that impact on the quality, on the other hand,

are counterproductive.

In volume production, measuring and testing

technology provides quality assurance in critical

steps of production. Increasing the degree of

automation and process reliability can also help

increase quality.

33

Measuring and testing technology

The manufacturing chain in battery production

involves complex interplay between many

different disciplines. The three cell formats and

the many different cell chemistries, some of

which are still in development, create

enormous variation in the manufacturing

processes. This results in many unknown

interrelationships between process and product

parameters. Combined with the large number

of process steps, this can lead to high rejection

rates. Consistent, intelligent measurement

technology throughout the process enables

early reaction and an opportunity to stand out

from the competition [Trechow 2018, Schnell

2016].

Integrating quality measurements into the

production process (inline measurement) and

the associated online analysis are extremely

helpful here. Quality-critical process steps and

sensitive product properties with low tolerance

ranges need to be identified. The process can be

optimized using quality monitoring devices and

appropriate adaptations to the product and

process parameters.

As a general rule, analysis methods need to

withstand ambient conditions. Stable control

loops can create various advantages in the

process:

Ability to react quickly through small control

loops

Stabilization of the production process

Increased quality

Cost reduction

In addition, the measurement technology used

should be non-destructive and contribute to

earlier error detection.

Quality assurance in complex process chains is

described in the figure above. First, the quality-

critical product and process properties need to

be detected and evaluated by relevance. FMEA

(failure mode and effects analysis) and DoE

(design of experiments) are common methods

for this [Westermeier 2013]. The table on page

35 shows quality parameters in cell production

and potential measurement processes. The

second step is to select measurement processes

and gather process data. Finally, the measured

data has to be analyzed. Ideally, this enables

new interrelationships between individual

production steps to be spotted

(machine/process-structure-property

relationships). The process parameters are then

adapted in a targeted way — the quality of the

LIB is enhanced, the waste rate reduced, and the

profitability of production increased. Processes

that follow the procedure described have been

developed by Schnell et al. for battery

production as a whole and by Kölmel et al. for

battery module and battery pack assembly, to

name but two examples [Kölmel 2014, Schnell

2016].

Level of automation

As a general rule, automated processes are less

vulnerable to errors than manual production

steps. This makes automation an important

instrument for improving quality and

minimizing waste. In general, the aim must be

to increase automation to a reasonable level

while also avoiding overengineering:

Procedure for quality assurance in complex process chains

Source: BLB, TU Braunschweig

Recognition of quality-critical product properties andprocess parametersFMEA & DoE

Collection of measurement dataSelection ofmeasurement methods

Evaluation of the data and recognition of newinterrelationships

Big-/Smart-Data analysis

THE SOLUTIONS OFFERED BY MECHANICAL AND PLANT ENGINEERING

34 THE SOLUTIONS OFFERED BY MECHANICAL AND PLANT ENGINEERING

Avoid disproportionate automation

Establish sensitive, flexible automation that

is easy to adjust

Link information processes

Intelligent production through the use of

learning systems

Automation enables the machine to be adapted

to potential fluctuations in quality and

measured process data to be analyzed using the

software. It is also possible to compare the

result of the process with the target quality,

showing which control variables in the process

need to be modified [Linke 2017]. If developed

further, this analysis process can potentially

connect all systems in a production line

together, since upstream and downstream

processes also have a direct impact on the

process in between.

Interfaces are used to provide information that

is important for further processing and quality

assurance along the process chain or for process

control. Standardizing these interfaces is one

challenge being faced at the moment (see RBW

15). Data mining and big data analyses enable

new connections between process and quality

parameters to be spotted, thereby allowing the

number of necessary quality controls to be

reduced.

Process reliability

A large number of factors influence the

performance of the battery cell in the

production process. Detailed knowledge of

parameters related to the product and

production and how these interact is essential

in order to improve the energy density, power

density, costs, cycle stability, and service life of

battery cells. Process reliability and robustness

need to guarantee consistent product quality

over a period of months and even years. As

described above, this is done by recording

quality-related plant and product parameters.

In order to increase process reliability,

downtimes of machinery and plants should be

kept to a minimum using predictive

engineering. Frequent downtimes often occur

while production is being established. These

need to be reduced to a minimum using the

mechanical engineering company’s learning

curve, combined with determination of the

machine/process-structure-property

relationship. Random downtimes that arise due

to wear during constant operation should

determine the type and scope of quality

controls. The difficulty with random downtimes

lies in identifying the parameters that are

relevant to process reliability and recording

them with sufficient accuracy. In order to

maintain process robustness despite wear,

control loops are needed to compensate for the

wear. Data mining in the production of LIB cells

enables suitable quality parameters to be

identified and tolerable fluctuation ranges to be

determined — without influencing cell

performance — through targeted parameter

variation along the process chain [Heins2017].

This creates the conditions for new product and

production strategies and higher-performance

battery cells that can be used as the basis for

active control of the production processes. In

the future, intelligent database systems will

make a significant contribution to process

reliability. These make it possible to optimize

batteries with regard to various criteria, detect

causal relationships, and define useful

tolerances.

35

Source: PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig

Importantquality parameters

Importantmeasurement methods

Elec

trod

e pr

oduc

tion

Mixing

Purity Slurry density Solids content Suspension rheology Carbon black agglomerate size

Microscopy, ICP Solids weigher, TGA Rheometer Laser diffraction

Coating Surface finish Wet layer thickness Edge geometry

Chrom. White Light Sensor, Camera Laser triangulation Camera

Drying

Material temperature Surface finish Coating thickness homogeneity Fractures in the material Weight distribution

Pyrometers Camera Laser triangulation Camera Infrared camera Area mass scanner

Calendering

Layer thickness and density/porosity Surface roughness Fractures in the material Weight distribution Pore size distribution

Laser triangulation Reflectometer Measurement of refractive index Camera Area mass scanner HG Porosimeter (off‐line)

Slitting / Separating

Burr quality Geometry of the cutting edges Metallic foreign particles Deformation of the microstructure

Chrom. White Light Sensor, Camera Laser triangulation Ultrasonic sensor Camera

Cell

asse

mbl

y

Winding / Stacking Positioning Foreign particle concentration

Laser triangulation Camera

Contacting

Contact resistance Mechanical stability Weld seam quality

Resistance measurement Short‐circuit test Weld seam monitoring,

current measurement

Insertion & sealing Electrical insulation Tightness

Is measured after electrolyte filling

Electrolyte filling

Tightness Electrical insulation Electrolyte temperature

Pressure test, optical coherence tomography

Insulation measurement Temperature sensor

Degassing & sealing Tightness Pressure test, optical coherence tomography

Form

ing

and

agei

ng

Forming Cell internal resistance Capacity Cell temperature

Calculation Temperature sensor

Ageing Self‐discharge of the cell Measuring the open circuit voltages

THE SOLUTIONS OFFERED BY MECHANICAL AND PLANT ENGINEERING

36 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required

Challenges and the required technological

breakthroughs (red brick walls)

Red brick walls: an overview

Because a large part of the added value created

by battery cells, modules, and packs is

generated in the production process, it is this

area that requires the most investment

[Kampker2015a]. In Germany, only battery

module and pack assembly are currently

established on an industrial scale; cell

production only takes place in smaller pilot and

research systems. The large number of

alternative technologies means great diversity

in battery production lines [Heimes2014]. At

the same time, each individual production

process involves various interlinked

technologies [Kwade2018b]. In the

roadmapping process, this manifests itself as

significantly greater challenges in cell

production than in module and pack

assembly.19 However, cell production also offers

higher sales potential.

In the roadmapping process, challenges are

identified for the entire process chain based on

existing and future requirements. The required

technological breakthroughs (red brick walls)

are then derived from this.

To provide a clearer overview, the red brick

walls are assigned to various key topics along

the process chain: electrode production (1), cell

production (2), overarching fields of electrode

and cell production (3), battery module and

pack assembly (4), and overarching topics that

affect the entire process chain (5).

19 See also [Kwade2018b] “Current status and challenges for automotive battery production technologies”

The foundations for the quality of the cells are

laid in electrode production. This is reflected in

the red brick walls identified. Reliable

monitoring can form the basis of stable

processes and thus an increase in efficiency. It is

also important to increase throughput and

minimize costs in electrode production. Coating

and drying offer particular potential for this.

The red brick walls identified in 2016 as

affecting cell production remain relevant today.

The stacking process, electrolyte filling, and

forming are particular bottlenecks in the

production process. Higher levels of automation

and quality improvements promise to minimize

waste and enhance efficiency. The red brick

wall regarding separation remains in place. The

key here is to prevent relevant contamination or

to detect it through reliable monitoring. The red

brick wall relating to “efficient production of

cell housing” covers optimizing freedom from

leaks, the deep drawing process of the pouch

cell, and the challenge of saving material and

avoiding redundancy in the cell housing, which

was first discussed in 2016.

Optimizing film handling is an overarching

topic for electrode and cell production.

Widening the films to improve throughput and

creating thicker coatings and thinner films to

optimize the energy density will demand new

solution approaches in the future. Recognizing

interrelationships between process and quality

parameters is also becoming increasingly

important for the entire cell production process,

including electrode production. This is the only

way to successfully avoid overengineering.

Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 37

In European production, there is an increasing

focus on sustainability in terms of resource and

energy efficiency. In this roadmapping process,

we have addressed these two points as

separate red brick walls.

Battery module and pack assembly requires less

investment than cell production, but the

process alternatives are heavily concept-

dependent [Kampker 2015 b]. Line suppliers

offering solutions for battery module and pack

assembly are already enjoying success in

Germany today. The various form factors and

the lack of standards provide both a great range

of options and various challenges. Initial

solution approaches come in the form of

flexible production [Maiser 2016]. In addition,

more efficient production of battery module

housings needs to be achieved to deal with the

significant cost pressure. Here it is important to

think outside the box and develop new battery

module and pack concepts that can be

implemented at lower cost with regard to

production. The red brick wall for contacting

technology addressed in 2016 remains in place.

Fast-charge capability and the handling of

larger currents that goes with it demand high-

voltage connectors suitable for mass

production.

Overarching issues for the entire battery

production process include interface

standardization and the development of a

working circular economy.

As in the previous two roadmaps, 16 red brick

walls (RBW) have been identified and revised to

reflect the current state of the art in

technology.

Comparing the red brick walls from 2018 with

those from 2014 and 2016 shows the changes

that have occurred.

In the following chapters, the 16 red brick walls

for future battery production are discussed in

detail. Basic principles and challenges are

described and possible solutions that would

allow the red brick walls to be broken through

are listed.

Although the success of a process technology

depends primarily on the point in time at which

a breakthrough of all red brick walls is achieved,

individual suppliers of production equipment

always face the question of cost and benefit.

This is the reason behind the portfolio matrix

introduced in 2016. In this update, too, it serves

as the basis for assessing the red brick walls

identified in 2016 from today’s point of view

(see chapter “Assessment of red brick walls

from 2016”).

An estimate of the cost and benefit is provided

for each of the new or updated red brick walls

from 2018 in the respective chapters. It is based

on the assessment of the red brick walls

identified in 2016, discussions in the workshop,

and expert interviews.

38 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required

Grand challenges

The term “grand challenges” was introduced in

2014. These represent the core challenges to

which all the red brick walls developed can be

traced back.

Increasing throughput through scale-up or

speed-up is the first grand challenge. Many

working steps in battery production have not

yet been fully designed for automated high-

volume production but have a high potential

for automation. In order to meet the demand

for batteries as it increases in the future, the

throughput time of the production process

must be significantly reduced.

Process stability and high yields are the second

grand challenge. In comparison with other

industry sectors, battery production is still

subject to high reject rates of 5-12 percent

[Brodd 2013]. In view of the high material costs

of a battery cell and the consequential costs of

faults, this is a primary cost driver. An increase

in process speed can have a negative effect on

process stability. Plant technology optimized to

demand, quality-optimized handling, and

interfaces in the production cycle that are

standardized and suitable for mass production

will allow higher speeds while at the same time

delivering process stability and lower reject

rates.

The third grand challenge is sustainability in

battery production. The phrase “green

production”

relates to environmentally friendly and safe

processing of raw materials throughout the

production process and the processing and use

of environmentally friendly and safe materials.

It also means energy and resource efficiency in

production. A useful addition to this is the

circular economy. This concept ensures that as

much battery raw material as possible is fed

back into battery production and not converted

into other waste products which are left to

decay. Particularly in Europe, the question of

climate-neutral or CO2-neutral production is

becoming ever more important in view of

increasingly stringent environmental

regulations. A combination of efficient

production processes, resource-saving

production, and sustainable value chains

creates an opportunity for battery production to

play a pioneering role, while achieving

significant cost advantages at the same time.

All three of these grand challenges aim to

increase quality while reducing costs, and will

serve as the benchmark for manufacturers and

suppliers of production technology. Related

sectors such as the semiconductor, display, and

photovoltaic industries have succeeded in

meeting this challenge over a period of years or

decades. In order to enable competitive

production, the quality of production processes

needs to rise even further. For this purpose, the

numerous reciprocal effects between process

parameters, raw materials, and environmental

conditions must be sufficiently analyzed,

understood, and optimized.

The greatest challenges for battery production and their relationship to the identified red brick walls

Grand Challenges

RBW: 5, 6, 7, 9, 13

RBW: 11, 15

RBW: 1, 3, 4, 12 RBW: 10, 16

RBW 2, 7, 8, 13, 14 RBW: 2, 7, 8, 13, 14

Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 39

2018 — assessment of red brick walls from 2016

Scientists, mechanical and plant engineering

companies, and battery manufacturers have

assessed the red brick walls defined in 2016 in

order to update them from today’s point of

view. The criteria used were the cost-benefit

ratio and the relevance for the customer sector.

It is important to note that none of the red brick

walls was classified as less relevant compared

to the assessment from 2016. Most gained in

relevance, with just a few red brick walls

assessed as being between unchanged and

more relevant.

The descriptions below pay most attention to

those red brick walls whose assessment has

changed significantly since 2016.

In electrode production, this applies to

homogeneity and tolerance definition, as well

as the red brick wall on the separation process,

which is assessed as being significantly costlier,

but with unchanged to higher relevance. The

benefit is in the central range. This may be due

to the need to introduce monitoring methods.

The homogeneity and tolerance definition of

electrode production, on the other hand, is

assessed as being less costly. The expertise

gained over the last few years has a noticeable

effect here.

Considering the two red brick walls in housing

production, it is noticeable that the benefit of

efficient production is only seen in the central

range, while the cost is slightly higher. This

estimate is similar to that of intelligent design.

Both RBWs are assessed as having only average

benefits. In the discussion, it became clear that

the processes are already very highly developed.

Potential for increasing speeds is seen in the

hardcase cells in particular, while the deep draw

depth is crucial in the deep drawing process for

the pouch cells. The relevance of both red brick

walls for housings is seen as unchanged or

increased.

Forming saw the only significant change in the

field of cell finalization. The benefit of forming

was estimated as high, as in previous years, but

the cost was significantly higher. The RBW on

forming was thus assigned the highest cost of

all. Fundamental research on forming the solid

electrolyte interface was a particular topic of

discussion. The high energy and investment

costs of the process are another crucial

influence on cost.

There were only slight changes in the

overarching topics. Positive developments

include the current status of cost reduction in

clean and drying rooms with falling costs and

the development of a circular economy with an

increase in benefit. The benefit of the long-term

forecast also rose, although the assessment of

standardization barely changed and continues

to carry the highest benefit of all the

overarching topics.

History of the development of the red brick wall assessment

VDMA initiated the roadmapping process for

battery production equipment in 2012. In

recent years, more expertise has been acquired

and approaches have changed. Some topics

have moved more into the spotlight, while

others have become less important. These

developments are described in this chapter

using selected examples.

40 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required

Throughput/quality in electrode and cell

Increasing throughput and quality in battery

production has been a key part of the

challenges for battery cell production since

2014.

Even then, increasing speed and throughput

were identified as elementary components of

optimization, especially in the process steps of

mixing, coating, stacking, electrolyte filling, and

forming. Increasing speed was assessed as

being of high relevance once again in 2016. At

the same time, quality became more important

in the discussions. As a general rule, attempts

should only be made to increase speed if the

quality can remain consistent or improve.

There has been a greater focus on quality in

2018. Minimizing waste and thus increasing

efficiency is sometimes seen as more

productive than increasing the speed of the

process. According to the latest assessment,

there is often insufficient understanding of the

interrelationships between the processes and

the product and quality properties.

The topic of detecting interrelationships /

avoiding overengineering has thus been made a

new red brick wall for 2018. Defining useful

tolerance ranges is connected to this. The

required quality must be guaranteed. However,

uncertainty about interrelationships often leads

to the definition of excessively narrow

tolerance ranges, causing unnecessary costs.

Widening the web width of the films as a

further way to increase throughput in electrode

production is considered under the “film

handling” red brick wall in the 2018 update.

The topic of calendering has been added to the

challenges in 2018, largely due to the need to

switch to new materials. This will require fast

recording of the material/process-structure-

property relationships in order to create the

optimum functional structures for the

application. This process would also be directly

affected by a widening of the film webs.

Comparison of RBWs for 2016 and 2018

Source: PEM, RWTH Aachen University

2016

RBW 1a: Mixing - speed increase

RBW 1b: Coating, drying - speed increase

RBW 2: Electrode production - homogeneity and tolerance definition

RBW 3: Separation - contamination in process step

RBW 4: Stacking/winding - increasing speed

RBW 5: Foil handling - thinner foils with thicker active materials

RBW 6a: Housing production - intelligent design

RBW 6b: Housing production - efficient production

RBW 7: Cell assembly - optimizing freedom from leaks

RBW 8: Electrolyte filling - speed and quality

RBW 9: Formation - safe and faster process

RBW 10: Contacting - handling higher currents

RBW 12: Clean rooms and drying rooms - reducing costs

RBW 13: Circular economy - 100 percent recycling

RBW 14: Standardization - interfaces and digitalization

RBW 11: Long-term forecasting - statements concerning service life

2018

RBW 1: Mixing - reproducible manufacturing and reliable monitoring

RBW 2: Coating, drying - increasing throughput and reducing costs

RBW 3: Calendering - increasing efficiency

RBW 4: Separation - quality and reliable monitoring

RBW 5: Stacking - increasing speed

RBW 6: Electrolyte filling - increasing speed and quality

RBW 7: Forming and resting time - safer and faster process

RBW 8: Cell housing production - efficient production

RBW 9: Film handling – Thinner/broader films with thicker coatings

RBW 10: Sustainability - energy and resource efficiency

RBW 11: Detecting interrelationships and avoiding overengineering

RBW 12: Contacting - handling larger currents

RBW 14: Module/pack housing production - efficient production

RBW 15: Standardization - interfaces, digitalization, and Industrie 4.0

RBW 16: Circular economy - 100 percent recycling

RBW 13: Flexible production - modular and with flexible quantities

Legend: Update New

Predecessor 2016

RBW 1a, 2

RBW 1b

RBW -

RBW 2, 3

RBW 4

RBW 8

RBW 9

RBW 6a, 6b, 7

RBW 5

RBW 9, 12

RBW 11

RBW 10

RBW 6a, 6b, 7

RBW 14

RBW 13

RBW 6b

Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 41

Battery housing

Deep drawing and sealing of pouch films and

plastic pack housing production were addressed

in 2014. The topics of prismatic and cylindrical

cell housing production were added in 2016.

Plastic housing was no longer the focus of

consideration.

In 2018, the focus is on efficient production of

the battery housing, which includes cell,

module, and pack housing. The quality and the

speed of production are addressed in particular.

The various formats result in different

challenges.

Sustainability

The topic of sustainability in battery production

has been discussed in various red brick walls in

previous years. Due to the growing importance

of the topic, especially in Europe, a separate red

brick wall was formulated for it in 2018.

Standardization/flexibility

In 2014, the focus lay on the topics of line

integration in cell production and

standardization at module level. In 2016, the

limelight moved on to interfaces and

digitalization. Line linkage and control panel

monitoring in particular have been addressed in

research and implemented in practice. Industrie

4.0. has generally become a central topic in the

public domain and was discussed more

extensively in the 2016 update.

With the help of smart data for increasing

quality and analysis of interrelationships, it is

one of the fundamental topics in the 2018

update, too. Classic standardization, which it

was hoped would counteract the wide diversity

of variants, has generally taken a back seat to

increasing flexibility — clearly demonstrating

that standardization cannot be expected in the

near future. Contemporary solutions therefore

demand a high degree of flexibility in the

production plants; see also RBW 13.

Contacting

The topic of contacting was first defined in

2016 in the form of a new red brick wall.

Further developing the available contacting

processes was the main focus. The

development of high-voltage cells and battery

manufacturers’ demands for improved charging

capabilities has led to an increase in relevance

since 2016. 2018 has also seen a desire for

flexible contacting processes that adapt to the

cell size. This has been included in the

considerations.

Energy density

Increasing the energy density of Li-ion cells for

mobile applications is one of battery

manufacturers’ top goals. As a result of this

development, coatings on the cells are

becoming thicker and substrates thinner. Film

handling was thus considered a red brick wall

for the first time in 2016.

Film handling remains relevant in 2018. The

aspect of film widening in order to increase

throughput (see above) has been added to the

red brick wall.

42 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required

Cost-benefit portfolio comparison 2016 and 2018

Red brick walls from 2016: RBW 1a: Mixing — speed increase (assessment 2018: more relevant)RBW 1b: Coating, drying — speed increase (assessment 2018: more relevant) RBW 2: Electrode production — homogeneity and tolerance definition (assessment 2018: more relevant)RBW 3: Separation — contamination in process step (assessment 2018: unchanged to more relevant) RBW 4: Stacking/winding — increasing speed (assessment 2018: more relevant) RBW 5: Foil handling — thinner foils with thicker active materials (assessment 2018: more relevant) RBW 6a: Housing production — intelligent design (assessment 2018: unchanged to more relevant) RBW 6b: Housing production — efficient production (assessment 2018: more relevant)RBW 7: Cell assembly — optimizing freedom from leaks (assessment 2018: more relevant) RBW 8: Electrolyte filling — speed and quality (assessment 2018: unchanged)RBW 9: Formation — safe and faster process (assessment 2018: unchanged to more relevant)RBW 10: Contacting — handling higher currents (assessment 2018: more relevant) RBW 11: Long-term forecasting — statements concerning service life (assessment 2018: more relevant)RBW 12: Clean rooms and drying rooms — reducing costs (assessment 2018: more relevant) RBW 13: Circular economy — 100 percent recycling (assessment 2018: more relevant)RBW 14: Standardization — interfaces and digitalization (assessment 2018: more relevant)

Legend: Estimate RBW 2016 in 2018 Estimate RBW 2016 in 2016 Change compared to 2016

Source: VDMA roadmapping workshop 2016 and 2018

low

med

ium

hig

h

Ben

efit

Effort

high medium low

RBW1a

RBW1b

RBW2

RBW1a

RBW3

RBW1b

RBW2

RBW3

low

med

ium

hig

h

Ben

efit

Effort

high medium low

RBW9

RBW7

RBW8

RBW9

RBW10

RBW10RBW

7 RBW8

low

med

ium

hig

h

Ben

efit

Effort

high medium low

RBW11

RBW12RBW

13

RBW12

RBW14

RBW13

RBW14

RBW11

low

med

ium

hig

h

Ben

efit

Effort

high medium low

RBW4

RBW4

RBW6a

RBW6b

RBW5

RBW6a

RBW6b

RBW5

Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 43

Red brick walls 2018 in detail

On the basis of the estimates of RBWs from the

year 2016 already presented, workshops, expert

interviews, and joint discussions were held to

develop the revised RBWs described below.

In order to visualize and analyze forecast

technological development paths, a milestone

diagram with “routes” running parallel in time

is used.

The diagrams that follow feature only battery

manufacturer requirements for which no

production solutions currently exist — by

definition, these are the red brick walls. In the

interests of clarity, a milestone diagram was

prepared for each red brick wall. The present

state of the art of production technology for

volume production is the starting point “2018”

in the milestone diagram.

Four symbols are used to represent milestones

in the development path. They can be seen in

the figure on this page. The circle represents the

process technology currently used. The hexagon

represents need for research or research

projects. Rectangles with rounded corners are

used to indicate pilot plants or demonstrated

solutions. Technologies suitable for large-scale

production are indicated by a rectangle with

sharp corners.

The milestone diagram is supplemented by a

graphical representation of the improvement

potential in the target system for volume

production that would result when the red brick

wall is overcome. This is a simplified

representation of the evaluation criteria by

which each process technology was measured

in the roadmapping workshops. This roadmap is

limited to three categories that cover the target

system: “Time” indicates an increase in process

speed, i.e. a reduction of execution time.

“Quality” refers to a reduction in the reject rate

or improvements to the product properties,

such as the performance parameters or the

service life. Investment and/or operating costs

are compiled under “Costs.”

The information in the top right of the chart

shows whether the respective red brick wall is

an “update” compared to 2016, is “new,” or has

remained “unchanged” since 2016. The term

“battery manufacturers” implies electrode and

cell manufacturers and the producers of battery

modules and packs.

Within production research and the red brick

walls listed in this roadmap, there is already a

large number of research projects that are

examining or have examined unanswered

questions in battery production. You can find a

detailed overview at the end of the “Red brick

walls” chapter.

Symbols used to represent milestones in the development path

State of the Art Technology

Mass Production Technology

Pilot plants, concrete solutions

Research Projects / Research Approach

Symbols in the Development Path

44 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required

RBW 1: Mixing — reproducible manufacturing

and reliable monitoring

Basic principles

The first stage in battery cell production is to

mix and disperse the powdery starting

materials in order to create a suspension that

can be used for coating. This consists of various

active materials, inactive components

(conductive carbon black, conductive additives,

bonders), and a solvent. The objective of mixing

is to mix and pre-structure the powdery

components homogeneously. The dispersion

process then serves to distribute this powder in

the solvent and to solubilize the conductive

carbon black particles in a targeted way, in

order to achieve defined power and energy

properties [Kwade 2018 b].

Challenges

Fully automated production processes, high

efficiency, a high degree of process integration,

and knowledge of interrelationships are

essential for the competitive mass production

of electrodes. Reproducible, robust production

processes that are stable and unaffected by

physical conditions such as humidity in the long

term must also be guaranteed. In addition, it

must be possible to process new (active)

materials in existing plants wherever possible.

For example, fibrous additives and carbon

nanotubes will be used as conductive additives

in electrode coating in years to come. Nickel-

rich active materials are also comparably

sensitive to moisture, placing new

requirements on the process.

Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b

RBW 1: Mixing — reproducible manufacturing and reliable monitoring

Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production

Potential solution approaches for reducing the mixing duration include continuous, process-integrated production of the suspension and linking withthe coating process. Reducing the inactive materials can help increase efficiency. However, neither approach can be permitted to impair quality oryield. Monitoring the quality parameters is important in order to find links to the later cell properties.

Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 45

Solution approaches

Comprehensive process and product

monitoring is needed in order to remain

competitive. This includes recording machine,

process, and product parameters for control, as

well as inline detection of production errors.

Incoming goods, intermediate, and final

product inspections must still be conducted.

These are intended to ensure adherence to the

final product requirements and low variance in

the later cells with regard to electrochemical

parameters.

In the mixing and dispersion process, the

conductive carbon black particle size and the

viscosity are useful quality criteria. Machine and

product parameters include the energy input

and the temperature of the suspension.

In both continuous and batch operation,

optimized process management in mixing and

dispersion can maximize the quantity of

suspension produced per time unit and

minimize the time and energy needed, without

impairing the product quality.

Reducing the solvent content may also be

relevant to the mixing process in the future.

Continuous dispersion processes such as the

extrusion process are a useful approach.

Extrusion enables lower solvent contents and

offers an opportunity to achieve higher

throughputs while maintaining the same

quality. Both integration of inline quality

control and direct connection with a coating

system become easier. In principle, it would also

be possible to coat the accumulator directly

after the extruder, without a coating system.

Various strategies for suspension production,

such as adding the various components at

different locations along the extruder screw,

can be achieved with the help of extrusion.

These are necessary for the targeted

combination of power and energy density.

For new kinds of fibrous additive, new

formulation strategies have to be established

with the existing plant technology. For

example, the additives can be dosed into the

suspension after dispersion and homogenized

at low intensities.

In order to prevent cathodic active materials of

the new generation, which are particularly rich

in nickel, from being damaged by high moisture

levels, it may be necessary to conduct

dispersion in drying rooms in the future. If

powder coating processes are used, there is no

need for wet dispersion at all. Only powder

pretreatment and homogenization (mixing) is

required here in order to solubilize conductive

carbon black particles, apply them to the active

materials, and mix them homogeneously with a

thermoplastic bonder.

Cost/benefit assessment

Continuous mixing and dispersion processes

are generally considered very relevant for the

future, as the advantages described mean that

they offer high benefits at average costs.

Extensive process integration and system

interconnection do create higher costs, but the

benefits are significantly higher as a lot of time

can be saved. Process and product monitoring

create average to high costs, depending on the

parameters being observed. However, it enables

critical quality parameters to be checked as

early as the dispersion process and starting

materials, so that the final cell requirements

can be adhered to reliably. As this improves the

waste rates and efficiency of these process

steps, the benefit can be considered very high.

The most important parameters for monitoring

are the particle size, suspension homogeneity,

viscosity, and temperature.

Adapting existing processes to new kinds of

(active) material does not involve high costs in

terms of plant technology, as only the

formulation strategy has to be adapted.

Depending on the desired property of the cell,

the benefit of such materials can be very high.

46 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required

RBW 2: Coating, drying — increasing throughput

and reducing costs

Basic principles

In the coating process, the suspension is applied

to a substrate continuously or intermittently

using an application tool. The industry standard

today is slot die coating. Typical values for the

wet layer thickness are between 200 and 250

μm. With multiple application nozzles, the

coating width can be up to 1500 mm.

Drying is the production process that

determines the feasible coating speed. Around

1-2 minutes serves as a reference value for the

drying duration, depending in particular on the

layer thickness, the solid content of the

suspension, and the solvent used.

This means that the throughput speed is

fundamentally restricted by the drying system.

Circulation dryers in combination with IR dryers

are generally used today [Kwade 2018 b].

Depending on the plant concerned, the top and

bottom of the film are coated either

simultaneously or, most commonly today,

sequentially.

For one-sided coating, support rollers can be

used instead of air bearings at the start of

drying. These enable more stable web guidance

for the still-wet layers. In simultaneous two-

sided coating, contact between the wet/damp

coating and the support rollers must be

avoided. This requires an airborne or vertical

dryer. Preventing cracks in the coating material

and minimizing bonder migration to the layer

surface are further requirements for the process

[Kwade 2018 b]. This can occur if the layers dry

unevenly or too quickly. Temperature profiles

with different zones are used to achieve the

gentle drying required.

Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b

RBW 2: Coating, drying — increasing throughput and reducing costs

Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production

2020

Time

CostsQuality

Target system

2018

Lower solvent content Dry coating

Optimized coating widthOptimized application

tools

DryingUp to

40 m/min

Coating width 1500 mm

Update

Dwell timein the dryer1-2 min/m

Quality influences

Multiple use ofdrying line

Simultaneous double-sided coating

incl. drying

Alternative drying processes

Optimized coating anddrying process

Materials research

Increase energyefficiency, shorten drying dwell time

R&D-programmes

A lower solvent content in the coating enables a higher throughput; long drying zones are not required. Drying plays a huge role in determining the speed of coating. If coating is sped up, however, optimum application stillneeds to be guaranteed. An aqueous coating adds complexity to the processes.

Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 47

Challenges

In order to reduce process costs, simultaneous

coating of both sides is highly relevant. This

places tough requirements on the positioning

accuracy of the application tool and the

substrate. The edge quality and high web

speeds must still be guaranteed. In addition,

stable web guidance of the coated films must

be achieved without support rollers in the

drying process.

Another approach is to reduce the solvent

content, all the way to dry coating. This enables

significant savings in investment and operating

costs, but also demands adapted or alternative

process solutions for layer application. Further

challenges come as a result of the trend

towards thicker coatings and thinner films, as

well as wider films. These challenges are

discussed in more detail in RBW 9 “Film

handling.”

Solution approaches

Significant costs can be saved in the drying and

coating process by shortening the time spent in

the drying process. This is the objective of

efforts to produce suspensions with higher

solids contents. For this process, this means

that the application tools in the coating

systems need to be adapted to process highly

viscous suspensions. Where no solvents are

used at all, the process is known as dry coating.

Already achieved successfully on a laboratory

scale, it uses powder instead of a suspension.

Using hot calenders, this powder is pressed into

a film that is then applied to the substrate

directly or indirectly using a lamination process.

PVD coating is an alternative approach. A lower

proportion of solvent would increase the

importance of the coating process compared to

the drying process.

Intensive material research will be necessary in

order to reduce the proportion of solvent and to

be able to implement dry coating (DryLIZ,

LoCoTroP projects as shown in table on page

76). The survey partners expect dry coating to

be suitable for the mass market from 2025.

Another solution for reducing the time spent in

the coating process is simultaneous double-

sided coating. The top and bottom of the

material must have identical structures in order

to guarantee precise edge geometry and

coverage on both sides. These requirements

become even stricter if the coating width is

increased in order to raise throughput; see also

the RBW regarding “Film handling.”

Speeding up the drying process would also be

desirable. One conceivable solution would be

multiple use of drying zones in order to reduce

investment and energy costs. What is meant

here is “initial drying” of the first side, allowing

support rollers to be used for transport

purposes. After the second side has been

coated, the complete drying of both sides can

be carried out simultaneously. The

development of new drying processes, such as

laser drying, could also help to optimize the

process and reduce costs. Significantly more

efficient energy input allows energy

consumption to be halved compared to

conventional drying ovens [Hawelka 2015].

Cost/benefit assessment

The cost of optimizing the coating process is

estimated as medium to high, while the benefit

is high. Increasing throughput is playing an ever

greater role in battery production and can

reduce its costs considerably. Medium cost is

estimated for the feasible adaptation of the

application tools to a mass low in or even free

from solvents. Due to the large variety of

possible processes, optimizing the drying

process involves higher costs.

48 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required

RBW 3: Calendering — increasing efficiency

Basic principles

Continuous roller compression is known as

calendering. In this process, the particles of the

porous coating are transferred through

compression and shear forces. The electrical

percolation paths and mechanical polymer

bonder connections (solid phases of the

electrodes) that become established after the

coating dries are broken up. The particle-

particle and particle-bonder contacts are

reestablished and the final pore structure

distribution is defined [Kwade 2018 b].

Essentially, the compression process finally

defines all the central electrode properties, such

as the energy and power densities, the cycle

stability, and structural and electrical properties

that determine the electron and ion transport

processes.

Central process parameters used as control

variables include the gap width and the line

force to be applied.

The feed zone of the compression rollers and

thus the intensity of the compression process

per time unit are defined by the web speed, the

roller diameter, and the electrode geometry

(width and thickness). Large roller diameters are

associated with gentler compression processes.

Increasing the roller temperature can influence

the deformation of the bonder polymer and

reduce the line force needed. This enables a

reduction in electrode deformation due to

mechanically induced residual stress on the

interface to the substrate.

Time

CostsQuality

Target system Update

2020

Tempered calendering

Speed 100m/min

Optimized calendering process

Precision+/- 1μm

Thick coatings

Process control

Optimized calendering tools

Higher roll width

Quality influencesin-line analysis

Dry coating

Further processingwith 6σ quality

R&D-programmes

2018

Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b

RBW 3: Calendering — increasing efficiency

Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production

Understanding of the process, and especially of process-structure-propertyrelationships, is essential in order to create the optimum system design (e.g. for thicker electrodes, dry coating). Interdependency with other process stepsmust be taken into account. Inline quality controls can be useful here. The keyis to use compression to increase the energy density while maintaining a goodcharging performance (electrical vs ionic conductivity).

Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 49

Challenges

The required layer thickness accuracy of

+/- 1 μm, which is often continuously

monitored inline using laser triangulation,

presents a tough challenge. It is even more

crucial, however, to ensure uniform

electrochemical

properties through uniform layer structures and

thus homogeneous electron and ion flow

densities in the electrodes. Compression is

therefor becoming increasingly important in

large electrodes.

Understanding the process interdependencies

with the upstream drying and wet mixing

processes is important in order to enable a

statement to be made on the electrode per-

formance after calendering. The degree of

dispersion of the conductive carbon black has a

direct impact on the layer structure that can be

achieved. There is thus a direct link to the

charge transport and the line force intake of the

electrode.

Mechanical properties of the electrodes — such

as their adhesion to the substrate, layer

homogeneity, formability, elasticity, and

residual stresses, which change significantly

during calendering — are also relevant to the

cell’s service life and the processing properties

in cell construction.

The links described are generally to be applied

to the material-process-structure-property

relationships. Components of the electrode

coating and their starting structure from drying

are to be understood as the material. The aim is

to be able to set up optimum functional

structures for application more quickly for new

materials.

Solution approaches

Knowledge of material-process-structure-

property relationships is crucial to getting the

optimum out of a cell. This is the only way to

achieve the highest possible energy densities

and fast-charge capability at the same time.

The process can also be adapted to new

material and cell generation types more quickly

and economically.

Equipping the calendering systems with more

and improved inline measurement technology

can play a key part in this. It is made possible

through continuous line force recording and

analysis, which can be done using integrated

measurement systems and direct measurement

of the real gap dimensions.

Another central topic is increasing the diameter

and width of the rollers while retaining a con-

sistently high degree of accuracy, in order to

enable thicker layers of high-capacity electrodes

to be compressed gently. As part of maximizing

throughput and in order to achieve higher ener-

gy densities at battery system level, electrode

web widths of > 500 mm can be expected.

These are coated in 3-4 strips (i.e. substrate

widths > 2 m). At very high compressions,

calendering intermittent coatings can minimize

the risk of stress fractures significantly.

Cost/benefit assessment

Further developing the material-process-

structure-property relationships involves

significant costs, particularly in terms of time,

but the benefit is high. Increasing the

instrumenttation of the plants can accelerate

development, or even make it possible where

this would not otherwise be the case. The

urgency of increasing throughput in the

calendering process depends on the increases in

throughput in the upstream coating and drying

processes that are achieved in the medium

term.

Interdependency of material and mixing processes — the disperse electrode structures — with the calendering process Source: BLB

50 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required

RBW 4: Separation — quality and reliable

monitoring

Basic principles

During separation, individual anode, cathode

and separator sheets are separated from the

electrode/separator coils. This can be done by

stamping with shear blades or by cutting with

lasers. The stamping process already offers very

clean cut edges, although the quality falls as

the tool becomes more worn.

Laser cutting maintains a consistent cut edge

quality, while the high flexibility of the laser

guidance also makes a change in shape

possible. One disadvantage of separation using

laser cutting is the local heat build-up and the

different speeds at which the coating and

substrate evaporate, potentially causing

damage [Schmitz 2014].

Filter technologies and predictive maintenance

are already being used to prevent

contamination with foreign particles and to

detect wear in the cutting tool at an early stage.

This enables countermeasures to be taken in

good time. A positive side effect of this is a

longer service life for the tools.

In laser cutting, extraction of the gases and

microparticles formed is a way to minimize

contamination that can impair quality.

Processing speeds in stamping are up to 0.2 s

per sheet. Laser cutting achieves up to 1200

mm/s, leading to a production duration of

around 0.5 s per sheet, depending on the

geometry being cut. Regardless of this,

however, the gripping and handling process of

the electrode and separator sheets is always the

time-limiting factor when separating [Kampker

2015 a].

Time

CostsQuality

Target system

18

Update

2020

Laser cutting:extraction of

particles(filter)

Stamping: predictive

maintenanceMonitoring Quality

assurance

Contaminationdetection

Further development of

technology

Tolerance windowsand cause-effect

relationshipscontamination

removal

Inline process cleaning

Avoidance of quality-relevantcontamonation

No qualityinfluencing

contamination

R&D-programmes

Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b

RBW 4: Separation — quality and reliable monitoring

Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production

Because of their size, residues that arise in the separation process can cause short circuiting in the cell. The particle size varies in different separationtechnologies. Filter techniques and predictive maintenance of the tools arealready optimizing quality today. These techniques require furtherdevelopment and will need to be complemented by further processes andappropriate quality measurements.

Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 51

Challenges

Contamination that impairs quality can arise

from resublimation of material on the cut edge

during laser cutting, flaking of the coating due

to burr formation during stamping, or loose

particles on the active material. Such

contamination can cause lithium plating in the

lithium-ion cell. In the worst-case scenario, this

can lead to damage to the separator and short

circuiting. Avoiding contamination is thus a

general challenge. In addition, reliable quality

assurance can reduce waste in production

significantly.

Solution approaches

Quality measurement enables companies to

accurately check the cut edge quality and sheet

surface. Providing such quality assurance

requires the development of suitable

monitoring systems with reliable waste

detection. High-resolution optical systems that

can identify the tiniest particles on the surface

are essential for this, enabling the quality of the

cut edges to be assessed and wear on the tool

to be recognized early. Adopted from related

industries, innovative inline surface inspection

processes using imaging offer an opportunity

for further process optimization. With the help

of technology transfer, they are being applied to

battery production and further developed in

research projects.

Optimizing extraction in laser cutting is

necessary in order to prevent the resublimation

of particles on the cut edge. Filter technology

that can be adapted to the particle size is

already available on the market. However, the

trend towards thicker coatings is making it

difficult for the laser cutting process to become

established. Increased layer thicknesses

demand higher energy input. Evaporation at the

cut edge increases, causing increased

contamination [Schmitz 2014].

Another approach is to clean the electrode

sheets after separation. This must not change

the properties of the cell materials, and the

additional cost must be worth it financially for

the cell manufacturer. CO2 snow-jet cleaning, in

which contamination is removed in dry form

and without residue using carbon dioxide, is

another solution. Its advantages include good

automation capability and the option of

continuous operation. However, its use depends

on the temperature and material compatibility

of the carbon dioxide with the coated substrate.

In general, it is important to research and

validate the tolerance windows and

interrelationships in order to avoid

contamination that impairs quality.

Cost/benefit assessment

Since separation has a significant effect on the

later cell performance, its benefit is considered

high. Introducing reliable monitoring methods

offers an opportunity to increase quality and

reduce waste. Lower levels of contamination

due to an improved cutting process or

appropriate quality assurance measures result

in an increased service life for the lithium-ion

cells. One challenge lies in the high cost of

implementing the measurement technology

and the establishment of the required

understanding of the process.

52 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required

RBW 5: Stacking — increasing speed

Basic principles

Different assembly processes are used to

produce lithium-ion cells, depending on the cell

format. Pouch cells are usually produced in a

stacking process; cylindrical and prismatic cells

through winding. Stacking can take the form of

individual sheet stacking, bi-cell stacking, or Z-

folding. In individual sheet stacking, the

separator, anode, and cathode are placed on top

of one another alternately. In Z-folding, the

separator is unwound from the coil and the

individual electrodes are placed alternately

between the separator, e.g. using vacuum

grippers.

Laminating the individual sheet electrodes to

the separator before Z-folding can speed up the

process considerably [Kwade 2018 b].

During winding, the separator band and

electrode bands (anode and cathode) are

wound onto a core, which is then used to create

a jelly roll.

The cycle times that can be achieved depend

heavily on the electrode design and the

production technique used. Cycle times of less

than 1 s per sheet can be achieved in Z-folding

and individual sheet stacking. In winding,

continuous operation means that speeds of less

than 0.1 s per sheet are possible. The stacking

process has to compete with these process

speeds.

Progress has been made in terms of both speed

and stacking accuracy since 2016. The use of

camera systems enables precise positioning of

the electrode and separator sheets.

Time

CostsQuality

Target system

2018

Update

2020

Single sheetstacking

Z-folding

Continuous materialprocessing

New grippertechnologies

Knowledge of process-product

relationship

Alternativestacking process

Industrial stacking

Reduction of handling

operations

Inline processmeasurement

technology

Robust intermediate products of electrode

and separator (e.g. lamination)

Stacking process<< 1 second

R&D-programmes

Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b

RBW 5: Stacking — increasing speed

Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production

The stacking process is much slower than the winding process and constitutes one of the bottlenecks in cell assembly. Benefits include production ofelectrode-separator assemblies that are suited to the material. The speed can be increased by combining processes or reducing pick-and-place operations.However, this cannot come at the cost of positioning accuracy, cleanliness orgentle material handling.

Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 53

Challenges

Since stacking is one of the time-critical

processes on the production line, it can easily

become a bottleneck. As well as increasing

throughput, tough requirements have to be

met in terms of positioning accuracy,

cleanliness, and gentle material handling. The

quality of the stacking process has a huge

impact on the cell performance later on.

As it takes place in a dry room, the electrostatic

charge on the components makes handling

difficult in terms of optimizing quality. It is

important to prevent electrodes that are stuck

together being gripped at the same time.

Another challenge comes in the form of foreign

particles that can get onto the films through

the handling system.

Solution approaches

When optimizing the stacking process, it is

necessary to focus on developing new gripper

technologies and gaining a better

understanding of the relationship between the

product and the process. The problem of

electrostatic charging can be solved by

contactless handling systems. Quasi-

contactless grippers that are suitable for the

mass market and air systems are thus gaining

in relevance. Air-guided handling using flow

effects is a promising technology, as it

guarantees an efficient and streamlined

process.

Another research approach is the use of robust

intermediates from electrode-separator

assemblies. The electrode sheets can be

laminated onto the separator, for example. This

intermediate step reduces the number of

stacking processes needed per lithium-ion cell

and counteracts the formation of folds and

kinks in the electrodes. Because lamination

necessitates an additional step in the cell

assembly process, this solution needs to pay off

economically in particular or be necessary due

to new materials.

More sensitive materials can undoubtedly make

stable semi-finished products necessary in

production.

Research plants must be used to test

alternative stacking technologies and the

conventional production process for the further

processing of robust intermediates and

ultimately integrate them into an industrial

application. Together with existing

technologies from the fields of inline process

measurement technology and knowledge of

continuous material processing, these can help

to accelerate the stacking process.

The effects of the processes on the individual

materials need to be investigated, as the

market introduction of future cell generations

may influence the production process of

stacking and winding. Stacking electrodes with

solid electrolytes can increase the complexity of

the production process.

Cost/benefit assessment

Since stacking the electrode-separator

assemblies is one of the bottlenecks in cell

production, the benefit of reducing the process

duration is assessed as high. The cost it incurs is

also high. The handling methods are currently

reaching their limitations, making it essential to

develop alternatives and make them suitable

for mass production. The use of stable

intermediates needs to prove itself against the

conventional production processes and could be

an alternative in the future, especially for

sensitive materials.

54 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required

RBW 6: Electrolyte filling — increasing speed

and quality

Basic principles

Filling the lithium-ion cell with electrolytes is

one of the most time- and quality-critical

production processes in cell assembly. Due to

their porosity, the electrodes have a large area

which must be fully wetted by the electrolyte

liquid. Areas that are not wetted cannot

exchange charges and are thus inactive. Filling

in a vacuum is currently a common method. To

do this, a vacuum is created in the lithium-ion

cell, so that the electrolyte can penetrate deep

into the pores of the separator and active

material and a reaction between the electrolyte

and water in the air can be prevented. As the fill

level increases, the pressure is equalized to

counteract foam formation.

20 Lithium hexafluorophosphate

In addition, the process is repeatedly

interrupted to allow the foam to subside.

Wetting is conducted simultaneously.

Due to capillary forces, this causes microscopic

wetting of the pores in the active materials and

separators. These steps are repeated until the

lithium-ion cell is sufficiently wetted and

sufficient electrolyte has been applied.

Challenges

The standard electrolytes with LiPF620 used to

fill the cells are highly flammable and form

hydrofluoric acid on contact with water. This

acid attacks the cell components and reduces

their service life significantly [Korthauer 2013].

Time

CostsQuality

Target system

2018

Update

2025

Filling and Wetting > 1h

Alternativefilling

technology

Environmentalconditions

Pressure filling

DosingProcesses

Alternative materials

Development of measurement

methods

Process know-how

Optimized filling and wetting process

Separatorswith better

wetting

Process sequence: Pre-

filling

Fast, reliable process

R&D-programmes

Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b

RBW 6: Electrolyte filling — increasing speed and quality

Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production

Foam formation and even wetting of the material are critical to quality. The material properties of the separator and electrodes influence the filling process. The overriding objective is to shorten the filling and wetting time, while also guaranteeing the cell performance regardless of the cell design. This will require close cooperation between mechanical engineering and material development.

Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 55

In addition, the formation of foam during the

filling and wetting processes is largely

responsible for the long process time, which can

be more than an hour for some cell types (large

prismatic cells with jelly roll).

The filling and wetting processes are primarily

influenced by the electrolytes and separators

used and the contact angle. Measuring the

filling progress reliably and continuously

adapting the process to this present a

challenge.

Solution approaches

Various approaches could be used to optimize

this process. The development of alternative

filling technologies, such as an optimized

dosing process, the use of rolls for pouch cells,

or simply shaking the lithium-ion cell, could

improve wetting. Another approach is to

research the influence of the ambient

conditions — temperature and pressure — on

foam formation and the wetting duration and

to then derive suitable process conditions.

Reducing the process time using alternative

process management is also conceivable.

Options would include implementing pre-filling

or filling into the lithium-ion cell from multiple

points, based on the fill level. Another approach

involves the use of laminated valves — a

solution for simpler process management.

The development of alternative separator

materials and surface structures is less relevant:

Although they have a large influence on foam

formation and wetting duration, their

properties are driven by the product and

technology as well as the process. New

separators, electrodes, and electrolytes

primarily need to meet the rising demands on

cell safety or the technical requirements for

implementing high-voltage cells of 5 volts.

Using additives in electrolytes can lead to lower

foam formation and/or improved wetting. The

development and use of solid electrolytes

would make the classic electrolyte filling step

entirely obsolete.

However, cells with solid technology are not

expected to be ready for series production in

the next ten years.

The filling time has already been reduced since

2016. A significant improvement in the

duration and reliability of the filling and

wetting process should be achieved by 2025.

Because the wetting process is so long,

optimizing this production step is becoming

increasingly relevant.

As well as adapting the process and material,

new measurement processes will also need to

be developed and integrated in order to enable

process monitoring that is suitable for the mass

market. Analysis contributes to a better

understanding of the processes and

interrelationships and is essential for

optimizing the throughput in cell production

and the quality of the lithium-ion cell. It is

important to develop methods that monitor the

fill level and especially the degree of wetting

during the process. Key process parameters

include the cell temperature, the fill pressure,

the mass flow, the impedance, and the weight

and density of the lithium-ion cell.

Cost/benefit assessment

The benefit of increasing quality and

throughput in the filling process is high, as the

process is time- and quality-critical. By reducing

process times, especially in wetting, costs can

be reduced significantly and waste can be

minimized through quality-optimized filling.

This involves increased costs, as it requires the

integration of inline measurement processes

and intensive material development in order to

achieve this objective using innovative

separator materials and surface structures.

56 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required

RBW 7: Forming and resting time — safer and

faster process

Basic principles

During forming, the battery cells are charged

and discharged with increasing currents on a

cyclical basis for the first time. The solid

electrolyte interface (SEI) is formed. It is perhaps

the most important parameter in the lithium-

ion cell and has a significant impact on its

safety and service life.

The process parameters are recorded in flow

charts. Multiple lithium-ion batteries are always

formed simultaneously on one station.

Increased safety standards must be adhered to

in order to counteract the increased fire hazard

this presents. Mechanical and plant engineers

essentially follow two concepts. In the shelf

concept, the battery cells are contacted and

stored on shelves. In the chamber concept, on

the other hand, the battery cells are contacted

on a modular goods carrier and then pushed

together into a chamber for forming.

Contacting is performed using contacting pins,

which guarantee a reliable connection and low

transitional resistance. Forming takes around

24 hours and plays a crucial role in determining

the service life and safety of the lithium-ion cell.

The objective is to reduce the duration

significantly and to increase energy efficiency,

while retaining the same level of performance.

The subsequent resting time for the lithium-ion

cells is solely for quality assurance purposes. It

involves storing the lithium-ion cells for several

weeks, during which regular cell voltage

measurements are taken. The self-discharge

rate can then be used to predict the service life

of the lithium-ion cell. Because of these long

resting times, a lot of capital is tied up in the

required storage facilities, goods carriers, and

the lithium-ion cells themselves.

Time

CostsQuality

Target system

2018

Update

2020

Mechanical process

a few minutesChemical process

24 hours

testing peripheralprocesses

Pilot plant for formation tests

Reduction of rejectsin industrial

processes

Shortened forming process in mass

production

Pilot plant for temperature control

Alternativeprocess control

Software stability Influence ofmech. pressure

C ratesoptimisation

Causes of energylosses

Forming < 3 hrs,Reduction of the rest

period

R&D-programmes

Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b

RBW 7: Forming and resting time — safer and faster process

Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production

There are various approaches for shortening the process time in forming and aging in order to counteract the large capital commitment. Aging here is only for quality assurance purposes and is consequently called the resting time. It must not be allowed to negatively influence the service life. Problems in process management can lead to the rejection of entire cell batches.

Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 57

Few significant improvements for the mass

market have been made since 2016, so

relevance for battery manufacturers remains

high. The challenge lies in conducting further

research into the interrelationships and the

chemical processes during the SEI formation.

Challenges

The most significant challenge in forming lies in

researching the unknown connections between

the process parameters regarding the

formation of the SEI. There is also an increased

risk of a channel failure on a lithium-ion cell.

Occurring due to contacting problems or

unstable software, this can damage an entire

batch.

Further potential cost savings could come from

improving energy efficiency, as forming

systems have high connected loads in

permanent operation. Energy losses during

forming therefore need to be reduced. The

concept of using the energy released during

discharge of a lithium-ion cell to charge another

cell is already in use [An 2016].

Solution approaches

Handling of the lithium-ion cells can be

improved through alternative process

management. The lithium-ion cell is on a goods

carrier, which is then transported to a pre-

installed connection to a contacting unit in

order to prevent cable wear. Another option

would be to group lithium-ion cells in order to

further simplify handling processes. These

goods carriers could be installed together in a

modular goods carrier (multi-cell or a smart-

designed cell/tray combination). The risk of

losing the entire batch of lithium-ion cells must

be minimized through improved contacting and

software stability.

Researching the interrelationships that are

responsible for forming the SEI could reduce the

time needed for forming significantly, while

maintaining the same levels of quality and

safety.

It could even improve the long-term

performance. The temperature and mechanical

pressure are considered the decisive factors in

the forming and resting time. Forming at high

temperatures leads to faster and more even SEI

formation, which increases the capacity of the

graphite electrode when the cell is

subsequently cyclized at room temperature

[Bhattacharya 2014]. Storage at higher

temperatures during the resting time enables

processes within the cell to be accelerated, so

that quality defects can be detected more

quickly and/or reliably. Cyclization at higher

temperatures leads to a fall in cell performance,

as the cell resistance increases with further

growth of the SEI [He 2018].

The development of new forming strategies

offers great potential. “Pre-forming” the

lithium-ion cells is conceivable here. To do this,

new flow charts would have to be created with

optimized C-rates that are tailored to the cell,

based on simulations and experiments. Another

approach aims to use additives that accelerate

chemical reactions, thus reducing the time

needed for forming. To ensure that a high-

quality SEI is also formed, the electrolyte

composition needs to be adapted precisely to

the graphite anode [Buga 2006].

Cost/benefit assessment

The benefit of reducing the process duration in

the forming and aging of lithium-ion cells is

very high, as both process steps tie up a lot of

capital. It will be extremely difficult to reduce

these costs, as intensive research into

interrelationships is needed.

58 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required

RBW 8: Cell housing production — efficient

production

Basic principles

As electromobility spreads, demand for

batteries is growing fast. This also increases the

relevance of cell housing production. Potential

approaches to scaling up to mass production

are based on different technologies for the

different housing types.

The level of maturity of the production

processes for cell housing also differs by cell

type. For example, the production strategies for

prismatic and cylindrical cell housing are

fundamentally based on deep drawing or

extrusion molding of sheet metal. In pouch

cells, an aluminum composite film is processed

by deep drawing. These processes have been

further optimized for the production of

prismatic cells in recent years. Progress has

been made in production speed and process

accuracy.

Challenges

If they are to meet the cost pressure expected

over the next few years, the production

processes currently used in housing production

and their quality assurance will need to become

more efficient. There is a need to implement

production of new geometries and to increase

the efficiency of the production process further

by minimizing stamping grid and other waste.

In addition, the workability of the aluminum

composite film in the deep drawing process and

the cell sealing present the main challenges in

pouch cell production.

These requirements are further reinforced by

the trend toward larger cell formats, which

makes process management in housing

production more complex. For pouch cells in

particular, the deep drawing process currently

reaches its limits at 12 mm (6 mm per half

shell).

Time

CostsQuality

Target system

2018

Update

2022

Deepdrawing5-6mm

Automotive industryPresses

Change of geometries / structural integration and safety

improvement

Alternativegeometries

Plants for the production of larger

cell housings

Alternativematerials

Increasedproduction speed

Improved deep drawing / pressing

Better volume & surface ratio andreduction of inactive components

Design flexible plant

technology

Mass production

R&D-programmes

Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b

RBW 8: Cell housing production — efficient production

Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production

Due to the high cost pressure, efficient production is playing an ever more crucial role for the cell housing. In order to enable production for the massmarket, costs need to be reduced and material and redundancies saved. Optimizing the deep drawing and pressing processes in production could make a significant contribution to this.

Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 59

The sealing face needs to become larger and

the bonding techniques more complex for

larger cells. Electrolyte leakage would make it

impossible to use a battery cell whose

components were significantly harmful to

health or the environment.

Protection in the form of leak testing is

evaluated very heterogeneously, as it comes

with high costs. Leakages should be prevented

through sufficiently reliable processes in

production.

In general, the focus must be on developing

systems to produce larger cell housings on the

one hand and, on the other, on increasing

production speed and reducing restrictions on

established processes.

Solution approaches

First, technology transfer of production

techniques from related sectors, such as high-

speed pressing, could be beneficial for cost-

effective production for the mass market.

Integrating these new technological

approaches will make it possible to develop the

production processes more quickly.

In the deep drawing process of the Al half shells

for pouch cells, parameter studies and the

establishment of a deep understanding of the

process could be productive. It is important to

prevent the film from tearing or thinning when

the deep draw depth is increased. Alternative

production processes for pouch cells must

therefore also be considered.

As well as optimizing the existing process

approaches, there is currently great potential

for research and development in the field of

alternative housing materials and geometries.

Producing cell envelopes from new material

combinations would unlock potential in

structural integration and for an improvement

of the inherent safety of the later battery pack.

The mechanical strength of the cell housing can

also be increased by using alternative cell

geometries.

In pilot plants, the development of new

geometries with an improved volume-to-

surface ratio enables costs to be reduced and

the energy density of the lithium-ion cells to be

increased through a reduction in inactive

components.

Approaches involving design-flexible plant

technology, which enables the production of

different cell sizes that can be very relevant

depending on the cell manufacturer’s business

plan, can also be tested.

Cost/benefit assessment

Housing production plays a less important role

than other red brick walls in battery production.

The approach of further increasing efficiency

must be seen as feasible in the context of cell

housing, as excellent progress has already been

made in cylindrical cells.

However, the establishment of new housing

materials and geometries offers greater

potential. It is also possible to increase the

system reliability further by integrating sensors

into the battery cell envelope, allowing

information recorded directly in the cell to be

transmitted to the battery management

system. This leads to medium benefit and

slightly reduced cost for assessing the efficient

production of cell housings. The benefit is

expected to increase in the next few years due

to rising quantities and increased pressure of

competition.

60 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required

RBW 9: Film handling

Basic principles

The way the films are handled is an essential

factor for the quality and costs of the Li-ion

cells. This red brick wall addresses various

process steps, from coating in electrode

production to stacking and winding.

Challenges

Future developments in particular could

present new challenges in film handling. On the

one hand, increasing the coating thickness

while also making substrates and separator

films thinner could enable higher energy

densities. On the other, widening the film with

multi-layer coating could effectively increase

throughput.

Uncoated substrates with a minimum thickness

of around 6 μm (copper) or 12 μm (aluminum)

can currently be used in the production process.

Existing guidance technologies will need to be

optimized and new, alternative handling

options developed for thinner films with thicker

coatings.

The film must be tensioned in order to prevent

folds and kinks from forming due to its non-

rigidity; however, tears must be avoided at all

costs. Particularly in sequential coating and

drying, deflecting the web to pass through the

drying zone a second time is a challenge.

Increasing the film widths requires tensioning

in both the longitudinal and transversal

directions. This affects web guidance in coating,

drying, calendering, and slitting.

There are varying requirements for film

handling during the various production steps

through which the cell passes. First, during

coating, it must be ensured that the thickness

of the active material layer applied remains

constant across the entire width and length of

the substrate. This includes high demands on

Time

CostsQuality

Target system

2018

Update

2025

Rollerguides

Foil width up to

1500mm

Thicker coating

Materials research(Quality)

Increase in energy density

Wider/thinnerfoils

Stacking/winding ofthin separators

Optimizedweb guiding

Alternativehandling options Handling of

flexible foils

Non-contact grippers or air

systems

Handling stablesemi-finished

products (lamination)

Quality-optimizeprocesses

R&D-programmes

Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b

RBW 9: Film handling

Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production

Both handling thin films with thicker coatings and film widening have an influence on quality and production time. Contactless grippers or air systems are potential solutions for handling non-rigid components. Applying the separators directly is another approach.

Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 61

the precise positioning of the hanging film.

Alternative drying processes such as laser

drying and NIR drying also place tough

demands on film guidance. For calendering, it is

important to find parameters that offer

optimum quality for the thick layers and low

waste. When slitting and separating the

electrode sheets, the biggest challenge in film

handling lies in controlling the web tension.

This needs to remain constant even as material

is removed. The remaining film is subjected to

high loads, but it is essential to prevent tearing.

In stacking, this largely affects the gripping

process.

Solution approaches

Alternative handling options will need to be

developed in order to ensure optimum quality

in film handling. Techniques could be adopted

from industries that process non-rigid

materials, such as the paper, semiconductor,

and solar industries. Quasi-contactless grippers

or air systems for web guidance can also be

developed further and prepared for the mass

market. For contactless systems, the effects on

the film caused by the continuous load, such as

particle erosion and the influence of fluid

media, need to be investigated. Damage to the

active materials must be avoided at all costs.

In winding, excessively small winding diameters

can cause the active material to flake off. As

well as simply increasing the core diameter of

the jelly roll, particularly gentle handling of the

materials could help stabilize the process as

coating thicknesses increase.

The use of semi-finished products that allow

stable handling, for example of laminates from

separators and electrodes, is another potential

solution. The objective of lamination is to

strengthen the films and reduce handling

operations.

Arguments against this solution include the

additional process step involved and the fact

that using adhesives and bonders during

lamination increases the proportion of inactive

materials. From a technical point of view,

attempts should therefore be made to achieve

lamination with a low content of additional

materials. If lamination is viewed from an

economic perspective, maximum speed and

simultaneous lamination of both surfaces is

desirable.

Cost/benefit assessment

Optimized film handling is a great benefit for

battery production, as it affects all production

steps right up to inserting the electrode-

separator assemblies into the cell housing. Cell

performance can thus be increased and waste

minimized through particularly gentle and

precise handling.

The trend towards thicker coating layers,

thinner substrates, and wider films is making

handling even more important. The cost is

estimated as medium. Some handling methods

could be adopted from related industries.

However, continuous improvement of

production processes can also help optimize

handling.

62 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required

RBW 10: Sustainability — energy and resource

efficiency

Basic principles

Batteries play a key role in reducing the

environmental impact of mobility technologies

both today and in the future. Battery cell

production in particular is responsible for a

large proportion of the cradle-to-gate

environmental impact of a battery system and

thus of an electric vehicle. Discussions often

focus on the CO2 emissions that arise from the

large amount of energy needed to extract raw

materials and produce battery cells. A battery

capacity of 1 kWh produced in the standard

global value chain results in 125 kg CO2.

Further effects in other environmental

categories and the social impact also need to be

taken into account in order to clearly define the

sustainability of battery production.

Challenges

The key drivers of the environmental impact of

conventionally produced batteries are the

process steps of coating/drying and forming, as

well as cell construction using systems to

ensure a dry room atmosphere. The materials

used in batteries are often mined and

extensively treated under environmentally and

socially critical conditions. This applies

particularly to the production of cobalt, nickel

and copper. A large proportion of the energy

and environmental impact of these critical

materials comes down to their mining and

treatment. Material losses and waste in the

production of battery cells therefore play a part

in increasing the cumulative environmental

impact of the battery system. Material-efficient

production with reliable processes can

therefore play a significant role in enhancing

sustainability in battery production.

Time

CostsQuality

Target system

2018

New

2025

Sensors,data

processing,Software

Standardizedvaluationmethods

Energetictransparencyand efficiency

Live or shop-floorLCA for

production

Material- and energy-efficient

production

Energy-efficientproduction processes

Integratedsoftware solutions for sustainability

Sustainablematerials

Production without critical materials(e.g. solvent-free)

Alternativeproduction processes

Reduction of rejectsin all processes

(e.g. via Q gates)

Increasesustainability

R&D-programmes

Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b

RBW 10: Sustainability — energy and resource efficiency

Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production

Approaches for sustainable production are targeted particularly at increasing material and energy efficiency in battery production and the upstream chains, as well as the use of less critical materials in batteries. The environmental life cycle assessment (LCA) is the basis for assessing the effects on the environment and society and needs to be harmonized for batteries.

Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 63

The ultimate challenge facing battery producers

lies in assessing the contribution of their own

production to the LCA uniformly across the

sector and passing on realistic information to

customers and authorities.

Solution approaches

A life cycle assessment (LCA) is crucial to

reducing the environmental impact of batteries.

A project by Agora Verkehrswende [Agora 2018]

is currently examining the climate footprint of

electric cars.

The spectrum of strategies also includes

approaches such as searching for and

developing alternative materials, increasing the

material and energy efficiency of battery cell

production, and developing recycling processes

and technologies.

In order to reduce material and energy

consumption successfully, transparency must

be created regarding the material and energy

flows in production. The energy hotspots can

then be optimized using alternative processes

or process management. One concrete strategy,

for example, is the development of a solvent-

free electrode production process that could

help to decrease the environmental impact of

the cell production phase by reducing the

quantity of toxic solvents and the energy

needed during the electrode drying process. A

higher level of automation in cell construction

can also minimize the moisture that enters the

drying room. As well as process innovations,

systemic approaches to improving energy

efficiency in battery production by making use

of the different temperature levels of the

processes are also promising. At factory level,

the CO2 footprint can be reduced through the

use of renewable energies.

The life cycle assessment (LCA) method is used

to gain transparency about the environmental

impact of the individual processes.

Transforming this into a dynamic assessment

method that accompanies production — a live

LCA — can contribute to a continuous

improvement process. Demonstrators are

currently being developed at BLB and still need

to be transferred into integrated software

solutions. The dynamic assessment methods

can also be used to realistically assess any

trade-offs, such as between solvent-free

coating and the longer subsequent drying time

it results in.

In terms of the life cycle, the environmental

impact of battery systems is influenced by a

huge range of parameters — not only during

battery production, but throughout the supply

chain of the materials needed, their use, and

their recycling. BLB is currently developing

specific software models and modeling

approaches in order to record and assess this

variability. Integrating modern data and

visualization approaches makes it possible to

gain valuable insights into the causes and

dependencies of the various environmental

effects and thus to develop technical solutions

to support product development.

Cost/benefit assessment

Implementing the solution approaches has a

medium to high benefit for different

stakeholders, while the costs are varied. The

implementation of process innovations often

means developing new plant concepts and is

thus associated with high costs and medium to

high benefit. The development and

implementation of LCA processes bring with

them medium cost and high benefit.

Continuous collection, processing, and analysis

of data in the process and supply chain can also

be used for other issues, such as process

optimization, bringing high benefit that

justifies the high cost.

64 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required

RBW 11: Detecting interrelationships and

avoiding overengineering

Basic principles

Compared to other highly mature technologies,

the battery is a relatively complex product

involving various specialist disciplines. Its

production demands an understanding of

electrochemistry, electronics, mechanics,

process technology, and production technology.

This complexity is directly reflected in battery

cell production, which currently suffers from an

above-average waste rate. The result is

unexploited potential in relation to both

process efficiency and process stability with

regard to optimizing the production chain.

Tapping this potential demands a deep

understanding of the interrelationships and

connection between individual process steps in

battery production and their later application in

the product. Each production step has

individual process parameters that directly

influence the quality of the intermediates and

the final battery cells. Insufficient process

monitoring in just a single production step can

result in enormous loss of quality. Identifying

these quality-critical production steps and their

essential control variables is one of the key

challenges in efficient process design. In-depth

knowledge of the process is fundamental in

order to avoid overengineering both in general

and within process monitoring, while still

accounting for uncertainty in the process. In

addition, insufficient knowledge of the process

and high quality requirements tend to result in

tolerance ranges being set tightly. Definition of

useful tolerance ranges can prevent

unnecessary costs.

Challenges

It is important to distinguish between the

identification of critical process control

variables in pilot plants and their later

monitoring in actual series production. During

analysis in the pilot phase, the aim is to monitor

all detectable measured variables so that they

Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b

RBW 11: Detecting interrelationships and avoiding overengineering

Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production

Time

CostsQuality

Target system

2018

New

2020

Individual plant quality

criteriaAdapted

process quality

Demand-optimized tolerance definition

Validation inpilot plants

Tolerance windows and

quality influences

Product-optimized system precision

Verification ofinterrelationships

(data mining)

Quality influencesand interactions

Inline measuringmethods

Acquisition of all process parameters

(Big Data)

Dependencies within the process

chain

Identification ofdetectable quality

criteria

Comparison ofvarious process

technologies

Efficientprocess

accuracyManufacturers‘requirements

Machinebuilders‘solution

R&D-programmes

A deep understanding of the interrelationships between cell production andthe product is required in order to avoid overengineering. Each step inproduction has individual process parameters and disturbance variables, which influence the quality to differing degrees. In order to detect interrelationships between the production process and the later cell performance, data has to be collected (big data) and analyzed (data mining).

Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 65

can be selected and reduced to a minimum

later when the system is scaled to series

production. By reducing investment and

operating costs, this would have a direct effect

on the cost-effectiveness of volume production

while guaranteeing consistent product quality.

Solution approaches

The only way to establish the process

understanding needed is to conduct systematic

analysis of the existing process chain and the

associated quality parameters. This

comprehensive process observation can then be

used as the basis for linking the

interrelationships of the process steps and the

process as a whole. Identifying the critical

control variables and the associated process

variables demands the comprehensive process

monitoring described and thus the collection of

an extensive body of data.

The true value of these observations lies not in

the data collection itself and its continuous

monitoring during series production, but in its

analysis and the knowledge gained from this.

This approach of systematically processing

large quantities of data is also known as data

mining. Typical approaches always include the

individual fields of data classification,

segmentation, prediction, dependency analysis,

and deviation analysis. Processing and

analyzing large quantities of data enables its

interrelationships and the process connection

behind it to be identified using specially

developed methods.

This approach of comprehensive process

analysis is already being implemented in

individual pilot and research systems, although

these analyses usually focus on optimizing or

establishing new technologies within an

individual process step.

The rest of the process chain is not taken into

account, or only to a limited extent, enabling

few conclusions to be drawn about how the

individual process steps interact — even though

this is important in order to define useful

tolerance ranges. The objective should be to

integrate these analyses into the context of the

production chain and thus transfer the already

significant understanding of the individual

steps to the production process as a whole.

Cost/benefit analysis

Evaluating the process as whole, as an interplay

of the various production technologies of the

individual process steps, is the only way to

assess the respective technological maturity.

Determining these connections creates the

basis for estimating potential, which is of

interest with regard to process integration into

future production lines and the process

adaptations and monitoring methods this will

require. Exploiting the potential of tolerance

definitions for individual systems is particularly

essential for the optimized planning of

production plants.

By taking into account the critical process

control variables and disturbance variables

identified as well as the resulting quality impact

on intermediates and end products, it is

possible to limit process monitoring to essential

measured variables. Such a needs-oriented

plant design can help further increase the

profitability of a plant investment. Deep

process understanding comes with high benefit

and medium to high additional cost.

Comprehensive process monitoring already

exists in pilot plants. Connecting the datasets

can contribute to plant scaling.

66 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required

RBW 12: Contacting — handling larger currents

Basic principles

The demand for increased battery pack voltages

in the battery system stems from the goal of

increasing the energy and power density while

achieving faster charging cycles. Central

contacting systems or busbars are currently the

industry standard. Contacting is usually

achieved through laser welding or laser

bonding. Alternatively, the connections can also

be made using screws or ultrasonic bonding. An

overview of the various contacting processes

with their advantages and disadvantages can

be found in “Der Montageprozesse eines

Batteriepacks” [Kampker2015b].

Challenges

Contacting the individual components presents

a big challenge. The increased currents that

flow through the battery module mean that

current collectors for reducing the transitional

resistance have to be enlarged to provide more

area for the contact. Dynamic load in cars also

results in a significant mechanical load. The

costs of material defects can be reduced by

optimized contacting technology. In addition,

the contacting technology needs to prevent

high heat input, which can lead to brittleness in

the contacts, and guarantee good material

locking of the components. The surface of the

contact must also display only low isotropic

electrical resistance.

Time

CostsQuality

Target system

2018

Update

2020

Handling

Alternativecontacting

technology for high-voltage connectors

Interrelation-ships

Laser bondingWire

Bonding(ultrasound

Laserwelding

Mechatronic and thermal

interrelationships

Flexible contactingprocesses for

different cell types

Enlargement ofthe joining area

AlternativeContact method

High-voltageconnectors suitablefor mass production

R&D-programmes

Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b

RBW 12: Contacting — handling larger currents

Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production

Increasing voltages in packs are creating enormous challenges for contacting technology. In order to handle high currents safely, current collectors areinevitably becoming larger, making contacting more complex. Cell connectorsare also subject to additional load due to dynamic loads in cars. Optimizedconnection technology can help reduce the costs of material defects.

Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 67

As a crucial factor in the service life of the

battery system, optimization of contacting is to

be achieved by 2020. Faulty contacting can

cause short circuiting in lithium-ion cells and

thus damage the battery system. Wear on the

contacts must therefore be minimized.

Solution approaches

Improvement of existing processes or the

development of new ones is necessary in order

to achieve a contacting method for high-

voltage connectors suitable for mass

production. Laser bonding is a very promising

option here.

Developing alternative contacting processes

can also help in gaining knowledge of and

performing inline analysis of mechatronic and

thermal interrelationships, enabling the quality

of the connection to be assessed directly. If the

integration of inline measurement technology

pays off, this could replace quality control after

contacting.

The later use of the lithium-ion cells also needs

to be taken into account in the further

development of contacting. As described in the

“Product requirements and specifications”

chapter, the requirements for stationary

storage devices differ from those of an

automotive application.

Given the second-life use of automotive cells as

stationary storage devices, contacting

technology faces major challenges — especially

when the contacts are welded and there is a

permanent connection. This would then have to

meet the minimum requirements of both

applications, otherwise the cells cannot be

replaced.

The development of flexible contacting

processes for different cell formats is very

relevant to the variant-flexible production of

battery modules and packs, as it can eliminate

retooling times and downtimes.

Adapting the contacting tool can even be a

good idea in a production facility that only uses

one type of lithium-ion cells, if it helps to

shorten process times or enhance quality.

Cost/benefit assessment

Fast-charge capability and increasing the

system voltage of the battery system will play

an ever more important role in the future, so

this red brick wall must be considered highly

relevant. Contacting processes for high-voltage

application that are suitable for mass

production are essential for this, so the benefit

is also high.

The cost involved in developing existing

contacting processes is estimated as being

lower than that of researching new

alternatives. In general, developing new

solutions comes at a high cost.

68 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required

RBW 13: Flexible production — modular and

with flexible quantities

Basic principles

Prismatic, cylindrical, and pouch cells are

currently installed in battery modules and

systems. The geometries and properties of

these cell types are fundamentally different. As

the number of electric vehicles increases, so

does the number of different battery modules

and systems represented on the market. Given

the exponential increase in electric vehicle sales

and the higher production volumes this

necessitates, a higher level of automation in

module and system production is becoming

increasingly economical.

However, it is a different story for other mobile

applications such as commercial vehicles,

bicycles, and power tools. Despite the much

lower production volume, the number of

variants is many times larger than that of

electric vehicles. The most flexible production

possible in terms of variants and quantities,

while maintaining high cost-effectiveness, is

becoming increasingly important in the field of

module and system assembly in particular. As

well as plant and automation planning, the

design of a flexible production concept includes

aspects of logistics, technical building

equipment, and IT-supported organization

processes within production.

Challenges

Flexible module and pack production presents a

wide range of challenges. One significant issue

lies in how to organize the flexible production

processes themselves so that they can react to

changed production volumes, for example as

part of a scale-up. Beyond individual processes,

systemic flexibility is also a significant

challenge and requirement facing machine and

plant manufacturers. This includes the ability of

the entire system to react to changes and to

produce and assemble a huge variety of module

formats and pack variants within the system.

Time

CostsQuality

Target system

2018

New

2025

Productionof one cell

format permachine

Replacingmonotonous works /Pick to light systems

Flexible machines, systems, IT systems

and TGA

Modular solutions for systems and TGA

Modular interfaces at IT level

Quantity flexibleproduction process

Flexible automation technology

Alternative concepts to intralogistics

Semi-automatedproduction

Use traceableproducts

Variants flexibleproduction

R&D-programmes

Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b

RBW 13: Flexible production — modular and with flexible quantities

Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production

The number of different cell formats and chemistries will continue to grow. Inmodule and pack production in particular, it is necessary to react to this with flexible concepts. Flexibility includes scaling (scale-up or modification of the production equipment) as well as flexibility relating to variants, processes, and quantity. Modular concepts for machinery, plants and technical building equipment support flexible production.

Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 69

Flexibility thus needs to be embedded in

logistics, organizational and information

technology processes as well.

Solution approaches

The predominant approaches aim to design

flexible plants, processes, production systems

and even entire factories. As production

volumes are expected to rise significantly over

the next few years, a level of automation that

increases in line with this could bring many

advantages. It is also useful to be able to cater

for both very small batches and mass

production in a single plant.

Even in smaller production facilities, semi-

automated processes and human-robot

collaboration enable both routine and creative

assembly work to be usefully combined in a

single station.

System assembly is particularly suited to the

use of human-robot collaboration. Human

skills, such as experience, improvisation, and

the combination of human senses, are

combined with the strengths of robots such as

precision, strength, and repeatability. As well as

guaranteeing the safety of the people working

there, the benefits can be used to achieve the

quantities needed and flexibility in production.

The high-quality design of the products and

increasing productivity this brings has a positive

impact on the competitiveness of battery

production. At the same time, human-robot

collaboration can guarantee production that is

flexible in terms of both variants and quantity.

The challenge of the traceability of

intermediates can be solved using appropriate

track and trace systems. Innovative traceability

solutions, such as identifying intermediates

with RFID tags, can also be adopted from other

sectors. “Matrix production” is a systemic

approach for increasing flexibility that has

already been implemented by automotive

manufacturers in initial pilot projects in vehicle

assembly. At the heart of matrix production are

an intelligent product and a self-controlling

production organization within a scalable

network of flexibly designed production cells.

This is in contrast to approaches that aim to

reduce the complexity of the product, largely

through standardization processes.

Harmonizing the battery modules means that

the range of variants only arises at the end of

the production process. This reduces the need

for flexible production.

Cost/benefit assessment

The cost of introducing semi-automated

processes, human-machine collaboration, and

track and trace systems in battery production is

estimated as medium, as existing technologies

are already successfully in use in related

industries. Due to the higher-quality products

and increase in productivity and flexibility this

brings, the benefit is high.

70 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required

RBW 14: Module/pack housing production —

efficient production

Basic principles

The standard design of battery module and

pack housings consists of two structural

components that form the frame. The first

structural component encloses multiple Li-ion

cells, combining them as a battery module. The

second structural component brings together

multiple battery modules and further system

elements in the battery pack and is then

installed in the car.

There is therefore great interdependency

between vehicle development and the design of

the housing, which has to be adapted to the

installation space available in the car. In order

to increase the energy content of the battery

pack, the volumetric energy density must

always remain the same or increase — unless

the increase in gravimetric energy density

cancels it out. As well as using cell chemistry, it

can therefore be equally useful to reduce the

proportion of housing components used.

Challenges

The structural components have to be adapted

to the respective cell format and the individual

design of the car, which demands extremely

high flexibility from the assembly systems.

Some of this high cost can be covered by

modular systems and the use of standard

components.

State-of-the-art technologies for connecting

structural components include bolting,

adhesion, and welding of the individual

elements. Together with contacting the

components, this limits the speed of production

in battery module and pack assembly. The

adhesion joining technique should be

considered with care given its implications for

remanufacturing, treatment of used battery

modules and packs, and second life

applications. In addition, integrating functions

Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b

RBW 14: Module/pack housing production — efficient production

Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production

Time

CostsQuality

Target system

2018

Update

2022

Welding Screwing

GlueingModularsystems

Material savings / lightweightconstruction

Alternativegeometries

Optimized system design

Materialreduction

Lightweight construction

expertiseOptimized housing

forms with constant safety

Alternativematerials

Integrateddesign across

all levels

Joining interfaces

>100 housingsper minute

Manufacturers‘requirements

Machinebuilders‘solution

R&D-programmes

In order to cater for the needs of mass production, it is important to produce batteries with a higher energy density, to save material and redundancies, to increase capacity, and generally to become more cost-efficient. The development of an optimized system design by integrating functions into thehousing can aid this process.

Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 71

into the housing structure of the battery

module or pack is playing an increasingly

important role. The first manufacturers are

already installing temperature sensors in the

battery module, in order to detect and switch

off individual lithium-ion cells in the case of

overload or to cool them via the housing

structure.

However, few specific customer requirements

that could be integrated into new battery

module and pack designs are known. Some

functions are also covered multiple times in the

individual system levels (sealing, temperature

control, etc.). Here it is important to weigh up

whether this redundancy is necessary from a

safety point of view. Simplification could save

costs, while the resulting installation space

could be used to increase the energy density.

Another conceivable option would be to expand

the functions of the battery modules, for

example to include crash safety functions.

Solution approaches

The aim is to increase the production volume of

battery housing. This will demand the

development and testing of alternative

structural elements that continue to guarantee

the safety of the battery pack. One approach is

attempting to save material by transferring

expertise in lightweight construction from

other sectors, thus reducing the weight of the

system and its material costs.

The integration of hybrid components, such as

metal-polymer hybrids, is already widespread in

this context and can help to optimize current

system structures. Costs could be further

reduced by researching innovative alternative

materials that can be installed in battery

module and pack housings alongside metals.

Existing modular systems offer additional

potential for optimization. Improving flexibility

for the respective purpose can thus be a cost-

effective alternative to individually tailored

system designs. The targeted reduction of

redundant sub-functions offers significant

potential for reducing material and production

costs here.

Automating the handling of battery modules

and lithium-ion cells in battery module

assembly can also reduce assembly costs and

process duration further. Challenges come from

the large diversity in battery module housings,

which are processed in variant-flexible

production facilities. Research plants are

already addressing the necessity of flexible

assembly systems using various approaches.

Integrating additional functions into an

intelligent battery module or pack housing can

lay the foundation for a more efficient design of

the system as a whole. For example, integrating

temperature sensors makes it possible to

control the cooling capacity in a targeted way.

This can counteract the effects of accelerated

aging of the battery storage system caused by

non-homogeneous system temperatures.

Measures for monitoring the state of health of

the individual cell, recording the usage

histories, and checking the structural integrity

of the individual cells are also possible. The

more functions are integrated into the

structural components, the greater the

demands placed on the plant technology, as

handling the structural components with

integrated functions becomes more complex. It

is therefore always important to find a

compromise between functionality and

production cost.

Cost/benefit assessment

This RBW is seen as having medium benefit. The

potential for automation can be used to make

production more efficient and increase

throughput. However, the large number of

variants of battery modules and packs is a

problem. Modular systems and harmonization

of variants could help with this, but are often

not in the interests of the individual

manufacturers and are thus difficult to

implement.

72 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required

RBW 15: Standardization — interfaces,

digitalization, and Industrie 4.0

Basic principles

The production of lithium-ion cells involves a

large number of different (continuous and

discrete) production processes and required

technical building equipment, demanding

different disciplines and competencies.

Machinery and plants from different

manufacturers are generally used when

constructing production lines and entire

factories. Even in the future, it is improbable

that a complete factory will be delivered by only

a single supplier. The various suppliers use

different strategies and technologies to

construct their production plants. This results in

a very heterogeneous construction of the

measurement and control technology, in turn

resulting in a wide variety of different

communication interfaces and technologies for

data collection and in the field of machine-to-

machine communication. Unlike in cell

production, turnkey providers are more

common at the module/system level.

Industrie 4.0 instruments can also play an

important role in implementing variant

flexibility. See RBW 13.

Challenges

The wide variety and heterogeneity of the

interfaces presents industrial data collection

systems with the huge challenge of being able

to serve all communication interfaces. As well

as the production plants themselves, there are

inline and offline measurement processes,

which record information about the structure

and physical, chemical, and electrical properties

of the battery intermediates and the final

Time

CostsQuality

Target system

2018

Update

2025

Smart Fabsfor various roductions

Interfacesolutions(OPC UA)

Crosslinkingtechnology

(IoT, IIoT)

Comparison of variousprocess technologies

Influences and interactions via

data mining

Standardization and process control at all

sensible points

Integratedmeasurement, data

mining, big data,smart data

Identification of critical(measurement) parameters

Developing atechnological

standards

Process knowledge

Adaption ofmeasurement

technology

Line integration

Provision ofstandardized data

interfaces

Industry 4.0in battery production

ustry 4.0-capable systems

(ERP, MES, SCADA)

Industry 4.0Factory

R&D-programmes

Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b

RBW 15: Standardization — interfaces, digitalization, and Industrie 4.0

Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production

The number of production technologies and the fragmented value chain structure lead to numerous interfaces. Industrie 4.0 technologies link the process chain and support quality and efficiency (smart data). Standardizationof the interfaces creates potential. In addition, Industrie 4.0 offers importantinstruments for implementing the flexibility required with a high level ofautomation.

Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 73

battery cells for characterization. Many of the

offline measurement processes record

significant information about the quality of the

intermediates and have to provide it to the data

information system in an appropriate format.

The variety of different data sources results in a

need for standardized interfaces, both for

machine-to-machine communication and for

recording inline and offline measurement

processes. The objective is to largely minimize

the superfluous costs for connecting the plants

and the measurement technology to the data

collection infrastructures by 2025, limiting the

processes to those that add value.

In addition, the use of approaches in the

context of Industrie 4.0 (e.g. the establishment

of cyber-physical production systems) offers

further potential for improving battery

production. A particular focus here is the topic

of big or smart data for improving quality and

productivity by analyzing interrelationships.

This demands not only a measurement

infrastructure that works across all processes

and successful communication between all

plants in all process steps, but also a stable

network infrastructure for data transfer and

correct preparation and compilation of the

data. Given the wide variety of formats at

module/system level and the heterogeneity of

the production systems at cell level, this

presents a further challenge.

Solution approaches

In order to overcome the great heterogeneity of

the production processes, a standardized

machine-to-machine communication interface

needs to be defined and provided for every

production system.

The OPC Unified Architecture (OPC UA) data

exchange standard ensures communication

regardless of manufacturer and platform,

enabling inter-system data exchange between

machines from different manufacturers. VDMA

already has numerous initiatives that enable

member companies to use OPC UA as the

standard interface for Industrie 4.0

applications.

Based on work already conducted in other

areas, this is now to be tackled for companies in

battery production. Standardization simplifies

line integration to SCADA (Supervisory Control

and Data Acquisition) and MES (Manufacturing

Execution System) systems and offers battery

manufacturers the transparency they need by

providing important data in real time, e.g. on a

production control station. These standardized

communication interfaces also demand the

design of an appropriate network infrastructure

that supports the connection of the plants and

sensor technology and makes it easier to collect

the data.

Building on this, creating an interface to data

administration and analysis systems is hugely

important. To this end, the structures and

forms of the data to be collected must be

defined.

As a result, automated data mining methods

and algorithms can be integrated into the data

administration and analysis systems. It thus

becomes possible to form key performance

indicators along the entire production chain.

These can be used to speed up decision-making

processes at all levels of a company and

increase productivity in production.

In particular, the seamless expansion of

measuring technology into all relevant

individual steps, especially through the

intelligent use of transfer and holding times,

would create complete transparency for

processes and thus increase the speed of

process improvements.

Cost/benefit assessment

The large number of stakeholders involved

means that the standardization process comes

at a high cost. Even beyond the confines of

particular battery producers, however, the

approaches help to improve understanding of

the product and processes, resulting in a high

benefit.

74 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required

RBW 16: Circular economy — 100 percent

recycling

Basic principles

Developing recycling strategies for batteries is

the only logical conclusion to the principle of

sustainable future energy use through

emission-free sources. Forecasts show that the

first batteries from automotive applications will

reach the end of their service life in 2020. From

2035, enough lithium is expected to be in

circulation to cover the majority of demand

from secondary sources [Rennhak 2012].

However, few people are currently aware that

secondary raw materials can be of high quality.

The aim is to establish an effective circular

economy by 2025, in which more than 90

percent of the materials are retained in

circulation.

The basic conditions needed to achieve this goal

are already in place and European companies

are leading the way in the development of new

recycling concepts.

Challenges

Two central tasks are crucial to the future

development of the circular economy. Firstly,

attention must be paid to recyclability right

from the design stage of the cell, battery

module, and battery pack. Secondly, business

models need to be developed for economical

recycling or second-life uses of the batteries.

Meeting these challenges is highly relevant for

battery manufacturers.

In addition, lithium-ion battery recycling is

driven not only by economic aspects, but by

political ones too. The EU Directive 2006/66/EC

states that a minimum of 50 percent of battery

waste must be recycled, regardless of its

purpose. In Germany, recycling is becoming

more and more relevant, as the country’s own

sources of primary raw materials are extremely

limited, making it dependent on others. The

main focus is on cobalt and lithium, but there

could also be shortages of nickel in the future.

Time

CostsQuality

Target system

2018

Update

2020

Mechanicalseparation processes

Chemicalseparation processes

Thermal separationprocesses

Large-scale recycling plants

Automateddisassembly

Decision model for further use of the

components

2nd-Life Businessmodels & waste

management

Pilot plantsDesign forRecyclability

Further development of the recycling process

New valuecreation and process

chains

New Materials

Circulation economy

>90%

R&D-programmes

Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b

RBW 16: Circular economy — 100 percent recycling

Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production

Recycling on a commercial scale is expected to boom in around 2020. Technical processes have to enable metal recycling of almost 100 percent. Remanufacturing and second life concepts support a circular economy. Theaims of such recycling must be to recover the separator, electrolyte, and active materials and to maximize the specific capacity that can be achieved.

Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 75

The greatest challenge currently facing

automated disassembly is the wide range of

variants in the battery cells and battery module

and pack systems presently in use. As well as

automation, tough requirements also apply to

the separation of the individual raw materials.

Thermal and mechanical separation processes

already enable recovery of the most valuable

metals (e.g. nickel, cobalt, copper). However, the

costs involved in recovering the electrolyte and

separator using existing separation processes

are prohibitive.

Solution approaches

First, the battery must be discharged during

disassembly from the battery modules and

packs, so that peripheral components can then

be treated. In the lithium ion cell recycling that

follows, the valuable metals such as cobalt,

nickel, and copper are today usually recovered

using pyrometallurgical processes. Today,

lithium is still usually bound into slag and

reused as a construction material. The aim is to

return lithium to the production process, too.

The different cell chemistries have different

metallic values, which have an impact on the

profitability of recycling. Efforts are being made

in research to increase the achievable recycling

rate to more than 80 percent of the battery

[Kwade 2018 a]. As well as recovering raw

materials, recycling individual components such

as the module housing is also conceivable.

The recycling process must be considered right

from the design stage of the battery

components. “Design for recyclability” is one of

the central topics of research. By adapting the

cell design, it is possible to simplify the

recycling process and thus optimize material

recovery.

However, the requirements for installation

space and performance hinder this

development. Modularization, substitution of

adhesives, and a reduction in battery module

voltage are all conceivable, but run counter to

the current development. Collaborations

between the OEMs and mechanical and plant

engineering companies need to be set up here

to drive the development of a recycling concept

and new second life business models.

A decision-making model that can assess the

quality of returned batteries needs to be

developed for battery treatment and recycling.

This would make it possible to reuse end-of-life

batteries from automotive applications in

stationary applications and could delay the

point at which a circular economy becomes

relevant. Processes could be adapted and

economic feasibility ensured. However, there is

currently a lack of business models for

implementation. One central field of research is

looking at ways to increase resource efficiency

in lithium-ion battery cell production

sustainably across all phases of the life cycle.

Cost/benefit assessment

An intact circular economy enables the raw

materials that are irreplaceable for battery

production to be handled in a sustainable and

responsible way. Economical recycling can also

reduce the large proportion of the battery cell

price made up by raw materials. There are

already very promising approaches to raw

material recovery. These now need to be

implemented in recycling systems suitable for

the mass market. However, the cost is the only

decisive factor in any concept or business

model.

76 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required

Project Brief description Research institutes / lead managers Period RBW

LiBaMA Automatic LIB module assembly Johnson Controls Advanced Power Solutions GmbH 2013-2015

14

utoSpEM Automatic handling for reliable and economical Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) 2012-2015

14

tCon Function-integrated high-current connectors for battery modules using cost-optimized production

Fraunhofer Institute for Material and Beam Technology(IWS)

2013-2015

12

tMan Research, development, and integration of an innovative, scalable, and modular battery management

em

Leibniz University Hannover 2010-2013

14

Increasing resource efficiency in the life cycle of LIBs through remanufacturing

Production Engineering of E-Mobility Components (PEM)at RWTH Aachen

2016-2019

16

enchBatt Benchmarking and evaluation of the performance and costs of high-energy and high-voltage lithium-ion batteries compared to post-lithium-ion technologies

University of Münster (WWU) Helmholtz Institute Münster (HI MS) Jülich Research Center (FZJ)

2016-2018

10

ell-Fi Acceleration of electrolyte take-up through optimized filling and wetting processes

Institute of Machine Tools and Production Technology(IWF) at TU Braunschweig

Institute for Machine Tools and Industrial Management(IWB) at Technical University of Munich

ster

2016-2019

6

berKMU² Development of an online platform that supports producer SMEs in identifying cyber-physical systems and thus resolving the weak points in production

FIR e.V. at RWTH Aachen University Laboratory for Machine Tools and Production Engineering

(WZL) at R

2016-2019

15

ion Data mining in the production of LIB cells Battery LabFactory (BLB) and TU Braunschweig 2015-2018

11, 15

tRec Demonstration plant for cost-neutral, resource-efficient processing of used lithium-ion batteries from

IME Process Metallurgy and Metal Recycling at RWTHAachen University

2012-2016

16

Development of a camera- and ultrasound-based sensor and diagnosis system (coating process)

Production Engineering of E-Mobility Components (PEM)at RWTH Aachen University

Power Electronics and Electrical Drives (ISEA) at RWTH

2016-2017

2

Efficient forming strategies for increasing the service life, reliability, and safety and reducing costs

Fraunhofer Institute for Ceramic Technologies andSystems (IKTS)

MEET battery research center at the University of Münster Technical Universi

2016-2018

7

LIB Increasing the energy and material efficiency through the use of extrusion and laser drying technology (electrode production LIB)

Production Engineering of E-Mobility Components (PEM)at RWTH Aachen University

University of Münster ter at the ster

2016-2019

1, 2

Researching measures for increasing the material and process efficiency in LIB production along the entire value chain

Production Engineering of E-Mobility Components (PEM)at RWTH Aachen University

ster

2018-2019

4, 9

aBat Solid cathodes for future high-energy batteries University of Münster, Institute for Anorganic andAnalytical Chemistry

2016-2019

3

Flexible assembly concepts for modular-based battery ems

Battery LabFactory and TU Braunschweig (BLB, IWF) 2014-2016

13

EBEL High-energy battery with improved electrolyte-separator assembly (HEBEL) of ceramic

FAU Erlangen, Institute of Chemical Reaction Engineering 2009-2012

9

High-energy materials processed in a cost-efficient and environmentally friendly way

Battery LabFactory (BLB) and TU Braunschweig ster

2017-2020

1

ghEnergy Production of high-capacity, structured electrodes KIT, Institute of Production Science TU Braunschweig University of Ulm, Institute of Stochastics Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-

Württemb (ZSW)

2016-2019

2

A Integrated components and integrated design ofenergy-efficient battery systems

Fraunhofer Institute for Integrated Circuits KIT — Institute for Applied Materials — Applied Materials

2013-2016

14

Intensive subsequent drying of components for lithium-ion cells in discontinuous drying ovens

TU Braunschweig Landshut Universit

2018-2020

2

Innovative substrate materials for optimizing the current collectors of electrical storage devices

Production Engineering of E-Mobility Components (PEM)at RWTH Aachen University

Welding and Joining Institute (ISF) at RWTH Aachen

2017-2019

12

Suhl Continuous suspension production Battery LabFactory (BLB) and TU Braunschweig 2016-2019

1

A-Li-Bat-clin

Life cycle assessments of the LithoRec II and EcoBatRec atteries

Oeko-Institut 2012-2016

16

fe Development of cost-efficient and safe LIBs German Aerospace Center (DLR) Helmholtz Institute (HIU) and University of Ulm Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-

Württemberg (ZSW)

2014-2016 /2016-2018

10

Research projects relating to red brick walls 77

Project Brief description Research institutes / lead managers Period RBW

LiOptiForm Power-electronic optimization of forming devices for LIBs

Zwickau University of Applied Sciences, Faculty ofElectrical Engineering

Fraunhofer Institute for Ceramic Technologies andems (IKTS)

2016-2018

7

LithoRec II Recycling of lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles TU Braunschweig MEET battery research center at the University of Münster

2012-2015

16

LiVe Production and targeted nanostructuring of electrode structures for high-performance lithium batteries

Process Metallurgy and Metal Recycling (IME) at RWTHAachen University

Institute for Particle Technology (iPAT) at TUBraunschweig

University of Duisburg-Essen FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg Giessen University Leibniz University Hannover ster

2009-2013

2

LoCoTroP Low-cost dry coating of battery electrodes for energy-efficient and environmentally friendly production processes

Fraunhofer Institute for Manufacturing Engineering andAutomation

Landshut University of Applied Sciences TU Braunschweig

2016-2019

1.2, 10

iBZ Development of a multi-functional intelligent battery cell

Technical University of Munich Fraunhofer Institute for Integrated Systems and Device

Technology

2015-2018

8

ULTIBAT Multi-scale models and model reduction processes for predicting the service life of lithium-ion batteries

University of Münster University of Ulm Fraunhofer Institute for Industrial Mathematics

2013-2016

7

ultiDis Multi-scale approach for describing the carbon black digestion in the dispersion process for process and performance-optimized process management

Battery LabFactory (BLB) and TU Braunschweig Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Mechanical

Process Engineering and Mechanics (MVM) Institute for Applied Materials — Materials for Electrical

and Electronic En

2016-2019

1

NeW-Bat New energy-efficient recycling of battery materials Fraunhofer Institute for Silicate Research 2016-2019

16

ekobatt 2020 Ecologically and economically produced LIBs for “Battery 2020”

Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-Württemberg, Ulm

2016-2018

10

ptiFeLio Optimized design and production concepts for the production of lithium-ion battery housings

Fraunhofer Institute for Chemical Technology KIT — Department of Mechanical Engineering — wbk Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-

Württemb (ZSW)

2014-2017

8

ptilyt Development of bespoke separator-electrode systems for optimized electrolyte filling of LIBs

Fraunhofer Institute for Ceramic Technologies andems (IKTS)

2014-2017

6

ptiZellForm Acceleration and energy-related optimization of cell forming

Production Engineering of E-Mobility Components (PEM)at RWTH Aachen University

elenia — Institute for High-voltage Technology andElectrical Energy Systems

arch center

2016-2019

7, 11

ProKal Process modeling of the calendering of energy-rich electrodes

Battery LabFactory (BLB) and TU Braunschweig Technical University of Munich, iwb University of Münster (WWU), Institute for Physical

Chemistry (MEET)

2016-2019

3

ProTrak Production technology for the production of lithium-ion cells

TU Berlin, Faculty V — Mechanical Engineering andTransport Systems — Institute of Machine Tools andFactory Operation

Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems (ISE)

2012-2015

4

Roll-It Investigation of the connection between cell properties and moisture; depiction in a calculation model

TU Braunschweig Karlsruhe Institute of Technology — Institute of Thermal

Process Engineering

2016-2019

2

im2Pro Multi-level simulation of product-process interdependencies

TU Braunschweig — Institute of Machine Tools andProduction Technology

2016-2019

5, 11

-PROTRAK Separator coating as part of the “production technology for LIB manufacture” project

Fraunhofer Institute for Silicon Technology (ISIT) Battery LabFactory (BLB) and TU Braunschweig

2013-2014

3

TACK Fast stacking for the mass production of low-cost, safe lithium-ion cells and the further development of electrode and separator materials

Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-Württemberg (ZSW)

Fraunhofer Institute for Chemical Technology Bavarian Center for Applied Energy Research

2018-2020

5

empOLadung Optimization of charging processes of a lithium-ion battery with particular attention to temperaturebehavior

Offenburg University of Applied Sciences 2018 7

opBat Development of temperature-optimized batterymodules with instrumented cells

Fraunhofer Institute for Industrial Mathematics 2013-2016

14

Research projects relating to the red brick walls

78 THE LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES OF TOMORROW — WHAT WILL THE FUTURE BRING?

The lithium-ion batteries of tomorrow —

what will the future bring?

The central developments in energy storage

technologies beyond lithium-ion batteries (LIBs)

were discussed intensively in the first

“Roadmap for Battery Production Equipment”

[Maiser 2014] and its 2016 update [Michaelis

2016]. Since this updated roadmap also focuses

on optimized lithium-ion batteries, the high-

energy lithium-ion batteries considered at the

heart of this roadmap will now be used as the

starting point for a brief examination of the

indicated and potential alternative technologies

of the future. The information is based largely

on [Thielmann2017].

Lithium-ion technologies

High-energy lithium-ion batteries

As technology for high-energy LIBs develops,

the cell components will gradually change.

Starting from the lithium-ion batteries

currently established on the market, indications

suggest the future use of high-energy active

materials and ultimately lithium metal anodes,

which could be made possible by solid

electrolytes, as well as high-energy cathodes.

Evolutionary development and the co-existence

of lithium-based battery technologies is

expected.

On the cathode side, nickel-rich materials (NMC

811) are currently being tested for electric

vehicles that will be on the roads from 2020.

Higher nickel contents are difficult in terms of

safety and producibility. As long as the

challenges of electrolyte availability and service

life are overcome, high-energy NMC could enter

the market from around 2025. High-voltage

spinels still face challenges in terms of

electrolyte stability and manganese leaching.

Despite the cost saving through the lack of

cobalt and the higher voltages than standard

NMC (622), the energy density cannot be

increased to the level of HE-NMC. Alongside

this, the electrode structure and layer thickness

are already being improved today — a process

that will continue over time. Aqueous

processing of cathodes, as is currently standard

for anodes, remains the subject of research. The

approaches described would demand only small

adjustments to production.

Graphite is currently the most commonly used

anode material and is expected to play a role for

the foreseeable future. The layer thickness and

structure are always adapted to the optimum

values. Si/graphite composites with a silicon

oxide content of between 2 and 5 percent are

already being used today to increase capacity.

Nano-Si/C materials with a silicon content of 5

to 20 percent could enter the market in the near

future, although they have not yet entered the

testing process. Higher silicon contents may

become attractive, depending on how the

energy density of the cathodes develops. To

utilize these, there is a particular need for the

development of suitable electrolytes and

technologies that can inhibit irreversible side

reactions.

The efficiency of lithium-ion cells is over 90

percent and is largely determined by the cell

format and the cell chemistry. High battery

efficiency contributes to the energy efficiency of

mobile applications and can thus improve their

energy footprint.

THE LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES OF TOMORROW — WHAT WILL THE FUTURE BRING? 79

Solid batteries

The trend towards lithium metal anodes goes

hand in hand with the development of solid

batteries (with polymer, hybrid, and ceramic

solid electrolytes). The aim of technological

development is solid batteries with a lithium

metal anode and a very thin electrolyte layer,

which enables high energy densities. Many of

the safety risks of lithium-ion batteries stem

from the use of flammable or explosive liquid

electrolytes. Material-specific constraints, such

as the solubility of different cations and the

limitation of the voltage window accessible for

electrochemical reactions, are connected to the

properties of the organic solvents currently

used.

The use of solid electrolytes, which make solid

batteries possible, can break through these

limitations and improve potential performance

parameters of the batteries. However, some

questions in production technology still remain

unresolved. Delivery structures and processes

need to be established. Full-ceramic electrolytes

in particular promise high benefits for electric

cars, but could demand even longer

development times than polymer materials.

Solid systems are thus not expected to become

established in xEV applications until after 2030,

after which they will spread across the market.

Applications in the consumer and electronics

markets or niche applications are conceivable

before that.

Polyanionic/LMFP-based batteries

Among the polyanionic cathode materials for

LIBs, phosphate-based materials are particularly

suitable alternatives to the established coating

oxides. However, the performance parameters

are comparable with or worse than those of

conventional chemistries. Non-reliance on

cobalt is the key driving force behind the

development of phosphatic Fe and Mn-based

cathode materials (LMFP). Other advantages

include improved safety properties in some

cases, which can lead to savings in the battery

management system (BMS). LFP-based cells are

used commercially today, including in the

automotive sector. However, they are under

increasing pressure from NMC-based LIBs with

higher energy densities. LMFP could change this

and help improve the energy density compared

to LFP.

Fields of application could include industrial

sectors such as logistics. In forklift trucks, LFP-

based batteries are already increasingly being

used instead of Pb batteries. These batteries are

generally considered suitable for applications in

which safety and resistance to charge cycles are

a major focus. A key challenge lies in reducing

the production costs, which currently remain

high. Upscaling would be required to enable the

(low) resource price to be reflected in the

manufacturing costs.

Beyond lithium-ion technology

Alternative battery technologies with higher

energy density?

Based on the performance parameters (usually

gravimetric and volumetric energy density and

resistance to charge cycles) of alternative

batteries, it is clear that the energy throughput

(the product of the energy density and

achievable cycle number) does not improve

compared to LIBs or the future optimized high-

energy Li-based or Li solid batteries, even with

technologies with initially higher achievable

energy densities. Measured against the current

requirements of electromobility applications,

most alternative battery technologies must be

classified as unsuitable in their current state of

development.

80 THE LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES OF TOMORROW — WHAT WILL THE FUTURE BRING?

However, many of these technologies offer

added value regarding their costs and resource

availability and are thus seen as potential

options for stationary (ESS) or special

applications from today’s point of view. Li-S

batteries, for example, can be used in flight

applications.

Batteries with conversion materials

“Conversion materials” (e.g. lithium-sulfur,

lithium-air) is an umbrella term for many

different materials with very high specific

capacities, but often with unsuitable potential

for use as anodes/cathodes in lithium-based

batteries. Material combinations with high

energy densities are theoretically conceivable.

Research is currently being conducted into

material design and nano-scaling of the

materials. Challenges come from the changes in

the particle volume, which cause a short service

life and low resistance to charging cycles. No

processes have yet established themselves in

production and further components will require

adaptations (electrolyte, cell design).

Sodium ion batteries

Sodium makes up 2.6 percent of the Earth’s

crust, while Na2CO3 costs less than a tenth of

the price of Li2CO3 (carbonate). Sodium ion

batteries (Na-IB) would thus be a low-cost

alternative to LIBs. As the patent landscape is

not as densely populated, it could present

better opportunities for beginning production

of the materials and batteries. The host

materials for Na-IBs are similar to those for LIBs

(coating oxides, phosphates). Only the ion size

of sodium means that graphite cannot be used

as an anode material. One possible alternative

is hard carbons, although at 250-300 mAh/g

their gravimetric capacity is lower than that of

graphite. Choosing the anode material is

therefore a challenge. The lower intrinsic

density of sodium-based compounds due to the

ion size results in a lower energy density

compared to LIBs. Otherwise, their development

runs in parallel to that of LIBs, but with a delay

and with performance parameters that are 20

to 30 percent lower. The cost of research and

development is also comparably low, as

production solutions can be adopted from LIBs

(drop-in).

Metal-sulfur (Me-S) batteries

Elementary sulfur displays good

electrochemical activity with different metals

(Me) and is able to receive two electrons per

sulfur atom. Due to its good availability and low

extraction costs, the element is considered

highly interesting for future storage

applications. Such materials used as cathodes

have a theoretical capacity of 1672 mAh/g if

fully converted. However, sulfur and metal

polysulfides are poor electronic conductors,

meaning that sulfur has to be functionalized in

carbon or other conductivity structures for

practical applications. The reduction potential

compared to Li, Na and Mg metal anodes is 2.1

V against Li/Li+, around 1.4 V against Na/Na+

and 1.6 V or 0.8 V against Mg/Mg2+, resulting

in theoretical gravimetric energy densities on

the material side of more than 2000 Wh/kg for

Li-S and more than 1000 Wh/kg for Na-S and

Mg-S. The weakness of such systems lies in the

good solubility of metal polysulfides in many

organic solvents that serve as the basis for

electrolytes. This causes break-down of the

cathode as cyclization progresses. Transport of

the dissolved ions to the anode causes the cells

to self-discharge (shuttle effect). Using solid

electrolytes can help solve this problem.

Metal-air/O2 batteries

Metal-air/oxygen batteries are currently the

subject of fundamental research. There is now

THE LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES OF TOMORROW — WHAT WILL THE FUTURE BRING? 81

broad agreement that commercialization will

not be possible in the near future. Various steps

in the redox reaction are still too poorly

understood to prevent the effects of

degradation. It is not yet clear whether metal-

air systems can be manufactured at

competitive prices, as the materials to be used

have not yet been decided and the use of a wide

range of additives may be necessary. There are

challenges at every level, from the material to

the system design.

Redox flow batteries

Pilot plants and small series for redox flow

batteries (RFB) have been in place for a while

already. The comparably low energy densitiesonly permit stationary applications (e.g. peak load buffers). The economic feasibility, which

results from the costs for the energy taken from

storage during the service life and application

period (LCOE), is crucial to the further

development and spread of RFBs. 5-10 ct/kWh

would need to be achieved in the medium to

long term. Challenges lie in increasing the

service life and reducing manufacturing costs.

Lead-carbon batteries (PbC)

PbC batteries are a further development of the

well-established lead-acid batteries, so no

disruptive changes are expected in terms of

price or energy density. The advantages of PbC

batteries lie in the increase in power density

compared to lead-acid batteries and the fact

that the electrode structure enables them to be

used and stored in a semi-charged state. This is

essential for buffer applications (e.g. solar or

domestic storage) in particular.

A price advantage compared to LIBs is also

expected in the long term. They display

excellent compatibility with current lead-acid-

based applications (drop-in). Challenges lie in

the design of the negative electrode and the

production engineering.

Other electrochemical storage devices

Organic batteries and organic cathode

materials are another storage technology. Their

implementation requires no transition metals

and very different synthesis processes. Batteries

like this could potentially be extremely low cost.

However, the non-availability of suitable

electrolytes and lack of resistance to charging

cycles present challenges. All in all, it is

important to note that the lack of suitable

electrolytes is very often a barrier to the

utilization of alternative battery technologies

and materials. The challenges are diverse,

affecting fields as varied as

chemical/electrochemical stability, corrosivity,

and solution properties.

82 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ACTION

Conclusions and

recommendations for action

Conclusions

This update confirms the trend of previous

versions. Market penetration of

electromobility continues to grow, bringing

with it rising demand for lithium-ion batteries

(LIB). Global demand for LIB cells in 2017 was

100 to 125 GWh, with 60 percent of it going to

mobile applications alone.

The rapid expansion of cell production

capacity, especially in China, underscores the

dynamic worldwide situation in impressive

fashion. Should electromobility develop in line

with optimistic estimates, the terawatt/hour

(TWh) boundary for LIB cell demand for

electric vehicles overall could be broken as

early as 2025 to 2030. While globally relevant

cell manufacturers still come almost

exclusively from Asia, production facilities are

increasingly being placed where demand

arises: Asia, America and increasingly Europe,

close to the seats of the largest vehicle OEMs.

As a result, the dynamic markets of

electromobility and LIB production present

great business opportunities for global

German mechanical and plant engineering

companies. Their high innovative strength and

strong focus on customer needs will ensure

that the transition to alternative technologies

such as electromobility continues. Related

sectors have already proved this in impressive

fashion.

Constraints of the roadmap

Differences in requirements on the user side,

the varying stages of development of the

technologies for electrical energy storage, and

the wide variety of process technologies

involved demand clearly defined procedure

parameters for generating roadmaps. These

parameters were formulated back in 2014 and

maintained for this 2018 update.

Focus on LIB technology

The most promising battery technology from

today’s point of view remains LIB technology.

The roadmap centers around large-scale cells

for high-energy applications, although high-

power cells for 48 V batteries will also

increasingly become a focus. Production

research requires technologies which are

ready for series production. Optimized LIBs up

to generation 3 will, from the present-day

point of view, represent the central technology

for the next 10 to 20 years. It is for the

production of these optimized LIB cells that

global capacity will be built up in the coming

decade. Production technology here is

upwards compatible in the area of LIB

generations 1 to 3.

Focus on production technology

In the roadmap, the focus is on production

technology based on a fundamental revision

of the technological state of the art and a

study of the complete process chain, from

material preparation to pack assembly. It is

important to assess all production solutions

with regard to their relevance for large-series

production.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ACTION 83

Study period up to 2030

To allow comparability with the previous

roadmaps, a study period up to 2030 has been

defined. Any study which went beyond this

period would be speculative or could at best

take the form of scenarios. This is also the

period in which optimized large-sized LIBs are

expected to reach full maturity.

Defined roadmapping process

We have taken the roadmapping process

widely used in the semiconductor industry and

applied this to battery production. The

requirements of battery manufacturers define

immovable target corridors for which

mechanical engineering companies will

attempt to develop and offer solutions. In

cases where, from the present point of view,

these do not exist, this method will cause

technological barriers, the so-called “red brick

walls,” to emerge. These can be used to derive

very specific requirements for research and

development during the study period.

Involvement of key actors

The results of this present roadmap are based

on the discussions in the workshops held and

the evaluation of questionnaires and expert

interviews. As the roadmapping process has

shown, once a certain point been reached, it is

advisable to bring all the actors concerned

around a single table, in particular as precise

specifications for production parameters are

not sufficiently available in the public domain.

These were discussed as a starting point with

the manufacturers and research institutes

concerned.

The differences in view between the varying

“travel routes” (users, battery producers, the

mechanical and plant engineering industry,

and research) were covered by the 2014

roadmap that was taken as a starting point.

Starting point for mechanical and plant

engineering

Intelligent production technologies are a key

tool that can help achieve the urgently

necessary reduction of the costs of batteries

for electromobility and stationary energy

storage. The German mechanical engineering

industry stands out here with its strong

specialization and contributes its experience

with other industries and with digitalization

(Industrie 4.0). Asian players continue to profit

from the exchange of information gained in

many years of supplying equipment for

factories for consumer batteries. The

requirements for the production of large-sized

batteries for use in electromobility or in the

field of stationary applications are, however,

also high for them. The obstacles described in

the roadmap apply to all market participants.

Specifying the need for research

Roadmapping is an iterative process. The aim

of this new edition of the roadmap is to reflect

once again on and revise the results from the

2016 update from the point of view of the

present day. The concrete need for research in

the mechanical and plant engineering industry

has been described for 16 core areas. Relative

to 2016, four new areas have been identified

and twelve areas have been revised and

expanded to include new data.

84 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ACTION

Recommendations for action

Take a planned approach to the need for

research

Broad-based sensitization of all actors

throughout the battery production value chain

and potential private and public investors is

needed in order to approach the need for

research identified in the roadmap in a

targeted and sustainable way. Close

cooperation between industrial partners and

research facilities will be essential in this. The

German Federal Ministry of Education and

Research (BMBF) supports measures such as

“Batterie 2020” and the “ProZell cluster” are

already addressing important topics [ProZell

2016].

In addition, joint industrial research allows in

particular smaller companies from the

mechanical engineering industry to acquire

basic knowledge in the pre-competitive phase,

thus creating the conditions for new ideas.

VDMA’s successful E-MOTIVE network forms

an ideal platform for this with its Power

Transmission Engineering Association, in

which representatives of the automotive

industry, mechanical and plant engineering,

and a large number of research institutes work

together.

Production research creates the basis for

establishing competitive cell production and is

the key to process innovation and the

development of unique selling points (USP).

References and USPs provide the ideal basis

for the European battery manufacturing

industry to position itself in this future field

sustainably for the long term and to become

more attractive as a solution partner

worldwide.

There is a concrete need for research for the

mechanical and plant engineering industry in

order to improve production technology,

particularly in the following cases:

Creating learning effects: Planning the factory

capacities of the future requires careful study

of many aspects, including the requirements

regarding the cells to be produced (cell

chemistry, cell format, costs etc.). Plants and

production technology must be continuously

optimized in order to achieve cost-effective

and sustainable implementation. This helps

speed up the ramp-up phase, increase

production throughput, increase quality,

minimize rejects, and, at the same time, take

into consideration the interplay between

factors such as supply, demand, level of

utilization, and trends in terms of costs and

prices. Optimized production technologies

should therefore be used in order to generate

learning effects quickly.

Scale-up of processes: As cell factories grow in

size, this is a key way to reduce costs. It is an

alternative to numbering up, in which the

number of lines is simply increased. To achieve

this, however, the process technology must be

appropriately optimized. Process stability and

quality must be ensured even with a high

throughput and the understanding of

processes must be continuously expanded.

Studying new system technologies:

Producibility and series maturity are crucial to

the success of new materials and processes.

The mechanical and plant engineering

industry must be involved in the development

of new products and technologies from an

early stage. Technological development for

LIBs is currently seeing a change in cell

components, moving towards lithium-based

high-energy materials and, in a few years, to

solid batteries with Li-metal anodes and high-

energy cathodes.

From today’s point of view, optimized LIBs will

be the central technology for at least the next

ten years. Despite this, it is already important

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ACTION 85

today for the mechanical and plant

engineering industry to address the process

engineering-related characteristics and

challenges in the production of enhanced LIBs.

Alternative system topologies: The primary

aim of alternative system topologies at

module-pack level is to maximize the battery

pack fill level and thus to increase the energy

content. This is principally possible through

reducing the proportion of housing

components, function integration, and

standardized modular systems.

Avoiding overengineering: Building up process

expertise in a targeted way can allow

interrelationships to be tapped. This requires

comprehensive process monitoring and

collection and analysis of an extensive set of

data. This approach of systematic processing

of large quantities of data is also known as

data mining. Each step in production has

individual process parameters.

In order to define useful tolerance limits, it is

important to understand the extent to which

the respective process influences the quality of

the intermediates and the final battery cells.

The most sensible solution from both a

technical and an economic point of view must

be reached.

Sustainable battery production: Within the

scope of alternative mobility technologies and

the transition to alternative energies, batteries

play a key role in decreasing the impact on the

environment, especially when it comes to

reducing the CO2 footprint. The production of

battery cells including the raw materials and

materials involved is responsible for the

majority of these environmental effects.

A life cycle assessment is essential in reducing

these. Increasing the material and energy

efficiency of production and developing

recycling processes and technologies are

important ways to reduce the environmental

impact of production.

Increase international competitiveness

Delivering competitive solutions

internationally demands references and USPs.

Developing these requires research into

production. European machinery and plants

impress in terms of their innovative strength

and efficiency in total cost of ownership

studies and sustainability. In order to offer

services cost-effectively, understanding of the

cost of individual process steps and in the

product life cycle as a whole must be

improved.

86 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ACTION

Create access to large-series production

Direct participation in large projects is the only

way for manufacturers of production

equipment to gain experience in volume

production. It is particularly important to work

directly with manufacturers. The expansion of

global cell factories in the next 10 years will be

carried out almost exclusively by Asian players

from Japan, South Korea, and China.

Production locations will, however, be shifted

to all world regions (Asia, America, and

Europe). Export business enables the

mechanical and plant engineering industry to

gain an insight into production operations

overseas and thus to recognize important

technological requirements and develop

appropriate solutions. As the market grows, a

strong and sustainable bond between the

small number of Asian cell manufacturers and

the German mechanical and plant engineering

industry will become ever more important and

make the difference between success and

failure.

Create conditions that stimulate innovation

and investment

Production research is the key to the

innovations that are essential in making

battery manufacturing a success. At the same

time, implementing new approaches in series

production demands a certain willingness to

take risks.

Instruments that minimize investment risks

are particularly important here. This is the

source of the demand for the following

conditions:

Introduction of tax support for research

General degressive depreciation to allow

amortization of significant depreciation

in plant value due to economic and

technical developments in the first few

years

Pre-competitive, broad-based industrial

joint research

Collaborative research with transfer

services to promote a broad culture of

innovation

Stabilize the roadmapping process

Roadmapping is a dynamic and iterative

process. VDMA Battery Production has

stabilized the dialog with this new edition and

will continue to actively drive forward the

implementation of the roadmapping process

begun with the first roadmap in 2014.

APPENDIX 87

Appendix

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96 APPENDIX

List of workshop participants, evaluation by questionnaire or interview

The following companies and organizations took part in the roadmapping workshops organized in Reutlingen by

VDMA Battery Production and/or the subsequent evaluation exercise by questionnaire or interview. We thank them

for the fruitful discussions!

ACI AG

Battery LabFactory Braunschweig (BLB)

Bosch Rexroth AG

Brückner Maschinenbau GmbH & Co. KG

BST eltromat International GmbH

Coherent -Rofin GmbH

Continental AG

Custom Cells Itzehoe GmbH

EAS Batteries GmbH

F&K Delvotec Bondtechnik GmbH

Fraunhofer Institute for Manufacturing Engineering and

Automation (IPA)

Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research

(ISI)

GEBRÜDER LÖDIGE Maschinenbau GmbH

GOEBEL Schneid- und Wickelsysteme GmbH

GROB-WERKE GmbH & Co. KG

Groz-Beckert KG

Hedrich GmbH

IAV GmbH

Industrie-Partner GmbH

IPR-Intelligente Peripherien für Roboter GmbH

Kampf LSF GmbH & Co. KG

KUKA Industries GmbH & Co. KG

Liebherr-Verzahntechnik GmbH

Litarion GmbH

Mahle GmbH

Manz AG

MARPOSS GmbH

Maschinenbau Kitz GmbH

Maschinenfabrik Gustav Eirich GmbH & Co KG

mkf GmbH

RWTH Aachen University Chair of Production Engineering

of E-Mobility Components (PEM)

RWTH Aachen, Laboratory for Machine Tools and

Production Engineering (WZL)

SCHILLER AUTOMATION GmbH & Co. KG

Schuler Pressen GmbH

SCHUNK GmbH & Co. KG

SICK AG

Siemens AG

SMC Deutschland GmbH

teamtechnik Maschinen und Anlagen GmbH

Technische Universität Braunschweig, Institute of Joining

and Welding Technology (IFS)

TerraE Holding GmbH

thyssenkrupp System Engineering GmbH

TRUMPF Laser- und Systemtechnik GmbH

TU Braunschweig, Institute for Particle Technology (iPAT)

TU Braunschweig, Institute of Machine Tools and

Production Technology (IWF)

VDMA Battery Production

Viscom AG Vision Technology

VITRONIC Dr.-Ing. Stein Bildverarbeitungssysteme GmbH

VOLKSWAGEN AG

VON ARDENNE GmbH

WEISS GmbH

Zeltwanger Holding GmbH

ZSW (Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research

Baden-Württemberg)

The participants of the 2018 workshop “Roadmapping for Mechanical and Plant Engineering.”

Photo: Manz AG

VDMABattery Production

Lyoner Str. 1860528 Frankfurt am MainPhone +49 69 6603-1186Fax +49 69 6603-2186E-Mail jennifer.zienow@vdma.orgInternet http://battprod.vdma.org

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