/ /

J :

• • \ l

\ ; \

I ; (•

/ , •

A/ •• 1 I

i !

t !

ROBERT J. STERNBERGYALE UNIVERSITY

With contributions by

JOSEPHINE F. WILSON

WITTENBERG UNIVERSITY

THOMSON

WADSWORTH

Australia • Canada • Mexico • Singapore • SpainUnited Kingdom • United States

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? 1

Psychology as a Natural Science and a SocialScience 2

Key Themes in the Evolution of PsychologicalIdeas 3

The Early History of Psychology 5

600-300 B.C.: Ancient Greece and Rome 51300-1600: The Renaissance and the Birth of ModernScience 7

1600-1850: The Early Modern Period 7

Early Psychological Approaches to Behavior 8

Structuralism: Taking Inventory of the Mind 8

IN THE LAB OF LUDY T. BENJAMIN, JR.

Understanding the Public Image of Psychology 9

Functionalism: Why We Do What We Do 11Associationism: Early Ideas about Learning 11

Psychology in the 20th Century 12

From Associationism to Behaviorism 14Behaviorism: A Search for Rigor and Reduction 14Gestalt Psychology: The Whole Is Differentfrom the Sum of Its Parts 15

Cognitivism: How We Think as a Keyto How We Behave 16

Biological Psychology: The Mind and the BodyReconciled? 17

Evolutionary Psychology: Understanding the AdaptiveValue of Certain Behaviors 18

Psychodynamic Psychology: Conscious Behavioras the Tip of the Iceberg 18

Humanistic Psychology: Free Will and the Importanceof Human Potential 19

PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE

Psychology and Social Action 20

Psychology as a Field of Study 21

UNIFYING PSYCHOLOGY

Ethical Behavior 25

Summary 25

Key Terms 27

Answers to Concept Checks 27

Knowledge Check 28

Think About It 28

Web Resources 29

CD-ROM: Unifying Psychology 29

CHAPTER 2RESEARCH METHODS 30

Characteristics of Scientific Findings 32

Scientific Findings Are Verifiable 32Scientific Findings Are Public 3 3Scientific Findings Are Cumulative 33What Scientific Research Is Not 33

PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE

Are Scientific Findings All Obvious? 34

IN THE LAB OF WILLIAM J. RAY

Studying Behavior and Experience 36

How Scientists Solve Problems 37

Identifying the Problem 3 7Defining the Problem 38Formulating Hypotheses 39Constructing a Problem-Solving Strategy 39Monitoring and Evaluating Problem Solving 40

The Goals of Scientific Research 40

Description 40' Explanation 41

Prediction 42Control 42

Research Methods in Psychology 43

Naturalistic Observation 43Case Studies 43Tests, Questionnaires, and Surveys 45Experiments 45Evaluating and Interpreting Research Data 47

Causal Inference in Psychological Research 49

Controlled and Quasi-Experimental Designs 49Correlational Designs 51

Critical Thinking in Psychological Research 52

The Nature of Critical Thinking 52Fallacies That Prevent Critical Thinking 53

Research Ethics 54

Deception, Informed Consent, and Debriefing 54Pain 55Confidentiality 55Research with Nonhuman Animals 5 5The Role of Institutional Review Boards (IRBs),, 56

UNIFYING PSYCHOLOGY

Using Animals in Research 57

Summary 58Key Terms 59Answers to Concept Checks 59Knowledge Check 60Think About It 60Web Resources 61CD-ROM: Unifying Psychology 61

CHAPTER 3BIOLOGICAL BASESOF BEHAVIOR 62

The Organization of the Nervous System 64

The Central Nervous System (CNS) 64The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) 67

Nervous System Cells and Functions 68

Neurons 68Glial Cells 72The Action Potential 72Neural Transmission 73

IN THE LAB OF WILLIAM T. GREENOUGH

Synaptic Bases for Learning and Memory 75

Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators 76

T h e Structures and Functions of the Brain 78

The Hindbrain 79The Midbrain 79The Forebrain 80The Hemispheres of the Brain 82The Four Lobes of the Brain 87The Association Areas 88The Case of Phineas Gage 89

Studying the Living Brain 92

The Electroencephalogram (EEG) 92

PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE

Seeing inside the Brain 93

X Rays and Angiograms 93Brain Scans 94

The Endocrine System 97

Hormones 97Endocrine Glands 97

VIII CONTENTS

Evolution, Genetics, and Heritability 100Evolutionary Theory 100Genetics 102Heritability 104

Nature and Nurture 106

UNIFYING PSYCHOLOGY

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome 107

Summary 108

Key Terms 110

Answers to Concept Checks 111

Knowledge Check 111

Think About It 112

Web Resources 112

CD-ROM: Unifying Psychology 113

CHAPTER 4

SENSATIONAND PERCEPTION 114

Psychophysics 117Thresholds 118Signal-Detection Analysis 118Discriminating among Stimuli 119

Biological Properties Common to All Senses 121

Receiving and Conveying Sensory Information 121Sensory Adaptation 122

Vision 123

The Functional Organization of the EyeHow We See: Rods and Cones 126Seeing by Light and Darkness 128How We See Color 130

123

Visual Perception 134Depth Perception 13 8Form Perception 141Motion Perception 146Deficits in Perception. 147

Hearing 147

Sound Waves 147The Functional Organization of the Ear 149How We Hear 150

Taste 154

Physical and Psychological Properties of Taste 154Anatomy of the Tongue 154From the Tongue to the Brain 155

Smell 156

Physical and Psychological Properties in the Senseof Smell 156

PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE

Do Ideas Evolve as Organisms Do? 157

From the Nose to the Brain 158

The Skin Senses 159

Physical and Psychological Properties of the SkinSenses 159

Pressure, Temperature, and Pain 161

The Body Senses 162

Kinesthesis 162The Vestibular Sense 163

IN THE LAB OF JAMES G. MAY

Virtual Reality and Cybersickness 164

UNIFYING PSYCHOLOGY

Perceiving Symmetry 166

Summary 167

Key Terms 169

CONTENTS I X

Answers to Concept Checks 170

Knowledge Check 171

Think About It 172

Web Resources 172

CD-ROM: Unifying Psychology 17 3

CHAPTER 5CONSCIOUSNESS 174

Paying Attention 176

Selective Attention 176

IN THE LAB OF ELLEN LANGER

Mindlessness of Supposedly Thoughtful Action 178

Filter Theories 180Attentional Resource Theories 180

Levels of Consciousness 181

The Preconscious Level 182The Subconscious Level 182

PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFENear-Death Experience 183

Altered States of Consciousness 183

Sleep 184

Why Do We Sleep? 184Circadian Rhythms 185Sleep Deprivation 187Stages of Sleep 187Sleep Disorders 188

Dreams 191

Hypnosis and Meditation 193

Theories of Hypnosis 194Hypnosis and Memory 195Meditation 195

Psychoactive Drugs 197Narcotics 198Central Nervous System Depressants 199Central Nervous System Stimulants 202Hallucinogens 204

UNIFYING PSYCHOLOGY

The Effects of Sleep Deprivation 206

Summary 207

Key Terms 209

Answers to Concept Checks 209

Knowledge Check 209

Think About It 210

Web Resources 211

CD-ROM: Unifying Psychology 211

CHAPTER 6LEARNING 212

Classical Conditioning 214

The Components and Timing of ClassicalConditioning 216

Contingency: Why Conditioning Works 217

IN THE LAB OF BRUCE W. TUCKMAN

How Can We Help Students Get Better Grades? 219

Rates of Conditioning 220The Phases of Classical Conditioning 221The Levels and Features of Classical Conditioning

Operant Conditioning 227

Law of Effect 227Experimental Analysis of Behavior 228What Makes a Stimulus a Reinforcer? 230

222

CONTENTS

PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFELearned Helplessness 236

234

236

Schedules of ReinforcementLearned Helplessness 236Operant Versus Classical Conditioning

Other Kinds of Learning 238Social Learning 238Systems Views of Learning 239

UNIFYING PSYCHOLOGY

Treatment for Addicted Women 240

Summary 241Key Terms 243Answers to Concept Checks 243Knowledge Check 244Think About It 244Web Resources 245CD-ROM: Unifying Psychology 245

CHAPTER 7

MEMORY 246

How to Study Memory 248Recall and Recognition 248

Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks 249

The Multiple-Store Model of Memory 250Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval 251Sensory Memory 252Short-Term Memory 252Long-Term Memory 256The Constructive Nature of Memory 261

PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE

Flashbulb Memories 262

IN THE LAB OF HENRY L. ROEDIGER III

AND KATHLEEN B. MCDERMOTT

Remembering Events That Never Happened 266

Alternative Models of Memory 269Levels-of-Processing Model 269Baddeley's Model 269Parallel-Processing Model 270

Extremes of Memory 271Memory Deficiencies: Amnesia 271Outstanding Memories: Mnemonists 271

The Biological Underpinnings of Memory 274Neurochemistry 275Neurophysiology 275

UNIFYING PSYCHOLOGY

Psychogenic Amnesia 276

Summary 277 >Key Terms 279Answers to Concept Checks 280

Knowledge Check 280Think About It 281Web Resources 281CD-ROM: Unifying Psychology 2 81

CHAPTER 8

LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT 282

The Nature of Language 284Language and the Brain 285

Hemispheric Differences in ProcessingSex Differences 286

Aspects of Language

286

287

IN THE LAB OF MORTON GERNSBACHERWatching the Brain Process Language 288

CONTENTS X I

Semantics 289Syntax 291Pragmatics 291The Relation of Language to Thought 292

Language Acquisition 294

Stages of Language Acquisition 2 94Explanations of Language Acquisition 296

Do Animals Use Language? 299

The Nature of Thought 301

Strategies and Obstacles in Problem Solving 302

Solving Well-Structured Problems: Heuristicsand Algorithms 303

Solving Ill-Structured Problems: Insight 303Hindrances to Problem Solving 305

Making Judgments and Decisions 309

Decision Theory 309Satisficing 309Heuristics and Biases 309

Reasoning 312

Deductive Reasoning 312 "Inductive Reasoning 313

Creativity 314

Characteristics of Creative Thinking 314Internal and External Factors 315Evolutionary Influences 316

PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE

Increasing Creativity 316

UNIFYING PSYCHOLOGY

Learning a Second Language 317

Summary 318Key Terms 320Answers to Concept Checks 321

Knowledge Check 3 21Think About It 322Web Resources 322CD-ROM: Unifying Psychology 323

CHAPTER 9INTELLIGENCE 324

Definitions of Intelligence 326Francis Galton: Measuring PsychophysicalPerformance 327

Alfred Binet: Measuring Judgment 327Mental Age and the Intelligence QuotientIntelligence Tests 328Aptitude and Achievement Tests 329Score Distributions 331

Assessment Issues 332

328

Validity 332Reliability 333Standardization and Norms 333

Theories of the Nature of Intelligence 334Psychometric Models: Intelligence as a Measurement-Based Map of the Mind 334

Computational Models: Intelligence as InformationProcessing 335

Biological Models: Intelligence as a PhysiologicalPhenomenon 336

IN THE LAB OF RICHARD HAIER

Watching Intelligence and Consciousness 337

Evolutionary Theory 338Cultural and Contextual Models: Intelligenceas a Cultural Construct 339

Systems Models of Intelligence 340

XII CONTENTS

Group Differences 344

Sex Differences 344Socially Defined Racial/Ethnic Group DifferencesEnvironmental Differences 345

Extremes of Intelligence 345

Intellectual Giftedness 346Mental Retardation 347

The Heritability of Intelligence 349

Twin Studies 349

PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFEImproving Intelligence 351

Adoption Studies 352

UNIFYING PSYCHOLOGY

Autistic Savant Syndrome 352

Summary 353

Key Terms 355

Answers to Concept Checks 355

Knowledge Check 355

Think About It 356

Web Resources 357

CD-ROM: Unifying Psychology 357

CHAPTER 1OPHYSICAL AND COGNITIVEDEVELOPMENT 358

Basic Questions in the Study of Physicaland Cognitive Development 361Maturation and Learning 361Continuity Versus Discontinuity 362Domain Generality and Domain Specificity 363Methodological Issues 364

Physical and Neural Development 365

Prenatal Development 365344 -The Newborn's Capabilities 366

Adolescence and Adulthood 369

Cognitive Development 370

JeanPiaget 371Neo-Piagetian Theorists 375LevVygotsky 375

IN THE LAB OF SUSAN GELMAN

Studying Early Cognitive Development 376

Cognitive Theories 378

Development through Adulthood 384

PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE

Use It or Lose It 385

UNIFYING PSYCHOLOGY

Conjoined Twins 386

Summary 387

Key Terms 389

Answers to Concept Checks 389

Knowledge Check 389

Think About It 390

Web Resources 391

CD-ROM: Unifying Psychology 391

CHAPTER 1 1SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 392

Emotional Development 395Stages of Emotional Development 396Theories of Emotional Development 396

CONTENTS XIII

Personality Development 398

Erik Erikson: Personality and IdentityDevelopment 398

James Marcia: The Achievement of PersonalIdentity 400

A Developing Sense of Self: Self-Concept 400

IN THE LAB OF CAROL S. DWECK

Can Praising Children's Intelligence Be Harmful? 402

Temperament 403Psychosexual Development and Theories of GenderTyping 405

Interpersonal Development 407

Attachment 407Effects of Child Care on Children's Development 411

PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE

Parenting Styles 412

Peer Interactions: Friendship and Play 414Marriage and the Family 415The World of Work 416

Moral Development 416

Kohlberg's Model 417Gilligan's Alternative Model 420

Death and Dying 421

UNIFYING PSYCHOLOGY

Facial Disfigurement and Social Development 42 5

Summary 426

KeyTerms 428

Answers to Concept Checks 428

Knowledge Check 429

Think About It 429

Web Resources 430

CD-ROM: Unifying Psychology 431

CHAPTER 12MOTIVATION AND EMOTION 433

Early Theories of Motivation 434

Instinct Theory 434Drive Theory 434

Contemporary Theories of Motivation 43 5

Physiological Approaches 435Clinical Approaches 437Cognitive Approaches 440

IN THE LAB OF EDWARD L. DECI

The Ups and Downs of Intrinsic Motivation 442

Biological Bases of Motivation 445

Hunger 445Sex 448

Emotions and Their Characteristics 452

Happiness 452Fear and Anxiety 453Anger 453Sadness and Grief 454Disgust 454Are Some Emotions Basic? 454The Evolutionary Value of Emotions 454

Measuring Emotions 455

PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE

Detecting Lies 456

The Physical Appearance of Emotions 456The Facial-Feedback Hypothesis 456Seeing through a False Front 458

Approaches to Understanding Emotions 458

Early Psychophysiological Approaches 458Modern Psychophysiological Approaches 460Cognitive Approaches 460Cultural Approaches 461

CONTENTS

UNIFYING PSYCHOLOGY

Fear and Shyness 462

Summary 463

Key Terms 464

Answers to Concept Checks 465

Knowledge Check 465

Think About It 466

Web Resources 466

CD-ROM: Unifying Psychology 467

CHAPTER 13SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:PERSONAL PERSPECTIVES 468

The Nature of Social Psychology 470

Attitudes 471

Attitude Formation 472Attitude Change 473Cognitive Consistency 476Cognitive Dissonance Theory 477Self-Perception Theory 478

Attributions 480

Explaining and Interpreting Behavior 480Attribution Heuristics and Biases 480

PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE

The Culture of Honor 481

Impressions 483

Forming Impressions 483Social Comparison 486

IN THE LAB OF BERND STRAUSS

How important Are Spectators to Athletes' Performance? 487

Attraction, Liking, and Loving 488

Forces That Influence Attraction 488Theories of Liking and Interpersonal Attraction 490Love 491

UNIFYING PSYCHOLOGY

Following Fads 494

Summary 495

Key Terms 496

Answers to Concept Checks 496

Knowledge Check 496

Think About It 497

Web Resources 498

CD-ROM: Unifying Psychology 499

CHAPTER 14SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:INTERPERSONAL AND GROUPPERSPECTIVES 500

Groups 502

Social Facilitation and Inhibition 502Social Loafing 503Group Polarization and Conflict Resolution 504Groupthink 505

IN THE LAB OF CLAUDE M. STEELE

Theory As It Emerges through the Back Door 507

Conformity, Compliance, and Obedience 508

Conformity 508Compliance 511Obedience 512

CONTENTS XV

Prosocial Behavior 515

Bystander Intervention 515Altruism 517Peacemaking 518

Antisocial Behavior 519

Prejudice 519

13 PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFEReducing Prejudice 522

Aggression 523Evil and Hatred 526

UNIFYING PSYCHOLOGY

The Social Contagion of Bulimia 528

Summary 529

Key Terms 530

Answers to Concept Checks 531

Knowledge Check 531

Think About It 532

Web Resources 532

CD-ROM: Unifying Psychology 5 3 3

CHAPTER ISPERSONALITY 534

537Psychodynamic Approaches

Common Components 537Sigmund Freud: PsychoanalysisThe Neo-Freudians 541Object-Relations Theories 544Evaluating the Psychodynamic Approach

537

The Humanistic Approach 546

Abraham Maslow: Holistic-Dynamic Theory 546Carl Rogers: Self Theory 546Evaluating the Humanistic Approach 547

The Cognitive-Behavioral Approach 548

Antecedents 548Julian Rotter: Social-Learning Theory 548Albert Bandura: Social-Cognitive Theory 549Evaluating Cognitive-Behavioral Theories 549

The Trait-Based Approach 550

Hans Eysenck: Three Dimensions of Personality 550The Big Five Personality Traits 551Evaluating Trait Theories 551

PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE

Psychoticisms in Everyday Life 552

The Biological Approach 553

Personality, Temperament, and Heritability 553Biological Correlates of Dispositionand Temperament 554

Evaluating the Biological Approach 554

Interactionist Perspectives 555

Measuring Personality 557

Protective Tests 557Objective Personality Tests 558

IN THE LAB OF LAURA KING

Writing as Self-Disclosure and Self-Construction 559

Self-Help Tests 562

UNIFYING PSYCHOLOGY

The Psychology of Nonconformists 563

545

CONTENTS

Summary 564Key Terms 565Answers to Concept Checks 566Knowledge Check 566Think About It 567Web Resources 567CD-ROM: Unifying Psychology 567

CHAPTER 16PSYCHOLOGICALDISORDERS 568

What Behavior Is Abnormal? 570Historical Views 570Modern Theoretical Perspectives 571

Classifying and Diagnosing PsychologicalDisorders 573The Five Axes of DSM-IV 574

a

A Multiaxial Diagnosis 575Evaluating DSM-IV 575Prevalence, Incidence, Comorbidity,and Concordance 576

Anxiety Disorders 576Types of Anxiety Disorders 576Symptoms of Anxiety Disorders 579Explanations of Anxiety Disorders 580

Mood Disorders 582Major Depression 582Bipolar Disorder 584Explanations of Mood Disorders 584Suicide 586

PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFEMyths about Suicide 588

591

Schizophrenic Disorders 588Types of Schizophrenia 590Stressors That Contribute to SchizophreniaExplanations of Schizophrenia 591

IN THE LAB OF ELAINE WALKER

Searching for the Precursors of Schizophrenia 593

Dissociative Disorders 595Dissociative Amnesia 595Dissociative Fugue 595Dissociative Identity Disorder 595

Disorders Usually Diagnosed in Infancy,Childhood, or Adolescence 596Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder(ADHD) 596

Conduct Disorders 597Pervasive Developmental Disorder (PDD) 597

Personality Disorders 598Legal Issues 599

UNIFYING PSYCHOLOGY

Snipers: The Criminal Mind 601

Summary 602Key Terms 603Answers to Concept Checks 603Knowledge Check 604Think About It 605Web Resources 605CD-ROM: Unifying Psychology 605

CONTENTS XVII

CHAPTER 17THERAPY 606

History of Therapy 608

Diagnosing and Assessing AbnormalBehavior 609

Clinical Interviews 609Psychological Tests 610Neuropsychological Tests 610Biological Measurements 610

Approaches to Therapy 611

Assumptions about Psychological Disorders 611Who Uses Therapy? 612Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Therapy 612Psychodynamic Methods 613Humanistic Therapies 614Behavior Therapy 615Cognitive Therapies 618Biological Therapies 620

IN THE LAB OF DAVID H. BARLOW

Effectively Treating Panic Disorder 623 <>

Alternatives to Individual Therapy 625

Group Therapy 625Couples and Family Therapy 626Community Psychology 627

PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFESelf-Help 628

Effectiveness of Therapy 629

The Impact of Managed Care 629Issues in Therapy Research 630Long-Term Versus Short-Term TreatmentElements of Effective Therapy 631

Ethical Issues in Therapy 632

631

UNIFYING PSYCHOLOGY

Treatments for Obesity 634

Summary 635

Key Terms 636

Answers to Concept Checks 637

Knowledge Check 637

Think About It 638

Web Resources 638

CD-ROM: Unifying Psychology 639

CHAPTER 18HEALTH, STRESS,AND COPING 640

Psychology and Health 642

The Mind-Body Connection 642Historical Trends in Prevention and Treatment 643Emotional Longevity 643

Stress and Coping 644

Stress and Stressors 644Physical Responses to Stress 646Perceiving Stress 647

PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE

Coping Strategies and the Issue of Control 649

Internal Variables: Type-A Versus Type-B BehaviorPatterns 649

Stress and the Immune System 651

The Psychology of Health Care 652

Recognizing and Interpreting Symptoms 652Managed Care 652Hospital Care 653

CONTENTS

IN THE LAB OF SHELDON COHEN

Enduring Stress and Fighting Infection 655

The Psychological Processes of Healing 656Pain Management 656Living with Serious Health Problems 659

UNIFYING PSYCHOLOGY

The Many Faces of Pain Research 662

Summary 663

Key Terms 664

Answers to Concept Checks 664

Knowledge Check 665

Think About It 665

Web Resources 666

CD-ROM: Unifying Psychology 666

STATISTICAL APPENDIX A-lTHINK ABOUT IT SAMPLE RESPONSESGLOSSARY A-24REFERENCES A-61CREDITS A-126NAME INDEX A-130SUBJECT INDEX A-146

A-ll

CONTENTS X I X