roman art a resource for educators

7/27/2019 Roman Art a Resource for Educators

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Nancy L. Thompson



With the opening of the New Greek and Roman

Galleries—the spectacular centerpiece of which isthe Shelby White and Leon Levy Court—a newchapter has opened for the study of classical artat The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Beautifulmasterworks—stone and bronze sculpture, ceramics,glass, jewelry, wall paintings, and architecturalelements—have been conserved and presented inmagnicent spaces that bet the aesthetic achieve-ments of Hellenistic and Roman civilization.

Museum visitors will long enjoy the beauty of

classical art in these light-lled spaces. The public willalso benet from the work of generations of scholarswho have expanded and deepened our knowledgeabout the manufacture, meaning, and use of theseobjects in ancient times. Ancient artists drew onmany sources for technical and design inspiration,while vibrant trade and communication linked distantregions to one another. The specic legacy of Romewas such that it inspired extension and emulationacross the centuries. Ideas of cosmopolitanism and

international exchange echo to the present day, whilefor two millennia the study of Rome and the ancientworld has been a cornerstone of educational thinkingin the Western tradition.

This publication,Roman Art: A Resource for Educators,provides a comprehensive introduction informedby recent research for teachers and students eager toexplore and understand Rome’s cultural and artisticlegacy. As lead author, Associate Museum Educator

Nancy Thompson has worked closely with her

colleagues in the Education and Greek and RomanDepartments to create a practical and useful guideteachers at all grade levels and in many disciplinesextend our thanks to this remarkable team of schol

The aesthetic achievements of ancient Rome sas a great milestone in the history of art. Presentethe context of an encyclopedic collection of greatfrom all eras and cultures, the Metropolitan’s colleand its beautiful new installation will encourage ccultural comparisons of unique depth and breadt

even as students explore and enjoy these masterwoon their own terms for many years to come.

Philippe de MontebelloDirector

Kent Lydecker

Frederick P. and Sandra P. Rose Associate Director for Educati

Carlos A. PicónCurator in Charge,

Department of Greek and Roman A

FOREWORD



Many colleagues participated in the development

of this publication. Heartfelt gratitude and thanksgo to the curators and staff of the MetropolitanMuseum’s Department of Greek and Roman Artunder the guidance of Carlos Picón, Curator inCharge. During an extremely busy period of prepara-tion for the opening of the New Greek and RomanGalleries, Seán Hemingway, Christopher Lightfoot, Joan Mertens, and Elizabeth Milleker providedinvaluable guidance and curatorial expertise in theshaping of this project for which we are truly grateful.

Matthew Noiseux and Mark Santangelo gave timelyand indispensable assistance.We commend Nancy Thompson for writing such

a clear and informative text to meet the particularneeds of teachers. Nancy would especially like tothank her partner, Dr. Guy McLean Rogers, forsharing his historical insights and for his steadfastencouragement during the writing of this resource.

Invaluable support and insight came fromMetropolitan Museum educators and colleagues who

helped produce this publication. Kent Lydecker,Deborah Howes, Amy Silva, and Karen Ohlandoffered support and guidance. Felicia Blum, MichaelNorris, and Edith Watts wrote the lesson plans.Emily Roth, Naomi Niles, and Vivian Wick compiledthe list of selected resources. John Welch shepherdedthe project together with Merantine Hens, whocoordinated the many steps of editing throughout.Masha Turchinsky directed the design and supervised

printing. Sarah Hornung coordinated the culminating

aspects of production. Many thanks to Paul Caro,Phoebe Ford, and Jackie Neale-Chadwick for theirimaging support and expertise. Tatsiana Zhurauliovaoffered needed administrative support. Elizabeth Bellprovided welcome research and proong assistance.Philomena Mariani edited the manuscript with careand speed. Very special thanks to Adam Squires forthe handsome design of this publication.

We are grateful to Linda Seckelson of theMuseum’s Thomas J. Watson Library for her invalu-

able assistance. We extend our thanks to BarbaraBridgers, Einar Brendalen, and Paul Lachenauer of the Photograph Studio. Many thanks also to JohnO’Neill, Peter Antony, and Gwen Roginsky of theEditorial Department.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS



CONTENTS

1 Goals and Design of this Resource

3 Quick List of Images

7 Map

8 The Relevance of Rome

18 The Antecedents of Roman Art: Etruscan, Classical Greek, and Hellenistic Art

21 Roman Historical Overview: A Selective Sketch

28 Power and Authority in Roman Portraiture (images1 – 12)

30 Image1 Ring-stone with intaglio bust of Julius Caesar 34 Image2 Portrait of a man38 Image3 Colossal portrait of Augustus 38 Image4 Cameo portrait of the emperor Augustus 44 Image5 Portrait bust of the emperor Gaius, known as Caligula

48 Image6 Five architectural fragments from the palace of the emperor Domitian on the Palatine 52 Image7 Aurei of the Twelve Caesars 58 Image8 Relief with the emperor Antoninus Pius and a suppliant barbarian62 Image9 Portrait of the co-emperor Lucius Verus 66 Image10 Portrait of the emperor Caracalla 66 Image11 Portrait of the emperor Caracalla 70 Image12 Portrait head of the emperor Constantine I

74 Roman Myth, Religion, and the Afterlife (images13 – 25)

80 Image13 Denarius minted under Julius Caesar, showing Aeneas carrying Anchises and the Pall80 Image14 Intaglio ring-stone showing Romulus and Remus suckled by the she-wolf 84 Image15 Statuette of Jupiter 88 Image16 Relief fragment with the head of Mars 92 Image17 Statue of Venus 96 Image18 Statuette of a lar98 Image19 Lid of a ceremonial box 102 Image20 Camillus



106 Image21 Statuette of Cybele on a cart drawn by lions 110 Image22 Plaque with Mithras slaying the bull 114 Image23 Cinerary urn with arms and war trophies 118 Image24 Funerary altar (cippus)of Cominia Tyche 122 Image25 Sarcophagus with the Triumph of Dionysus and the Four Seasons

126 Daily Life in Ancient Rome (images26 – 45)

140 Image26 Portrait bust of a Roman matron

140 Image27 Portrait of a young woman with a gilded wreath140 Image28 Portrait bust of a veiled woman140 Image29 Portrait bust of a woman148 Image30 Funerary relief with busts of a man and a woman152 Image31 Portrait bust of an aristocratic boy156 Image32 Diploma for a sailor from Trajan’s eet at Misenum160 Image33 Transport amphora 164 Image34 Gladiator cup 164 Image35 Beaker with chariot race 170 Image36 Stylus

170 Image37 Inkwell 170 Image38 Ink pen170 Image39 Papyrus with shopping list in Greek174 Image40 Frescoes from a cubiculum nocturnum(bedroom)174 Image41 Fragment of a fresco with garlands and objects related to Dionysiac rites 180 Image42 Ten fragments of fresco incorporated in a reconstruction of a cubiculum nocturnum(bedroom)184 Image43 Tesselated oor panel with garlanded woman and geometric pattern188 Image44 Fragment of a large platter or tabletop 192 Image45 Pair of skyphi (drinking cups) with relief decoration

196 Lesson Plans

202 Treasure Hunt for Grades1–4

204 Selected Resources

209 Glossary

contents



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GOALS AND DESIGNOF THIS RESOURCE

T his teacher publication introduces

objects in the Museum’s collectionof Roman art. The collection isparticularly rich in art produced for thehighest levels of society, and this is re0 ectedin the objects included in this resource.

In conjunction with the reopening of the Museum’sgalleries of Etruscan, Hellenistic, and Roman art inApril2007, the Department of Greek and Roman Arthas produced Art of the Classical World in The Metropolitan

Museum of Art , a guide to all of the collections withinits purview, spanning a time period from the third mil-lenniumb.c.to the fourth centurya.d.and covering theart of Cyprus, Etruria, Greece, and Rome. This richlyillustrated guide is included in this teacher resource box.

This teacher publication is intended to be used intandem with Art of the Classical World . Roman art drewheavily on the inspiration of the Etruscans and theGreeks, though many of the achievements of Romanart are uniquely Roman. In writing descriptions of

the artworks in this resource, where possible we havereferred the reader to images in Art of the Classical World that are complementary to the object being discussedor that illuminate the art-historical precedent forthat object. Such cross-referencing is also intendedto be useful if the teacher brings his or her class tothe Museum, helping to pinpoint objects not in theteacher publication that would be most useful tointroduce to the class.

This teacher publication begins with aQuick

List of the featured works of art. This is followeda map, a discussion of theRelevance of Rometo themodern world, and a summary of theAntecedents of Roman Art as well as a shortHistorical Overview,provided for the convenience of teachers who waa succinct survey of the whole of Roman histoMore detailed information about the emperors whimages are in this publication may be found in thindividual object entries, which are cross-referenin the Historical Overview. Atimeline poster is

included as a reference for use in the classroom.The overviews entitledPower and Authorityin Roman Portraiture; Roman Myth; Religion,and the Afterlife;andDaily Life in Ancient Romeare intended to provide information essential to aunderstanding of Roman society. Each overview followed by a group of object descriptions. Many of the topics discussed in the overviews are coveredmore detail in the object entries.

The description of each object begins with a

summary of its important themes or aspects. Atthe end of each description is a series of questiointended to stimulate the students in looking at tobjects and in placing them in a broader culturacontext. The images are provided in digital formathe enclosed CD-ROM. Teachers may wish to shthe images in a chronological survey, or accordinto the three major themes within which the objechave been grouped.



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goals and design of this resource

The Lesson Plans, based on the thematic group-

ings of the artworks, include classroom activities thatwill help the teacher create a focused unit of studyaround some of the key concepts associated withRoman art. TheSelected Resourcessection containsbibliographies, online resources (the Museum’sTimeline of Art Historyis particularly useful), and avideography. These will be helpful in gathering theadditional information teachers may need to make anexploration of Roman art stimulating and relevant totheir curriculum. AGlossaryprovides denitions of

words that are bolded on rst mention in the text.

The Benets of This Resource to

Students Studying Roman Arts Students will acquire the basic vocabulary, con-

cepts, and criteria for understanding, interpreting,and analyzing Roman art.

s Students will be encouraged to use higher-levelthinking skills such as analysis, synthesis, andevaluation. With this resource, teachers caninvite students to propose analytical questions

or hypotheses, formulate conclusions or gener-alizations, or raise new questions and issues forfurther investigation.

s Students will encounter signicant works of Roman art and will begin to assemble a repertoireof visual references that will serve them well whenthey study later works in0 uenced by Roman art.

s Students will understand and appreciate the role

of values, beliefs, and ideas in shaping Roman art.s Students will explore the subject matter and

themes of Roman art through a variety of processes, techniques, and materials to gain abetter understanding of how and why Romanart was created.



QUICK LIST OF IMAGE

1.Ring-stone with intaglio bust of Julius Caesar , Roman, LateRepublican,50–40 b.c.

2.Portrait of a man, Roman, LateRepublican or Early Augustan,late1st centuryb.c.

3.Colossal portrait of Augustus ,Roman, Julio-Claudian,ca.a.d. 14–37

4. Cameo portrait of the emperor Augustus , Roman,Claudian, ca.a.d. 41–54

6.Five architectural fragments fromthe palace of the emperor Domitian onthe Palatine in Rome , Roman, EarlyImperial, Domitianic,ca.a.d. 81–92

7. Aurei of the Twelve Caesars,Roman,Early Imperial, Augustan,1st centuryb.c. – 1st centurya.d.

8.Relief with the emperor Antoninus Pius and a suppliant barbarian,Roman, Early Antonine,a.d. 138–161

5.Portrait bust of the emperor Gaius,known as Caligula , Roman, Julio-Claudian,a.d. 37–41

9. Portrait of the co-emperor Lucius Verus , Roman, Antonine,ca.a.d. 161–169

10.Portrait of the emperor Caracalla ,Roman, Severan, ca.a.d. 212–217

12.Portrait head of the emperor Constantine I , Roman, LateImperial, ca.a.d. 325– 370

11.Portrait of the emperor Caracalla ,Roman, Severan, ca.a.d. 212–217

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Power and Authority in Roman Portraiture



4

17.Statue of Venus , Roman,Imperial,1stor2ndcenturyb.c.

18.Statuette of a lar, Roman,Imperial,1st –2nd centurya.d.

19.Lid of a ceremonial box , Roman,Augustan, late1st centuryb.c. – early1st centurya.d.

20.Camillus , Roman, Early Imperial, Julio-Claudian,a.d. 41–54

21.Statuette of Cybele on a cart drawn by lions , Roman,2ndhalf of 2nd centurya.d.

22.Plaque with Mithras slaying the bull , Roman, Antonine or Severan,mid-2nd–early3rd centurya.d.

23.Cinerary urn with arms and war trophies , Roman, Julio-Claudian,1st half of 1st centurya.d.

24.Funerary altar (cippus)of Cominia Tyche , Roman, Flavianor Trajanic, ca.a.d. 90–100

25.Sarcophagus with the Triumph of Dionysus and the Four Seasons , Roman,Late Imperial, ca.a.d. 260–270

quick list of images

15.Statuette of Jupiter , Roman,Mid-Imperial,2nd half of 2ndcenturya.d.

16.Relief fragment with the head of Mars , Roman, Mid-Imperial,early3rd centurya.d.

13.Denarius minted under Julius Caesar, showing Aeneas carrying

Anchises and the Palladium, Roman,Late Republican,47–46 b.c.

14.Intaglio ring-stone showing Romulus and Remus suckled bythe she-wolf , Roman, LateRepublican or Early Imperial,1st centuryb.c.–1st centurya.d.

Roman Myth, Religion, and the Afterlife




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26.Portrait bust of a Roman matron,Roman, Julio-Claudian,ca.a.d. 20–50

27.Portrait of a young woman witha gilded wreath,ca.a.d. 120–140

28.Portrait bust of a veiled woman,Roman, Mid-Imperial, Severan,ca.a.d. 200–230

30.Funerary relief with busts of a man and a woman, Roman,Early Imperial, Augustan,ca.13 b.c.–a.d. 5

31.Portrait bust of an aristocratic boy ,Roman, Julio-Claudian,ca.a.d. 50–58

32.Diploma for a sailor from Trajan’s eet at Misenum, Roman, Mid-Imperial, Trajanic,a.d. 113–114

29.Portrait bust of a woman,Roman, Mid-Imperial, Severan,ca.a.d. 200–230

33.Transport amphora , Roman,Late Republican, ca.100 b.c.

34.Gladiator cup , Roman, EarlyImperial, ca.a.d. 50–80

40.Frescoes from a cubiculumnocturnum(bedroom),Roman,Late Republican, ca. 50–40 b.c.

35.Beaker with chariot race , Roman,Late Imperial,4th centurya.d.

36.Stylus , Cypriot, Classical orHellenistic,4th– 1st centuryb.c.

37.Inkwell , Roman, Imperial,1st –2nd centurya.d.

38.Ink pen, Roman, Imperial,1st –2nd centurya.d.

39.Papyrus with shopping list in Greek,Roman, Egypt, early3rd centurya.d.

41.Fragment of a fresco with garlands and objects related to Dionysiac rites ,Roman, Late Republican,ca. 50–40 b.c.

Daily Life in Ancient Rome



42.Ten fragments of fresco incorporated in a reconstruction of a cubiculumnocturnum(bedroom), known as the Black Room, Roman, Augustan,last decade of 1st centuryb.c.

43.Tesselated oor panel with garlanded woman and geometric pattern, Roman,Mid-Imperial,2nd half of 2ndcenturya.d.

44.Fragment of a large platter or tabletop , Roman, Julio-Claudian,1st half of 1st centurya.d.

45.Pair of skyphi (drinking cups) withrelief decoration, Roman, Augustan,late1st centuryb.c. –early1stcenturya.d.


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Daily Life in Ancient Rome (continued)



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BRITAIN

GAUL

ITALY

EGYPT

SYRIA

MESOPOTAMIA

ARMENIA

ASIA MINOR

GREECE

DACIA

PARTHIAN/ PERSIANEMPIRE

AFRICA

SPAIN

London•

Trier •

Milan

Arles

•

Cologne•

•

Italica•

Constantinople•

Jerusalem•

Petra•

Tomis•

Antioch•Athens Ephesus•

Alexandria•

•

Pergamum•

Thessalonica•

Tarsus •Actium •

Palmyra•

Rome

Sirmium

Carthage

•

Pompeii•

Syracuse•

Lepcis Magna•

•Aquileia•

Lugdunum•

•

Mediterranean Sea

Black Sea

Red Sea

R h

o n e

D a n u b e

D a n u b e

Euphrates

Tigris

Nile

R h i n

e

THE ROMAN EMPIREca. 31B.C.– A.D. 330



T his resource for educators has three principal goalrst, to introduce teachers and their students to thsuperb examples of Roman art contained in the

collection of The Metropolitan Museum of Art; second, tinform teachers about the culture that produced these worof art; and third, to provide an educational guide that wistimulate the interest of students who are new to the studyRome as well as those who are familiar with this civilizatand its culture.

Why study Roman Art and History?

Continuing Relevance: Rome Lives!

We study Roman art and history rst of all because the ancient Romcreated a civilization that is intrinsically interesting, one of the mocomplicated, highly organized, and well-documented civilizationsancient times. Moreover, the impact of Roman civilization can beseen and felt to this very day, in tangible physical objects as well institutions and ideas.

The objects discussed in this resource are physical keys to our

past and our identity. Understanding them in their context helps uunderstand where we have come from and who we are. These objectsrelevant today as they were when they were created nearly2,000years ago.

There are two principal ways in which the relevance of Rome be appreciated: rst, in its in0 uence on the founding fathers as theycontemplated the structure of government for what would becomeUnited States of America; and second, in the interesting parallelscan be drawn between the ancient Roman world and the modern wBoth of these will be treated brie0 y here.

THE RELEVANCE OF ROM

View of the Leon Levy and Shelby WhiteCourt, New Greek and Roman Galleries,The Metropolitan Museum of Art

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As a newly minted nation in the late

eighteenth century, the United Statesof America needed a national identityand appropriate forms for its buildings, itssculpture, even its currency. The foundersof the American Republic consideredknowledge of ancient Greece and Rome to bea cornerstone of education (as did educatedEuropeans of the time), and thus they turnedto the classical world to help dene their newRepublic. The use of classical symbols and

allusions also served to identify the foundersas gentlemen of high social status.

s Ancient history gave the founders important,if inexact, models for personal behavior, socialpractice, and forms of government. In particular,the founders esteemed Romans of the Republicfor their perceived patriotism and leadership. Itwas not an accident that the upper house of the

American legislature was named “theSenate”by the authors of the American Constitution:Noah Webster, James Madison, and AlexanderHamilton were all avid readers and interpretersof Roman Republican history. Their readings of this history, in particular, fundamentally shapedthe American Constitution and continue to havee. ects upon ongoing debates about power andauthority in American society.

s Scholars continue to debate exactly how the

founders’ conception of Roman Republican in-stitutions in0 uenced the formation of Americangovernment. It is clear, though, that the founderslooked with great interest at Republican conceptssuch as the following:

An elective Senate

Laws passed by a popular assembly forwhich there was no property qualication

Two bodies with law-making powers thatcould “check and balance” each other

The veto

Di. usion of power

Elevation to citizenship

A written code of laws(the “Twelve Tables”)

The powers of a dictator, a single rulerin times of crisis (in relation to thepowers of a president)

The Political and Visual Legacy:Rome and America



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the relevance of rome

s Just as identication with the perceived valuethe Roman Republic gave the founders a senseidentity and legitimacy, so they felt that the evcation of classical forms in their architecture their political symbolism would confer legitimupon their0 edgling nation. The notion was notunique to Americans; a revival of classical stywas also in vogue in western Europe at this timin part stimulated by excitement over the recediscovery of the buried cities of Pompeii and

Herculaneum and their classical treasures.s The Capitol building in Washington, D.C., wa

named after the RomanCapitolium, the templededicated to the three supreme gods of the Romstate, Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. The architectdesign of the Capitol, with its dome,colonnadedfacade, and Corinthian capitals, explicitly linkAmerican government to the visual vocabularRome. (In fact, immigrant Italian sculptors ca

much of the building’s decoration.)s Thomas Je. erson, an architect as well as a stat

man, chose as his architectural models forms thad been esteemed for millennia. He modeledthe Virginia state capitol building on a Romantemple at Nîmes in France, and the Pantheon Rome served as the inspiration for the library Je. erson designed for the University of Virgin(gs.1and2).

s Other Romaniconographywas adopted eventhough it did not necessarily embody the valuof the new Republic. For example, the eaglewas adopted as the national symbol of the newdemocracy; at Rome during the Principate, thbird had symbolized the absolute and autocrapower of the emperor. Similarly, American sctors adopted as a motif symbolizing authority

Fig.1. Pantheon, Rome,125–128 a.d.Fig.2.Thomas Jefferson, Rotunda, University of Virginia,Charlottesville, Virginia.



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the fasces, a bundle of elm or birch rods tied toa single-headed ax. In Rome, the fasces were car-ried by servants of Roman magistrates and werethe primary symbol of magisterial power in theRepublic. But they were also regarded and usedas instruments of punishment, including ex-ecution, and later they were an attribute of theemperors, who were certainly despised by theAmerican founders.

s In 1788, the French sculptor Jean-AntoineHoudon created a full-length portrait of GeorgeWashington that shows him standing with thir-teen fasces, which were meant to symbolize theoriginal thirteen colonies that became the UnitedStates (g.3). Washington’s sword hangs fromthe fasces, and a plow is propped against them.This is an evocation of the Roman Republicanhero Cincinnatus who, after being called awayfrom his plough and appointed dictator, relieved

a besieged Roman army, celebrated a triumph,laid down his o1 ce, and returned to his plough-ing, all within fteen days. In this sculpture,Washington wears American military dress. Inanother portrait by Houdon, this one a bust(a Roman form that was very popular for de-picting the leaders of the new country), heis shown in atoga, the signifying garment of the Roman citizen that was worn on o1 cialoccasions. Its use here was meant to suggest

Washington’s statesmanlike qualities.s Other statesmen, such as George Clinton, an early

governor of New York, were also depicted wear-ing the Roman toga. By dressing their subjects inRoman clothing, artists attempted to evoke theglory and virtue of the ancients.

Fig.3. Jean-Antoine Houdon (French,1741–1828),George Washington, 1788.Carrara marble,h. 78in. (198cm).Collection of the Commonwealth of Virginia.



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s The renowned Italian sculptor Antonio Canova went even furthHe carved a statue of George Washington, seated, writing on a in Latin, and wearing the cuirass of a Roman general along witdals and bare legs in imitation of the ancients. (This statue, whcreated some uproar, no longer exists.)

s The classicizing trend in the arts penetrated popular taste as weboth Europe and America. For example, thesella curulis was a particu-lar type of Roman folding ivory or metal seat that had two hingS-shaped legs on each end. It was used during the Republic onl

by higher (“curule”) magistrates when they were dispensing juand thus became a symbol of magisterial authority. In the late eteenth and early nineteenth century, the form was revived in furdesign, part of a vogue for the ancient world that in this case wshorn of its symbolic associations.

s The legacy of Rome survives to the present day in American artecture. Institutions such as banks stress their legitimacy and stby housing themselves in Neoclassical buildings. The MetropolMuseum itself evokes the Roman classical vocabulary in its do

colonnaded Great Hall and itsvaulted Greek and Roman sculpturegalleries (see page8), as well as in its columnar Fifth Avenue faca

s Finally, just as Roman coins bore the image of the reigning emor on one side, so American currency to this day features bustsAmerican statesmen on the obverse (g.4). The reverse of Romancoins often pictured monuments that were of symbolic importato the Roman state. Similarly, the reverse side of American coibills features buildings associated with the foundation and prinples of the new Republic, such as the U. S. Treasury and the Wh

House. All of these buildings are designed in the Neoclassical In addition, our currency carries Latin mottos such ase pluribus unum,or “out of many, one.” This motto, which was adopted for use orst Great Seal of the United States, was based upon a line fromLatin poem, attributed to the Roman poet Virgil, which referredmixing together many ingredients to make one dish. The mottoprovides an apt metaphor for our melting-pot nation.


Fig.4. United States cent (penny),minted2005: obverse (above), with proleof Abraham Lincoln; reverse (below)with Latin mottoe pluribis unum(out of many, one)



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T he parallels between Rome and

the modern world are approximatebut instructive. By learning aboutthe Romans, we can better understandour modern institutions and society. Thefollowing observations can be used to generatefar-ranging discussions with students.

A Unique Empire

The Romans are the only people in history to havesuccessfully united into one polity the lands andpeoples of what today comprises Western Europe,North Africa, and the eastern Mediterranean. By themid-second centurya.d., Rome’s empire extendedfrom the highlands of Scotland to the Persian Gulf,from the Atlantic coast of Portugal almost to thesteppes of Russia. No other empire in history hasmanaged to unite Europe and the Middle East. Thefree movement of peoples and ideas across these vast

territories was unprecedented until we entered themodern age of globalization.

s Though the United States does not exerciseformal political control over other lands and peo-ples of the globe, culturally it might be said thatit has exerted a worldwide in0 uence like noneother the world has known.

An Inclusive, Multicultural Empire

Within Rome’s huge, long-lasting empire, some55million people lived and worked together, speakingdozens of languages, practicing their own religions,with minimal interference by the Roman state. Onereason for Rome’s success was the e1 ciency andprofessionalism of its armies; more important stillwas Rome’s invention of a political concept of citizenship. Unlike the kingdoms of the ancient NearEast and the Greek city-states, the Romans adopted

an idea of citizenship based not upon blood descentbut rather upon becoming a member of the Romanpolitical community, the populus Romanus (Romanpeople), through legal cooptation. The Romansalso enfranchised large numbers of their slaves, whobecame Roman citizens within a generation of theirenfranchisement. Rome was the world’s rst trulyinclusive, multicultural community.

s The United States is, similarly, a huge geographic

area in which peoples of many di. erent ethnicbackgrounds and religions coexist.

s Many di. erent languages are spoken in theUnited States, although English functions as thede factoo. icial language recognized by everyone,just as Latin was in the Roman empire.

Parallels between Rome and the Modern World



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s Citizenship in the United States depends upon becoming a member

of the American political community. Blood descent is immaterial.

Longevity and Prosperity

The ancient Romans dominated most of western Europe from the thirdcenturyb.c.into the fth centurya.d., and they ruled sections of theMiddle East into the mid-fteenth centurya.d.At times during theselong periods of Roman rule, the inhabitants of the Roman empireenjoyed unparalleled stretches of peace and prosperity. They had access to

clean water, a well-maintained highway system, and goods imported fromall parts of the world. And the Romans reshaped their environment, withlasting e. ects. For example, some of the roads built by the Romans acrossEurope and the Middle East are still in use2,000years later.

s We in the United States also enjoy an unprecedented standard of living. And we, too, have left an indelible mark upon our environment.For example, what roads were in Roman times, railroads were to theUnited States in the nineteenth century when, gradually, the landfrom the Atlantic to the Pacic was consolidated into one country.

The railroads made possible the e1

cient movement of people andgoods within the enormous expanse of this country.




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The Legacies of Rome: Cultural, Propagandistic,Legal, Linguistic, and Religious

Cultural s Since Rome’s fall, Roman civilization has been the source of re-

peated cultural revivals great and small, down through the centuries:in the era of Charlemagne; in the High Middle Ages; in the ItalianRenaissance; in the northern humanist movement of the sixteenthcentury; and in the Neoclassical movements of more recent times.The literature, art, and monuments crafted by the Romans have in-spired countless artists and thinkers.

s American culture dominates the world today. Whether it will con-tinue to do so in2,000years is unknowable. But in its breadth anddepth today, it is as pervasive as Roman cultural in0 uence has beenthrough the ages.

Propagandistic s Rome also left a legacy in its use of propaganda. During the

Republic, electoral campaigning was engaged in on a scale not

known in the world of classical Athens. And the Roman emperorshad images of themselves and their accomplishments disseminatedthroughout the empire to advertise and promote their rule. The em-perors always kept themselves in the minds of their subjects.

s The Roman emperor’s manipulation of public opinion com-prised propaganda of a kind similar to that used by modernAmerican politicians.

Legal s

Roman law has endured to shape Western jurisprudence to this veryday. The legal codes of most European countries, for instance, arermly based upon Roman law.




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Linguistic s The Latin language of the Romans remained the language of edu-

cated Europeans for well over a thousand years, while evolving in thelower socioeconomic levels of society into the Romance languages,including Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Romanian.

s English is widely spoken throughout the world today.

Religious s Finally, we should remember that it was within or on the borders of

Rome’s empire that the three great modern monotheistic religioustraditions, Rabbinic Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, either evolvedor were born. These religions of the book, even as they are practicedtoday, bear the traces of their development within the broader con-text of Roman civilization.



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THE ANTECEDENTS OF ROMAN ART:ETRUSCAN, CLASSICAL GREEK, AND HELLENISTIC ART

The Etruscans

Roman art did not develop in a vacuum. Stylisticallyit was heavily in0 uenced by the art of Rome’s Italianneighbors to the north, the Etruscans, and by the artof southern Italy, colonized by Greeks beginning in theninth to eighth centuryb.c.These in0 uences will bediscussed in more detail within the context of individu-al objects in the resource, but a brief historical/art-his-torical overview of these cultures may be helpful here.

The Etruscans, who lived in west-central Italy,0ourished from about the eighth to third centuryb.c.in twelve autonomous city-states linked by a com-

mon (non-Indo-European) language and a religionthat relied upon divination to discover the will of the gods. Blessed with abundant mineral resourcesand rich farmland, the Etruscans traded all over theMediterranean world and imported Greek art objects.Their material culture is primarily known from theelaborate tombs, modeled after their houses, wherethey buried their dead with prized possessions and

painted the walls with scenes of outdoor life, funerarygames, and banqueting. Archaeologists have unearthedvast amounts of painted pottery imported fromGreece, as well as ne Etruscan-produced bronze-work, jewelry, and amber carving.

Although early Rome was ruled by several kingswith Etruscan names, by the early third centuryb.c.the Etruscan city-states had been conquered and hadbecome subject-allies of the Romans. However, their

realistic funerary portraits, as well as their style of

temple architecture, would heavily in0

uence Romanforms of these arts, and some Etruscan religiousrituals and symbols of authority were adopted by theRomans. In addition, it was through the Etruscansthat the Romans were rst exposed to certain aspectsof Greek culture.

Classical Greece

At about the same time that the city of Rome wasbeing founded by Romulus (supposedly753 b.c.), thegreat Homeric epics, theIliad and theOdyssey, perhapscame into their nal oral forms in Ionia (EasternGreece). With their famous battle scenes and talesof wandering throughout the Mediterranean, theseepics had an inestimable impact on Greek civilization,inspiring writers, rulers, and artists.

By Homer’s time, Greeks and their culture werespreading around the borders of the Aegean Sea.

However, these Greek-speaking peoples dividedthemselves into a myriad of city-states that frequentlywarred with each other despite their shared Hellenicculture. Through active trade and colonization aroundthe Mediterranean Sea in the eighth to sixth centuriesb.c.,including the establishment of colonies in south-ern Italy and Sicily, the Greeks were able to spreadtheir culture even more widely, having, as noted above,a major in0 uence on the art of the Etruscans.



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the antecedents of roman art

Statue of Venus . Roman, Imperial,1st or2nd centuryb.c.; copy of Greek originalof 3rd or2nd centuryb.c.Marble.Purchase,1952 (52.11.5) (image17)

In the sixth centuryb.c., the city of Athens began to assume a lead-

ing role in Greek politics and culture. The poet-statesman Solon’s reformof the laws created the preconditions for later Athenian democracy byadmitting the poorer citizens into the popular assembly and broadeningeligibility for holding political o1 ce. At the end of the sixth centuryb.c., the Athenians adopted a new constitution that became the basisof Athenian democracy. The e. ect of the constitution was to achieveharmony between the individual and society.

It was in the fth centuryb.c.that Athens achieved its artisticascendancy. Empowered by its unlikely victory over invading Persianarmies at the beginning of the century, Athens entered a Golden Age of

culture. The great democratic leader Pericles set out to make Athens thecultural center of the Greek world with great public building projects.Artists0 ocked to Athens from around the Greek world to help adornthese monuments with sculpture that celebrated the ideal beauty of menand the gods, and great dramatists0 ourished. Greek art of the period isremarkable for its harmony, restraint, and balance. The sculptures of thefth centuryb.c., with their idealized human gures, had a timeless anduniversal aura, their subjects eternally young, perfectly proportioned, andserene.

The moment of brilliance was brief, however. By the last third of

the fth centuryb.c., as a result of its long struggle against Sparta, thepower of Athens was already in decline. In the fourth centuryb.c., thecity-states entered a period of military con0 ict and shifting alliances thatleft them vulnerable to the emergence of the kings of Macedonia as thedominant power in the region.



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the antecedents of roman art

Hellenistic Greece

Between331and323 b.c., the Macedonian kingAlexander III (the Great) and his armies conqueredmuch of the known world. Alexander’s empirestretched from Greece and Asia Minor throughEgypt and the Near East. Greek culture was thus dis-seminated over a vast terrain, at the same time beingin0 uenced by the culture of the conquered regions.

This fusion of Greek and other cultures is the

hallmark of the Hellenistic period. During this time,artistic sensibilities became much broader. Instead of archetypes, sculptors were more interested in repre-senting the specic—boxers rather than generic ath-letes, children who looked like children rather thanlike miniature adults, and the elderly. Art becamemore dramatic, and more emotional. In contrast withthe private austerity of classical Athenian life, in theHellenistic period there was a lavish palace culture,and the luxury arts0 ourished.

Following the death of Alexander in323 b.c.,the lands he had conquered were divided into severalsmaller kingdoms. Three successor kingdoms— Ptolemaic Egypt, Seleukid Asia, and AntigonidGreece—would dominate the eastern Mediterranean

until the Romans made their way across the Aegean,dismantling the kingdoms one by one until the last,Egypt, was conquered by Rome in31 b.c., bringing toa close the Hellenistic period.

As they conquered the Greek lands piece bypiece, the Romans became increasingly aware of Greek art. Triumphant Roman generals looted Greekcities of their artistic treasures and brought themback to Rome. A growing number of art collectors,many of them Roman, created a market for the rep-

lication of famous classical Greek artworks so thatthey could decorate their homes and gardens withthem. As political power shifted to Rome and awayfrom the Hellenistic kingdoms, Greek artists came toRome to work. The Romans’ great appreciation forGreek culture would help to preserve and transmitit down to us, even as the Romans would go on toproduce their own unique artistic achievements inportraiture, historical relief, and architecture.



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Regal Rome (753–509B.C.)

The Foundation of an Inclusive, Multiethnic CityAccording to legend, the city of Rome was founded by Romulus andhis twin brother Remus on the Palatine hill above the Tiber River in753b.c.(image14). After killing Remus, Romulus selected the members of Rome’s rst Senate and o. ered asylum to fugitives, including paupers,debtors, criminals, and runaway slaves. Romulus’ successors includedkings with both Latin and Etruscan names. Regal Rome thus was aninclusive, multiethnic state from the start. After the last king (TarquiniusSuperbus) was deposed, the power formerly held by Rome’s kings was

divided among two annually elected magistrates calledconsuls. TheRomans called their new state the Res Publica, or the Republic.

The Early Res Publica (509–264B.C.)

The Struggle of the Orders Two linked developments dominated Rome’s early Republican history.The rst was the “con0 ict of the orders,” the struggle for power andauthority between thepatricians, who were wealthy landowners, and the

plebeians, essentially the poorer citizens. By about287 b.c., the plebe-ians achieved political, if not economic, equality within Roman society.Laws passed by the council of the plebeians were binding upon the entirecitizenry. Rome’s wealthier citizens still dominated the state politically,however, because voting procedures within Rome’s citizen assemblies wereslanted in favor of the wealthy, and the moral authority of the Senate wasdecisive within a traditional, family-based society.

ROMAN HISTORICAL OVERVIEW A SELECTIVE SKETC

Intaglio ring-stone showing Romulus and Remus suckled by the she-wolf.Roman,Late Republican or Early Imperial,1stcenturyb.c.–1st centurya.d.Carnelian.Gift of John Taylor Johnston,1881(81.6.33) (image14)



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roman historical overview

The Conquest of ItalyThe second development was Rome’s gradual politi-cal domination of peninsular Italy. After509 b.c.,Rome fought a series of wars against its neighbors inItaly. Despite many setbacks, by264 b.c.Rome wasthe dominant political power in Italy south of the PoRiver. Unlike their predecessors and contemporariesin the Mediterranean world, however, the Romansdid not simply wipe out their vanquished foes.Rather, Rome established bilateral relations with

many of the peoples she conquered, often grantingRoman citizenship to the aristocracies of her formerenemies. Even those who were enslaved were eventu-ally given the opportunity to become Roman citizens.By such techniques the Romans bound peoples fromall over Italy to Rome.

The Middle Republic (264–133B.C.)

The Punic Wars The political benets of Rome’s incorporation of its defeated neighbors into the state were strikinglyvalidated after264 b.c.when Rome fought two longand bitter wars against Carthage, the other greatpower in the western Mediterranean. Rome’s politi-cal and strategic0 exibility brought victory duringthe First Punic War and led to the creation of Rome’s rst overseas province, Sicily. In the secondwar, despite crushing defeats by Hannibal in Italy,

Rome’s superior manpower and the loyalty of herItalian allies were decisive. Rome’s victory in theSecond Punic War made her the dominant power of the western Mediterranean.

Mediterranean Wars Shortly thereafter, Rome became engaged in settlingvarious disputes among the successor kingdoms of the empire of Alexander the Great. Despite resis-

tance in areas like Spain, by the end of the secondcenturyb.c.Rome was the most powerful state in theMediterranean world.

Hannibal’s LegacyRome’s military successes ultimately led to profoundchanges within Roman society. Hannibal’s devasta-tion of the Italian countryside during the SecondPunic War left many Roman citizens and Italianslandless and destitute. Rome’s conquests overseas

also led to the importation of great quantities of gold, silver, and slaves into Italy. The distribution of wealth within Roman society was dramatically altered.The old Republican political ideals of di. usion of authority and cooperation among richer and poorercitizens were put under extreme pressure.

The Late Republic (133–27B.C.)

Reform and Resistance Deep divisions within Roman society about thedistribution of resources emerged shortly after146b.c.A series of reformers and self-interested gener-als attempted to address these divisions during theperiod of the late Republic. Some political reformers,such as the tribunes Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus,tried to bring about a more equitable distributionof conquered Italian lands to ensure the survival of the Roman citizen-soldier. (Only landowners could

serve in the Roman army.) They also wanted to givethe equestrians (an order of wealthy landowners andbusinessmen in both Italy and the provinces) andRome’s Italian allies political rights equal to theircontributions to Rome’s successes. But the reformsof the Gracchi and other “popular” politicians wereviolently opposed by a faction within the Senate.



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The Social War The same faction within the Senate also successfully blocked legislationthat would have incorporated Rome’s Italian allies into the citizen body.As a result, a “Social War” was fought between Rome and its allies. Thiswar eventually led to the granting of citizenship to most of Rome’s freeItalian allies.

The Civil Wars and Julius Caesar But the interests of the urban poor and soldiers, who often served fordecades with little hope of a viable economic future, were not addressed,

except by powerful military commanders. By the40s b.c., these greatcommanders were at war with each other, each supported by his ownarmy and allies. Julius Caesar won the rst round of the Roman civilwars and got himself granted the title of dictator for life, but he wasassassinated on15March44 b.c.His assassination ignited a second,even more devastating, series of civil wars that were fought all over theMediterranean world (image1).

The Republic Restored? In 31 b.c., Julius Caesar’s adoptive son Octavian and his armies defeated

Antony and Cleopatra at Actium, the decisive battle of the civil wars.Within a year, Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide in Egypt, andit became a Roman province. All of Alexander the Great’s successorkingdoms now were ruled by Rome, and Octavian essentially was leftas the sole ruler of Rome’s empire. After nearly half a millennium of Republican government, Rome once again embraced a form of autocraticrule, but one that was set within a constitutional framework.

Although Octavian claimed to have restored the old Republic, noone was fooled. The oligarchic system of the Republic was dead. MostRomans, though, were only too happy to go along with the ction of a

Republic restored, as long as peace prevailed.

The Principate (27 B.C. – A.D.337)

Augustus and the Julio-Claudians (27 B.C.–A.D.68)

In 27 b.c., a decree of the Senate awarded Octavian the honoric title of Augustus. The epithet was intended to suggest that its holder was a gureof awe and someone positioned to gain the favor of the gods on behalf

Ring-stone with intaglio bust of Julius Cae.Roman, Late Republican,50–40 b.c.Amethyst. Rogers Fund,1911 (11.195.6)(image1)



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of the Roman people. Augustus also gained political control of mostof the provinces in which soldiers were stationed. A few years later, hewas given a combination of legal powers within Rome and the provincesthat made him the most powerful authority in Rome and the preeminentcitizen of the state, the princeps . All of Augustus’ successors up to theearly fourth centurya.d. were given a similar package of powers. For thisreason, the period from the rule of Augustus to the reign of Constantineis known as the Principate, or rule of the rst citizen.

Augustus was the rst ruler in Roman history to create a wholly pro-fessional army, and during his reign the conquests of this army roughly

doubled the size of the Roman empire: the rest of Spain, the Alpine re-gions, the Balkan peninsula up to the Danube, and portions of Germanyfrom the Rhine to the Elbe were acquired as new provinces. To pay thesoldiers who protected the empire, the taxation system was regularizedand a special military treasury was created. Augustus personally appointelegates and equestrian governors to administer the provinces ceded to hiscontrol, and he had the ability to in0 uence who was appointed to governthose provinces not directly under his legal authority (images3, 4).

Augustus’ direct imperial descendants, the so-called Julio-Claudianstried to maintain the facade of Augustus’ restored Republic, and some

of them involved the Senate in the governance of Rome’s vast empire.However, tensions between individual emperors and senators, whichbecame most acute at times of succession, gradually led to a diminutionin the power and overall role of the Senate. The emperors progressivelyrelied upon members of the equestrian class and their own private secre-taries, many of them recruited from the Eastern provinces, to carry outthe day-to-day work of administering the empire (image5).

Precisely because of the empire’s huge size and the diversity of itslanguages and peoples, the government of imperial Rome functioned pasively, in response to stimuli from the provinces. By and large, the govern

ment was content to raise taxes and keep the peace. Peace and prosperitywere maintained as much by diplomacy as by force of arms. Security fothe approximately55million inhabitants of the early Roman empire wasmaintained by a citizen army of no more than150,000soldiers, supportedby locally recruited, noncitizen auxiliary troops totaling an additional150,000soldiers.

Cameo portrait of the emperor Augustus.Roman,Claudian, ca.a.d. 41–54.Sardonyx.Purchase, Joseph Pulitzer Bequest,1942(42.11.30) (image4)



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Architectural fragment from the palace of th peror Domitian on the Palatine in Rome.Roman,Early Imperial, Domitianic, ca.a.d. 81–92.Marble. Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan,1906(06.970b) (image6)


The Year of Four Emperors ( A.D.68–69) and the Flavians ( A.D.69–96)The so-called Year of Four Emperors followed the suicide of Nero, thelast Julio-Claudian, as various generals jockeyed to become emperor. Thelast of them, Vespasian, a member of the equestrian order rather than of the aristocracy, consolidated power ina.d. 69(image7.10).

Vespasian was a great military leader whose troops annexed northernEngland, moved into Scotland, and pacied Wales. He used tax money inpart for public projects for the benet of the Roman people, such as theFlavianAmphitheater, or Colosseum (completed ina.d. 80), which wasthe rst permanent venue for gladiatorial contests at Rome (and which

served as the model for our modern sportsstadiums).The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in southern Italy occurred duringthe Flavian period, burying the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum underlava and ash and preserving virtually intact a treasure trove for the archae-ologists who later discovered the buried cities (images40 – 42).

In addition, the last Flavian, Domitian, built a great imperial residenceon the Palatine Hill (the origin of our word “palace”), and it continuedto be the imperial residence for subsequent emperors (image6).

Nerva and the “Five Good Emperors” ( A.D.96–180)

The period from the death of Domitian’s successor, Nerva, through thereign of Marcus Aurelius later became known as the period of the “FiveGood Emperors,” rulers who were chosen on the basis of merit ratherthan on the basis of heredity.

The appointment of men of proven ability, many of whom camefrom the provinces (Trajan’s family came from Spain, for example),helped to accelerate the pace of integration between the provinces andRome. Below the level of the imperial succession, large numbers of wealthy and ambitious provincials made their way into the equestrianand senatorial orders. These provincials spent freely on their cities, and

they in e.

ect became the administrators of the empire itself. In addition,emperors such as Trajan and Hadrian founded many new cities in theprovinces (image32).

The rst half of the second centurya.d.was the time when thepower, economic might, and artistic accomplishment of the Romanempire were at their greatest. Unfortunately, the borders of such a vastempire proved di1 cult to defend, and by the latter part of the centuryuprisings were occurring in many border areas (images8, 9).

Diploma for a sailor from Trajan’s eet at Misenum.Roman, Mid-Imperial, Trajanic,a.d. 113–114.Bronze. Rogers Fund,1923(23.160.52) (image32)



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Diocletian and the Tetrarchy( A.D.284–305)

As the greatest period of the empire’s instabilitysubsided ina.d. 284, the army chose Diocletian, aformer imperial bodyguard, as emperor. He per-ceived that the empire was under siege on all sidesand thus could not be governed by a single person.Accordingly, in293he instituted a new form of gov-ernment known as theTetrarchy, or four-man rule.The empire was divided into four parts, each with adi. erent capital and a ruler responsible only for that

section. Within this four-part system, there were twosenior emperors, or Augusti, and two junior mem-bers, or Caesari. The junior rulers were intended tosucceed to Augustan status when the senior partnersretired or died.

Constantine and ChristianityConstantine, the son of a tetrarch, grew up at thecourt of Diocletian and had a distinguished militarycareer. His father had been appointed Augustus in

the West after Diocletian’s abdication, but died a yearlater while both father and son were on campaign inBritain. The troops declared Constantine to be anAugustus, but this set o. war among the tetrarchs.After much political and military maneuvering,Constantine became the sole ruler of the Romanworld ina.d. 324.

Constantine used the remainder of his largelypeaceful reign to reorganize the army, restoresenatorial prestige, and establish an imperial suc-

cession. Most signicantly, Constantine founded a“New Rome” on the site of the old Greek city of Byzantium on the Bosporus, and it was renamedConstantinople (present-day Istanbul). No longerwould the emperors reside at Rome.

Looking back upon the conquest of his im-perial rivals, particularly in the key Battle of theMilvian Bridge against Maxentius in Rome in312,

Constantine later became convinced that his vic-tory had been assisted by the god of the Christianhe claimed to have been led by a vision of a crossDuring the remainder of his reign, thus, he activelsupported the growth of the Christian Churchand the expansion of Christianity, though with-out actually penalizing polytheists or polytheism.Constantine was baptized on his deathbed in337.Thereafter Christianity became the o1 cial religionof the Roman empire (image12).

Julian, Theodosius, and the Later Roman Empire ( A.D.337–1453)

With the exception of the emperor Julian,Constantine’s fourth-century successors werefar more aggressively pro-Christian in their pro-grams, and polytheism gradually was replaced byChristianity as the dominant religion of the stateIn a.d. 391, the emperor Theodosius I ordered theclosing of all pagan temples and banned all form

of pagan cult.After the death of Theodosius, for security resons the empire was again divided between Westeand Eastern Roman emperors. Civil authority in tWest had been severely weakened by barbarian insions by this time, and in476the German Odovacerserved as the last commonly recognized WesternRoman emperor. Ina.d. 493, an Ostrogothic king-dom was established at Rome by Theodoric theGreat. The Eastern Byzantine empire, however, s

vived and0ourished until the fall of Constantinopto Ottoman Turkish troops in1453. More than two

millennia after Rome’s foundation, the Romanempire was no more.



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POWER AND AUTHORITY INROMAN PORTRAITURE

Although we may view the portrait busts of the

ancient Romans as works of art, the Romans usuallcommissioned them as objects of commemoratioPortraits of private individuals were displayed in the homor in a funerary context. Public gures, such as emperorsgenerals, and statesmen, were memorialized through theerection of portraits in public places.

The development of realistic portraiture is often said by art historiahave originated with the Romans. In fact, many other ancient cultu

cluding those of the Egyptians and the Etruscans, can lay claim to fashioned realistic likenesses of individual rulers or statesmen. Anall of Roman portraiture was completely realistic—the history of Rportraits reveals an alternation between “veristic” and more idealizmodes of representation. It is with the Romans, however, that portrbecame widespread among all levels of society.

The portraits in this resource have been chosen because they re0 ectthe major changes in portrait style and taste that occurred from theRepublic until the removal of the capital of the empire to Constanti



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power and authority in roman portraiture

points to consider

s Julius Caesar was the rst Roman to have hisimage depicted on coins during his lifetime.The coins, issued to pay his troops, remindedthem that he was the person who provided theirlivelihood. Coins thus carried a powerful propa-ganda message. In the empire, every emperorsimilarly used coinage for propaganda purposes.

s Very often at Rome, coin portraits were copied,

carved in relief on gems or sealing ring-stones.The Museum’s amethyst ring-stone is carvedwith a portrait very similar to that on JuliusCaesar’s coin.

s Even in the absence of identifying inscriptions,archaeologists can sometimes identify a Romanportrait as that of an important individual if they nd multiple representations with the samefacial characteristics. Many other replicas of the

portrait on the Museum’s amethyst are known, soit must be that of a famous person. Therefore itprobably represents Caesar.

s This ring-stone would have been worn by arelative or admirer of the dictator.

The Innovative Coinage of Julius Caesar

During the late Republic, the Roman mint began produce coins with portrait busts of the deceaseancestors of Romans. The busts on the coins werbased on earlier sculpted likenesses of the subject44 b.c., however, Julius Caesar revolutionized Rompractice when he issued coins with his own imagon them. This was the rst time that a living persohad been depicted on Roman coinage. The issuingthese coins re0 ected Caesar’s unique status in Rom

history: he was the rst Roman to be declared “ditor in perpetuity.” After Caesar’s assassination iMarch of 44 b.c., the Roman emperors who succeedehim followed the example Caesar had set, seeingit that coins struck with images of themselves weproduced and disseminated throughout the empir

The rst example of a coin depicting JuliusCaesar while he was living was probably a silverdenarius struck at the mint in Rome by MarcusMettius in44 b.c.It shows Caesar looking to the

right. He has a lined forehead, a large nose and eylined cheeks, and a long thin neck, with a prominAdam’s apple. He seems to have a receding hairliand hair is brushed forward from the back of hishead. He wears a laurel wreath. His name and thebreviated title “dic”(tator) are inscribed on the coThis realistic physical appearance accords well wa description of Caesar provided by the historiaSuetonius, who said “his baldness was a disgure

1. Ring-stone with intaglio bust of Julius Caesar Roman, Late Republican,50–40 b.c.Amethyst;1k in.(2.9cm)Rogers Fund,1911 (11.195.6)



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which his enemies harped on … but he used to combthe thin stands of hair forward from his poll, and of all the honors voted him by the Senate and People,none pleased him so much as the privilege of wearinga laurel wreath on all occasions …” (Suetonius,The Lives of the Twelve Caesars , I: 45).

The Museum’s Ring-Stone with aPortrait of Julius Caesar

Coin images were often reproduced on ring-stones,and it is possible that the Marcus Mettiusdenarius wasthe source for the Museum’s large and ne amethystring-stone, which bears a portrait very similar tothe coin’s. The bust of a beardless and partially baldman faces to the right; he has a thin face, prominentnose, and long neck. A mantle is draped aroundhis right shoulder; he grasps a fold of it in onehand. Although this image lacks the laurel wreath

or any other attribute usually associated with JuliusCaesar, as in thedenarius described above, there is astrong facial resemblance between the two images.Many other gemstones are replicas of the Museum’s

amethyst, making it clear that the subject is a famousman. Such a ring-stone probably belonged to anadmirer or follower of the dictator and was worn as asign of respect, as well as serving as a seal for letters.

The portrait of a man (image2) in this sectionbears, as has been noted, a strong resemblance to theimage on the amethyst, although it is not a portraitof Caesar.



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discussion questions

s Describe the appearance of the man in this ptrait image. Is he old or young? What expresdoes he have? Can you tell anything about hpersonality from this image?

s Julius Caesar became the rst Roman to haveportrait put on the coins he issued. Why do yothink he did that?

s In today’s world, many of us wear T-shirts witimages of famous people, like rock stars, onthem. Why do you think a private individualwould have wanted the image of Caesar on hiring-stone?



3 4




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points to consider

s During the later Republican period, aristocraticRomans kept wax portrait masks of their ances-tors in domestic shrines. These portraits, re0 ectingthe aristocratic interest in genealogy and heri-tage, were displayed in public places.

s By the rst centuryb.c., Greek marble andbronze sculptors were0 ocking to Rome to workfor wealthy patrons who commissioned these

artists to create stone honoric portraits of themselves and their family members.

s In contrast with Greek taste in portraiture, inwhich portrayal of the body was important to thecharacterization of the person, for the Romansdepiction of the facial features was su1 cient.

s Classical Greek portraiture had valued an idealiz-ing depiction of the individual. In Hellenistic art,

portraiture became more naturalistic. RepublicanRomans desired portraits that would express theindividual’s identity by stressing his age, experi-ence, and lack of vanity. Thus men were de-picted with wrinkles, baldness, and physicalimperfections that were thought to convey asense of theirvirtus , the quality of sel0 ess dutyand sober morality.

s During the Principate, periods of hyperrealism

in portraiture would alternate with moreidealizing tendencies.

Realistic Portraiture in the Republican Period

Aristocratic Romans of the later Republic werehistorically self-conscious and very aware of theigenealogies—real or imagined! From at least the

mid-Republic (second centuryb.c.), they keptimagines ,wax portrait masks of their illustrious ancestorsin household shrines. These masks were carried worn during funerals.

By the rst centuryb.c., wealthy Romans wereemploying sculptors from Greece and elsewhere create ancestor portraits made out of more durablmaterials, such as marble. At least some of thesepatrons also began to commission marble portraitof themselves for the adornment of their eventua

tombs. Moreover, in the course of the rst centurb.c., the practice of erecting portraits ltered dowfrom the wealthier Roman orders into the lowereconomic and social orders, including those of freedmen, who were former slaves. At the same tdedicatory statues were erected to honor triumphgenerals (and sometimes businessmen) in Romanpublic places. These statues tended to be full-lengand often paired the realistic face of the subject

2. Portrait of a manRoman, Late Republican orEarly Augustan, late1st centuryb.c.Marble;h. 12l in.(31.5cm)

Rogers Fund,1921 (21.88.14)



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with an idealized body type borrowed from a Greeksculptural prototype.

The Romans believed that a person’s individualityinhered wholly in his facial features; it was physiog-nomy that revealed character. Therefore they oftencommissioned portraits that consisted only of thehead and the bust. This marked a dramatic departurefrom Greek practice, where depiction of the body wasconsidered to be an essential element in an accurateportrayal of the individual.

By the rst centuryb.c., there were two basicportrait styles in use around the Mediterranean. Onewas a youthful, dashing, and idealized type of image,favored by Hellenistic kings. The other was a moresober, realistic style. Aristocratic Romans favored thesecond style, because they perceived that it re0 ectedRepublican values such asvirtus , which implied dutyto the state, military bravery, public responsibility,and sober morality. These were qualities which many,such as the writer Cato the Elder, feared were under

assault from the alleged decadence and frivolityof the Greek world. Thus, the typical aristocraticRoman portrait type of the late Republic emphasizedsuch characteristics as wrinkles, thinning hair, and agrim expression, features meant to convey maturity,wisdom, experience, responsibility, and the determi-nation to uphold strict Republican moral values. Inother words, Roman artistic verism was employed toexpress socially approved values.

The Late-First-Century Portrait of a Man

This portrait of a man exemplies the late Republicanveristic portrait style. The subject has a thin, egg-shaped head, high cheekbones, a straight nose (partlybroken o. ), and a thin mouth set in an unsmiling line.His bald forehead is deeply lined; there are strongnasal-labial lines running from the bottom of his noseto the bottom of his face, and creases in his cheeks.His now-damaged ears protrude slightly, and hissparse hair is simply arranged. His eyelids are renderedas if slightly pu. y, perhaps suggesting that he is wearydue to his loyal service to the Roman state. The neckis long, thin, and also deeply lined. Such details, whileprobably accurate, were also intended to convey themessage of the subject as a staunch upholder of virtus .With its balding forehead, deep facial wrinkles, andstern expression, the portrait is squarely in the veristictradition of late Republican portraiture.

This head bears such a strong resemblance to

coin and sculptural portraits of Julius Caesar (seeimage1) that for some time it was identied as beingthe great general. However, the portrait probably wascarved after Caesar’s death, and more likely repre-sents a follower who wished to commemorate hissympathies with Caesar by emphasizing his physicalresemblance to the dictator.

In the early empire, the emperor Augustusadopted a more youthful and classicizing portrait typethan the hyperrealism that was favored in Republican

portraiture. However, veristic Republican-style por-traiture continued to be popular in private circles fordecades to come.



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s Describe the appearance of this portrait. Howold do you think the subject is? Why do youthink so? What expression does he wear?

s What kind of personality do you think thisperson had? Do you think you would haveenjoyed spending time with him? Why or why

s Compare this portrait with the bronze head of man illustrated in Art of the Classical World , no.381.This portrait, intended to be inserted into a taping pillar called a herm that would have replacthe body, is from the same time period as image2.What di. erences can you see between the twoportraits? What similarities? Which is more lifto you? Why?

s When you pose for a photograph, you usually

want to make sure that your hair is combed, thyou are wearing clothes that0 atter you, and thatyou are smiling. Do you think that the subject this portrait had the same concerns as you havWhat qualities does this portrait convey?



38




39

power and authority in roman portraiture3. Colossal portrait of Augustus Roman, Julio-Claudian, ca.a.d. 14–37Marble;h. 12in.(30.48cm)Rogers Fund,1907 (07.286.115)

4. Cameo portrait of the emperor Augustus Roman, Claudian, ca.a.d. 41–54Sardonyx;h. 1 in.(3.7cm)Purchase, Joseph Pulitzer Bequest,1942(42.11.30)

points to consider

s Augustus, the rst Roman emperor, realizedthat his portrait image could serve as an impotant instrument of propaganda. Court sculptorfashioned a prototypical portrait type that wathen copied. The copies were dispersed througout the Roman world so that further copiesof them could be made and installed in public

places. Through these statues and busts, as welthrough coins with the emperor’s image, everyin the empire was aware of what he looked likand was reminded of his power and authority.

s The portraits of aristocrats of the late Republwere veristic: they documented the baldness, wkles, and facial imperfections of their modelAugustus looked to Greece and chose a moreidealized, classicizing portrait image that, wh

it captured his individual features, never aged changed throughout his fty years in power.

s In the public sphere, Augustus emphasized thhe was the rst citizen among many equals, athough he might be represented in any of hisroles: in a toga, as a statesman and citizen; weing armor, since he was the commander of tharmy; or veiled, since he was the chief priest responsible overall for maintaining good relati

with the gods on Rome’s behalf.s In the private sphere, on the other hand, it wa

not uncommon for the emperor to be shown wthe attributes of gods. After his death, Auguswas deied, and public representations of himmight also show him with divine characteristi



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Augustus’ Cultural Achievements

Even before Octavian became Augustus, Rome wasthe largest, richest, and most powerful city in theMediterranean world. During his reign, however, newbuilding projects transformed it into a truly majesticcity. Gleaming marble buildings and monuments re-placed earlier structures made of brick, as Augustusordered the construction of grand public spaces.Temples were rebuilt, and the emperor encouraged

a renewal of pious observance of the old rites. Thewater supply of the city was improved, and greatbath complexes were built. The food supply for theurban population was regularized. Craftsmen frommany elds0 ocked to Rome, and the engineeringand artistic advances that they achieved made Romethe most livable city of its day. Augustus also madethe imperial image known across the empire throughportrait busts and coinage. Writers like Livy andVirgil were inspired to pen histories and poetic epics

that presented Rome’s ascendancy as one that waspreordained by the gods. The arts0 ourished underAugustan patronage, and he shrewdly utilized themas a propaganda tool in his quest to make Rome thenew Athens, the cultural as well as political center of the Mediterranean.

For a summary of the political career of Augustus, the rst Roman emperor, please see theHistorical Overview.

Augustus and the Imperial Portrait Imageas a Propaganda Device

Augustus skillfully used his own o1 cial portraitimage as an instrument of propaganda, disseminat-ing sculpture, coins, and sculptural reliefs across theempire. Thousands of coins with his image survive,and more than150three-dimensional portraits of him are extant.

The image Augustus wished to project, an image

that was inseparable from his vision of Rome as thenew Athens, is exemplied in the Museum’s over-lifesized portrait head, executed in a scale reservedfor depictions of rulers or gods (image3). It is anexample of the emperor’s o1 cial portrait type, whichdi. ers from the craggy, individualized type preferredby late Republican aristocrats. Instead, it consciouslyadopts the idealizing tradition of classical Greeksculpture as a subtle way of identifying the emperorwith the glories of classical Athens. He is shown

as relatively youthful in all his portraits, no matterwhen in his reign they were produced. The cheeks aresmooth, the features even, and the eyebrows straight.Certain features do individualize him: the long nose,the small mouth, and especially the careful arrange-ment of the locks of hair on his forehead. Thisarrangement of the hair was used on all his portraitsand became a sort of signature for him.

In addition to portrait busts, the emperor’s image



41


was displayed in full-length statues that showed himdressed appropriately for the fulllment of his variousroles: for example, in the toga, as a statesman; wearingarmor, an allusion to his status asimperator (com-mander); or veiled, in reference to his role as chief priest, pontifex maximus , responsible for overseeingRome’s relationship with the gods. The public imagesof Augustus that were erected during his lifetimenever showed him with the regalia of kingship; he waspresented simply as the princeps , the rst citizen.

The Imperial Image in a Private Context

Sardonyx is a form of quartz that occurs in naturewith alternating layers of white and colored bands.Artists carved them in such a way that a gure of onecolor was set against a background of the other color.Such carved stones are calledcameos. The craftsmenused a drill and a bow that was wrapped around the

drill shaft and drawn back and forth to make thedrill rotate. The art of cameo carving, which served awealthy, luxury-loving clientele,0 ourished especiallyin the Hellenistic period and in the early empire.

The Museum’s sardonyx cameo portrait of Augustus (image4) is an image of the emperormeant for private rather than public display. It mostlikely belonged to a member or loyalist of the Julio-Claudian court, since it portrays Augustus with divine

attributes. The date is based upon style, and uponthe fact that during the reign of Claudius there warevival of Augustan imagery.

Here, Augustus’ gure is white, in prole agaia dark background. He wears only a laurel wreatand an aegis, a scaly cape commonly associated wZeus/Jupiter and with the goddess Athena/MinervAugustus’ aegis is decorated with the heads of a wgod and a gorgon. A baldric, the strap for holdingscabbard, crosses his chest, and he carries a spea

Such elevating imagery came to Rome fromHellenistic kings who, following the example ofAlexander the Great, were depicted with heroic andivine attributes during their lifetimes. A publicimage of Augustus would never have depicted hiin this way, since he wished to present himself tosubjects simply as primus inter pares , rst citizen amongequals. In a private context, however, such elevaimagery was perfectly acceptable. In addition, ahis death Augustus was deied, making such ima

more appropriate.



42




43



s Look at the marble portrait of Augustus (image3).Does this look like a real person to you? Whyor why not?

s Compare this portrait with the Republican por-trait in image2. Now, in Art of the Classical World ,look at the statue of Diadoumenos (no.135), aRoman copy of a classical Greek sculpture of

the fth centuryb.c.Which does our portrait of Augustus more closely resemble? Why do youthink Augustus chose to have himself represent-ed in this way?

s Suetonius (ca.a.d. 69 – 140), a Roman lawyer andbiographer, described Augustus’ appearance inthe following terms: “He was negligent of hispersonal appearance … hair yellowish and rathercurly. His eyebrows met above the nose, he had

ears of normal size, a Roman nose …” (The Lives of the Twelve Caesars , II:79). How does that descrip-tion compare with the image that you see here?Why do you think there are some di. erences?

s This portrait was actually made after the em-peror had died at the age of seventy-six. Do youthink it represents a man of that age? Why orwhy not? Why do you think the portrait showsAugustus at this age?

s What image of yourself would you like to beremembered by?

s What expression does the emperor wear in thportrait? Does he look menacing or friendly?Discuss some of the reasons why he might wto project this kind of image.

s Why do you think the artist made this portraitsuch a large scale?

s

Why do you think the Roman emperor Augushad portrait likenesses of himself erected all the empire?

s Look at the sardonyx cameo of Augustus(image4). What is he wearing? The emperorcarries a spear. Which of the emperor’s roles society do you think this alludes to? Why do think he would be shown this way?

s

Look at an American quarter. Whose portraitrepresented? Why do you think a country woput the image of one of its founding fathers a coin? What kind of image do these coinportraits project?



45


points to consider

s The Julio-Claudian successors of the rst emperor,Augustus, continued to use the imperialportrait image as a propaganda tool that wasdistributed widely around the empire. In so doing,they adopted portrait types whose facial featuresand hairstyles were similar to, though distinguish-able from, his. This was done to stress dynastic

continuity, with the implication that the rule of these successors was as e. ective and benecial toRome as that of Augustus had been.

s Ancient descriptions of Caligula give us someidea of what he actually looked like. There aresimilarities between these descriptions and theemperor’s portrait, but there are notable di. er-ences as well. This dichotomy is evidence of thefact that conscious choices were made in creat-

ing the imperial portrait type and that it was notsimply a matter of replicating an actual likeness.

s Caligula’s portrait type clearly stresses his re-semblance to Augustus, and yet he is also givencharacteristics that individualize him.

The Emperor Caligula

Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus (a.d. 12 – 41) wasthe great-grandson of the rst emperor, Augustusand therefore was a member of the Julio-Claudiadynasty. He earned his nickname at an early age dto the fact that as a small boy, living with his parenduring a military campaign on the Rhine, he wasdressed in a military uniform, including little boot

(caligae ). He became emperor ina.d. 37after the deathof the second emperor, Tiberius. The populace wavery enthusiastic about his accession because of tadmiration for his father, the general Germanicus.

Unfortunately, Caligula had had little training ipublic administration, and he quickly alienated tSenate and the praetorian guard (an elite corps of diers) because he insisted on receiving honors at Rand because of his brutal and autocratic rule. Ancsources, in fact, depict him as a cruel and unbalan

person. He did, however, undertake many buildinprojects that improved Rome’s roads and water supand he constructed a circus near the present-day sof the Vatican.

Caligula was always at great risk of assassinabecause of his harsh and arbitrary rule and becaushad no male successor who might be able to avenhim. He, his fourth wife, and his infant daughter wassassinated in Januarya.d. 41.

5. Portrait bust of the emperor Gaius,known as CaligulaRoman, Julio-Claudian,a.d. 37–41Marble;h. 20in.(50.9cm)Rogers Fund,1914 (14.37)



46


The Museum’s Portrait of Caligula

The portraits of Augustus’ successors in the Julio-Claudian dynasty bore a strong resemblance to hisown. This was a calculated choice made for reasonsof propaganda. The portraits were intended toevoke in the viewer memories of the benets of Augustan rule, as well as to stress the continuity of the family lineage.

Like those of his predecessors, portraits of

Caligula would have been disseminated around theempire. Few of them survive, however, due to bothhis short reign and his unpopularity. Many of hisportraits were undoubtedly destroyed or recarvedafter his death.

The Museum’s portrait of Caligula shows himas a young man. He has a broad and high forehead,protruding ears, straight eyebrows, close-set eyes,a straight nose, and a narrow mouth. All of theseare features similar to those of the portrait of

Augustus discussed earlier (image3). Like Augustus,he has locks of hair brushed over the forehead, butthese are arranged di. erently, which is one way of

distinguishing the two emperors from each other.Caligula’s bangs are brushed to the right, and hishead is turned slightly in that direction. Whilereadily identiable as Julio-Claudian, then, he retainsdistinguishing features.

Suetonius described Caligula as a tall, pale,ungainly, balding man with a hairy body, broadforehead, and hollow eyes. We know that Caligulawas so self-conscious about his baldness that itwas legally forbidden for anyone to look down on

him (Suetonius,The Lives of the Twelve Caesars , IV:50). Caligula’s portrait bears some similarity to thisdescription but it also di. ers, notably in his abun-dant hair, conrming that the imperial portrait typerepresented a combination of fact and ction.



47



s Describe the appearance of this portrait. Whaage do you think the subject is?

s Compare this portrait with images3and4.Which one does it resemble? Why do you thinthis is the case?



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06.970a

06.970b,c

06.970e,d



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points to consider

s The creation of practical architectural forms,such as bath complexes, and their rapid construc-tion across the Roman world was one of the greatachievements of the Imperial period. The presenceof these Roman buildings helped to create a Romanculture in parts of the empire beyond Rome.

s The rapid and inexpensive construction of publicbuildings across the empire was made possible

through the use of Romanconcrete.s The Roman emperors built their imperial resi-

dences on the Palatine Hill, which has given usthe word “palace.”

s Domitian’s great palace, constructed toward theend of the rst centurya.d., made use of concretebut was decorated with rich materials. Its lavish-ness was meant to impress viewers with his wealth

and power, as well as his taste.s The Museum’s architectural relief sculpture,

though fragmentary, gives a sense of theopulence with which Domitian’s palace wasdecorated inside and out. This palace continuedto be a home of emperors until the seat of impe-rial power was removed to Constantinople in theearly fourth centurya.d.

The Roman Palace of Domitian

The meaning of our word “palace” as a kind of grhouse derives from the fact that the Roman empebuilt their houses in Rome on the Palatine Hill, whRomulus, the traditional founder of the city, was sto have built huts for himself and his followers.

Domitian, the last of the Flavian emperors,commissioned the famous architect Rabirius tobuild him a colossal residence and hall of state onthe Palatine, overlooking the RomanForum and the

Circus Maximus. The immense complex was buiusing Roman concrete, the material that had revolutionized Roman architecture because it was cheaeasy to make and use, and resistant to the elemenConcrete also proved to be far more durable thanmany other materials previously used for monumearchitecture. (See the discussion on Roman concrin the overview to the Daily Life section.) As beting its function as the home of the emperor, thouthe concrete core of Domitian’s palace was lavish

decorated with architectural sculpture, freestandistatuary,frescoes, mosaics, and colored marbles. Sucan opulent building was intended to advertise theemperor’s tremendous wealth and power.

The palace complex consisted of two mainparts, one for public rooms and one for the privateresidence. Among the public rooms were an audiehall, or Aula Regia, and abasilica. Each of these hadanapseat the south end so the emperor could sit in

6. Five architectural fragments from the palace of the emperor Domitian on the Palatine in Rome Roman, Early Imperial, Domitianic,ca.a.d. 81–92

Marble; a:h. 19in. (48.3cm), b:h. 19in.(48.3cm), c:h. 29in. (73.6cm), d:h. 10in.(25.4cm), e:h. 16in. (40.7cm)Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan,1906(06.970a – e)



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a vaulted niche to look down upon visitors. The AulaRegia had an interior facade of three stories and aceiling over100feet from the0 oor. It was decoratedwith colored marble paneling and statues of gods andheroes. Behind the audience hall was a colonnaded,peristyle courtyard, and a huge dining room,0 ankedby curvilinear fountains, for holding o1 cial dinners.

The residential part of the palace was notablefor its three peristyle gardens, one with an elaboratecurvilinear fountain. A third wing, set at a lower

level, also included a peristyle with a curved end,called astadiumbecause of its shape like a racetrack.It functioned as a sunken garden. At one end was theimperial box, from which the emperor and guestscould look down into a realstadium, or circus, theCircus Maximus, to watch chariot races.

After Domitian’s death, the Senate damned hismemory and ordered that his name be erased frominscriptions, his portraits pulled down, and his build-ings rededicated to someone else. Even so, Domitian’s

palace continued to serve as the imperial residenceuntil Constantinople became the new capital of theempire in the fourth centurya.d.In the Middle Ages,the imperial palace was stripped of its lavish marbledecoration, and today the remains consist mostly of brick-faced concrete substructures.

The Museum’s Architectural Fragments from thePalace of Domitian

A century ago, the Museum acquired some of thearchitectural decoration from Domitian’s palacecomplex. The fragments include an architrave lintelblock from between twocolumns, a cornice blockwith dentils and egg-and-dart motifs, a fragmentof a frieze depicting a sphinx, a cornice block withpalmettes, and a fragment of a frieze with ox heads

supporting swags. These fragments comprise di.

erentelements of the entablature that decorated the upperpart of the building. They were probably painted. Thedecorations re0 ect both a Greek style of ornamenta-tion, as in the egg-and-dart pattern, and an interestin the natural world, as seen in the multiplicity of 0 oral and plant forms. An interest in natural formsis characteristic of architectural ornament in the laterst centurya.d.The high quality of the carving andthe intricacy of the forms is testimony to the luxuri-

ous decoration that made the palace such an imposingmonument to imperial wealth and power.



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s What di. erent motifs are used in the architectufragments from the palace of Domitian?

s What do you imagine the e. ect to be of a wholepalace decorated in such detail?

s Why do you think the artist used stone for thedecoration?

s Why do you think that Domitian was motivateto build such a spectacular residence for himsWhat message do you think he was trying toconvey to his subjects? Is this the message thais just rst among equals?

s On a visit to the Greek and Roman galleries othe Museum, see whether you can nd similakinds of decoration either in some of the obje

or in the architecture of the Museum itself. Wdoes this tell you about the popularity of thiskind of decoration?

s Is there architectural decoration on the insideor outside of your home? What kinds of decoration do you see? What materials are thesedecorations made of?



7.1–7.6 (67.265.7a – f), obverse (above), reverse (below)

7.7–7.12 (67.265.8a – f), obverse (above), reverse (below)



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points to consider

s Roman imperial coinage, dispersed throughoutthe empire, bore the image of the emperor. Mostof his subjects would never see him in person, sothis is how they learned what he looked like.

s The coins of Roman emperors were inscribedwith their names as well as faces. These rm iden-tications have made it possible for archaeologiststo identify unnamed sculptural portraits based on

their resemblance to a given emperor’s coin type.This is especially useful in the case of rulers forwhom few sculptural images survive.

s The reverse of imperial coins also served theirpropaganda purpose by sending a desired messagefrom the emperor. The reverse might picture afavored deity, personication, or family member;it might show an important building that theemperor had erected or commemorate a battle he

had won; or it might advertise imperial virtues.s The portrait types on the coins of the Julio-

Claudian emperors all bear a strong resemblanceintended to emphasize the successors’ dynas-tic ties to Augustus. Later emperors sometimesfavored a more realistic portrait type if it suitedtheir propaganda purposes.

Roman Coinage as Propaganda

In addition to their value as instruments of econoexchange within Roman imperial society, coins sethe Roman emperors as important propaganda toFollowing the precedent set by Julius Caesar (sediscussion under image1), Roman emperors, beginninwith Augustus, routinely issued bronze, silver, angold coins with their own portraits or those of fammembers on the obverse. The reverse of the coinpictured deities or spouses; commemorated the er

tion of a temple or a military victory; or advertisan emperor’s virtues, such as pietas (piety), throughinscriptions. These coins circulated throughout thprovinces of the Roman empire and served to famiarize the inhabitants with an emperor that most othem would never see in person. They also servea reminder of his achievements and his power.

The Museum’s Coins

The two bracelets shown here (the bindings aremodern; the coins were probably assembled piecemeal) are composed of aurei , the standard Romangold coins. The bracelets’ manufacture was probabinspired by Suetonius’ biographical work,The Lives of the Twelve Caesars , since these particular coins wereproduced during the dictatorship of Julius Caesarand the reigns of the rst eleven emperors of Rom

7. Aurei of the Twelve Caesars Roman, Early Imperial, Augustan,1st centuryb.c. – 1st centurya.d.;the bracelets were probably assembled

in the19th centuryGold, amethystGift of C. Ruxton Love Jr.,1967(67.265.7a – f , .8a – f )



54


The rst bracelet assembles coins minted under Julius

Caesar, Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, andNero. The second bracelet features coins of Galba,Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian.(Refer to the Timeline for their dates.) Each coin,save that of Caesar, features a portrait bust of theissuing emperor, facing to the right, on the obverse.

The Coin of Julius Caesar (image7.1). Julius Caesar’saureus was minted in44 b.c.as part of the rst largegold coin series to have been issued at Rome. The

obverse carries a veiled female head, probably hislegendary ancestress Venus, and Caesar’s name andtitle; the reverse carries the name of the moneyerand images of sacricial implements.

The Coin Portrait of Augustus (image7.2). Although Julius Caesar had issued a coin with his portrait onit in44 b.c., it was Octavian, later Augustus, wholaunched portrait coinage as an e. ective political toolfor imperial propaganda. Augustus’ coin portrait shows

him as youthful (just as in his sculptured portraits; seeimage3) and wearing a laurel crown, associated withvictory and with the god Apollo (his personal protec-tor). The reverse, intended to commemorate Augustus’planned imperial succession, shows his grandsons,Gaius and Lucius Caesar, together with honoricshields and spears. The young princes died beforeAugustus did, and the succession passed to his wifeLivia’s son Tiberius, whom the emperor adopted.

The Coin Portrait of Tiberius (image7.3). Tiberius’ coin

portrait is meant to emphasize his connection withhis deied predecessor Augustus, although they werenot actually related by blood. Thus he is shown witha similar hairstyle and features, though his forehead isbroader. He looks youthful (although he was fty-sixwhen he became emperor), and he wears a laureatecrown. The reverse shows a woman, probably a com-bination of Pax (peace) and the emperor’s motherLivia, seated on an elaborate chair and holding abranch and inverted spear or scepter.

The Coin Portrait of Caligula(image7.4). This coinshows him in laureate crown, easily identiable as amember of the Julio-Claudian dynasty by virtue of his broad cranium, deep-set eyes, and brushed-overhairstyle. The reverse image is his father Germanicus;during Caligula’s brief reign, many coin issues werestruck in honor of his dead relatives.

The Coin Portrait of Claudius (image7.5). Unlike his

predecessors, the emperor Claudius adopted a cointype that showed him as middle-aged, but it alsoemphasized his physical resemblance to them. Thereverse shows the winged goddess Nemesis (retribu-tion) pointing a sta. at a snake, a reference to animperial military victory. Thisaureus , like those of the other Julio-Claudian emperors up to this point,was minted at Lugdunum in Gaul (modern Lyon inFrance), where Claudius himself was born.

7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6



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The Coin Portrait of Nero(image7.6). After Nero’s

death, the Senate declared adamnatio memoriae (damning of memory), which led to the wholesaledestruction of statues of him as well as an attemptto obliterate his name from inscriptions. Thus, fewportraits survive, which makes the numismaticrecord even more valuable to scholars. Nero had vedi. erent coin portrait types as he aged. This issue wasminted at Rome to celebrate thedecennalia , or tenthyear of his rule. The reverse shows him standing,wearing the radiate crown associated with the sun god

Sol and holding a libation bowl and scepter, an overtdivinizing reference at odds with the usual Julio-Claudian depiction of the emperor as just anothercitizen. Next to him stands the empress, holding ashallow libation bowl and cornucopia.

Coin Portraits from the Year of Four Emperors.Were itnot for their coin portraits, there would be little evi-dence for the appearance of the next three emperors.Their brief and turbulent reigns gave little time for

three-dimensional portraits to be produced. Soldiershad to be paid, though, and thus each of these short-lived emperors issued coinage. Galba (image7.7), in hisseventies when he became emperor in June of a.d. 68,ruled for only seven months. His coin type shows himas a wrinkled, tough military commander with shorthair thinning at the brow. This portrait is the antithe-sis of the idealizing Neronian image. The reverse bearsan inscription honoring his military service.

Galba’s immediate successor, Otho (image7.8),

whose family came from Etruria, ruled for only thmonths. In his thirties, Otho was renowned for hivanity and his fastidious grooming, as well as forlavish toupee. His idealized coin portrait lacks a lcrown, which would have obscured the curly lockhis wig. On the reverse, a personication of Pax han olive branch and sta. .

The next emperor, Vitellius (image7.9), was anotorious glutton and reprobate; his coin type, witits, furrows, fat face, and double chin, re0 ects his

coarse appetites and his middle age at the time of short-lived accession. The reverse, like that of Gabears an inscription within an oak wreath.

The Coin Portrait of Vespasian(image7.10). Vespasian,whose reign ushered in more than twenty-ve yeadynastic stability, adopted a coin type that signiereturn to austere Republican values. He is shown a tough old warrior, almost bald, with a broad facand deep wrinkles, a hooked nose, and thin mouth

On the reverse, a draped seated Pax holds a brancand a winged sta. , a reminder that Vespasian restorestability to Rome after a period of turmoil.

The Coin Portrait of Titus (image7.11). Coin portraitsof Vespasian’s son Titus strongly resemble those ohis father, although his broad face is less wrinkledand he wears a slight beard. The reverse bears ananchor with two dolphins.

7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12



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The Coin Portrait of Domitian(image7.12). Most of Domitian’s coins were issued before his accession tothe throne. The Museum’saureus , minted ina.d. 73, shows him with a laurel crown and a beard.The reverse shows him on horseback, perhaps com-memorating anadventus , or arrival back in Rome aftera journey. Since travel was long and hard in antiquity,completion of a trip was no small matter.

Summary

Considered together, these coins help to chart thechanging tastes in imperial portraiture during the rstcentury of the empire, alternating between youth-ful idealization and more realistic depictions andconveying di. erent kinds of propaganda messagesto those who used the coins.


s Why do you think it was so important in the an-cient world for emperors to issue coins that hadtheir own portraits on them? Does this practicehave anything in common with the way our coin-age looks today?

s Look at the coins of Augustus, Tiberius, andCaligula (images7.2–4). Do the portraits resem-ble each other? Why do you think this might havebeen the case?

s Compare the coin portrait of Vespasian withthat of Augustus (images7.10, 7.2). How do theydi. er?

s Look at the coins of Galba and Vitellius (images7.7, 7.9) and compare the representation of theseemperors with the image of Augustus (image7.2).

How are they di.

erent? What message do youthink they might have been trying to convey?

s Why do you think it is so important to archae-ologists to nd imperial coins that carry both theimage and the name of a given emperor?



5 7


7.4

7.10

7.3

7.9

7.2

7.7



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points to consider

s Relief sculpture on public buildings was used atRome to depict important events, such as sacri-ces to gods, victories at war, or addresses by theemperor. This type of documentation is crucialto scholars of Roman history.

s Occasionally reliefs depicting public personagesand events are found in private settings. That isthe case with this piece of stucco, decorated with

an image of the emperor Antoninus Pius grantingmercy to a captured enemy. Although the sceneis allegorical, it does refer to the emperor’s actualachievements in war.

The Museum’s Stucco Decoration

Roman homes were often decorated with ceilingsor friezes of molded or carved stucco (a form of plaster). Usually the scenes depicted Dionysian ga0 oating nymphs, and similar lighthearted themes. fragmentary relief is exceptional in that it shows tkind of historical scene normally found on a publitriumphal monument, namely the benign emperoro. eringclementia , or mercy, to a vanquished foe.

To the right, in front of a tent, stands the

emperor Antoninus Pius. (The Senate had grantAntoninus the epithet “Pius” in acknowledgmenof his loyalty to his predecessor, his adoptive faHadrian, as well as to Italy and the Senate.) Thestanding gure is identiable as Antoninus by thshort neat beard he wears, a style rst made fashionable by his predecessor Hadrian. (Please refeto Art of the Classical World , no.447, for a full-sizedportrait of Antoninus Pius.) The emperor is showearing a short-sleeved tunic and cloak over his

shoulder. Below him kneels another bearded maidentiable as a “barbarian” (non-Roman) by thfact that he wears trousers rather than a tunic ortoga. He casts a pleading look at the emperor. Atent is visible in the background.

The troops of Antoninus Pius had put downnative revolts in Germany and Dacia, and this scprobably refers to the Roman victory in one of thcon0 icts, even though the emperor in reality did

8. Relief with the emperor Antoninus Pius and a suppliant barbarianRoman, Early Antonine,a.d. 138–161Stucco;h. 8g in.(20.9cm)

Rogers Fund,1909 (09.221.37)



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not physically participate in them. Thus the scene isallegorical rather than historical.

This kind of honoric scene, commemoratingthe achievements of the emperor, is familiar frommany public monuments, notably triumphal archesand columns, in Rome and throughout the empire.Perhaps most notable is the Column of Trajan, whichdepicts that emperor’s two wars against the Dacians(people living in what is now Romania) in hundredsof narrative scenes. (See the discussion of historicalrelief in the Daily Life overview.)

It is extremely rare, however, for such a subject tobe depicted in a private context. We can only specu-late about the reasons that such a scene decorated a

private residence, and about whether it was part of amuch larger historical narrative. Just as followers of Augustus might wear a gemstone with his image onit (see the discussion under images3and4), so thisstucco might have graced the home of a staunch allyof the emperor, or even of a member of his family.It may have been copied from an imperial narrativemonument which no longer survives.



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discussion questionss Describe the scene before you. What do the po

of the two men tell you about their relationshi

s How does the clothing worn by the two men ithis relief di. er?

s Why do you suppose a person would have a scfrom a war as part of private interior decorati

exercise

Based on the scene before you, write a story focon what is happening between these two men

Shown actual size



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points to consider

s Beginning with Hadrian in the early secondcenturya.d., emperors began to wear beards.Hadrian made this choice to show his admira-tion for Greek culture, since Greek philosophers,poets, and statesmen wore beards. His successorscontinued the fashion as a way of expressing theirdynastic continuity with the past.

s Also beginning in the second centurya.d., sculp-

tors took advantage of the longer hairstyles byincreasing their use of the drill to carve deeplytextured locks of hair that created a dramaticcontrast with the smoothness of carved0 esh.They also began the practice of incising thepupils and irises of their subjects’ eyes rather thansimply indicating them through paint.

s Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius were therst emperors to rule the Roman empire

jointly. Although they were related only by mar-riage, both had been adopted by the emperorAntoninus Pius to serve as his successors, andtheir portrait types give them a physical resem-blance to each other and to their adoptive father.

s Like his co-ruler Marcus, Lucius’ portrait showshim with very curly hair and beard. It individual-izes him, though, with hooked nose and plump

lips, just as the portraits of the Julio-Claudian

resembled those of Augustus and yet retaineddistinguishing characteristics.

s In the Antonine period, sculptors attempted toportray the psychological state of their subjecthrough the turn of the head, the gaze of theeyes, the set of the mouth, and other attributemeant to convey expression.

The Co-Emperor Lucius Verus

Lucius Verus was the rst Roman emperor to rulejointly with another man. He and Marcus Aureliuhad been adopted as heirs by Antoninus Pius, andupon the latter’s death they both became emperor

Historians have not judged Lucius Verus’competency very kindly, especially in compariswith Marcus. Lucius was neither a good adminis

tor nor a good general, and ancient sources portrhim as idling away his time in Antioch rather thaactively governing.

The joint rule of Lucius and Marcus coincidewith a period in which the borders of the empirebegan to be challenged by invaders. When theParthians invaded the empire from the east, Luciuwas put in charge of the ensuing Parthian War (a.d.163 – 166), although it was in fact his generals who

9. Portrait of the co-emperor Lucius Verus Roman, Antonine, ca.a.d. 161–169Marble;h. 14h in.(36.8cm)Rogers Fund,1913 (13.227.1)



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waged and won the war. Ina.d. 168, he and Marcuswent to the Danubian provinces to prepare for anattack against German tribes that were threateningthem. However, to avoid a plague that was spreadingin that area, he and Marcus attempted to return toRome early in169. Lucius su. ered a stroke and diedon the journey; Marcus continued to rule as soleemperor until his death in180.

The Museum’s Portrait of Lucius Verus

The imperial fashion of wearing a beard began withthe second-centurya.d.emperor Hadrian, who was agreat admirer of Greek culture and grew a beard inemulation of Greek philosophers, poets, and states-men. The fashion spread, in the private sector as wellas the public one, and emperors continued to wearbeards, of varying lengths, until the fourth century.At the time that Lucius Verus ruled, these beards

were worn quite long and full.The wearing of beards opened new possibilitiesto sculptors, allowing them to contrast the textureof wavy or curly hair and beards against the smooth-ness of skin. They began to make increasing use of the running drill, which enabled them to carve deepchannels in the marble. Starting with Hadrian, sculp-tors also began the practice of drilling the pupilsand irises of the eyes rather than indicating themthrough paint. This practice would continue until

the end of the empire.Portraits of Lucius Verus resemble those of Marcus Aurelius and their adoptive father, Antoninus

Pius (please refer to the portrait of Antoninus il-lustrated in Art of the Classical World , no.447), althoughnone of them were related by blood. This was a con-scious propaganda decision to draw the link betweenthe rulers for reasons of dynastic stability.

The Museum’s fragmentary and overlifesizedportrait of Lucius shows a man with an oval face,rather straight eyebrows, almond-shaped eyes, adistinctively hooked nose, and small, plump lips.He wears a luxurious mid-length beard of parallel

rows of curls and a rather0

amboyant mustache. Thedeeply drilled hair creates a dramatic contrast withthe smooth0 esh of his face. Lucius looks upward,giving him a rather re0 ective expression, in keepingwith the trend in Antonine portraiture to documentthe psychological state as well as the physical ap-pearance of the emperor. Based on what the ancientsources tell us about Lucius Verus, however, thisexpression may be part of his carefully manufacturedimage rather than a re0 ection of his real character.



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s Describe the appearance of this portrait. How odo you think the subject is? What kind of nodoes he have? What kind of mouth? Where is looking? What do you think this implies abouwhat he is thinking or doing?

s Compare this portrait with the marble portraof Augustus (image3). Do they resemble eachother? What di. erences do you notice? Does on

portrait appeal to you more than the other?Why or why not?

s Compare this portrait with the portrait of Antoninus Pius illustrated in Art of the Classical World , no.447. What is di. erent about the carv-ing of their beards? Which one looks more likreal hair to you?

s Ancient Greek philosophers and statesmen wor

beards. Why do you think Lucius Verus wore ons What do beards signify in portraits today? Ar

hairstyles still used to convey political messag



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points to consider

s Roman imperial portraits were images of theruler carefully crafted to convey a chosenmessage. After half a century of bearded empors who harked back to a Hellenic model, theemperor Caracalla adopted a simple hairstylethat re0 ected the reality that he spent most of his reign actively at war and had no time forpersonal grooming.

s

Caracalla’s marble portrait shows a man withshort-cropped hair and stubbly beard, his headturned dramatically to the left, his brow furrowThe viewer is given the impression of a man quick and decisive action.

s In antiquity, bronze statues were just as commas marble ones. However, because bronze waoften later recycled by being melted down anreconstituted, far fewer bronze statues have su

vived to this day.s Although they are based on the same imperial

prototype, the two portraits of Caracalla are nidentical. Di. erent levels of workmanship mayhelp to account for the di. erences.

10.Portrait of the emperor CaracallaRoman, Severan, ca.a.d. 212–217Marble;h. 14g in.(36.2cm)Samuel D. Lee Fund,1940 (40.11.1a)

11.Portrait of the emperor CaracallaRoman, Severan, ca.a.d. 212–217Bronze;h. 8h in.(21.6cm)Gift of Norbert Schimmel Trust,1989(1989.281.80)



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The Emperor Caracalla

Caracalla was one of two sons of the emperorSeptimius Severus, whose family was of NorthAfrican origin, and of his Syrian wife Julia Domna.Severus had intended for the two brothers to rulethe empire jointly. However, after Severus’ death,Caracalla had his younger brother Geta slain so hecould assume sole rule.

Caracalla spent much of his time on military

campaigns, and he heeded his father’s words to keepon good terms with the army. Perhaps his most im-portant act was to issue the Edict of a.d. 212, whichextended Roman citizenship to all free inhabitantsof the empire. However, Caracalla’s motive for thisseemingly generous extension of Roman citizenshipseems to have been not to benet his subjects butto increase tax revenues so that he could pay theenlarged Roman army of the early third centurya.d.A fervent admirer of the Hellenistic ruler Alexander

the Great, Caracalla emulated him by attackingMedia (in Persia), but he was murdered before hecould conquer Persia.

Caracalla’s most notable building project wasa massive bath complex at Rome. Much of thecomplex is still standing, and its design inspired manypost-antique architects. (For example, the domedand vaulted Great Hall of the Metropolitan Museumis based on the design of the baths.)

The Museum’s Two Portraits of Caracalla

Though presented in di. erent media, each of theseportraits conveys a powerful image of the emperor.The marble head (image10) is from a statue of which only fragments remain. The head and neckwere worked for insertion into the statue body, acommon practice at Rome. Not uncommonly, aportrait head would be carved from a ner quality of

marble than the body, and would have been carved bythe master of the workshop, while less accomplishedartists did the body.

Caracalla is shown with a broad face, a cleft chin,a lined forehead, and strong nasal-labial lines. Thereis a V-shaped crease between his eyes as he scowlsin concentration. The sharp turn of the head to theleft gives the portrait an air of immediacy and isreminiscent of portraits of Alexander the Great, towhom he wished to compare himself. In his portrait

type, Caracalla discarded the long beard and deeplycurled locks that had been in fashion among theprevious emperors and is instead shown with close-cropped hair and beard. This was thought to be thestyle of grooming characteristic of an emperor/military commander who did not have too muchtime to worry about his hair or beard. The artist hasachieved the intended e. ects of the closely croppedhair and beard by stippling a chisel across the surfaceof the stone, so that the hair is incised rather than

modeled. This technique is called negative carving.Overall, this forceful presentation is meant to showCaracalla as an energetic military leader. The emper-or’s portrait also projects an image of ferocity, andin fact that seems to be an accurate re0 ection of thisfratricide’s personality.

The Museum’s fragmentary bronze portrait of Caracalla (image11), part of a hollow-cast bust orstatue, is one of a series said to have been found in atemple of the imperial cult in Asia Minor. Although

far fewer bronze statues survive today, in antiquitythey were just as common as marble ones. This headpresents the emperor looking straight ahead with anintense stare and furrowed brows; he seems lost inthought rather than actively engaged with the world.The treatment of the hair di. ers somewhat fromthat of the marble head. Here he is shown withcurls modeled in relief and with sideburns leadingto a somewhat longer beard. This head lacks the



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dynamism and coiled energy projected by the marblehead, a reminder that even in imperial portraiture thequality of production might vary.

Despite his reputation for ferocity, in many waysCaracalla set the iconographic style for his imperialsuccessors during the third centurya.d.Aftera.d. 235,when the Roman empire was subject to unprecedent-ed and sustained invasions by German “barbarians”and the Sasanian Persians, the Roman emperors whoeventually drove the Germans and the Persians back

across the empire’s borders also liked to representthemselves as dutiful, hardworking soldiers.


s Compare the Museum’s two portrait images oCaracalla. What similarities do they have? Wdi. erences? Do you think they represent the sperson? Why or why not? How do you accounfor the di. erences between them?

s Does Caracalla look like a sympathetic personWhy or why not?

s Describe the way the artist has carved hair onthe marble portrait (image10). Then describethe appearance of the hair in the bronze portr(image11). Which do you think looks more realistic? Why or why not?

s What image do you think the emperor is tryinto project in these portraits? How does the presentation compare with that of the overlifesiz

head of Augustus (image3)?



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7 1


points to consider

s The emperor Constantine came to power as atetrarch, one of four rulers of an empire thathad been divided into pieces. He systemati-cally moved to consolidate power and graduallyeliminated his co-rulers, becoming sole emperorin a.d. 324.

s Constantine later claimed that he had achieved akey victory in his struggle for power after he had

seen the image of a cross in the sky. Accordingly,in 313he and his then-co-ruler issued the Edictof Milan, which granted religious freedom toChristians. Although Constantine was not bap-tized until he lay dying, he used his power andresources to support Christianity throughoutthe empire. He also created a “New Rome,”Constantinople, to be the capital of the empire,and sanctioned the building of the rst overtchurches in Rome and the Holy Land.

s The portrait type of Constantine, the rstRoman ruler o1 cially to tolerate Christianity,was intended to remind viewers of the earlier em-perors Augustus and Trajan and, by analogy, of their successful reigns. Constantine’s clean-shavenportrait type, with bangs brushed over his fore-head and an unlined face, bore a marked resem-blance to those of his deied predecessors.

s

However, Constantine’s portrait type di.

ers inimportant ways from those of his models. Thehuge, upward-looking eyes and the extreme siplication of the facial planes give the portraiabstract and detached quality that represents nso much a specic or even idealized individuaa sense of power bolstered by a spiritual visio

Constantine and the Ofcial Adoption of Christianity at Rome

Constantine, the son of one of Diocletian’s tetrar-chic colleagues, rose to power within the tetrarchsystem of government (see the Historical OvervieConstantine eventually sought sole power, howevand one by one he defeated the other tetrarchs inbattle. He defeated one of his rivals, Maxentius, athe Battle of the Milvian Bridge in Rome ina.d. 312.

Later he would claim that he had seen an image ocross in the sky, accompanied by the inscription “this sign you shall conquer.” As a result, the folloyear Constantine and his then co-ruler Licinius iswhat became known as the Edict of Milan, grantireligious freedom to Christians. After more dynasstruggles, Constantine took sole imperial authoritin a.d. 324. After that date, although Constantine wnot baptized until he lay on his deathbed, he prog

12.Portrait head of the emperor Constantine I Roman, Late Imperial, ca.a.d. 325–370Marble;h. 37h in.(95.25cm)Bequest of Mary Clark Thompson,1923

(26.229)



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sively threw the full power, prestige, and resourcesof his position behind Christianity. In addition,he created a “New Rome,” Constantinople, on thesite of the former Greek city of Byzantium (nowIstanbul). The new foundation was inaugurated usingboth pagan and Christian rites. From now on theRoman emperors lived here rather than in Rome.

A New Portrait Type for a New Empire

During the period of time that Constantine wasa tetrarch, his coin portraits depict him with thestubbly beard and blocklike body that characterizedthe iconography of o1 cial tetrarchic art.

Following Constantine’s consolidation of power,however, his portrait style changed, and he adopteda mode of self-presentation that evoked comparisonwith his most esteemed predecessors, Augustus andTrajan. This portrait type is evoked by the Museum’s

portrait of Constantine.This head was probably recut from an earlierportrait of Trajan. The practice of “recycling”sculpture or architectural elements was not uncom-mon, especially in late antiquity, both for reasonsof economy and as a way of re0 ecting glory on thepresent emperor by connecting his reign with thoseof his most illustrious predecessors. For example,the Arch of Constantine in the Roman Forum isdecorated with reliefs that originally had been part of

monuments to Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius.The imperial heads on some of these reliefs havebeen recarved to more closely resemble Constantine.

The Museum’s head is impressively large, and theneck is worked for insertion into a seated statue body,not otherwise preserved. Such a colossal scale wasreserved only for images of gods or imperial familymembers. The emperor is shown with a square face,prominent nose and chin, and a small mouth with

lips slightly parted. There is a large horizontal creasein his forehead, but otherwise his face is unlined, andthe expression is calm, in line with the classicizingtendencies of o1 cial Augustan and Trajanic por-traiture. The eyes are incised so that the pupils lookupward. Whereas third-centurya.d.emperors usuallyhad been depicted with short hair and beards (seethe portraits of Caracalla, images10, 11), Constantineis shown clean-shaven, with locks of hair carefullycombed over the forehead, a fashion similar to hair-

styles worn by the Julio-Claudians and Trajan.Like Augustus, Constantine’s portrait did notage as he did. And, just as Augustus’ Julio-Claudiansuccessors did, Constantine’s successors wouldadopt portrait images that strongly echoed his inappearance.

However, Constantine’s portrait image di. ers sig-nicantly from those of earlier emperors in the degreeof abstraction of both form and content. Whereasportraits of both Augustus and Trajan show them

with some individualized features, in Constantine’scase the facial planes are smooth and undi. erentiated,the features almost schematic. The emperor, with hisoverlarge eyes directed upward, seems connected notto a material world but a spiritual one.

The head and fragmentary limbs of a muchlarger colossal statue of Constantine survive at Romeand are displayed in the courtyard of the Museo delPalazzo dei Conservatori. The absence of the torsosuggests that the body and drapery were worked in

another medium and that the marble limbs and heads,their creamy white hue suggesting human0 esh, wereinserted into them. The statue originally portrayedConstantine seated and holding in one hand an orb,the symbol of global power, and in the other hand ascepter. Such overtly monarchical imagery is quite atodds with the image that Augustus and his successorshad tried to convey. The Rome statue probably oncestood in the main hall of the Basilica of Maxentius,



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an audience hall in the Roman Forum that was n-ished by Constantine. The Museum’s statue probablycomes from a similar setting.

The dramatic change in Constantine’s portraitstyle from his early career to the time period whenhe embraced Christianity re0 ects far broader changeswithin the Roman world: the detachment of the statefrom its Augustan and even Republican institutionalroots; a shift in the center of imperial gravity fromRome to Constantinople and the East; and, nally,

the supercession of polytheism by Christianity asthe dominant system of religious belief within theRoman empire. Constantine’s portrait style is that of a man who not only had the vision but also the powerto bring about a revolution within the Roman world.


s Study the Museum’s portrait of ConstantineWhich of his features do you notice rst? Wexpression does he wear? Is he looking at usviewers? Why do you think he looks where hdoes?

s Do you think that the artist was looking at a rman when he made this portrait? Why or why n

s What details make this a less-than-naturalisticportrait? What qualities do you think the empor wished to convey?

s Compare this image with the colossal portraitAugustus (image3). How are they similar? Howare they di. erent? Which is more lifelike?

s What e. ect on you, the viewer, does the large

scale of Constantine’s portrait have? Do youthink this was intentional?

s Compare this portrait with any or all of the othportraits that are pictured in this resource. Disthe similarities and di. erences among them.

exercise

Based on his portrait type, write a biographyof each of the men whose portraits are in theresource. Describe what you imagine eachemperor’s personality to be like.



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Religion and Communal Ritual in Ancient Rome

T he Latin wordreligio, which is often translated as our

word “religion,” really meant the proper performaof what was due to the gods. What was due was jus Justice was done through the correct performance of rituincluding especially sacrices, to the many deities that thRomans believed to exist. Ritual was also used to understathe will of the gods, to propitiate them, or to solicit their he

As long as they observed the proper rituals, individual Romans coubelieve whatever they wanted to about the gods. Within Romanreligio,

there was no dogma, no moral code, no orthodoxy. It was perhaps fthat reason that the Romans were so open to the incorporation of ndeities within their system of ritual observance.

Nor was there only one xed religious authority in Rome. Rathresponsibility for giving justice to the gods was shared among indivon behalf of the Roman people. Finally, the goal of making sure thgods received justice was the well-being of the entire community, than of individuals. In short, Romanreligiowas a form of civic religionin which the salvation of individuals, especially after death, was noimportant as the health and prosperity of the community of Roman

citizens in the present.Over the course of the Roman Republic and empire, the Romanexported their ritual observances to other peoples, but also importebeliefs and ritual practices of those they encountered into their syof observances. Indeed, one of the sets of beliefs and practices thRomans encountered, Christianity, nally became the o1 cial religion of the Roman state itself during the late fourth centurya.d.In many ways,the triumph of Christianity within the Roman empire was the direoutcome of the Romans’ essential receptivity to new gods and syst

ROMAN MYTH, RELIGION AND THE AFTERLIFE

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roman myth, religion, and the afterlife

The Gods of the Romans

Like the Greeks, the Romans recognized many gods. Each deity had hisor her own particular functions and areas of in0 uence, although none wasall-powerful or could do everything. Mercury, for instance, was a patronof merchants, and Mars was the supporter of the army, but neither wasmuch help with people’s love lives.

The Roman gods included a mixture of native Italic, Etruscan, andGreek deities. For example, the twelve Olympian gods of the Greeks allhad Roman cognates:

Greek

zeusheraathenaartemisapolloares

poseidonhermesdemeterdionysoshephaestos

Roman

jupiter junominervadianaapollomars

neptunemercuryceresdionysus/bacchusvulcan

Other gods, including Cybele, Mithras, and Isis, were imported intoRome from the East, including Asia Minor and Egypt. Please refer toimages15 – 17, 21, 22,and25for detailed discussions of various deities.

Plaque with Mithras slaying the bull .Roman, Antonine or Severan,mid-2nd–early3rd centurya.d.Bronze. Gift of Mr. and Mrs.Klaus G. Perls,1997 (1997.145.3)(image22)

Relief fragment with the head of Mars .Roman, Mid-Imperial, early3rd centurya.d.Marble. RogersFund,1918 (18.145.49) (image16)



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Men Becoming Gods

After the assassination of Julius Caesar in March of 44 b.c., the Romansbegan to elevate some imperial family members to the status of demigodsafter their deaths. Such demigods were calleddivi or divae and wereassigned temples, priests, festivals, and public cults. In fact, in the citiesand provinces of the Roman empire, cults for the emperors and theirfamily members were organized as a way of dening the power of theemperors. Please refer to image4 in the Power and Authority section fora posthumous portrait of an emperor shown with divine attributes.

Divination, the Sibylline Books, and Entrails

Perhaps the most characteristic way the Romans approached their godsto discover their will was the interpretation of natural signs throughdivination. Divination also took place during sacrices through thereading of theexta (entrails) by an o1 cial called aharuspex .

When alarming events occurred, the Romans also consulted theso-called Sibylline books, which consisted of a thousand or so lines of

ancient prophetic poetry. The poetry supposedly provided the explanationfor such events and also advice about how to restore the situation.

The Essential Roman Ritual: Sacrice

The fundamental act by which the Romans did justice to their gods wassacrice. Sacrice could take many forms: it might involve the burningof incense; or pouring a liquid; or the dedication of various kinds of plants; or the ritual slaughter of domestic animals such as cattle, pigs,

sheep, and goats. Please refer to image19for more information aboutthe practice of sacrice.



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Priests

Unlike, for example, modern Christian priests or nuns, Roman priestswere not in general men or women called to the lifelong service of a deity or deities. The Vestal Virgins were exceptional, as these werepriestesses with a minimum length of service of thirty years. MostRoman priests were simply Roman citizens elected by their peers orby the Roman people, for terms as short as a year, to perform speciccultic functions at specic times and places for specic reasons. Whenthey were not performing such functions, they had no special quality of

holiness. They did not advise people on how to live; rather, they werecharged with ensuring that rituals were enacted properly. Women werenot excluded from participating in religious life, but they could noto1 ciate in cults for the Roman people as a whole, or for their families.

Public priests belonged to the priestly colleges, but there were alsopriests of individual deities and Latin communities. By the end of theRepublic, all of the major Roman priests were senators and about half were patricians, although at least some of the members of the maincolleges were elected by the Roman assembly of tribes.

After the conclusion of the Roman civil wars, Octavian (later

Augustus) received the right to nominate candidates for all vacantpriestly posts. Eventually the Roman emperors became members of allof the priestly colleges simultaneously. The consolidation of religiousauthority into one person (the emperor) was a sign of the transition toa society in which power and authority were increasingly centralized.

Please refer to image20for an example of a priestly attendant.

Sacred Space

The Romans believed that the gods and men had divided up the spaces ofRome and its territory into precincts that were sacred and those that werenot. The gods often selected groves, caves, pools, or river sources as theown residences. Other sacred areas were dedicated to the gods by men.Such spaces had to be legally consecrated, which transferred them frompublic property to the possession of the gods. Within such sacred spacethere might be erected an altar and/or a temple belonging to the god(s).Such a building was considered to be the residence of the divinity.



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Many sacred spaces included areas where worshippers could leaveo. erings, which might include small altars or even statues. Somesanctuaries included places where visitors could stay the night, preparefood for themselves, and bathe.

Tombs for the dead were situated outside the city itself and belongedto thedi manes (divine sprits of the dead). It was the responsibility of family relations of the dead to manage such tombs, and the tombs couldnot be altered without permission from o1 cials.

Festivals

In the Roman world, there were essentially two calendars in overlappingoperation. There was a natural calendar, established according to the risingand setting of the signs of the zodiac, that determined the sequence of agricultural labor; and there was a civic calendar created by the magistrates.

The Roman calendar did not operate on a xed week of seven dayswith ve working days and a weekend. Rather, the ancient Romansdivided up the days of the civic year into three categories. Two hundredthirty-ve days were designated as fasti , when public business such as the

meeting of public assemblies could take place;109days werenefasti , duringwhich the activities of mortals in public places had to stop to make roomfor the performance of religious ceremonies that honored the gods. The109nefasti are roughly equivalent to the104days a year that are Saturdaysand Sundays in our modern calendar.Intercisi days, or half-and-half days,were those when some hours of the day were set aside for public businessand some hours for honoring the gods.

It was during thenefasti days that most of the major public Romanfestivals took place. These included agricultural festivals that celebratedeither the beginning or the conclusion of the cycle of food supply, and

civic festivals that celebrated important aspects of the political or militaryorganization of the city. It was not a duty but a right of Roman citizensto attend or take part in these major public festivals.

In addition to the public festivals linked either to the agriculturalor civic year, Romans also celebrated innumerable private festivals andrites. Roman magistrates, families, the army, colleges of merchants andartisans, and many other associations conducted sacrices and festivalsto honor the gods throughout the year. The celebration of such privatefestivals was open to citizens and noncitizens alike.



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points to consider

s The Romans possessed a great historical self-consciousness. The stories that explained theirorigins as a people and the foundation of theircity were very important to them and wereregarded as historical fact.

s

The stories of the origin of Rome were repro-duced on coins and dispersed throughout theempire to emphasize the historical roots of theRomans. Such images were also reproduced onring-stones, used by their owners to sealimportant documents.

s The story of Aeneas cemented the Roman connec-tion with the great civilizations of Troy and Greeceand with the goddess Venus, the hero’s mother.

Julius Caesar presented himself as the descendantof Aeneas and thus of the goddess Venus, as didhis adopted heir, the rst emperor, Augustus.

s The story of the she-wolf and the twins Romulusand Remus helped to explain the origins of Romeon the Palatine Hill. As descendants of Aeneas,son of Venus, the twins carried a divine genealogycloser to the historic Romans.

Foundation Myths of Ancient Rome

These two objects portray scenes related to thefoundation of Rome. While we might considerthese scenes to be mythological, the ancient Romabelieved that the foundation of their city was a rehistorical event.

The Myth of Aeneas

Aeneas rst appeared in theIliad , the epic poemattributed to the eighth-centuryb.c.Greek poetHomer, as a Trojan warrior, the son of Aphrodite(the RomanVenus), notable for his piety to the godThe scene of Aeneas escaping from Troy after idestruction about1200 b.c.appears in Greek vasepaintings from the sixth centuryb.c.onward, and

by the fourth centuryb.c.it had begun to appearin Italic art as well. In the Aeneid , the epic poem bythe rst-centuryb.c.Roman poet Virgil, Aeneaseventually made his way to Italy, where he foundthe city of Lavinium. Hundreds of years later, in753 b.c., Aeneas’ descendant Romulus founded thcity of Rome.

13.Denarius minted under Julius Caesar, showing Aeneas carrying Anchises and the PalladiumRoman, Late Republican,47–46 b.c.Silver; overall:i x k in. (1.9 x 0.3cm)

Rogers Fund,1908 (08.170.80)

14.Intaglio ring-stone showing Romulus and Remus suckled by the she-wolf Roman, Late Republican or Early Imperial,1st centuryb.c. – 1st centurya.d.Carnelian;h in.(1.3cm)Gift of John Taylor Johnston,1881 (81.6.33)



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Roman Coinage of the Republic

Roman coins of the Republican period werestruck with symbolic designs that ranged frompersonications of cities and virtues, mythologicalscenes and gures, to various images that held specialsignicance for the issuer. In the second centuryb.c., moneyers began to imprint their names ontheir coins, perhaps as a mark of authenticity, andeventually they struck issues commemorating their

notable ancestors. By the mid-rst centuryb.c.,portrait heads were depicted on coins, althoughthese images were restricted to depictions of famousancestors and legendary gures.

The Coinage of Julius Caesar

W hen Julius Caesar crossed the River Rubicon in49 b.c.to vindicate the rights of Roman tribunes,

he also began to strike enormous amounts of hisown coinage, in opposition to that of the state. Theissuance of his own coins was an announcement thatCaesar presented himself as an authority independentof and parallel to the state. He seized Rome shortlyafter crossing the Rubicon and began to use itsmoneyers to issue his coins, creating a parallel scalstructure to that of the state.

The Museum’s silverdenarius (image13), thedominant coin denomination in circulation in the

Mediterranean world in this period, comes from aseries issued by Caesar in the early40s b.c.The coinrepresents one of the legendary ancestors of theRoman state, the Trojan warrior Aeneas,0 eeing theburning city of Troy. He carries his father Anchiseson his shoulder and the palladium, a wooden statueof the armed goddess Athena, in his outstretchedhand. A crowned head of Aphrodite/Venus, Aeneas’divine mother, appears on the reverse.

Caesar’s family, the gens Iuliae , claimed descentfrom the goddess Venus and her son Aeneas. Byrepresenting Venus and Aeneas on his coinage, Caesarreminded the Roman public of his divine ancestryand his association with the foundation legends of Rome. This helped to legitimate his power at Rome.

The Myth of Romulus, Remus, and the She-Wolf

The carnelian ring-stone (image14), probably used asa seal, features one of the most famous scenes fromthe complex foundation story of Rome. At least bythe fourth centuryb.c., the story of how Aeneas’descendants, the infant twins Romulus and Remus,had been saved from death by a she-wolf was knownin Rome. According to that story, the baby twinswere set adrift on the Tiber River by their uncle, whohad usurped power from their grandfather in thetown of Alba Longa. The infants drifted ashore and

were found by a she-wolf, who suckled them until aroyal herdsman found them and raised them. Afterthey grew up, they slew the usurper and restored theirgrandfather to the throne. The twins then returnedto the place on the Tiber where they had beensaved. Accounts of what transpired next di. er, butRemus was slain and it was Romulus who ultimatelyestablished the sacred boundary of the city of Rome.

The story of the twins and the she-wolf was sopopular in Republican Rome that it became one of

the most important symbols of the city. A bronzestatue of the she-wolf suckling the twins is known tohave been dedicated at Rome as early as296 b.c., andthe scene was represented on coins throughout theRepublican and Imperial periods.

Sealing ring-stones, though made for private use,draw from the same sources of imagery as coins.This ring-stone, one of several in the Museumrepresenting aspects of the wolf suckling the twins,



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shows them0 anked by the shepherd who reared themand by the armed goddess Roma, the personicationof the city itself.

discussion questionss Look at the coin image. How many gures are

there? What is each doing? Can you tell who ithe most important gure? How?

s The coin shows a scene related to the foundatiof Rome, a story that we today believe is mythbut which the ancient Romans believed to be fWhy do you think such a scene would be appr

priate to put on a coin issued at the city of Roms What kinds of objects are represented on the

coins that we use in daily life? Why do you thithese images were chosen? How are they simto, or di. erent from, those that we see on theRoman coin?

s Look closely at the ring-stone and describethe gures and what they are doing. Is this a

realistic scene?s This ring refers to ancestors of the Romans. D

you ever wear jewelry with references to youfamily on it, such as a ring with a monogram oyour family name? If you do, does it remind yof your family, as the Roman ring would havreminded the wearer of his?

s Why do you think a Roman ring would have a

myth represented on it? Do some of the rings wwear have symbolic meaning too?

s Do we have myths about our own Americanhistory? Think of George Washington and thecherry tree. Can you think of some others?



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points to consider

s The most important god in the Roman panthe-on was Jupiter Optimus Maximus, the best andgreatest of all. As the god of power and author-ity, he occupied the most important temple inRome, the Capitolium on top of the CapitolineHill, which he shared with his wife Juno andwith the goddess of wisdom, Minerva.

s The Romans represented Jupiter as the Greeksdid their comparable god Zeus: as a mature,bearded man, often carrying a scepter and athunderbolt and accompanied by an eagle.

s As the Greeks had done, the Romans placedcult statues of their deities inside their temples.Worshippers might also keep images of the godin their homes for private devotion, or make

o.

erings of these statues to the god himself.

Jupiter, Ruler of the Gods

Jupiter was the sovereign god in the Romanpantheon. His power and authority were expressedand articulated through natural phenomena suchas storms and lightning. Before the Romans tookany important public action, such as declaring wathey consulted auspices (signs such as thunder anlightning) to determine his will. Generals departin

for war visited his temple to make vows for victorand they ascended to his temple upon their triumph Jupiter was the patron of the state, and bore theepithet (nickname)optimus maximus (the best andgreatest of all). The games that were celebrated inhis honor every year were among the major festivof the Roman state, and his temple was the mostimportant in Rome.

Jupiter’s Temple at Rome

According to tradition, it was the Etruscan kingswho introduced the cult of Jupiter OptimusMaximus to Rome. A temple was built to him anto the goddesses Juno and Minerva on the CapitolHill in509 b.c.It was built in the Etruscan style,with a high podium, a deep-pitched roof, and threcellae , or interior chambers, one for the cult statue o

15.Statuette of Jupiter Roman, Mid-Imperial,2nd half of 2nd centurya.d.Bronze;h. 11 in.(29.3cm)

Purchase, The Charles EngelhardFoundation Gift and Rogers Fund,1997(1997.159)



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each of the deities. It was much larger than any othertemple at Rome, and its form was duplicated laterin other Roman cities all over the empire. It becamea de factosymbol of Rome and was often illustratedon coins. Parts of the foundation and the podiumsurvive to this day.

The Representation of Jupiter

Jupiter was traditionally represented as a bearded,powerfully mature man, whose associated attributesincluded the eagle, the scepter, and the thunderbolt(from his association with the sky). In imperialtimes, rulers often represented themselves with theseattributes of Jupiter.

The Museum’s bronze statuette of Jupiterpreserves about three-quarters of the original,from the head down to about thigh level, wherethe gure has been fused, apparently by an intense

heat. The pose, with raised right hip, suggests thathe was putting his weight on his left leg. He wearsonly a mantle that is draped over his left shoulder,down his back, around his right hip, and over theoutstretched left arm. Originally he probably held athunderbolt in this hand. His raised right arm is heldup; it probably once held a scepter. His head, with itsabundant curly hair and full beard, turns slightly tothe left. The muscular body, the forceful pose, and themature face all mark this as an image of a powerful

being. The Museum’s statuette may have been a privatecult image, or it may have been a votive o. ering.For another representation of Jupiter, please refer

to the fragment of a cameo with Jupiter astride aneagle, illustrated in Art of the Classical World , no.418. Shown actual size



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s Look carefully at the statue and describe the wthe gure stands and what he is holding. Doeslook young or mature? Why?

s In fact, this is a representation of Jupiter, kingthe Roman gods. What about this sculpture sugests that it represents a powerful being?

s

Many of the gods worshipped by the Romanswere associated with Greek gods. Does this stremind you of any Greek god you may have sied? Which one? What are his characteristics?

s Where do you think an image like this one mihave been placed? How do you think it mighthave been used?



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Mars, the God of War

Next to Jupiter, Mars was the most importantRoman god, and a very ancient one. Not muchis known of his original character, but he wassometimes interpreted as a god of vegetation. Byhistorical times, he had developed into the god ofwar, with a mythology borrowed largely from theGreek Ares. In literature, he was portrayed as the

protector of Rome.The Romans named the month we call Marchafter him, and festivals were celebrated in his honin that month as well as in October. These monthsmarked the beginning and end of the farmingseason and also the end and the beginning of themilitary campaigning seasons, since Rome’s citizarmy could only campaign when its soldiers wernot busy growing food. The ceremonies were linkto preparations for war. In March, members of th

priesthood of the Salii, who were associated with Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus, performed a ceremonwar dance in their old-fashioned armor while chaa hymn to the gods. Two other festivals were heldOctober, one involving a two-horse chariot race the other the purication of weapons before they wstored for the winter.

There were only two temples to Mars in Romuntil the time of Augustus, one of them in the

16.Relief fragment with the head of Mars Roman, Mid-Imperial, early3rd centurya.d.Marble;h. 14n in.(37.8cm)Rogers Fund,1918 (18.145.49)

points to consider

s Mars was the second most important Romangod after Jupiter. This is not surprising sincehe was the god of war, and war is what broughtRome her empire.

s Early in Roman history, the mythology of theGreek god Ares was assimilated with that of Mars.

s The important festivals associated with Marswere held at the times of year that marked thebeginning and end of the traditional militarycampaigning season.

s The rst emperor, Augustus, elevated Mars to anew importance as Mars Ultor, who had helpedhim to avenge the death of Augustus’ adoptedfather Julius Caesar. A temple to Mars was

erected in the Forum of Augustus, and MarsUltor frequently appeared in the relief decora-tion of triumphal arches and other monumentsthat commemorated imperial military successes.

s As a war god, Mars was typically shown wearingarmor and a helmet.



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Campus Martius, or “eld of war,” which was thearmy’s exercise ground. There was also a shrine intheRegia , originally the king’s house, where the god’ssacred spears were kept (in fact, these spears may havebeen the earliest embodied form of the god). Beforeembarking upon a campaign, a general was supposedto shake these sacred spears and say “Mars vigila !”(“Mars, wake up!”).

In the Imperial period, worship of Mars wasalmost as important as that of the Capitoline Jupiter,

since the emperor owed his power and popularity tothe army and its military success. Under Augustus,Mars was given a new epithet, Ultor (the Avenger),as the personal guardian of the emperor and theavenger of Caesar’s death. Augustus consecrated atemple containing a colossal statue of Mars Ultorin his forum, and this statue was frequently copiedthereafter. Temples, shrines, and altars were dedicatedto Mars all over the empire.

Many of the public monuments erected at

Rome, especially the uniquely Roman triumphalarches, commemorated military victories. Mars wasfrequently depicted on these monuments.

The Museum’s Relief Head of Mars

The Museum’s fragmentary relief head of Marsrepresents the canonical sculptural type of MarsUltor. It probably comes from a triumphal archor from a similar monument commemorating animperial military success, possibly from the now-lost Portico of Septimius Severus in Rome.

Here the god is shown as a mature gure withcurly hair and beard and a deeply furrowed brow

and forehead. His mouth is open, and a prominentmustache droops over it. His eyes are heavily lidded,and he looks up and to his left. The pupils are carvedin the typical style of the period, with two drill holesbeside each other forming a sort of kidney-beanshape. His hair is also deeply drilled. Appropriatelyfor a war deity, he wears a helmet of the Corinthiantype pushed back on his forehead. The pose is verysimilar to a representation on an Antonine-era panelthat showed the emperor’s return and that was later

incorporated into the Arch of Constantine in theRoman Forum. The god’s expression is a rathermenacing one of focused alertness.



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discussion questionss Describe the appearance of Mars. Why is he

depicted the way he is? What is his expression

s What are the aspects of this sculpture that heyou to identify what function this god was assciated with?

s This head probably came from a relief sculptu

that decorated a Roman monument commemrating an imperial victory. Have you ever seemonuments commemorating American militavictories—in Washington, D.C., in your statcapital, in parks that you have visited? If so,describe them.



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Venus, the Goddess of Vegetation and of Love

The ancient Italic deity Venus was regarded asthe protectress of vegetation and gardens. Hercult began in Lavinium, a city in Latium which,according to legend, had been founded by Aeneaher son. The oldest known temple to her was buithere in293 b.c.

At an unknown date, the RomanVenus becam

identied with the Greek Aphrodite, the goddesserotic love. In this role, she was awarded a templon the Capitoline Hill in217 b.c.As the mother of Aeneas, associated with the foundation of RomeVenus/Aphrodite became regarded as the ancestorof the gens Iuliae , the family of Julius Caesar andthe Julio-Claudian dynasty of the Roman Imperialperiod. She was calledVenus Genetrix, goddess omotherhood and domesticity. Caesar built a grantemple in his Roman forum and dedicated it to he

and the goddess played an important role in manyRoman religious festivals and in the imperial cult

Sensual Representations of the Goddess Venus

The fourth-centuryb.c.Greek sculptor Praxiteles wathe rst artist to make a full-scale statue depictingAphrodite as an unclothed and fully sensual godd

17.Statue of Venus Roman, Imperial,1st or2nd centuryb.c.Copy of Greek original of the3rd or2nd centuryb.c.

Marble;h. as restored (with plinth)5ft. 2h in.(128.3cm)Purchase,1952 (52.11.5)

points to consider

s The goddess Venus was considered to be the an-cestress of the whole Roman people because shewas the mother of the Trojan hero Aeneas, whosedescendant Romulus founded the city of Rome. Julius Caesar claimed her as an ancestor, andthus she was very important to the rst imperialdynasty, the Julio-Claudians, which began with

Caesar’s adopted son Octavian/Augustus.s The Roman representation of Venus was

based on Greek depictions of her counterpartAphrodite, who was visualized as the sensualgoddess of love. A famous statue of the goddessby the fourth-centuryb.c.sculptor Praxiteles,showing her naked as if taking a bath, becamewildly popular in the Greco-Roman world. Othersculptors created their own versions of the naked

goddess, and all of these were copied many timesover in the Roman world and used to decorateRoman bath complexes and private gardens aswell as serving as cult images.

s Roman copies of Greek statues are a rich store of information for art historians, since many copiesof a single statue may survive, and very often theoriginal does not.



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of love. According to Pliny the Elder, the rst-centurya.d.Roman writer whose bookNatural Historyis a keysource of information about Greek artists and theirworks, Praxiteles was commissioned by the inhabitantsof the island of Kos to sculpt a statue of the goddess.Most freestanding sculptures during the classicalperiod were cast from bronze, but Praxiteles createdhis Aphrodite from marble in order to simulatecreamy white0 esh. (As was typical for ancient marblestatues, certain details, such as the pupils and irises,

would have been highlighted with paint.)Praxiteles made two statues of the goddess, oneclothed, the other nude, as if she had been surprisedby an onlooker while bathing. The people of Kosselected the more modest statue, but residents of thenearby peninsula of Knidos promptly purchased thenude statue and installed it in a special circular shrinewhere its beauty could be seen from all sides. (TheMuseum’s bronze statuette based on the Praxitelianoriginal, dated to150 – 100 b.c., is illustrated in Art

of the Classical World , no.241.) People0ocked from faraway to view the statue. Praxiteles’ reputation as a

sculptor was assured, and subsequent sculptors beganto carve naked Aphrodites as well, picturing her in avariety of poses: crouching, washing her hair, and soon. (Compare, for example, the Museum’s statue of Venus crouching and arranging her hair, a Romanimperial copy of a second-centuryb.c.Greek original,illustrated in Art of the Classical World , no.437.)

Just as they assimilated the Roman goddess

Venus to Aphrodite, so Roman representations of Venus, based on Greek statues of the goddess of love, were placed in temples; but they were also usedas decorative objects in public buildings (such asthe baths) or in the gardens of their privatevillas.The Roman copying habit has proven invaluableto archaeologists and art historians, since feworiginal classical Greek statues, whether in bronze ormarble, survive to this day. The bronzes were often

melted down so that the material could be recycledfor other uses. The marbles might be hacked upfor foundations or used to make quicklime.TheRomans, however, made so many marble copiesof their favorite statues that some were destined tosurvive to the present day.

The Museum’s Venus with a Dolphin

The Museum’s statue of Venus with a dolphin is verysimilar to a Roman copy, the so-called Medici Venus,which is itself a copy of a lost Greek original. It isunknown whether the original was made of bronzeor marble. Our statue, nearly lifesized, is carved fromwhite marble.The goddess is, as usual, represented asif she has been surprised at her bath. Her arms, nowmissing, probably would have been placed across herbody to shield her from the onlooker. Her weight ison her left foot, and her right leg is bent forward as

she looks to her left. Her oval face has smooth cheeks,a straight nose, and rather small almond-shaped eyes.Her curly hair is pulled across the tops of her earsand into a bowlike bun at the back of her head. Allet, or headband, is almost concealed by her curls.

Venus is often represented with a dolphin, areference to the Greek tradition that shewas bornfrom the foam of the sea.This dolphin, only partiallypreserved, rests on its long, beaklike snout with theback of its body raised up. The tail is missing, but it

has ns (which a real dolphin does not have) on itsback and left side. Often Roman copyists made smallchanges in the compositions they were copying, andit is possible that this accounts for the idiosyncraticappearance of this dolphin.

This statue was probably used to decorate a bathcomplex or the gardens of a private home. However,it is impossible to know whether it still carriedreligious connotations for individual Roman viewers.



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s Describe the appearance of this statue. Is thegure young or old? How is she posed? Whatshe doing?

s Do you think this statue was meant to be seenonly from the front?Why or why not?

s This statue is carved from marble. Do you thi

that this is a realistic material to use for the reresentation of human0 esh?Why or why not?

s This statue actually representsVenus, the goddess of love, rather than a mortal woman. Arthere any clues in this representation suggesthat she is divine?

s The Romans believed thatVenus had been borfrom the foam of the sea. Is there anything ab

this sculpture that suggests her association witthe ocean?

s Compare this representation of Venus with theones illustrated in Art of the Classical World (nos.241, 437). How are they similar? How arethey di. erent?



Shown actual size



9 7


points to consider

s In addition to the gods recognized by the state,Romans worshipped personal gods to whom they

built shrines in their homes.These included thelares , who were guardians of the household and itsmembers. Unlike gods such as Jupiter,lares did nothave elaborate mythologies connected with them.

s Though each household had its own personalpair of lares , they were all represented the sameway: as youthful dancing males with curly hairwearing short tunics and carrying drinkinghorns and bowls.

The Roman Household Guardian Spirits

Lares were Roman guardian spirits, possibly theghosts of ancestors. They were worshipped asthe protecting spirits of crossroads, in the city asguardians of the state, and most importantly asprotectors of the house and its inhabitants (the

lares familiares ). Lares had no clear personalities ormythologies associated with them.Nearly every Roman household possessed

statuettes of thelares , usually in pairs that were placedin a lararium, or shrine, that was built in the centralcourt (atrium) of the home or in the kitchen. Theseshrines sometimes contained paintings rather thanstatuettes of the deities. O. erings, sacrices, andprayers were made to thelares and to other household

gods (the penates , guardians of the cupboard, forexample).Thelares of the crossroads, associated withthe emperor’s household gods beginning in the eraAugustus, were worshipped publicly.

The Museum’sLar Statuette

The Museum’s statuette is probably one of a pairwhose partner would have been a mirror image, wits left arm raised and the right one lowered. Thecurly-haired gure is shown dancing on his toes, agoat-headedrhyton(drinking horn) in his raised righhand and a patera , or bowl for making liquid o. erings(libations), in his lowered left hand. The gure we

a short tunic with a stitched design, a cloak, and sboots. Similar statues have been found all over thempire, commemorating a type of deity less cleardened than the major gods of the Roman panthesuch as Jupiter andVenus, and yet universally vene


s

Describe the appearance of the gure. Is he yoor old? How can you tell? What is he wearinghe standing still?What is he holding?

s This gure represents alar , a god who protectedthe household. Every Roman family worshippthe lares in the home rather than in a communahouse of worship. Why do you think this wathe case?

18.Statuette of alarRoman, Imperial,1st –2nd centurya.d.Bronze; overall:9i x 4 x 2k in.(24.8 x 11.6 x 5.4cm)

Rogers Fund,1919 (19.192.3)(See also poster)



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The Essential Roman Ritual: Sacrice

The fundamental act by which the Romans didjustice to their gods was through sacrice. Sacricould take many forms: it might involve the burniof incense; or pouring a liquid; or the dedicationvarious kinds of plants; or the ritual slaughter odomestic animals such as cattle, pigs, sheep, and go

Most sacrices, whether they were private or

communal, took place in open, public spaces, nean altar, and were presided over by those who helauthority within the community making the sacriBefore the sacrice, the participants marched inprocession up to the altar of the deity to be honoreand poured incense and unmixed wine into a reburning in a round hearth as a0 ute was played.

According to the traditional Roman practice fmaking animal sacrices, which the Romans beliwent back to the time of Aeneas, salted0 our was

sprinkled on the victim’s back, wine was poured oits brow, and a sacricial knife was run along its bThe victim was thereby consecrated to the deity.Larger animals such as cows or bulls were then strand bled. Smaller animals had their throats cut.Tanimals were then laid on their backs and, after twere cut open, their internal organs (liver, lungs,bladder, peritoneum, and heart) were examined bharuspex , or diviner, to see whether the innards were

19.Lid of a ceremonial box Roman, Augustan, late1st centuryb.c. – early1st centurya.d.Gilt silver;1 x 3g in.(2.5 x 8.3cm)

Purchase, Marguerite and Frank A.Cosgrove Jr. Fund and Mr. and Mrs.Christos G. Bastis Gift,2000 (2000.26)

points to consider

s The making of sacrices to the gods was oneof the key ways in which the Romans interact-ed with their gods. O. erings to the gods couldinclude the sacrice of animals, the pouring of libations, or the burning of incense.

s Roman sacrice followed highly specic proce-

dures.The sacrice was carefully inspected tomake sure that the gods accepted it. Otherwisethe sacrice had to be repeated.

s It is impossible to know whether the Museum’sceremonial box lid refers to a specic god, since itwas the prayers that accompanied a given sacricethat identied for which god it was intended.

s The design of this box suggests that it was used

in some religious ritual. It is decorated with rep-resentations of animals typically used in sacricesand with respresentations of ritual objects.



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intact and normal. If so, the sacrice was deemed acceptable to the gods.If something was missing or abnormal, the sacrice was repeated untilone acceptable to the gods could be e. ected.

After the innards were examined, the victim’s body was dividedup. The entrails, after boiling, were given to the gods while prayerswere recited.The Romans recited these prayers to make clear who wasconducting the sacrice, to which god the sacrice was being carriedout, and why. The rest of the victim was declared profane, and thus,after being cooked, could be eaten by humans. Usually the most eminentmembers of whatever social group was conducting the sacrice received

the best portions of the meat and ate rst.

The Museum’s Ceremonial Box Lid

This small but highly rened rectangular box lid is decorated in highrelief with the miniaturized heads of a bull, goat, and ram, the animalscommonly sacriced at public religious ceremonies. Below the headsare objects of religious cult that include a0 aring torch, libation bowl,bundle of wood, sheathed knife,0 oral garland, and pomegranate. The

libation bowl would have been used to pour liquid o.

erings; the garlandmight have been draped on the altar or on the sacricial victim. Thepomegranate, a fruit associated with death, might have been used in aritual in honor of the dead.The knife would have been used to dispatchthe animal victim, while the torch would have illuminated a nocturnalritual. Two smaller animals, a bound kid and a rooster, partly concealsome of the cult objects; they, too, must have been intended as o. erings.The objects are worked in high relief in repoussé, and the details aregilded. The shapes are packed into a framed rectangular panel.Thedecoration is of the highest quality.

The nature of the decoration suggests that the box that this lidcovered was used for some religious function. Perhaps it held incense thatwould have been used in a sacricial rite. It is impossible to know, however,whether the lid and its box were priestly possessions or private ones.



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s Describe the objects hammered into thedecoration of this box. Do the images lookrealistic to you? Why or why not?

s Do you think all of these objects would havebeen used in a single sacrice, or do you thinkthe box lid is making a general reference to religious ritual? Why or why not?

s What do you suppose the box that this lidcovered was used to hold?



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points to consider

s Roman religion was based on the performanceof public rituals of sacrices to the gods. Amongthe participants in carrying out those rites werechildren who met certain qualications of ageand social status.

s Romans erected statues of important people in

their public spaces. Many of these statues, iden-tied by inscriptions, had very individualizedfeatures that identied them as portraits of spe-cic people. The generalized features of the boyhere suggest that the statue does not representa specic person but rather the position of thecamillus , or priestly attendant.

s The materials chosen by the craftsmen who cre-ated this hollow-cast bronze statue were intended

to make it look as lifelike as possible. When bur-nished, the bronze surface would have looked liketanned0 esh, while the copper lips would havelooked red and the eyes white.

The Position of Camillus

In Rome, acamillus was a youthful acolyte whoassisted priests in the performance of Romanreligious rites.These acolytes, who could be eitheboys or girls, served many di. erent priesthoods incarrying out the public rituals of sacrice that wervital to the observance of Roman religion.

It was an honor to serve in this position; to

qualify, a youth must have been free-born, belowage of puberty, and had two living parents. Oftenone of the parents of the acolyte participated in thceremonies in which thecamillus served.

20.Camillus Roman, Early Imperial, Julio-Claudian,a.d. 41–54Bronze;h. 46k in.(117.2cm)

Gift of Henry G. Marquand,1897(97.22.25)



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The Museum’s Statue

The Museum’s statue may be a generalized representation of a typicalmalecamillus rather than the portrait of a specic child. This boy,hollow-cast in bronze, stands with his weight on the right leg. His headis turned slightly to the left. The eyes are inlaid with silver and the lipswith copper. When the statue was new, and burnished to a bright sheen,these e. ects would have given it an amazingly lifelike appearance.

The camillus is dressed in the typical tunic and sandals of his o. ice.The tunic is inlaid with copper strips to suggest bands of color in the

garment. He probably held an incense box in his left hand, ascamilli are shown doing in other representations of them, such as the reliefsof the Ara Pacis, the Altar of Peace erected by the emperor Augustus.The lid of such a box, decorated with sacricial implements andanimals, is discussed under image19. Sometimes decorations on thebox help scholars to identify which priestly college the acolyte served.Unfortunately, since the box is missing from this sculpture, no suchspecicity is possible in this case. We do not know in what context thestatue was displayed; it might have been votive or commemorative.



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s Describe the appearance of this gure. How odo you think he is? What is he wearing? Whatyou think he is doing?

s

Do you think that this is a portrait of a specichild? Why or why not?

s Describe the material from which the statue wmade. Do you think the use of this materialmakes him look more, or less, lifelike?Why?



10 7


points to consider

s Roman religion was polytheistic, and it incor-

porated deities from all over the ancient world.Cybele was not a goddess known in earliestRome, but her cult image and worship werebrought to Rome in the late third centuryb.c.

s Unlike many of the “oriental” deities that were in-troduced to Rome, Cybele received rites as part of the o1 cial Roman cult. She also was worshippedin private “mysteries” by some of her followers.

s

Roman gods and goddesses have attributes, thatis, details of dress or presentation that were alwaysassociated with them and that help us to iden-tify them. In Cybele’s case, the attributes include acrown that is shaped like fortress walls, in refer-ence to her role as protector of her people, andlions, since she is the mistress of untamed nature.

s A cult statue of the goddess was placed in anytemple dedicated to her, and worshippers might

keep a private image of her in their homes forpersonal devotion. In this case, the representationof Cybele had a decorative purpose, since it waspart of a fountain complex. It still may have car-ried a religious connotation, however.

s The di. erence in scale between Cybele and herlions suggests that she is represented as a cultimage rather than as the goddess herself.

The Introduction of the Goddess Cybele to Rome

In addition to deities associated with the Greek

pantheon, like Jupiter, Rome’s polytheistic religioincorporated many gods and goddesses of Easterorigin. One of the most prominent was the Phryggoddess Magna Mater, or Cybele. She had long bknown in Greece, but her cult was introduced intRome during the Second Punic War in the late thircenturyb.c.The cult remained popular until earlyChristian times. Unlike many of the deities that wnot Italic in origin, whose worship was toleratedbut who did not receive o1 cial recognition from

the state, Cybele was given a temple on the PalatiHill, in the most sacred part of Rome. In part thiswas because her origins in Asia Minor linked herRome’s Trojan ancestors. At times limitations weplaced on the cult because some of its practices, sas the self-castration of Cybele’s priests, were viewith suspicion by the authorities. But her festivaland games were part of the o1 cial calendar, andshe received o1 cial cult. By the time of the emperoAugustus, she had entered the visual, cultural, an

intellectual repertoire of the Roman world alongsisuch traditionally revered gods as Jupiter.

21.Statuette of Cybele on a cart drawn by lions Roman,2nd half of 2nd centurya.d.Bronze;l. 54i in.(139.1cm),w. 12in.(30.5cm)

Gift of Henry G. Marquand,1897(97.22.24)



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The Representation of Cybele

Cybele was the goddess of fertility, protection in war, and untamednature. Her worship was especially popular among women and farmers.She is frequently shown with lions to symbolize her role as mistress of nature, and she wears a crown made of turreted walls in reference to herprotection of the people in times of war. She is often shown enthronedand0 anked by her lions, or with one in her lap. Here she is seated in acart (now missing, except for the wheels) drawn by two maned lions.

The goddess is shown wearing a chiton, a loose linen dress with

buttoned sleeves that is belted beneath her breasts, and a cloak that isdrawn up over her turreted crown like a veil. Her ears have been piercedfor earrings that are now missing. She carries a libation bowl in her righthand and a large drum in her left. Her feet rest on a footstool. All that isleft of the original cart are the four seven-spoked wheels.

Each year, the festival of Cybele at Rome ended with a processionthat carried the silver cult image of the goddess to a river for ritualbathing, symbolic of the earth’s fertilization by rain. Since the Museum’sCybele is of a much smaller scale than the lions, it has been suggestedthat this ensemble represents the procession of the goddess’ cult image to

the river, rather than the living goddess herself.The Museum’s Cybele and lion group was originally part of afountain, with the mouths of the lions serving as waterspouts. While thegroup had a decorative function, we cannot be sure that it no longer hadany religious signicance for the Romans.



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s Describe the gures in this sculptural ensembWhat is the seated female wearing? What is scarrying? Do you think she is a powerful guWhy or why not?

s In fact, we know that this gure is Cybele, godof fertility, protection in war, and of untamednature. Does this sculptural ensemble visually

to any of those powers?Which ones?s Why do you think the lions are on a much

greater scale than Cybele?

s We know that this sculptural ensemble originfunctioned as a fountain (the lions’ mouths awaterspouts).Today, would we be likely to reresent a revered gure in the form of a fountasculpture? Why would this be inappropriate f

us? Why do you think it was acceptable for thRomans of the second centurya.d.?

s A cult statue of Cybele was carried to the rivethe Romans every year to be ceremonially bathIn many modern religions, there is a similar tra-tion of processions of sacred images (think ofCatholic processions of saintly images, or simHindu practice). If you are a member of a relior a religious tradition, is there a similar practi

that you can think of? Describe it.



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points to considers Mithras was one of the most popular gods in the

Roman pantheon. Of Iranian origin, his religionrapidly spread across the Roman empire in thesecond and third centuriesa.d., in part becauseit was popular with soldiers, who carried it withthem as they traveled around the empire. Hisadherents were exclusively male.

s

Mithraism was a mystery religion whose worshipwas carried out in underground chambers calledmithraea . More than fty of these have been foundat Rome and its port city, Ostia. Probably these“caves” were used for communal dining, allud-ing to a divine banquet supposedly enjoyed byMithras and the sun god, Sol.

s The chambers were decorated with statues of Mithras, whose imagery is very specic. The

god wears a tunic, cloak, and conical hat, andis accompanied by a dog, snake, scorpion, andraven. He sits atop a bull and slays it with adagger. Heads of Sol and Luna, the moon,0 oatin the background.

s The Museum’s plaque is a typical representationof Mithras slaying the bull.

The God Mithras

Mithras was an ancient god, probably of Indo-Iranian origin, who became popular in the Romaempire during the second and third centuriesa.d. asa deity with exclusively male adherents.The origIranian Mithra was a god of concord, cattle herdand the dawn light. In his Roman form, Mithrasgiven the epithets of sun god, bull killer, and savof the sworn members of his cult.

It is not known precisely how the cult of Mithras made its way into the Roman empire, asthe surviving evidence for the cult is archaeologirather than textual. However, by the middle of the second centurya.d., the religion was wellestablished, and over400places associated with ithave been unearthed, along with more than1,000dedicatory inscriptions and more than1,000piecesof sculpture. Evidence of the cult has been founfrom Hadrian’s Wall in Britain to Dura-Europos

on the Euphrates River in Syria. A great manyremains are preserved from Rome and its port ofOstia; extrapolating from the some ftymithraea ,or underground places of worship, that have beeuncovered at these two cities, there may have beenthan700shrines in them alone.

Mithraism was particularly popular amongcivil functionaries and members of the military.was also popular with freedmen or slaves, possib

22.Plaque with Mithras slaying the bull Roman, Antonine or Severan,mid-2nd–early3rd centurya.d.Bronze;14 x 11m in.(35.6 x 29.5cm)

Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Klaus G. Perls,1997(1997.145.3)



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because it seemed to o.

er the hope of redemptionand salvation.

The Mithraeum

The Mithraic religion was a so-called mystery cult.Its believers were organized into small autonomouscells who met for worship in small chambers,called “caves,” many of which were in fact set in

underground caves. Eachmithraeumconsisted of arectangular room with a central aisle0 anked byplatforms on which the initiates reclined and dinedcommunally. This meal was conceived of as thehuman counterpart of a divine banquet enjoyed byMithras and the sun god, Sol.

The Representation of Mithras

Everymithraeumhad a representation of Mithras init, usually at the far end of the room.Typically thegod is shown astride a bull, killing it with a dagger.He wears “Persian” dress consisting of tunic, cloak,and conical cap, and is accompanied by a dog, snake,scorpion, and raven, and also by two minor gods in“Persian” clothing, each carrying a torch.The scenetakes place in front of a cave, and in the background0 oat the heads of Sol, the sun god, and Luna, thelunar deity. Precise interpretation of this mysterious

scene of sacrice has not been established. Scholarsdebate whether it shows the creation or the end of theworld. It has also been interpreted as an astrologicalallegory of the soul’s celestial journey.

Although this is the most common scenefrom Mithraic myth, other episodes are sometimesillustrated on the monuments, including the god’sbirth from a rock, the hunt and capture of the bull,and the banquet with the sun god.

The Museum’s Mithras Plaque

The Museum’s relief shows the customary bull-

slaying scene. Mithras is astride the bull, his cloakswirling behind him, and he delivers the fatal blow ashe pulls the bull’s head back with one hand. His dogtears at the neck of the bull, while the snake rises upto meet the point of the blade and a scorpion alsoassists. Busts of Sol, with a radiant crown, and Luna,cradled in a crescent moon, hover in the background.

The plaque has three holes on each of the longsides, presumably for attachment to another object. Itmay have been hung in amithraeum, or possibly in an

adherent’s home.



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discussion questionss Describe the gure depicted in this plaque.

What is he wearing? Is he dressed in a toga,the typical male Roman attire?What does hisclothing suggest?

s Look at the various animals in the plaque. Whis each doing?

s

There are two busts0 oating in the background.Can you identify who they represent? If so, h

s Where might such a plaque have been hung?



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points to consider

s A proper burial was necessary to ensure thesafe passage of the soul of the deceased intothe afterlife.

s Family ties and ancestors were very importantto the Romans.Therefore the remains of family members were kept together in tombs

that held the ash urns and/or sarcophagi of many generations.

s In the Roman Republic and the rst century of the Roman empire, cremation was a commonfunerary method.

s Funerary urns were typically inscribed with thenames of the deceased. They might be decoratedin many di. erent ways; some were shaped like

vessels, others like altars. Some had relief deco-rations. Some were decorated with scenes thatrelated to the life of the deceased.

s The Museum’s ash urn has lost the inscriptionthat would have identied the deceased. However,the decoration of the box with arms and war tro-phies suggests that the dead person was in life animportant soldier.

Roman Beliefs about the Afterlife

Roman polytheists did not believe in a bodily lifeearth after death. However, some Romans apparebelieved that the soul lived on after death, even ththe body did not.The soul joined the communitythe di manes , the spirits of the dead. The immortalitof the soul required that the deceased be remembeby the living. Thus the regular performance of

funerary cult was essential.

The Practice of Cremation at Rome

Cremation, or burning of the dead body andpreservation of the ashes, was a common methodof burial in the Roman world from the regal periountil the second centurya.d. It was part of a solemnfunerary ritual, since the Romans believed that o

could pass into the afterlife only after a proper burThe rst step in such a burial was the washing ofthe body by family members. A coin was then plain the mouth of the deceased to pay Charon, themythological ferryman, who would row the soulacross the rivers of the underworld. A processionthen carried the body outside the city walls to becremated. Paid mourners and musicians often jointhis procession of family and friends.

23.Cinerary urn with arms and war trophies Roman, Julio-Claudian,1st half of 1st centurya.d.Found near Anagni, southeast of Rome, in1899Marble; overall:14g x 21g x 16k in.

(36.2 x 54 x 41cm)Purchase, Philodoroi Gifts,2002 (2002.297)and Gift of Ariel Herrmann,2002 (2002.568)



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After the body was burned on a pyre, the asheswere gathered in an urn that was buried in the ground,placed in a mausoleum, or set in a niche in the wall of a subterranean communal tomb called acolumbarium(fromcolumba , meaning dove or pigeon). Such tombsmight contain the remains of generations of familymembers, and survivors were expected to visit themon days devoted to honoring the dead to o. er themcult and to dine in their presence.

Funerary urns could come in many shapes. Some

mimicked the shape of vessels, while others lookedlike woven baskets. See for example, the cinerary urnin the form of a basket included in Art of the Classical World , no.422. (This urn probably represented aweaving basket and thus held a female burial, sinceweaving was one of the skills that all Roman womenwere expected to have.) Also illustrated in thatpublication is a cinerary chest with a funerary banquet(no.423), showing the deceased reclining on a couchand being served food and wine. Still other ash urns

resembled altars or small tombs. Usually these urnscarried inscriptions identifying the deceased, althoughsometimes these inscriptions were placed below them.The urns could be made of many materials, fromglass (see no.427) to terracotta to marble.

Tomb Architecture

Like many ancient peoples, the Romans forbade burial

of the dead within the city walls. Instead, burialstook place innecropoli (cities of the dead) that linedroads leading away from towns. Many families erectedelaborate tomb complexes to commemorate their deadand to catch the attention of passersby. Since these wereessentially display monuments rather than functionalbuildings, they came in many di. erent forms.

For example, some Roman tomb architectureevolved out of thetumulus tombs of the Etruscan city

of Cerveteri, which were squat, cylindrical, and coveredwith mounds of earth.The mausolea of Augustus andHadrian, which consisted of large circular stone drumswith earth on top, followed this model.

During the Republic and early empire, whencremation was a common form of burial, ash urnsmight be placed in the niches of columbaria becausethese niches and portrait busts of the deceasedresembled the dovecotes in which the birds lived. Inthe empire, many tombs were above-ground barrel-

vaulted structures that were used for generations andmight contain sarcophagi as well as ash urns.Tombsshaped like houses came into widespread use in themiddle empire. Many of these tombs had elaborateinteriors where the family could gather for reunionsto commemorate the dead.

Tombs could take fanciful shapes as well. Notablelate Republican tombs still standing at Rome includethe pyramid-shaped tomb of Caius Cestius and thetomb of the baker MarcusVergilius Eurysaces, a

trapezoid decorated with what are either cylindricalgrain measures or machines for kneading dough, aswell as relief scenes showing the baking of bread.Eurysaces also included relief portraits of himself and his wife, as is common on freedmen’s tombs of the late Republic and early empire. Please refer to thefunerary relief with the busts of a man and a woman,image30, in the Daily Life section.

The Museum’s Funerary Ash Urn

The Museum’s rectangular ash urn is missing itslid and most of its front, including the inscriptionrecording the name of the deceased. However,the container’s relief decoration likely tells us theoccupation of the deceased. The surviving sidesare crowded with high-relief carvings of piles of weapons, armor, and trophies of war: greaves,



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shields, helmets, chariot wheels, and banners all canbe distinguished.

Depictions of military equipment like this arenot typically seen on private monuments.Theyare more common on imperial monuments thatcommemorate battles, such as triumphal arches. Thequality of the carving, as well as the subject matter,make it likely, then, that this urn was commissionedfor a high-ranking Roman army o1 cer.


s Look carefully at this marble box. Describe thdecorations you see carved on it.

s This box served as the funerary urn for the asof a person who had been cremated. What dodecorative motifs carved on this box suggest tyou about the occupation of the person whoseremains were buried in this box?

s Where do you think this box might have been k

s Compare this ash urn with the cinerary urn inthe form of a basket illustrated in Art of the ClassicWorld , no.422. Does that shape o. er any clues tothe identity of the deceased?



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roman religion



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points to consider

s In the rst centurya.d., deceased family memberswere often commemorated by funerary altars thatmight be decorated with an inscription and some-times with a likeness of the dead person. Sacriceswere not made at these commemorative monumentsas they would have been at regular altars.

s

Cominia Tyche, who is represented on this altar,is shown as a woman with very specic features.Her portrait is not idealized but rather shows heras she actually looked.

s The Romans were great followers of fashion. If a particular hairstyle became popular with thewomen of the imperial court, whose portraitsrepresented them wearing it, it would have beenimitated by women all across the empire. Changes

in hairstyles over time help us to date the portraitsof those who wear particular styles, even if theirmonument does not bear a date.

s Funerary altars did not always represent the de-ceased. Compare the Museum’s Julio-Claudianfunerary altar illustrated in Art of the Classical World , no.421. Here the deceased are commemo-rated by an inscription, while the elaborate relief

decoration of the altar, with its heavy garlandsuspended from rams’ heads, mimics the decoration of public sanctuaries.The three types obird, an eagle (the bird of Jupiter), swans (birof Apollo), and songbirds (signifying bountifnature), are all associated with monuments ere-ed by Augustus, the rst emperor.

Roman Altars as CommemorativeFunerary Markers

For a discussion of Roman beliefs about death, plrefer to the introduction to image23.

In Roman religion, many religious acts involsacrices to honor or seek the guidance of the gThese sacrices often were made on altars, whichwere erected wherever divinities were worshipped

the early Imperial period, altars began to be usedburial markers, although it is unlikely that sacricwere actually made at them. Next to cinerary urnfunerary altars were the most typical form of gravmonument produced in Rome and its environs inrst and early second centuriesa.d.Some were carvedonly with inscriptions; others, like this one, featurportraits of the deceased as well as inscriptions.

24.Funerary altar ( cippus ) of Cominia Tyche Roman, Flavian orTrajanic, ca.a.d. 90–100Known in the16th century in ahouse near the Roman Forum; later

Palazzo BarberiniMarble;h. 40in.(101.6cm)Gift of Philip Hofer,1938 (38.27)



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The Museum’s Funerary Altar

This funerary altar served as a marker in the familyplot of a communal tomb that was probably on theoutskirts of Rome.

The Latin inscription on this altar slopes o.

toward the bottom proper left side, so it must havebeen carved without the use of horizontal guidelines.It can be translated as follows:

To the spirits of the dead.Lucius Annius Festus [set this up]for the most saintly Cominia Tyche,his most chaste and loving wife,who lived27years,11months, and28days,and also for himself and for his descendants.

The inscription is typical for a woman in Romansociety. Since women did not usually have a publicrole, it emphasizes not actions she took in life

but rather the characteristics which the Romansconsidered to be those of an ideal wife.Above the inscription, set into a shallow niche, is

a bust-length portrait of the deceased woman, whosename indicates that she had Greek or servile origins.The bust is cradled in anacanthus leaf. This signiesthat she is dead. The portrait of Cominia is not thatof an idealized beauty; rather it is of an individualwoman. Cominia is shown with a round, unwrinkledface, thin lips, and a rather prominent nose. Her hair,

piled high along the top and sides of her head, is a

mass of carefully carved round curls. The center of each curl has been deeply drilled, creating a dramaticinterplay of light and dark e. ects that contrasts withthe smoothness of her skin. Such an elaborate coi. uremay be a wig. The sides of the funerary altar arecarved with a pitcher and a libation bowl, or patera ,respectively. These vessels allude to the practice of pouring liquids in commemoration of the dead andthus are commonly represented on funerary altars.

Dating of Roman Portraits through theUse of Hairstyles

CominiaTyche’s elaborate hairstyle helps us todate the monument to arounda.d. 90 – 100, since itimitates the coi. ure adopted by women attached tothe court of the later Flavian emperors. Images of imperial women were widely disseminated both inportrait busts set up in public places and on coins

that were distributed throughout the empire. Thusa Roman woman could readily adopt a fashionableimperial hairstyle, even if she had never seen theempress in person.



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s Describe the appearance of the woman in thisnerary portrait. Does it surprise you to learn tshe was not yet twenty-eight years old at the tof her death? Why or why not?

s Look closely at Cominia Tyche’s hairstyle. Thcarving of the curls is much more three-dimesional than the carving of her clothing. How d

you think the artist has achieved this e.

ect?s What characteristics of Cominia Tyche are de

scribed in the funerary inscription?Why do yothink it was important for a Roman woman ofthis period to possess these qualities?

s Does this funerary inscription tell us anythingabout what Cominia Tyche did in life?

s

As you can see from the altar of Cominia Tychas well as from the cinerary urn (image23), theDionysian sarcophagus (image25), and the freed-men’s relief (image30, in the Daily Life section)the Romans memorialized their dead in manydi. erent ways.What are the di. erent ways thatdeceased family members are commemoratedvarious societies today?



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points to consider

s In the second centurya.d., Romans began tointer their dead in sarcophagi rather than cre-mating them. We are not sure why this changeoccurred, but it cannot denitively be linked toany changes in the view of the afterlife.

s Sarcophagi were produced in both the Roman

West and the Greek East, and di.

erent styles de-veloped depending on the point of production.

s Sarcophagi could be decorated in many di. erentways: carved with garland swags of fruits and0 owers, supported by putti; with scenes fromthe life of the deceased, or from mythology.Pattern books with popular scenes were circulat-ed throughout the Mediterranean and were usedby craftsmen to compose the composition for

these sarcophagi.s Some people probably commissioned their own

sarcophagi, while others may have bought a n-ished box with a generic design.

s The most popular mythological themes on sar-cophagi related to sudden death, eternal sleep, orthe cycle of death and rebirth.

s In the late empire, Roman sculptors moved awfrom the naturalistic proportions and logicalspaces that had been popular earlier and adopta more stylized, abstract style of carving.

A Change in Roman Funerary Practices

For a discussion of Roman beliefs about death, plrefer to the introduction to image23.Beginning in the second centurya.d., inhumation

(burial of the dead body) became more popular thcremation, starting as a fashion among the morea2 uent levels of Roman society. The reasons whyare still not completely understood. Some scholarspeculate that the change in burial practices isconnected to changes in views of the afterlife, buthere is no explicit evidence.

A Roman Industry: Sarcophagus Production

Sarcophagusproduction became a lucrative industrthroughout the Mediterranean, and centers of production, with distinctive styles, developed in Itnear Athens, and in Asia Minor. Sarcophagi produin the West were carved only on three sides, since

25.Sarcophagus with the Triumph of Dionysus and the Four Seasons Roman, Late Imperial, ca.a.d. 260–270Marble; overall:34 x 85 x 36g in.

(86.4 x 215.9 x 92.1cm)Purchase, Joseph Pulitzer Bequest,1955(55.11.5)

(See also poster)



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they usually were set against a wall or niche insidea tomb. In the East, where sarcophagi often stoodoutside on the streets of anecropolis, all sides werecarved.The expense of the most elaborately carvedsarcophagi must have greatly impressed passersby.

Motifs Used to Decorate Roman Sarcophagi

Whether produced in East orWest, and whether

mass-produced or individually commissioned,sarcophagi were decorated using similar sets of motifs. These probably were derived from patternbooks. Popular decorations included carved garlandsof fruits and plants, imitating the leafy swags thatdecorated public buildings, altars, and funerarymonuments. Scenes from Greek mythology, depictingsudden death, eternal sleep, or immortality, were alsopopular. Later, biographical sarcophagi narrated thecareer of the deceased as a soldier, physician, and so

on. Sometimes sarcophagi were given lids in the formof akline , or funerary couch, with a carved e1 gy of the deceased reclining on top.

The Museum has many other examples of sarcophagi on view and illustrated in Art of the Classical World . Several are mythological:Theseus andAriadne (no.455), Selene and Endymion (no.456),and the contest of Muses and Sirens (no.469).Also treated in that publication are astrigilatedsarcophagus with lions’heads (no.466), a sarcophagus

with garlands (no.468), and a sarcophagus lid with areclining couple (no.467).

The Museum’s Dionysus and theFour Seasons Sarcophagus

The Museum’s elaborately carved and well-preservedlenos , a sarcophagus with rounded ends that resembles

a bathtub, is carved in high relief with a crowd of human and animal gures. Originally it would havehad paint and gilt highlights to make it even easierto view. In the front center panel, carved in highrelief, we see Dionysus, god of wine, seated on hispanther in a procession celebrating his triumphs inthe East, a possible analogy for the soul’s triumphover death. (Dionysus was associated with a betterfate after death and thus was a popular subject onsarcophagi.) He is0 anked by four equally prominent

gures representing the Four Seasons (starting withWinter on the left); these symbolize the cycle of lifeand suggest recurring rebirth. The background of thecomposition is teeming with smaller-scale and moreshallowly carved human and animal participants inthe wine god’sthiasos , or ritual procession.

Each of the ends of thelenos is carved witha reclining personication, Mother Earth with asatyr and a youth on one end, and a bearded male,probably a river god, and two youths on the other.

The back has scratchy circles that suggest it was usedfor practice carving.The marble for this sarcophagus originated

in Asia Minor. However, since only three sides arecarved, a Western fashion, the marble apparently wasshipped to Rome for carving. The marble probablywould have been placed in a tomb where familymembers could come to dine in honor of the dead.

It is impossible to know whether the subjectdepicted had any particular signicance for the

undoubtedly a2

uent person who commissionedit. At least one other known sarcophagus has thesame composition of Dionysus0 anked by the FourSeasons, which suggests that this composition wascopied from a pattern book.

Please refer to Art of the Classical World , no.464, fora very di. erent version of the Triumph of Dionysusthat decorates a silver handle from a serving dish.



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The Figural Style of the Seasons Sarcophagus

Although the characters in this composition derivefrom the canon of the Greek mythological world,they are not carved in a classical style, that is, with thestrict attention to proportion and realistic anatomythat typify faithful copies of Greek prototypes (see,for example, the statue of Venus, image17). Instead,the gures are0 eshy, with doughy muscles andseemingly boneless bodies. Their heads are also

overlarge, and the most important gures (Dionysusand the Seasons) are shown as larger than the othercharacters, emphasizing their importance in thecomposition.These stylistic characteristics are typicalof sculpture of the later Roman empire, innovationsthat would be carried into early Christian art. Despitethe anatomical distortion, the carving is masterful,with the deep undercutting of the high-relief gurescreating striking e. ects of light and dark.

The Sarcophagus in Its Context

A sarcophagus such as this one would most likelyhave stood in a niche or against a wall, along withother sarcophagi or ash urns belonging to the samefamily, inside a larger tomb structure. In the highand late empire, such structures often resembledhouses. Living family members would visit the tombson appropriate days (such as the birthday of the

deceased, for example) and have banquets inside thetomb chambers to honor the dead—some tombbuildings even had working kitchens. As the familydined in the chamber, illuminated only by the lightof candles or oil lamps, the deeply carved gures onthe sarcophagus must have seemed to dance and revel,both impressing the living and honoring the dead.


s Take a quick look at the overall scene on the scophagus.What do you think is going on herethe mood happy or sad?Why do you think so?

s The four standing male gures wear nothing bcloaks. Each holds certain objects in his handWhat is each holding?What do you think thesobjects symbolize?What do you think these

ures stand for?s Do the standing male gures have realistic-lo

ing bodies? Why do you think they all look al

s One of the gures represented on this sarcophais the god Dionysus. Can you tell which one? H

s Does this seem to be a scene of worship?

s

How many gures can you see on the sarcophgus? Are some of them not in human or animform? Describe them.

s How many di. erent kinds of animals do you seWhat kinds of animals are they? How are theinvolved in the action?

s On a visit to the Museum, stand at least eightfeet away from the sarcophagus.Which is/are

the most important gure(s) in the compositioHow can you tell?

s Walk all the way around the sarcophagus. Howdoes the back di. er from the front?Where doyou think the sarcophagus was meant to beplaced?Why?



126

daily life in ancient rome



W e know a great deal about the lives of the ancienRomans. Our sources of information includeliterary works written by historians, satirists, and

playwrights, as well as private documents such as persoletters, business contracts, and shopping lists written by avcitizens of the empire. There is also a rich archaeologictrove. Architectural remains, including wall paintings, mosdecorative arts, portrait sculptures, and historical reliefs,well as pottery, jewelry, bronzes, glass, and so forth, all giv

insights into Roman daily life. Although the material evidhas survived from the ancient world on a random basis, wremains helps us to understand the lives of ancient Romfrom all socioeconomic strata. Inevitably, our picture of Rodaily life is incomplete, but it is enriched by new discoveevery year not only from Rome and Italy but also from thprovinces of the Roman empire.

When we talk about daily life in ancient Rome, we therefore need t

keep in mind both the limitations of our evidence and the vast areawhich it comes. Just as Roman art in the provinces could di. er in someways from that of the capital in re0 ecting local styles, so the lives of people in the provinces might di. er in substantial ways. Nonetheless,some broad outlines can be drawn. The purpose of this overview isfamiliarize the reader with subjects that are not covered in the indiventries, supplying background information about Roman governmeinstitutions, society, and so forth that will help readers to understanwhere the individual objects t into the whole of Roman daily life.

DAILY LIFE IN ANCIENT ROM

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Government under the Republic

Between509and27 b.c., Rome was a Republic. Froma Roman perspective, this meant that after the lastRoman king was deposed, authority within the statewas shared by two elected magistrates calledconsuls .That authority was calledimperiumby the Romans andentailed the legally sanctioned ability to command aRoman army and compel Roman citizens bodily. Therest of the executive responsibilities of the Republic

were distributed among a number of other magistrates.In theory, Republican Rome in some ways wasa direct democracy. The Roman people passed alllegislation and comprised the nal court of appeal incapital cases. In practice, however, it was an oligarchy,in which the Senate, an advisory body of 300or sohereditary advisors to the magistrates, exerted enor-mous in0 uence over the magistrates and the citizenassemblies of Rome.

Government under the Empire

Although Augustus claimed to have restored theRepublican form of government, his reign actuallymarked a return to autocratic rule for the Romanstate. The emperors were the primary holders of imperium, although temporary grants might be madeto governors or others under specic circumstances.During the empire, the social origins and role of the

Senate changed. Gradually, wealthy aristocrats fromthe provinces of the empire were recruited into aSenate of about600members who had to satisfy aproperty qualication. Roman senators no longercame exclusively from Italy or the city of Rome.

During the Imperial period, the Senate still metto debate and discuss the great issues of the day,but it no longer had the initiative in the direction of foreign a. airs or military matters. Its role was really

to ratify the policy decisions and the selections of magistrates made by the emperors.

The Army

The Roman army was very in0 uential in the develop-ment of Roman society. From its earliest origins,Rome relied on conquest by its citizen soldiers tohelp it grow from a small village into the capital of

a huge empire. The army of the early Republic wascomposed of citizen property owners, but graduallyeligibility was broadened to include people withoutproperty or jobs who wanted to make a career as asoldier. Thus a professional army developed. The ter-ritory controlled by Rome continued to expand untilthe early Imperial period. Thereafter, for the mostpart, the army directed its e. orts toward protectingestablished borders.

When not at war, soldiers helped to build public

works such as roads and aqueducts. At the end of the enlistment term of twenty or twenty-ve years(longer for noncitizens), soldiers were often givenland in the province where they had been stationed,and noncitizens were granted citizenship. A Romannaval diploma (image32) commemorating the end of a term of service is featured in this resource.

Roman Roads

The extensive road system of the Roman empireoriginated from the military routes of the Republicanarmy and from early trade routes. The rst emperorsvastly extended the road system, and provincialgovernors and municipal benefactors also built roadswithin their own spheres of power. These roadsgreatly enhanced the movement of people, goods, andinformation all across the empire.



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Social Structure

One’s place in Roman society was determined bythree attributes (or their absence): wealth, freedom,and Roman citizenship.

Senators The senators of early Rome were a hereditary orderof wealthy landowners within Roman society. Sincetheir land was worked by others, these men were

expected to devote themselves to unpaid publicservice as magistrates, priests, judges, and/or sena-tors. Service in the Senate normally lasted for life.

Equestrians The equestrian order possibly evolved from the ranksof men who owned enough property to be able toown a horse and thus to serve in the Roman cavalry.Over time it was used to identify men of means whochose not to serve in the Senate, but rather to employ

themselves in trade, business, banking, and the fulll-ment of public contracts. They constituted, in e. ect,a business class. In the empire, in order to dilute thepower of the senators, emperors increasingly ap-pointed equestrians to public o1 ce.

The senatorial and equestrian orders comprisedthe upper socioeconomic order of Roman societyduring the Republic and empire.

The Poor

There was no middle “class” in ancient Rome, as weunderstand the term. There was a huge gap in thestandard of living between the senatorial and eques-trian orders and the masses of the poor. In terms of legal rights, however, the poor citizens were bettero. than slaves. During the early Republic, the poorwere called plebeians, although some members of thisorder eventually became rich themselves.

Broadly speaking, throughout its history ancient

Rome was an agricultural society, and most of thinhabitants of the empire lived at subsistence lev(As Rome became rich during the third centuryb.c.,a class of urban poor also emerged.) Most peoplelived in the same place their entire lives, lacking ephysical or social mobility.

FreedmenFor a discussion of freedmen, please see the funerelief with the busts of a man and a woman (image30).

Slaves At the bottom of the Roman social hierarchy werslaves. Although rm statistics are di1 cult to comeby, it is possible that, as a result of Rome’s wars conquest during the middle Republican period, almone-third of the population of peninsular Italy weeither slaves themselves or the descendants of slaby the late Republic. Even moderately wealthy peowould have owned at least a few household slaves

There were many di.

erent types of slaves, andtheir conditions of servitude might vary widely.Agricultural slaves, for example, were essentially bof burden. Some well-educated slaves, however, mtutor the children of the master or assist him inbusiness. Unlike slaves in other societies, Roman swere encouraged to marry and have children in orto continue to supply slaves in times of peace.

Unlike all other slave-owning peoples of theancient world, the Romans allowed their slaves to

money earned through bonuses, and even eventuato buy their freedom. This system encouraged thproductivity of slaves—they had to pay their mastxed sum, but anything above that they could kea ne incentive to work hard.

Some slaves were freed by their masters in thewills. However they attained their freedom, thesefreed slaves and/or their children were then incorprated into the Roman citizen body.



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Patronage

During the Republic, wealthy senators typicallyserved as the so-called patrons of members of the lower orders, providing money and services toselected individuals who then became their clients.In return, the client was expected to show deferenceand support to his patron, going to the patron’s houseeach morning to greet him and attend to him whilehe conducted public or political business. The social

status and political clout of a Roman noble wasre0 ected in the number of his clients.

Occupations

The economy of the Roman empire was predomi-nantly based upon agriculture. The vast majority of the population worked every day on the land. Thethree major crops were grain, wine, and olives; these

and other agricultural products were exported all overthe Roman world.Perhaps during the early Republic, individual citi-

zens owned small plots of land to farm. Certainly theRomans of the late Republic believed that they weredescendants of self-reliant small farmers. In reality,however, by the mid-Republic most of the land inItaly was controlled by a few wealthy landowners,who employed tenant farmers or slaves to cultivatetheir elds and tend to their0 ocks.

The bounty of Roman agriculture made pos-sible a degree of urbanization that would not againbe equaled until modern times. As noted, membersof wealthy landowning families lived o. the wealthgenerated from their estates and served in nonremu-nerative public service professions such as the Senate.Other men, such as members of the equestrian order,made vast sums of money in business, trade, or taxcollection on behalf of the state.

Medicine, law, architecture, and teaching wereconsidered honorable occupations. Lawyers, at least,could make a great deal of money in their profession.

Below the professional class and those whoprospered from the produce of the land were peoplewho engaged in physical labor to earn a living. Theseincluded shopkeepers, craftsmen, bakers, food sellers,laborers, clothes cleaners, weavers, dyers, cobblers, etcThough these manual laborers were often regardedwith scorn by the members of the higher orders, their

activities were absolutely necessary to support thesplendid lifestyles of the very rich. People engagedin such activities might be slaves, freedmen or freed-women, or citizens. Legal and socioeconomic statuswere two separate things.

Trade

For a discussion of trade in the Roman empire, please

see the entry on the transport amphora (image33).

The Family

Rome was a patriarchal society. Extended familieslived together under one roof and under the controlof the paterfamilias , the “father of the family” whoexercised patria potestas (the father’s power) over hiswife and children. He had the right to dispose of an

unwanted infant by exposing it to the elements, toarrange marriages for his o. spring, to disown a child,or force a daughter to divorce. If he divorced his wife,his o. spring stayed with him. If a father died, guard-ians were appointed for his daughters of any age, evenif they were married, and for any minor sons.

For a discussion of Roman marriage and the livesof Roman women, please see the entry on portraitureof Roman women (images26 – 29).



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Education

For a discussion of education, please see the entryon the stylus, inkwell, ink pen, andpapyrus (images36 – 39).

Death and Burial

Please refer to the cinerary urn, the funerary altar, and

the sarcophagus discussed in the section on RomanMyth, Religion, and the Afterlife (images23 – 25).

The City

City Planning Rome was a city that grew haphazardly from its earlyfoundation. However, many Roman cities, particularlythose that arose out of military settlements, were

rigidly organized on a grid pattern, based upon thelayout of Roman military camps. The main northand south street was called thecardo, and the maineast-west street was thedecumanus .

The ForumThe focal area of any Roman town was the forum, anopen square or marketplace around which the majorpublic and civic buildings of a town were grouped,and a place where the inhabitants could gather on

important occasions. The forum had political, judi-cial, and commercial uses. Because of Rome’s size, thecity boasted several fora, built adjacent to each other.A typical forum in a smaller city, such as Ostia, theport city of Rome, was a long rectangular courtyardthat contained a variety of public buildings, includingtemples, basilicas (a kind of aisled hall that was usedas a law court and a meeting place for businessmen),public o1 ces, and sometimes inns and restaurants.

The open space of the forum was decorated withhonoric monuments. Usually colonnades ran alotwo or more sides of the forum so that townspeopcould walk protected from the sun and rain. Oneof the temples was usually dedicated either to theCapitoline Triad, the three most important deities the Roman state (Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva), or topast deied emperor.

The Insula

There were relatively few private houses in the ciof Rome. Most people lived in a type of apartmehouse called theinsula(island), which was four or vstories high, built of brick-faced concrete, and arraaround a central courtyard that all the inhabitantcould use. The ground0 oor, with wide doorways,usually housed shops or eating establishments. Abwere private apartments of various sizes. Many wcold and small. There was no private plumbing, binhabitants could visit public latrines and great ba

complexes as well as many smaller baths (balneae ) thatwere available in urban areas.

The DomusMore people lived in private homes outside of Rome. Thedomus (house) was typically very privateand inward-facing. Rooms were grouped around aatrium, an open courtyard with a hole in the roof tocatch rainwater in a sunken basin below. The hearwas originally located in theatrium, and the statues

of the household gods and the funerary masks of ancestors were kept there. If more space was avathe house usually included a colonnaded garden aaround which the more private rooms were arrangMost of these rooms were quite0 exible in use. Veryoften an extended family lived in a singledomus ; infact, the Latin word familia refers to all the peopleliving under one roof, including slaves of the fam



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The Baths and Their Architecture The public baths were one of the most commonand important building types in the ancient Romanworld, functioning in large measure as social hubs intheir communities.

Free or inexpensive for their users, many of whomdid not have internal plumbing at home, the bathso. ered visitors a chance to swim, exercise, stroll, read,and generally to enjoy leisure time with friends

Roman bath complexes, with their series of great

domed and vaulted rooms, were also a new buildingtype, though Greek antecedents of a very di. erentcharacter are known. In its full-blown imperial mani-festation, the typical Roman bath was a rectangular,symmetrically balanced complex with parallel setsof changing rooms and sweat rooms for men andwomen and a central block of bathing rooms—in-cluding a swimming pool (often open to the sky), acold plunge bath, an area of lukewarm water, and ahot-water bath—as well as exercise grounds, gardens,

lecture halls, and libraries. The hot baths were heatedby a central furnace, and the0 oors were raised onbrick supports so that hot air could be pumpedbeneath them and up the walls to heat the room (thehypocaust system). The interiors of the baths werelavishly decorated with black and white0 oor mosaicsdepicting marine themes, richly marbled walls, andstatues, often Roman copies of Greek athlete statues.The largest bath complexes, such as the Baths of Caracalla at Rome, could hold3,000people.

Water SupplyRoman public baths had running water, thanks tothe skill of Roman architect-engineers, who designeda sophisticated system of aqueducts to bring freshwater to the city from many miles away. The mostextensive of the aqueducts, which worked on the basisof gravity, were constructed under imperial auspices.The aqueducts, which were so well built that many

remain standing today, supplied water to the baths, toprivate homes of the a2 uent, and to the ubiquitousfountains from which the inhabitants drew drink-ing water, and whose cooling sprays helped to “aircondition” the city. Aqueducts also irrigated gardensaround the city. Once water from an aqueduct movedfrom its originating spring to its destination town,it was stored in water towers and piped to fountains,private houses, and public baths, with fountainsreceiving top priority in case of drought.

Rome had a system of sewers to carry o.

rainwater and water from the public baths, and publiclatrines were situated throughout the city.

Other Municipal Services The rst emperor, Augustus, established re andpolice departments at Rome. Unfortunately, thecity of Rome was crowded and noisy, and perhapsthese conditions combined to make it quite violent.There was no street lighting after dark, and wealthy

citizens were advised to walk about at night onlywith a bodyguard.

Shopping Most apartment blocks hadtabernae , or one-roomedshops, on the ground0 oor opening onto the street.Many of these shops made and sold food. Forexample, bakeries had counters near the street tosell bread, and grinding mills and ovens in the back.Fish shops had water tanks for the live catch, ovens

for cooking them, and counters to sell them. Shopsselling oil and wine had counters with huge open-mouthed jars set into them to hold the provisions,which were then ladled out to buyers. Rome evenhad a sort of mall in the Market of Trajan, a multi-level complex that included a covered market hall, awarehouse, administrative o1 ces, and nearly150shopsthat opened o. the arcaded hemicycle.



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The Urban Masses Imperial Rome had perhaps one million inhabit-ants. Many had come to the city from rural areaswhen they were replaced on farms by slave workers. Jobs might be very di1 cult to nd, and prices werehigh. There was no pension system, unemploymentinsurance, or medical plans, so social security wasnonexistent for the urban poor. Some people livingwithin Rome became the clients of wealthy patrons,whom they provided with political support in return

for handouts. Others relied on a grain dole thatthe government instituted in the late Republic andcontinued during the empire.

Entertainment

For a discussion of the popularity of sportingevents in the Roman world, please see the entry onthe gladiator cup and the beaker with a chariot race

in this section (images34, 35).Theater was popular, especially a kind of burlesque skit called mime. Though actors lackedsocial standing, they often had huge followings andbecame very wealthy. Acts with tumblers, jugglers,magicians, puppeteers, and performing animals werealso in demand, as was pantomime.

Individual sporting activities were popular.Physical exercise for men, which in the Republic hadbeen encouraged as a way of staying in shape for

military service, gradually became valued simply as away of keeping t. Popular sports included boxing,wrestling, track and eld, and a variety of ball games.Hunting, shing, and gambling with dice werepopular as well.

Many businesses and trades established socialclubs. In addition to providing facilities for socializ-ing, these dues-supported organizations often helpedto pay for the burials of deceased members. Some of

the businessmen’s societies were very a2 uent and hadluxurious facilities.

Romans also traveled for leisure. People0 ockedto the traditional Greek athletic games like theOlympics, for example, and traveled to see the spldid temples of Greece and the pyramids of EgypA2 uent families maintained vacation villas away fRome so that they could spend the hottest monthof the year in the mountains or at the sea. The arearound the Bay of Naples was an especially popu

spot. The great orator Cicero, for example, had thvillas there (as well as three others elsewhere—anwas not a terribly wealthy man!), while Julius CaMarc Antony, and the emperor Augustus each havilla in the area. For a discussion of villas, refer toentry on the Boscoreale wall paintings (image40).

A “Typical” Day in the Life

With only oil lamps for light, most Romans wereawake and active only from dawn to dusk. Theydivided this period into twelve hours, even thoughdays in the winter were of course much shorter thathose of the summer. The way the day was spentdi. ered according to one’s place in Rome’s highlystratied society.

Among the upper orders, dressing for the day wa rather involved process. Male citizens wore a tovery awkward round garment that usually was put

with the assistance of a slave. Members of the senrial and equestrian orders might wear special bootsthe vast majority of Romans wore simple sandals.

For a matron of means, dressing was a some-what more complicated endeavor. Hairstyles werextremely elaborate during many periods of theempire, and to dress the hair properly required thassistance of a female slave who also helped thelady of the house to apply her makeup. The Rom



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wife dressed in an under-tunic and a long garment,usually white, called astola , which signied her statusas matron. Over this was worn a pallium, or cloak,which could come in many hues.

Men who were important patrons might spendpart of the morning at home to receive the visits of their clients. Then they would go o. to perform theiro1 cial duties in the Senate or the law courts. Theirwives usually spent the morning overseeing the slavesas they carried out housekeeping duties, which were

relatively simple since there was little furniture inmost Roman houses.At mid-day, husband and wife often convened for

lunch. Afternoons were sometimes spent at the publicbaths. Dinner, which would have been consumed veryearly in the day by modern standards, was the mostample meal of the day, and for the a2 uent mightconsist of many courses of meats, sh, vegetables,fruits, sweets, and wine.

For a less a2 uent family, there were probably no

slaves to help with dressing, shopping, or cleaning.The husband would spend his morning in service athis patron’s house, or he went o. to his job in a storeor workshop. These establishments stayed open untildark, so he would not be able to go to the baths untilmuch later in the day. There was no weekly holiday(like our weekends), though religious festivals, withtheir attendant rituals, were sprinkled throughout thecalendar. For a discussion of Roman festivals, pleasesee the overview in the section on Roman Myth,

Religion, and the Afterlife.

Roman Architecture

Among the greatest achievements of the Romanswere innovations with respect to building techniquesthat enabled them to construct structures likeaqueducts, amphitheaters, bath complexes (thermae ),

basilicas, and apartment houses (insulae ) throughoutthe Roman world. These architectural forms, and thesocial functions that they represented, were essentialto the creation of a genuinely Roman culture inthe empire beyond the city of Rome from the laterRepublic through the second centurya.d.Some of the buildings made possible by the Roman revolutionin building techniques still stand today, including thegreat amphitheater at Nîmes (France), the palace of Diocletian at Split (Croatia), Hadrian’s Wall (across

northern England), and the baths of Lepcis Magna(Libya).Many of the fundamental principles of Roman

architecture were based upon those of the Greeksand the Etruscans, for example, the use of thestandardized architectural systems, the Doric andIonic orders, to determine the form of columns andthe elements they supported, the entablature andthe pediment. But Roman architects used existingconventions in new ways and also developed many

new building forms.The diversity of Roman institutions led to thedevelopment of a wide variety of specialized buildingtypes: religious, commercial, domestic, recreational,honoric, and military. Some of these buildingtypes had achieved a canonical form by the reign of Augustus; others, such as the baths, continued todevelop through the empire.

The development of these new building typeswas made possible by Roman exploitation of the

principle of the arch and by the use of concrete as aprimary building material.

The ArchThe arch and its extension, thebarrel vault, are verystrong and economical architectural forms, capable of supporting great weight and spanning broad spaceswithout the need for supporting columns. The Greekshad known about the arch, but they preferred post-



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and-lintel construction. However, at least by the laterRepublic, Roman builders were using various kindsof vaults, as well as the dome, to roof their struc-tures. They even invented a new kind of monument,the triumphal arch, which was decorated with reliefsthat commemorated important military events.

Concrete The Romans did not invent concrete, but they learnedto exploit its possibilities in inventive ways beginning

in the third centuryb.c.Roman concrete consisted of small stones mixed with mortar, which was made of sand and pozzolana, a volcanic material that helped themortar to set under water. Concrete could be cast ina variety of shapes, and it was the essential materialof vaulted architecture. The concrete structure couldbe faced with stucco/plaster, kiln-baked bricks, or, inmore opulent buildings, with marble.

Concrete could be made using unskilled laborand thus was cheaper than building with stone blocks;

and it made possible the creation of large vaultedor domed spaces without the need of supportingcolumns. Materials could be mass-produced and thenassembled on the site. Today one can still see theremains of Roman arch-and-vault or domed concreteconstruction all over the Mediterranean world, fromthe substructures of Domitian’s palace on the PalatineHill, to the aqueducts running along the hills intothe cities, from the Colosseum to the great dome of the Pantheon, a temple to all the gods. Brick-faced

concrete was also used to build the great apartmentblocks that survive today at Ostia, Rome’s port city.

Temples Both Greek and Etruscan architecture in0 uenced theform of Roman temples. A typical Greek templewas a rectangular building with a pedimental roof,surrounded on all sides by columns atop several steps.The Etruscans modied this prototype to build

temples set on much higher podia, with steps andcolumns only in front, and with wide-spreading eThe Romans essentially adopted the Etruscan momost notably in the Capitolium, the three-chambertemple dedicated to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva thacrowned the Palatine Hill. Some Roman templeshad columns all around them, with the back and sidcolumns engaged in the walls of the temple.

There was also a tradition of circular templesboth Greece and Italy. Roman builders adopted th

type as well, raising the cylinder on a high podiuand ringing it with columns. The Temple of Vesta the Roman Forum, which housed the sacred0 ametended by the Vestal Virgins, was a cylindrical temSome of these temples were made out of marbleothers were made out of concrete faced with ston

The BasilicaAnother uniquely Roman building was the basilicwhich functioned as a law court and a place for

money exchange. It was a long rectangular hall, ofwith a semicircular apse at one end, divided intohigh roofed central aisle, the nave, with lower ais0 anking the nave, and lit by clerestory windowson the sides. The aisles were separated by rows ofcolumns. The facade was ringed by a two-storycolonnade. The basilica form would serve as theprototype for early Christian churches.

Baths

These are discussed above, in the section of thisoverview devoted to the city.

Buildings for Entertainment The main buildings for mass entertainment were theater, the amphitheater, the stadium, and the cir

A theater had three elements: the auditorium,or cavea; theorchestra; and the stage building. Thecavea , where audience members were seated, was



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semicircular and divided by staircases into wedges.Most Roman theaters were originally built againstslopes, as Greek theaters had been; but the Theaterof Marcellus (13 b.c.), one of the earliest permanenttheater buildings that was allowed at Rome, had fullybuilt-up seating that rested on vaulted substructures.

The amphitheater, used for gladiatorial combatsand beast ghts, was similar in format to a theaterbut was a total ellipse with seats all around the arena.The oval area in the middle was used for the ghts.

There was no precedent for such a building typein ancient Greece, since gladiatorial contests werenot known in the classical Greek world. Vespasian’sColosseum, the rst permanent amphitheater inRome, was built on great vaulted substructures andused vaulted interior passageways to e1 ciently trans-port up to50,000spectators to their seats throughseventy-six entrances. Once in their seats, the audiencemembers would be shielded from the sun by a hugeawning, thevelarium, which stretched over their seats.

Animals and props were kept beneath the0oor of the arena and were brought to the surface by a series

of complex mechanisms and trapdoors.The construction of the Colosseum (and of

other amphitheaters) was made possible by the use of light, strong arches and resilient,0 exible concrete. Thisconcrete substrate was faced with travertine, which wasunfortunately pirated by builders in the post-antiqueera. The exterior of the building was decorated withnonstructuralengaged columnsof the three canonical

Greek orders, Doric on the lowest level, Ionic on thesecond, Corinthian on the third, and0 at Corinthianpilasters on the top level. This facade decorationlinked the structure to the classical world, even thougharchitecturally it was completely Roman.

The circus was the arena used for chariot races,the most popular sport in the Roman world. It waslong and narrow with one curved end; the long sideswere lined with seats. Often at least one side was

built into the side of a hill. The teams of horsesstarted at the0 at end and ran seven laps around thearena, turning at the curved end around a medianwall called thespina .

Utilitarian Buildings Structures such as bridges, aqueducts, and sewers werepurely functional, and yet they also represent higharchitectural achievement; for example, aqueductssuch as the Pont du Gard near Nîmes still impress us

today. Their construction was made possible throughthe use of concrete and the arch.

Honoric Monuments Monuments commemorating important historic eventscrowded Rome and other cities of the empire; whilewe tend to think of them mostly in terms of theirrelief scenes of historical events, they are important asarchitectural structures as well. Great military victorieswere commemorated by honoric columns as well as

sculptures and inscriptions. The most prominent of such monuments, though, was the triumphal arch,usually dedicated to the emperor; it consisted of avaulted passageway supported on pilasters and with anattic, a frieze at the top that was decorated with a nar-rative relief or carved with an inscription. Arches mighthave one or three passageways; those which stood atcrossroads might be four-sided. Rome’s Forum sportsthree triumphal arches, dedicated to military victoriesby Titus, Septimius Severus, and Constantine.

Defensive Architecture The walls that protected Rome and other cities wereimposing constructions in their own right. WhenRome was threatened by the invasions of the thirdcenturya.d., the emperor Aurelian ringed the citywith a handsome set of walls built of brick-facedconcrete that was punctuated at intervals by guardtowers and gateways. The circuit largely survives today.



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Funerary Architecture For a discussion of funerary architecture, please seethe entries for images23 – 25in the section on RomanMyth, Religion, and the Afterlife.

Architects While Roman sculptors and painters were almostwithout exception treated as anonymous craftsmen(they often were slaves, and they worked in teams),some architects acquired considerable status in the

Roman world. For example, we know that Severusand Celer were the architect-engineers who designedNero’s extravagant Golden House. Apollodorus of Damascus, who had been Trajan’s military engineerduring the Dacian Wars, also designed the Forum of Trajan and its adjacent curving market complex. Theemperor Hadrian himself was an architect, designinghis mausoleum, the Temple of Venus and Rome, and aluxurious sprawling villa complex at Tivoli. In fact, ac-cording to the third-centurya.d.senator and historian

Dio Cassius, Hadrian executed Apollodorus becausehe had criticized the emperor’s architectural designs.

Roman Historical Relief

In the Greek world, public buildings were oftenembellished with relief sculptures, such as the metopesculptures and the Ionic frieze that decorate theParthenon in Athens. Roman sculptors continued

the tradition, but with one important change. Thesubject matter of Greek relief was devoted to greatevents that had supposedly happened in the past.For example, although the Parthenon was erectedin part to celebrate the Athenians’ victory over theirgreat enemy the Persians, the reliefs showing combatdepicted idealized Greeks ghting Amazons andcentaurs, not defeating the Persians. The sculpturethus functioned as an analogy to real historical events.

Roman relief sculpture, in contrast, commemrated specic recent historical events and individwith meticulous descriptive detail. The relief sculon the Arch of Titus, for example, depicts the triuphal procession of Roman soldiers with the spoilincluding the menorah from the great temple, whihad been obtained through the sack of Jerusalemin a.d. 70. The Column of Trajan, dedicated ina.d.113, shows the successful wars of the emperor Trajagainst the Dacians in what is now Romania. Th

sequence of war is depicted from the departure of rst troops to the nal triumph of Trajan in a continuously spiraling narrative of more than100scenes.The emperor himself is shown multiple times in tfrieze, which reinforces the sense of time passing

Portraiture

For a discussion of portraiture, please see the ove

view to the section Power and Authority in RomaPortraiture, as well as the individual object entrie

Statuary as Décor in the Roman World

The artworks produced in classical-period Greecewere both commemorative and aesthetic objectsMost large-scale sculpture was created for publidisplay: statues were erected in public places to co

memorate the gods, heroes, generals, statesmen, athletes. Statues were dedicated to the gods to sefavor or to give thanks for favors granted. Funeramonuments were erected to remember the dead feternity. Even private arts, such as painted vesselwere at root functional objects.

Beginning in the Hellenistic period, the notionof art as décor was born, and private individualsbegan to own statues for the rst time. This taste



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quickly spread to the Roman world, where a muchbroader segment of society began to acquire artboth as decoration and as status symbol. Beginningin the late Republic, wealthy Romans with meansdecorated the gardens of their vacation villas withsculptural replicas of famous Greek originals whosesubject matters were considered to be appropriate tothe setting. Similarly, Roman baths were embellishedwith replicas of Greek statues of athletes, which weredeemed tting for complexes with athletic facilities.

The Roman copying industry fed this interest. Weowe much of our knowledge of Greek art to theprivate art collecting of the Romans, since it led tothe production of multiple replicas of favored Greekoriginals. The statue of Venus (image17) includedin the section on Roman Myth, Religion, and theAfterlife is an example of a replica of a Greekoriginal that was probably used outside its originalreligious context.

Painting

We know that the Romans made portable paintings,often depicting great military battles and victories,on wooden panels, and that these were displayed inpublic buildings or carried in triumphal processions.However, because of the perishability of wood, noneof these paintings have survived other than Egyptianmummy portraits, which are treated in the entry on

Roman women (images26–29).We also know that a great number of hand-painted illustrated books, either in the form of papyrus scrolls or of codex books with leaves, wereproduced. Again, however, almost none of thesebooks survive.

Our knowledge of Roman painting thus comesalmost entirely from the common practice of paint-ing the interior walls of houses while the plaster was

still damp ( fresco), a technique that bonded the paintwith the wall surface and thus made it very durable.Such wall decoration was a custom of great antiq-uity throughout the Mediterranean. In the case of Roman painting, preferred styles changed over timein a progression that art historians have classiedinto four di. erent styles.

The First Style is sometimes called theMasonry Style because the decorator painted thewalls to give the illusion that they were faced with

marble slabs of di.

erent colors. The First Styleoriginated in the Hellenistic world in the late fourthcenturyb.c.and was used in Roman homes in thelast two centuries of the Republic.

For a discussion of Second Style and ThirdStyle painting, please refer to the entries on theBoscoreale and Boscotrecase frescoes in this section(images40 – 42).

In the Fourth Style, which emerged in themid-rst centurya.d., the illusionism of the Second

Style and the lacy decorativeness of the Third Stylewere synthesized. With thea.d. 79destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum, whose houses providethe most coherent evidence of wall painting fashionthat we have, the o1 cial progression of artistic stylescomes to an end, though houses from later centuriescontinued to have painted walls.



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Fragment of a fresco with garlands and objects related to Dionysiac rites , Roman, Late Republican, ca.50–40 b.c.From the Villa of P. Fannius Synistor at Boscoreale (exedra L). Rogers Fund,1903 (03.14.4) (image41)



27.Portrait of a young woman with a gilded wreath



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daily life in ancient rome26.Portrait bust of a Roman matronRoman, Julio-Claudian, ca.a.d. 20–50Bronze;h. 9h in.(24.1cm)Edith Perry Chapman Fund,1952 (52.11.6)

27.Portrait of a young woman with a gilded wreathca.a.d. 120–140Said to be from the FayumEncaustic, wood, gilding;14l x 7 in.(36.5 x 17.8cm)Rogers Fund,1909 (09.181.7)

On view in the Museum’s galleries of Roman Egyptian art

28.Portrait bust of a veiled womanRoman, Mid-Imperial, Severan,ca.a.d. 200–230Said to be from the Greek IslandsMarble;h. 26in.(66cm)Fletcher Fund,1930 (30.11.11)

29.Portrait bust of a womanRoman, Mid-Imperial, Severan,ca.a.d. 200–230Marble;h. 25m in.(65cm)Rogers Fund,1918 (18.145.39)

points to consider

s Each of these four portraits depicts a high-status woman who follows the fashions of threlevant imperial court while still maintaininher individuality.

s

Compared to men, Roman women led fairly ccumscribed lives. However, compared with clsical Greek women, they had considerably mofreedom to move about in society. They were lowed to attend dinner parties and public evenlike chariot races, for example.

s In Roman eyes, the chief role of a woman wabear healthy heirs for her husband and to run e1 cient household. She was expected to be lo

dutiful, and pious.s According to legal tradition, Roman women

were expected to be under the guardianship oa man, whether father or husband, at all timesand they were not supposed to own property engage in nancial transactions. However, ireality many women did act for themselves ineconomic matters.



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26.Portrait bust of a Roman matronRoman, Julio-Claudian, ca.a.d. 20–50

Bronze;h. 9h

in. (24.1cm)Edith Perry Chapman Fund,1952 (52.11.6)

28.Portrait bust of a veiled womanRoman, Mid-Imperial, Severan, ca.a.d. 200–230Said to be from the Greek IslandsMarble;h. 26in. (66cm)Fletcher Fund,1930 (30.11.11)

29.Portrait bust of a womanRoman, Mid-Imperial, Severan, ca.a.d. 200–230Marble;h. 25m in. (65cm)Rogers Fund,1918 (18.145.39)



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points to consider (continued)

s Like the portraits of Roman men, portraits of women tracked the fashions and hairstyles of the imperial court closely, even in provinces likeEgypt and the Greek East.

s Over time, certain changes took place in marbleportrait style; the bust became longer, untilalmost a half-statue was carved; and the irises and

pupils of eyes began to be incised with a chiselrather than being painted.

s Not all portraits were lifesized, and they could bemade in bronze as well as marble.

s The rich tradition of Roman panel painting sur-vives in the painted Roman mummy portraitsfrom imperial Egypt. Unlike traditional Egyptianmummies, which used stylized masks to represent

the face, Roman-era mummies had realisticallypainted portraits that captured the appearance of the subject at the time of his or her death.

The Lives of Roman Women

Interest in the lives of Roman women has increasedramatically over the last fty years. Because muof what we know about women’s lives in the ancieworld comes from men, scholars have had to becareful about the conclusions they have drawn froliterary texts. Moreover, most of the texts refer onto upper-class women.

Nevertheless, certain basic facts can be asce

tained. The main purpose in life for a Roman womwas to bear legitimate heirs for her husband and manage her household. Women lacked political rigeither to vote or hold o1 ce, though some womenof the imperial court wielded considerable politiin0 uence behind the scenes. In general, the econoeducational, and political opportunities enjoyed bmen were denied to Roman women.

Roman Marriage

Roman marriages were usually arranged for theparticipants by older family members for politicaor business reasons, and in order to produce anheir; marriage for love was not the norm. Girls wecommonly married around the age of twelve, whtheir husbands were at least a few years, and oftedecades, older. No legal steps needed to be takenfor a marriage to be valid. If a man and woman li

together with the intention of staying together, thwere considered married. The wedding ceremony also regarded as evidence of this intention.

Both husband and wife had the right to divorcand remarry. If the intention to form a lasting uniended, the marriage was considered to be over; npublic notice was necessary. Remarriage was comand acceptable.



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In economic a. airs, according to law, almostall women, even as adults, were required to have amale guardian, preferably a father or husband, toact for them in nancial a. airs. However, there weretwo exceptions to this rule. For one, the emperorAugustus, in an attempt to boost the Roman birth-rate, decreed that freeborn women with three children(or freedwomen with four), who did not have a fatheror husband, could act for themselves in economicmatters. In addition, the Vestal Virgins, powerful

priestesses who guarded the sacred hearth of Vesta inthe Roman Forum, always were allowed to conducttheir own business. In reality, by imperial times manywomen acted on their own in matters of business,and the notion of male guardianship was the legaltheory but not always the social practice.

The idealmatrona (married woman) was expectedto devote herself to the well-being of her husbandand children by running an e1 cient household whileupholding, and imparting to her children, the tradi-

tional Roman virtues of duty and loyalty. Althoughshe might have received an elementary education,she was not supposed to work outside the home. Awell-born woman might gain a public role throughphilanthropy, however—for example, one Eumachiahad a building erected at Pompeii for the guild of fullers and was immortalized by an inscription anda statue commemorating her generosity.

Many poorer women held jobs outside thehome as wet-nurses, midwives, craftswomen, or

market traders. They were also expected to runtheir households, of course.

Roman Women Compared with Greek Women

Despite their disenfranchisement and limited careeroptions, Roman women did have considerably morefreedom than the women of classical Greece. They

could go out to dinner parties with their husbandsand attend the theater and the games (although theywere segregated at gladiatorial contests, the sexes sattogether in the circus).

Hairstyles of Roman Imperial Women

Like Roman men, well-born Roman women werecommemorated in portraits. In the Republican

period, portraits of women had more idealized facialfeatures than those of men. In the Imperial period,however, portraits of women, like men’s, tendedto mimic imperial trends. For women, this meantcopying the hairstyles of the empresses, many of which were extremely elaborate and required hoursto assemble, even with the assistance of maids andhairpieces. Such a coi. ure proclaimed the high statusand wealth of a woman who could a. ord the leisure,and the sta. , to wear it.

1. Bronze Portrait Bust of a Roman Matron

The Museum’s underlifesized bronze bust of awoman (image26) is set in a round base with anacanthus plant growing out of it. Often acanthussymbolized death and the afterlife, but sometimesacanthus supports appear in portraits created duringthe subject’s life. Thus here the support may simply

be a decorative, rather than a symbolic, element.The woman’s rather thin head is turned slightlyto the right. She has large, almond-shaped eyeswith incised irises and pupils and strongly moldedeyebrows, a prominent nose, and a small mouth withthinly pursed lips. Her hair is center-parted and isarranged so that two rows of curls frame each side of her face. She wears a long braid of hair in back, andstrands of loose hair fall across her shoulders.



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This particular coi. ure is associated withAgrippina the Elder, a granddaughter of Augustus,the wife of the popular general Germanicus, and themother of the emperor Caligula (whose portrait isin the Power and Authority in Roman Portraituresection, image5). However, it is likely that this is aprivate portrait, in0 uenced by imperial styles. Theadoption of such a hairstyle by the subject suggeststhat she approved of the Julio-Claudian dynasty andidentied with it. The portrait may have been set up

in a commemorative shrine within the family house.

2. Painted Mummy Portraits from Roman Egypt

Painted mummy portraits from Roman Egypt, whichare in the collection of the Museum’s Departmentof Egyptian Art, represent the melding of twotraditions: mummication and the Roman interestin realistic portraiture.

Painted mummy portraits are virtually the onlypanel painting surviving from the Greco-Romanworld because these pictures, depicting historicalevents and myths, as well as still lives and portraits,were painted on wood, an organic material thatdecomposes rapidly in wet environments. However,thanks to the arid Egyptian climate, a substantialcorpus of funerary portraits, painted on woodbetween the rst and third centuriesa.d., survives.

History of Roman Egypt

Egypt came under the rule of the MacedonianPtolemaic dynasty following its conquest byAlexander the Great in the fourth centuryb.c.Thereafter a Macedonian elite ruled the countryfrom the new capital, Alexandria, which became acultural and intellectual center of renown. During

this period, traditional Egyptian customs, includimummication and burial practices, continued abefore. Co1 ns were decorated with stylized, idealized images of the deceased.

After Octavian defeated Cleopatra and herRoman consort Marc Antony at the Battle of Actiin 31 b.c., Egypt became a Roman province, ruled a prefect, or governor, appointed by the emperor. Tchange from Ptolemaic to Roman rule probably dnot have much impact on the lives of most Egypti

as a Greco-Egyptian elite continued to hold mostadministrative power.

Mummy Portraits in Roman Egypt

In the course of the rst centurya.d., however,the appearance of mummy portraits produced forthe Greco-Egyptian upper classes did change. Thtraditional idealized masks were replaced by high

individualized, realistic painted portraits. They wusually painted inencaustic, a mixture of hot waxand pigment, on thin wooden panels that were seinto the linen wrappings of the mummy. In hairstyclothing, and jewelry, the appearance of these ptraits followed contemporary Roman court fashion Just as with Roman portrait busts, these fashiondetails make it possible to date the portraits quiteprecisely. Apparently these portraits were not madfor display during the sitter’s life; comparison of

images withcat scans of the remains inside thesemummies makes it clear that the portraits represethe deceased at the age of death.

The Museum’s Mummy Portrait

The Museum’s mummy portrait (image27) is paintedin encaustic on a thin wooden board. Its subject is



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a young woman with an oval face, large round eyeswith prominent lashes and straight eyebrows, a longnose, full lips, and prominent Venus rings (folds of 0 esh that were regarded as a sign of beauty) on herplump neck. The artist painted pink highlights onher creamy skin. She gazes directly out at the viewer,her lips slightly parted. She wears a dark tunic and amantle of a purplish hue. Her black hair is wound inbraids at the top of her head; small corkscrew curlsring her brow. She wears hoop earrings with pearls,

a gilded necklace with a suspended crescent pendant(called alunula ), and a necklace of pearls alternat-ing with long green (emerald?) beads. She wears aschematically depicted gold wreath of leaves in herhair. The background of the painting is also gilded.

The portrait has been dated to the time of Hadrian based on the hairstyle, jewelry, and cloth-ing, although the corkscrew curls are perhaps a localvariant on the Roman court coi. ure. The youthfulappearance of the woman re0 ects her age at death

and is a reminder of the short life expectancy inancient times.

3. Two Portraits of Women from the Severan Period

These contemporary portraits (images28, 29)demonstrate how Roman portrait style had evolvedover time. The length of the busts has been extendedalmost to waist level (compare with the bronze

Julio-Claudian head, image26), and the irises andpupils of the eyes have been incised, a fashion thatbegan in marble sculpture in the second centurya.d.The hairstyles of the women follow the courtfashion favored by Julia Domna, wife of the emperorSeptimius Severus, whose center-parted hair wasseparated into thick parallel pleats and gathered inback in an enormous bun. In the case of the veiledwoman (image28), the hair covers her ears, while

the other woman’s hair is pulled behind her ears, asomewhat later variant on the hairstyle.

The two portraits are posed similarly; both turnand look to the right, and both have the right handraised. The turn of the head is reminiscent of thepose in the marble Caracalla portrait from the sametime period, discussed in the section on Power andAuthority in Roman Portraiture (image10).

However, there are di. erences between the twoportraits. The veiled sitter appears to be a young

woman, as her face is unlined. Her cloak is pulledover her head, which is slightly lowered; her gaze iscast upward. With her right hand she reaches to touchher veil, a gesture, called pudicitia , meant to convey asense of her modesty and delity, in Roman eyes themost important qualities a woman could possess. Tocover her head is also a gesture of piety. The gureseems to be lost in thought, and this sense of an innerlife gives a quality of immediacy to the image. Thisis typical of the period, when artists tried to convey

a sense of psychological depth in their subjects. Thefolds of her drapery and the strands of her hair havea 0 attened, linear quality.

The sitter in the other portrait has a slightlyfuller face, and there are traces of lines on her cheeksand forehead. She gazes directly to the right. Herright hand clutches the hem of the cloak drawn overher left shoulder. The carving of her garments andher features is more three-dimensional than that of the veiled woman. Thus, though the two portraits are

quite similar, each represents a distinct individual, andtheir execution re0 ects two di. erent styles of carving.



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s Consider these four portraits as a group. Whichdo you think is the most realistic? Why? What do

they have in common? What are the di.

erences?s Which of these women looks the most

“modern” to you? Why?

s Do you think the di. erent media in which theseportraits were made accounts for the di. erencesamong them? How?

s Why do you think the Romans had sculpted busts

of their family members made? Do we do any-thing similar today? What is it? Why do we do it?

s What social class(es) do you think the women inthese portraits belonged to? Why?

s Describe the di. erent hairstyles worn by each of these women. What do you think is the impor-tance of the di. erent ways of dressing the hair?

s What age do you think most of these womenare? Do you think this tells us something abouthe life expectancy of the average Roman woOr does it tell us about how they wanted to lo

for their portraits?s Do you get a sense of the psychological state

any of these women? Which ones? Why?

s Compare these portraits with Cominia Tychein the section on Roman Myth, Religion, andthe Afterlife (image24). Whose hairstyle is themost elaborate?



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daily life in ancient rome30.Funerary relief with busts of a manand a womanRoman, Early Imperial, Augustan,ca.13 b.c.–a.d. 5

Marble; overall:20 x 28k

x 5l

in.(50.8 x 71.4 x 13.7cm)Rogers Fund,1909 (09.221.2)

points to consider

s Romans often freed their slaves as a reward formeritorious service. Slaves could also buy theirfreedom. Thesefreedman and/or their childrenwere incorporated into the Roman citizen body.

s In the late Republic and early empire, freedmencommissioned relief portraits of themselves and

family members to embellish the facades of theirtombs. These portraits grew out of the same im-pulse that led aristocratic families to keep portraitbusts of their ancestors on view. The freedmenreliefs often showed members of the same familyand were inscribed with the new names they hadbeen given upon obtaining their freedom.

s The young man and woman depicted in this fu-nerary relief are shown as portrait busts, not as

actual people. In reality, only patricians couldhave portrait busts in this period.

s The couple’s fashionable hairstyles and idealizedfaces re0 ect the type of portrait image popularduring the reign of the emperor Augustus, whichhelps to date this relief.

Freedmen

An order dened not by economic status but bylegal status within the Roman state was that of thfreedmen. Freedmen or freedwomen were individformerly slaves, who had been granted freedom btheir owners for one reason or another and therebywere granted most, though not always all, of therights of freeborn Roman citizens. At least some o

these former slaves became quite prosperous.

Funerary Monuments of Roman Freedmen

In the late Republic and early empire, freedmenbegan to commemorate themselves by commissioing carved relief portraits of themselves and thefamily members to be placed on the facades of thtombs. (To read about the kind of tombs that the

freedmen might have been buried in, please see tentry for image23in the section on Roman Myth,Religion and the Afterlife.) In these reliefs, husbaand wives often were depicted together, in a kindartistic recognition of the legal status of marriagthat they had obtained once they were freed. If thhad freeborn children, these were featured as wepublicizing their status.



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The funerary reliefs of freedmen could rangefrom full-length portraits to shorter busts thatemulated the three-dimensional portrait busts thatpatrician Romans used to commemorate their deadfamily members. Often the freedmen are depictedwearing the toga, the symbolic sign of Romancitizenship; freedwomen wear the palla as a similarsign of status.

The Museum’s Freedmen Funerary Relief

The Museum’s relief, characteristic of a group of tomb sculptures known from Rome, represents thebusts of a man on the left and a woman on the right.They are carved as if they are actual portrait busts,as the body of each is carved just down to shoulderlevel, and then tapers at the top of the chest, with noclothing indicated. The heads turn slightly towardeach other, which may be meant to suggest that they

are married. The outer ear of each is carved in veryhigh relief, while the inner ears are in very shallowrelief. Both appear to be around thirty years of age.

The man’s hair is combed forward in short wavesthat lie on his forehead, a hairstyle similar to that of men in the Augustan period. The woman’s center-parted hair is waved back from her face and pulledinto a bun on the top of her head. It is possible thatin fact the bun would have been at the nape of herneck; the artist here is conned by his less-than-three-

dimensional space. The lips of the woman are slightlyparted. Although the faces are lifelike, these are notactual portraits but instead idealized portrait types,

in emulation of the idealizing image adopted by therst emperor, Augustus. (See the discussion of theAugustan portrait type in the Power and Authority inRoman Portraiture section, images3and4.)

The relief does not seem to be nished. Chiselmarks are visible on the background and the framingmolding. However, the relief had been painted,and substantial traces of red paint remain in thebackground. On the top lip of the frame is theinscription “Brutos Porcias.” This brief inscrip-

tion, with its suspect Latin, was almost certainlyadded to the relief long after it was made, perhapsin an awkward attempt to identify the couple as thefamous Republican gure Brutus and his wife. In fact,freedmen usually took the names of their formermasters after they were freed, and they took pains toinscribe their names on their monuments. The lackof an inscription on this relief suggests that it wascarved separately and set into the tomb wall, perhapsbelow the relief itself.



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s Describe the two people represented in this reHow old do you think they are? What are thewearing? Do you think that the artist was lookat real people when he made this portrait?

s Do you think the two people in this relief havany relationship with each other? What do youthink that relationship is?

s Do you think this piece is unnished? Why why not?

s This monument decorated the tomb of twopeople who were former slaves but who had atained the status of freedman and freedwomawith most of the rights of Roman citizens. Whdo you think they chose to decorate their tomwith their portraits? Is this similar to the way w

decorate the gravesites of our family member



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points to consider

s Classical Greek sculptors tended to represent chil-dren with the proportions of miniaturized adults,instead of depicting them with the large headsand plump limbs of actual small children. Startingin the later fourth centuryb.c., artists began todepict children more naturalistically, and thisrealism continued in the art of the Roman period.

s The representation of children in sculpturebecame widespread during the reign of the em-peror Augustus, who encouraged Romans to havelarger families in order to keep the populationstable and rewarded those who did so.

s The costly material and ne quality of thisbronze portrait of a small child have led somescholars to believe that it represents a member of

the imperial family, most likely the emperor Neroas a child. Though Nero did have a youthfulo1 cial portrait type, the child in the Museum’sportrait appears to be much younger. He musthave belonged to a wealthy family, however.

Children in the Ancient Roman World

The attitude of the ancient Romans toward childrehas long interested scholars. In Rome, a law said thave been laid down by Romulus, the founder of Rome, supposedly decreed that parents were requionly to “bring up all their male o. spring and therst-born of the girls” (Dionysius of Halicarnassu Antiquitates Romanae , 2.15.1). While several Roman

authors mention infanticide, and the so-called TweTables (451 b.c.), Rome’s earliest law code, permits texposure of “deformed” children, it is unclear howcommon this practice really was.

It is also uncertain how emotionally involvedparents were with their children, whether boys orgirls. However, the frequent depiction of childrenRoman art, as well as the commemoration of deachildren in funerary contexts, suggests that manyparents were deeply attached to their o. spring.

In classical Greek art, children were often de-picted as small adults, with bodily proportions thdid not re0 ect the large heads and chubby bodies ttypify infants and small children. In the second hof the fourth centuryb.c., however, artists began toadopt a more realistic style that accurately portrathe physique and facial features of children. Thischange was part of a trend toward greater naturalin Greek art. Greek artists brought this naturalism

31.Portrait bust of an aristocratic boyRoman, Julio-Claudian, ca.a.d. 50–58Bronze with silver and copper inlaid eyes;h. 11h in.(29.2cm)

Purchase, Funds from various donors,1966 (66.11.5)



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with them when they began to work at Rome in thelater Hellenistic period.

As far as we know, the widespread depiction of children in Roman art began in the Imperial period.The rst emperor, Augustus, had a keen interest inpromoting large families among his subjects in orderto sustain the population. In addition, he wanted topromote the imperial dynastic succession. Thereforestatues and relief sculptures commemorating youthfulmembers of the imperial family were widely distrib-

uted. In the private sphere, families were interestedin promoting their dynastic continuity as well, andportraits of their children were commissioned bythose who could a. ord them.

The Museum’s Bronze Bust of an Aristocratic Boy

The Museum’s well-preserved bronze portrait of asmall boy, perhaps four years old, is a vivid example

of an accurately depicted child. The head is lifesized,and is worked for insertion into a herm (taperingpillar or column) of wood or stone. The child has aplump round face, large eyes, and a small mouth withthin lips. Still intact are the inlaid silver “whites”and copper irises that would have given the eyes of

the burnished bust a vividly lifelike quality. The boy’sslightly protruding ears, as well as his hairstyle, withlocks brushed forward over the brow, curled over theears, and left tousled on top, are similar to those of members of the Julio-Claudian imperial family.

This resemblance, as well as the quality of theworkmanship, have led some scholars to suggest thatthis portrait represents Nero, the last emperor of that dynasty, as a small child. Nero, unlike any of his predecessors, had ve o1 cial portrait types that

documented important dates in his life, and there areextant several images of him in his earliest portraittype. However, he was already thirteen years old whenhe was adopted by his great-uncle/stepfather, theemperor Claudius, and this is clearly a much youngerchild. Perhaps it represents a child whose parents wereadmirers of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and wishedthe portrait of their child to re0 ect that allegiance.In the absence of an inscription, the identity of theMuseum’s ne bust remains uncertain.



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s Describe the facial features of the little boy ithis portrait. Do you think he looks like a realittle boy? Why or why not? What mood do yothink he is in?

s How old do you think the child represented inthis portrait is? Why?

s

Do you think that this child was an importantmember of his family? Why or why not?

s Compare this bust with the bronze portrait statof an aristocratic boy illustrated in Art of the ClassiWorld , no.405. Which boy do you think is older?Why? Compare their features and hairstyles. you think they might be related? Why or why n

s Do you have any portraits of yourself? Who h

made them? What materials are they made ofWhat purposes do they serve?



15 7

daily life in ancient rome32.Diploma for a sailor from Trajan’s eet at MisenumRoman, Mid-Imperial, Trajanic,a.d. 113–114Bronze; overall:3 x 2i x in.

(7.8 x 7 x 0.2cm)Rogers Fund,1923 (23.160.52)

points to consider

s The Roman navy was rst developed in the laterRepublic, and it proved crucial for the main-tenance of the substantial imperial territoriesamassed by the end of the rst centurya.d.

s Originally only Roman citizens of means couldserve in the armed forces. Later, however, in

order to get enough soldiers and sailors, menwere recruited from the imperial territories, andthey served asauxilia . Upon honorable dischargeat the end of a twenty-ve-year term of service,they were awarded Roman citizenship with itsbenets of protection under Roman law, votingrights, and the legitimization of their marriageand children.

s Such a discharged auxiliary received a bronze

diploma comprising two sheets of bronzethat could be hung up for display, conrminghis formal discharge and bestowing on himRoman citizenship.

A Brief History of the Roman Navy

In the early years of the Roman Republic, little newas seen for a navy. Only in311 b.c.were two o1 cials(duoviri ) appointed whose responsibility it was tobuild and maintain warships. However, when Romcame into con0 ict with Carthage over the islandof Sicily in264 b.c., the Romans realized that theyneeded a navy, and from scratch they built a0 eet that

defeated the mighty Carthaginian navy in ve outsix engagements during the First Punic War.During the late Republic, Rome’s allies in Italy

and Greece contributed the most e. ective naval con-tingents to the Roman navy. However, after winninthe Battle of Actium in31 b.c., the rst emperor,Augustus, decided to establish permanent Romannaval forces. These consisted of a0 eet to guard thenorthwest coast of Italy and Gaul; two0 eets toprotect the Italian coast, one based at Ravenna and

one at Misenum; a small0eet at Alexandria; and probably one at Seleucia. Later0 eets would be added in

the Black Sea, in Africa and Britain, and on the RDanube, and Euphrates rivers. The Roman navy’sduties included transportation of troops, supportof land campaigns, protection of coastal towns, andealing with pirates and hostile barbarian forces.



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The Recruitment of Auxiliary Troops

In the early Republic, the Roman armed forceshad been recruited from within the city itself, andthere was a property qualication for service. By thetime of the empire, however, there were not enoughcitizens within Italy to provide su1 cient recruits forboth the army and navy. Thus Rome began to enlistsoldiers from its imperial territories; these soldiersand sailors comprised theauxilia . Although the term

of service was long (twenty-ve years, at least half thelifetime of most soldiers), the recruits were promisedRoman citizenship once they completed their militaryservice. In addition, for the rst time men withoutproperty were now allowed to serve in the armedforces. The state paid for their weapons and also gavethem a stipend. By such measures, the Roman em-perors were able to sustain a more or less consistentnumber of recruits for the army and the navy for therst250years of the empire.

The Signicance of the Bronze Diploma

Upon the completion of his term of service, anhonorably discharged auxiliary soldier or sailor waspresented with a pair of small folding bronze tablets,called adiploma , which conrmed his service anddischarge. The text of the Museum’s diploma indi-cates that its recipient had served in the Trajanic0 eetat Misenum, across the Bay of Naples from Pompeii(see the map for the location of Pompeii).



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points to consider

s The advent of underwater archaeological stud-ies after World War II has led to the discovery of many ancient shipwrecks and their cargoes. Studyof what the ships carried has helped scholars tounderstand the nature of trade and commerce inthe ancient world.

s

Most goods were shipped in amphorae, terracottatwo-handled vessels. Products shipped around theMediterranean in amphorae included wine, oliveoil, grain, olives, dates, resin, dyes, and ores.

s In the late Republic, wine from Italy was highlyprized throughout the Mediterranean world. TheMuseum’s amphora comes from a shipwreck o.

the southern coast of Gaul, whose natives eagerlyimported Italian wine and dinnerware.

Trade and Transport in the Roman World

The ancient Romans constructed a comprehensivand durable paved road system that linked the proinces and was used to move troops and goods arouthe empire. Many of these roads, such as the famVia Appia leading from Rome, partially survive to

For the transport of bulky goods such as grainwine, and olive oil, though, the Romans relied

on transport by ship. Trade routes crossed theMediterranean Sea, as grain from Egypt was carrto Rome, wine from Italy was sent to North Africand olive oil from Asia Minor was transported toEgypt. Analysis of the ancient shipwrecks that wa by-product of such extensive maritime trade hasprovided a great deal of evidence about ancienttrade—and this research has been made possible bthe relatively recent advent of underwater archaeo

Underwater Archaeology

The self-contained underwater breathing apparatuor scuba, was developed in1939for military use. Afew years later, the French naval captain Jacques-Cousteau rened it for use in underwater archaeoThe subsequent exploration of ancient wrecked sand their contents around the Mediterranean Sea

33.Transport amphoraRoman, Republic, ca.100 b.c.Terracotta;h. 40h in.(102.9cm)Gift of Captain Jacques-Yves Cousteau,

1953 (53.70)



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provided archaeologists with a wealth of informationabout commerce in the ancient world. It has alsoyielded an abundance of artworks, including bronzestatues, that were lost while being transported, thusgreatly enhancing our knowledge of ancient art.

Amphorae: The Perfect Storage Vessels

Amphorae, simple wheel-thrown ceramic jars with

two handles, were the all-purpose storage containersof the Greco-Roman world. Though they were madein many di. erent styles and types of decoration, theytypically had a narrow mouth that could be plugged,thick walls, and a tapered foot to make them easyto stack on their sides for space-e1 cient storage ortransport. They were small enough to be carried byone or two people.

Amphorae were used in antiquity to transport awide range of goods, and analysis of their contents

provides abundant and important data about thenature, range, and scale of Roman trade. Residuesfound inside recovered amphorae indicate that themost important commodities shipped around theRoman world were olive oil, wine, marine products,sh sauce ( garum —a distinctive Roman seasoning),and preserved fruits. Each commodity was givena distinctive type of amphora so that the vessel’scontents could be identied at a glance. Amphoraesometimes were labeled with painted inscriptions

to identify the contents. Amphorae might also bestamped with the name of the potter. Study of amphora stamps has helped to establish the originsof a given commodity and its distribution patterns.

The Museum’s Wine Amphora

In 1952 – 53, Captain Cousteau and a French academiccolleague, Fernand Benoît, investigated two ship-wrecks, one on top of the other, o. the southerncoast of France, near Marseilles. One ship, dated toabout230 b.c., is probably of Greek origin; the otheris Roman and is dated to about130 – 80 b.c.The winecargoes of both ships were carried in amphorae.Greek wine amphorae have an ovoid body and a short

neck, while Roman amphorae are taller and thinner;both kinds were found at the site. The Museum’swine amphora is of the Roman type, indicating that itcame from the second ship. Between them, the shipscould have carried approximately7,000amphorae!

Captain Cousteau donated one of the recoveredamphorae from this shipwreck to the Museum in1953.When full, the Museum’s Roman amphora wouldhave held about5.25gallons of wine.

In this shipwreck, many of the Roman amphorae

had seals of pozzolana (volcanic mortar) bearingstamps that may refer to famous Campanian winegrowers of the period. It is believed that the shipsailed from southern Italy with a cargo of Campanianwine and black-glazed pottery, bound for Gaul, wherethere was a great demand for Italian wines during thesecond and rst centuriesb.c.The ship sank o. thecoast of Gaul for reasons unknown.



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s Look at the shape of the Roman amphora. Doyou think this would have been an easy vessecarry? How do you think it was stored? Why dyou think it had such a tapered foot?

s Why do you think it is important for our knowedge of the ancient world that an everyday oblike this amphora is preserved?

s Why do you think a plain pottery storage jar idisplayed in a museum of art?

s The two ships that were found in the expeditioby Captain Cousteau contained over7,000ampho-rae between them. What does this tell us aboutimportance of sea trade in Roman life? What dit tell us about the importance of wine?

s

Think about the ways in which we transportfood today. How are our methods similar tothose used by the ancient Romans? How arethey di. erent?

s This shipment of Roman wine was on its wayfrom one part of the Mediterranean world to tother. Think about the food you eat, the clotheyou wear, electronic devices that you use. Aremost of these things locally made? Which one

come from far away? Why do you think we gesome of these things from far away? What doethat tell you about the importance of trade tod



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points to consider

s

The development of the technology of glass-blowing in the rst centuryb.c.meant that glassvessels could be mass-produced cheaply. Rombecame a center of the new glass technology exported vessels all over the Mediterranean w

s As Rome expanded its territories during theRepublic and empire, it also exported its cultuinstitutions, such as a love of spectacles incluchariot racing and gladiatorial contests.

s Gladiatorial contests developed out of funer-ary games staged in honor of the dead, but theeventually lost their religious context and westaged as popular entertainments for the publiGladiators were mostly slaves or prisoners of wYet they could attain celebrity status with thepublic and, if they survived enough bouts, coueventually gain wealth and freedom.

s

Just as today one might receive a souvenir hator jersey at a sporting event, one could obtainsouvenir of a Roman athletic competition. Maproduced glass cups commemorating specicchariot races, gladiatorial contests, and individathletes have been found in great numbers in northern part of the Roman empire.

34.Gladiator cupRoman, Early Imperial, ca.a.d. 50–80Said to have been found at Montagnole(near Chambray), France, in1855

Mold-blown glass;h. 2n

in.(7.3cm),diam. 3k in.(7.9cm)Gift of Henry G. Marquand,1881(81.10.245)

35.Beaker with chariot race Roman, Late Imperial,4th centurya.d.Free-blown and cut glass;h. 4g in.

(10.8cm)Fletcher Fund,1959 (59.11.14)



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Spectacles in the Ancient Roman World

The public entertainments enjoyed by ancientRomans were in many ways similar to the kinds of leisure activities that people enjoy today. Spectaclesoriginally were held only in conjunction with religiousor funerary events, but rapidly became associated withentertainment. The most popular included chariotracing, gladiatorial contests, and theatrical events. Allof these events were free to the public, open to those

of all orders and of both sexes. During the empire,they were funded by the state. Of these spectacles,chariot racing was the most popular.

Gladiatorial Contests

The earliest known gladiatorial combats took placeat the funerals of Etruscan warriors. These combatswere introduced to Roman audiences during the third

centuryb.c.In the later Republic, private promot-ers staged these costly contests as a way of gainingpopularity with the public. In the empire, thesespectacles were put on at Rome by the emperor andin the provinces by magistrates, all with the help of apromoter who owned gladiators and hired them out.Often these games were massive; some during theempire featured5,000gladiatorial bouts.

Amphitheaters, a Roman architectural innovationand the predecessor of our modern sports stadium,

were built all around the empire to accommodate thestaging of local games. The Colosseum, dedicated atRome ina.d. 80, was the largest and most splendidamphitheater in the empire, seating45,000spectators.

Most gladiators were slaves, although condemnedcriminals were also forced to compete. Gladiatorswere given special training in schools organized by thepromoters. They learned how to ght using di. erentkinds of weapons and di. erent techniques of hand-

to-hand combat. Successful gladiators could wingreat fame. In fact, some members of the senatorialand equestrian orders were attracted to gladiatorialcareers by the glamour and power of the sport. Theemperors Augustus and Tiberius enacted legislationto prevent members of these orders from becominggladiators, as it remained an infamous profession.Nevertheless, the popularity of gladiatorial combatwas so great that even a Roman emperor, Commodus,eventually entered the arena to ght as a gladiator.

Types of Gladiators

There were four principal types of gladiators,each distinguished by di. erent types of armorand weapons. Theretiarius had little armor, only ashoulder guard and an arm guard. His main weaponwas his net, but he also carried a dagger and atrident. Themurmilloand the Samnite were similarly

armed, with an oblong shield, visored helmet, anda short sword of Spanish origin called the gladius .The murmillo’s helmet was distinguished by a crest.The thraex (Thracian) wore a brimmed helmet andhigh greaves over quilted trousers, as well as an armguard. He carried a round shield and a curved sword.The di. erent types of gladiators were frequentlydepicted in art, as well as on their tombstones.

The Museum’s Molded Glass Gladiator Cup

The Museum’s molded glass cup (image34) is a sou-venir from a gladiatorial contest. Though glass hadbeen produced in the ancient world starting in thesecond millenniumb.c., it was extremely rare until thetechnology of glassblowing was developed in the earlyrst centuryb.c.Blowing glass enabled craftsmen tomass-produce glass cheaply, and it revolutionized



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production. A huge glass industry developed veryrapidly at Rome in the rst centurya.d., and Romanglassware was widely exported.

Mold-blown glass developed as an o. shoot of free-blowing. A craftsman created a reusable two-part mold, usually of baked clay, and carved designsinto it; these would appear in relief on the nishedproduct. A gob of glass was then blown into themold to impress the shape and patterns upon it.

The Museum’s cup shows us four pairs of

gladiators in combat, each identied by a Latininscription near his head. The names given areGamus, Merops, Calamus, Hermes, Tetraites, Prudes,Spiculus, and Columbus. Some names match thoseof famous gladiators of the Julio-Claudian period.The victors are always on the left, and their names

appear prominently in the band that runs around top of the cup. The names of their defeated foes ainserted into the scenes themselves. Spiculus stanover a fallen Columbus with his shield outstretchand sword poised, while Gamus stands in a similpose near Merops, who leans on his left shield aand raises his sword defensively in his right. Calain the same pose as Spiculus and Gamus, standsfacing Hermes, whose sword is outstretched. Tetraconfronts Prudes, who turns away as he attempts

retrieve the shield he has dropped behind him.Mass-produced cups like these, depicting scenof chariot races, gladiatorial battles, and athleteshave been found in substantial numbers, but almoentirely in the northwestern provinces of the Romempire, even though the people and events shown



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seem to be Italian. The discovery of many cups of this type in the northwestern provinces is testimonyto the rapid spread of Roman cultural institutionsoutside of Italy. The archaeological evidence suggeststhat these cups were made as souvenirs for only ashort time, although the games remained popularinto the fourth centurya.d.

The Museum also has in its collection a fragmen-tary beaker painted with gladiators and animals. Itis illustrated in Art of the Classical World , no.442, and

shows pairs of matched gladiators and wild beasts incombat. Above the gladiators, traces of their namesare painted in Greek. For an example of a gladi-atorial souvenir for an elite fan, see the gem with anintaglio of a gladiator ghting a lion, illustrated inno.443.

The Museum’s Beaker with Chariot Race

Even as pressure, largely from Christians, grew in thefourth century to ban gladiatorial contests, chariotracing remained popular, and it, too, spawned asouvenir industry.

A free-blown beaker in the Museum’s collec-tion (image35), dated to the fourth centurya.d., ishand-engraved with the representation of a charioteerracing hisquadriga , or four-horse chariot, in front

of a small, latticed structure that may represent aspina , the barrier that separated the two directionsof racing in the hippodrome, or horse-racing arena.An inscription in Greek, which suggests that thisbeaker was produced in the Eastern Roman Empire,names the charioteer Euthych[ides], who is knownfrom other chariot cups, and his four horses. Onlythree of their names are legible—Arethousios, namedafter a famous stream; Neilos, or the River Nile; andPyripnous, Fire-Breather.



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s Why do you think that Roman athletic compe-titions originally were associated with religiousobservances or funerals? Do Americans have ath-letic contests that are associated with holidays?Which ones can you name?

s Look closely at the gladiator cup. Can you iden-tify the di. erent types of gladiators that are rep-

resented there? How? How many di.

erent typesof gladiators do you see? Can you tell who iswinning each combat? How? Do you think theyare all competing at once, or do you think thecontests are being held one at a time?

s Have you ever been to a baseball game or othersporting event where you received a souvenir? Didother people receive the same kind of souvenir?

s

Souvenir cups like this have been found all overthe Roman empire. Do you think they were indi-vidually made or mass-produced?

s Are there ways in which our modern sport-ing competitions resemble those of the ancientRomans? How are they di. erent?

s Modern American athletes are both famous anhighly paid. How is that di. erent from the statusof the ancient gladiators?

s Gladiators risked their lives every time they winto the arena, but they were slaves who usualhad no choice about competing. Can you thinof any modern sports where the athletes risk thlives to compete? Why do you think they woudo this since they are not compelled to do so?

s The images of famous athletes of Roman timwere put on souvenir cups. Can you think of places in American life where we nd the imaof athletes reproduced?

additional exercise on a visit to the museum

Compare the mass-produced gladiator cup withe hand-blown and hand-painted beaker witgladiators and animals. How are the scenes simlar? How are they di. erent? Which cup is easierto “read”? Which cup do you think would havbeen more valuable? Why?



Image39

Image37



17 1


points to consider

s It is di1 cult to know how widespread literacywas in the Roman world. Schools were fee-baand it is not clear how many children (boys ha better chance than girls) were able to complelementary school.

s Unlike modern society, status in the Roman wo

was not necessarily equated with literacy. Maof the most educated people at Rome were slavwho taught Greek and Latin to the children otheir rich masters.

s Papyrus, produced from an Egyptian waterplant, was the most common writing materialthe Roman world. Because of its perishabilithowever, large numbers of papyri survive onfrom Egypt, whose climate was dry enough t

preserve it.s For school exercises, most students wrote in i

on papyrus or on whitened writing boards, or waxed wooden leaves that were inscribed witpointed penlike tool called a stylus. After usewax was smoothed out with the blunt end of tstylus so that it could be written on again.

Ancient Roman Education and Literacy

It is di1 cult to determine how many people in theancient Roman world could read and write. Thereno system of universal education, and all schoolsfee-based. Aristocratic families often hired literaGreek-speaking tutors to train their children, whwere expected to be0 uent in both Greek and Latin.

36. Stylus Cypriot, Classical or Hellenistic,4th– 1st centuryb.c.Bronze;l. 4n in.(12.4cm)

The Cesnola Collection, purchased bysubscription,1874–1876 (74.51.5495)

37. Inkwell Roman, Imperial,1st –2nd centurya.d.Said to be from RomeTerracotta;h. 2in.(5.1cm),diam. 2 in.(7.5cm)

Stamped on the bottom:CNs

HEFletcher Fund,1926 (26.60.34)

38.Ink penRoman, Imperial,1st –2nd centurya.d.Said to be from Rome; found togetherwith the inkwell (image37)Bronze;l. 2 in.(7.5cm)

Fletcher Fund,1926 (26.60.35)

39. Papyrus with shopping list in GreekRoman, Egypt, early3rd centurya.d.Papyrus; 4k x 3k in. (10.5 x 8cm)Gift of M. Nahman,1925 (25.8)



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However, at least elementary-school education wasprobably available to all but the poor in most townsof any size. The majority of students were boys, butsome girls did attend school.

Typically, there were three levels of instructionavailable, beginning at about age seven. Children trans-ferred to di. erent teachers at age twelve and again atfteen, although the vast majority of children probablyhad only an elementary education. At the elementarylevel, reading, writing, and basic mathematics were

studied. At the middle level, the focus was on languageand poetry. At the higher levels, students studiedrhetoric and philosophy as preparation for careers inpublic life.

Literacy must have been relatively widespread,since laws were inscribed in public places, gra1 ti wereubiquitous, and we have an abundance of papyrusletters and documents preserved from ancient Egypt.

Roman Writing Materials

Roman students needed pen and ink or a stylus (awood or metal writing tool) as well as waxed orwhitened writing tablets for their studies. Moststudents probably used wooden stylus tablets, whoserecessed surface was covered with wax. These werewritten on with a wood, bronze, iron, or even ivorystylus, which impressed the letters into the surfaceof the wax with a sharp point. The other end of

the stylus was0attened so that it could be used tosmooth out the wax, erasing the writing so that the

tablet could be reused.The Museum’s stylus (image36) predates the

Roman period but is typical of the form.Whitened sheets of wood, so thin that they

could be folded, were also used for writing. Thesewere written on with reed or metal pins and ink,which was made from a mixture of pine-pitch resin

soot, gum, and water. The ink was stored in stoppedinkwells. Inkwells could be made with a variety of materials, from terracotta to precious metals.

The Museum’s inkwell (image37) is decorated onthe upper face with a relief of three theatrical masks.Theater was a major entertainment in the ancientworld, and since plays were written down the decora-tion is an appropriate one for a writing aid. Originallythe Museum’s inkwell had a stopper to keep the inkinside in a liquid form. The letters on the underside

of the base are probably a form of potter’s mark. Thebronze pen (image38) was found with the inkwell.

Roman Papyrus

Papyrus, fabricated from a plant indigenous to theNile Delta in Egypt, was the most common writingmaterial used in the Greco-Roman world. Most of the surviving texts written on this “plant paper” also

come from Egypt itself, because the dry, sandy soil of Egypt has served to preserve thousands of documen-tary papyri as well as precious literary texts.

The vast majority of the surviving Egyptianpapyri are written in Greek, which was the administra-tive language of the Eastern Roman Empire exceptin military matters, for which Latin was used. Mostof the surviving Greek papyri are documentary innature: letters, legal papers, petitions, lists, andreceipts. These documents have yielded an immense

amount of information about the daily lives of Greco-Roman Egyptians. The sheer number andvariety of the documents, which touch on almostevery aspect of daily life at all socioeconomic levelsof Egyptian society, suggests that levels of literacy inRoman Egypt may have been higher than elsewherein the Roman empire.

The Museum’s papyrus (image39) represents onesuch document out of tens of thousands. It is a letter



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Image38(left) and image36(below), shown actual siz

written by one Heraclides to his brother Petechoisinstructing him to shop for certain food items,including poultry, bread, lupines, chick peas, kidneybeans, and fenugreek, at certain prices. It is likely thatthis letter was written by the sender, but it is possiblethat it was dictated to a scribe.


s Look at each of these materials for writing. Aany of them similar to the things you use towrite with or on? Which ones? Which ones ardi. erent? How?

s Egypt has a very dry climate, and this has helto preserve many texts on papyrus from Romtimes. Do you think that the lack of preserve

writings on papyrus from the city of Romeitself implies that the Romans were illiterateWhy or why not?

s The papyrus shopping list/letter is written inGreek, even though it was found in Egypt, whwas a province of the Roman empire at this tiWhat does this suggest to you about the lan-guages used in the ancient world? Do you uselanguage other than English for reading or wr

ing? Even though the United States is primaran English-speaking country, do you sometimsee signs in other languages?

s Look at the papyrus letter. Can you identifyany letters that are similar to the ones in ourphabet? Which ones? Do any of the words lfamiliar to you?



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points to consider

s

The volcanic explosion of Mount Vesuviusin a.d. 79buried the southern Italian city of Pompeii and its environs in a layer of ash thatpreserved buildings virtually intact until their re-discovery in the eighteenth century. Since then,archaeological excavation of the cities and theirhouses has provided historians with vast amountsof information about the lives of their inhabit-ants in the early empire.

s The preserved houses from Pompeii show usthat Italians of the rst centuryb.c.and a.d.painted their walls with frescoes depicting artectural vistas, mythological episodes, scenedaily life and religious observance, still lifes,decorative motifs.

s Art historians have identied four chronologi

styles of Roman wall painting.s The Museum’s collection includes the bedroo

walls from a luxury villa from Boscoreale, nePompeii. These walls were painted in the SecoStyle, in which the artist creates the illusion othree-dimensional space on the wall through tuse of perspective to present architectural vis

s Anexedra , or alcove, of the same house was

painted with garlands and objects related to thworship of the god Dionysus. We do not knowwhether these were meant to be purely decorator whether they had some religious signican

s The decoration of the walls was meant toconvey the wealth and sophistication of thevilla’s owner through the elegant details and tcostly pigments used.

40. Frescoes from acubiculum nocturnum(bedroom)Roman, Late Republican, ca.50–40 b.c.From the Villa of P. Fannius Synistor at

Boscoreale (room M)8ft. 8h in.x 10ft. 11h in.x 19ft. 7k in.(265.4 x 334 x 583.9cm)Rogers Fund,1903 (03.14.13a – g)

41. Fragment of a fresco with garlands and objects related to Dionysiac rites Roman, Late Republican, ca.50–40 b.c.

From the Villa of P. Fannius Synistor atBoscoreale (exedra L)Overall:77 x 107in.(195.6 x 271.8cm)Rogers Fund,1903 (03.14.4)

Pictured in full on page 139



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The Eruption of Mount Vesuvius andIts Consequences

The region around the Bay of Naples (Neapolis) inCampania, south of Rome, became popular late inthe Republic as a vacation spot for wealthy Romans.However, ina.d. 79the area, including the prosperousmiddle-class towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum,was destroyed by the volcanic eruption of nearbyMount Vesuvius. Most residents escaped, but the

eruption buried dwellings and their contents indeep layers of volcanic ash and lava. The eruptionwas described vividly in a letter written by Pliny theYounger, a nephew of Pliny the Elder, who was theauthor of a voluminousNatural History(in thirty-seven surviving books), which includes chapters onthe history of art that are invaluable to modern arthistorians. As admiral of the Mediterranean0 eet atMisenum, the elder Pliny had attempted to witnessthe disaster rst-hand and was killed in the eruption.

Pompeii remained buried until its rediscovery in1748. Systematic archaeological excavation began in1861. The excavation of Pompeii, Herculaneum, andthe surrounding region has given archaeologists avivid view of Roman daily life in the early empire.

Roman Wall Painting Decoration

The ancient Romans decorated the interior walls of

their houses with paintings executed on wet plaster,a technique known as fresco. Art historians have dis-tinguished four chronological styles of Roman wallpainting. Depending on the function of the room,walls might be painted with imaginary architecture,still lifes, mythological scenes, or purely decorativemotifs. Many of these motifs were derived frompattern books carried by the artists.

The Cubiculumfrom Boscoreale

The Museum’scubiculum, or bedroom, comes from thevilla of P. Fannius Synistor, excavated at Boscoreale, asite near Pompeii that was known in the rst centuriesb.c.anda.d. for its many aristocratic country villas.Built by wealthy Romans as summer retreats, thesevillas were often luxuriously decorated. In contrast totheir public lives at Rome, where senators adopted anaustere Republican lifestyle, in their private villas they

sought to emulate the luxury of the old Hellenisticroyal courts. Thus the gardens of their villas might bedecorated with copies of famous classical statues orwith statues of Dionysian characters, while the wallsof the villas were painted with opulent frescoes.

The walls of the villa of P. Fannius Synistorwere painted sometime around50 b.c.in the so-calledSecond Style, in which the artist attempted to “openout” the wall into an imaginary architectural vistaincluding landscape elements. The artist painted

architectural elements that were meant to look likereal three-dimensional objects, and scenes that weremeant to create the illusion of spatial vistas beyondthe connes of the wall, using perspectival recessionand painted cast shadows to fool the eye.

The frescoes of the red bedroom (image40)have been reconstructed in the Museum to give animpression of the original appearance of the room.These frescoes are among the most important to havesurvived from antiquity, and they are of the highest

quality. The extensive use of cinnabar and vermillion,extremely costly pigments, on the walls attests to thea2 uence of the villa’s proprietor. The mosaic0 ooris modern, but is based on photographs and descrip-tions made shortly after the discovery of the villa in1900. The design on the mosaic0 oor, supplementedby the details of the ceiling and walls, served to setthe actual sleeping area in the back of the room apartfrom the entrance area.



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heads. The fragment comes from a left-hand wall; thepainted light source is from the left to give the illu-sion that the wall and objects received actual daylightfrom the entrance.

Dionysus was very popular in the Hellenisticperiod, and the walls and gardens of Roman villaswere lled with allusions to him. They may still retaina religious signicance in the context of this painting.

For illustrations of other wall paintings fromBoscoreale, please refer to Art of the Classical World ,

nos.376-80.


s Why do you think the Romans decorated thewalls of their houses? Why do you think theowner of this villa wanted decorations like thisin his/her bedroom?

s Does the artist treat these walls as a0 at sur-face? If not, what techniques or devices are usedto open up the wall and create an illusion of

three-dimensionality?s What colors has the artist used? Are they real-

istic? Do they help to organize the compositionin any way?

s Look at one of the long side walls of thecubiculum. What architectural elements do yousee? Are they arranged in a logical way? Dothese look like real buildings? Why or why not?

s Have you seen similar kinds of architecturalelements in the Museum? Where?

s Describe the landscape depicted on the back wallof the room. What kinds of natural and man-madeelements do you see? How many birds are there?

s Look at the still life of a bowl of fruit. Can youidentify any of the kinds of fruit that are in it?

s Take a close look at the yellow painted section onthe back wall. Describe what you see. Is the stylesimilar to or di. erent from the other paintingsof architecture? Do you see human gures in thisyellow landscape? Describe some of their activities.



179


s Look at the window on the back wall. Do youthink the window was added after the wall hadbeen painted? Why or why not?

s Now look at the fresco with garlands (image41).Can you identify any of the di. erent fruits in theleafy garland swags?

s Describe the layout of the fresco with garlands.How many horizontal sections is this portion of

wall divided into? How many vertical sections?How does the artist’s use of colors help us to seethe di. erent sections?

s Of course, in reality we are looking at a0 at paint-ed surface. How has the artist created an illusionof projecting objects?

s What objects are shown dangling from the swaThese objects are related to the cult of the goDionysus. Why do you think this Roman homeowner wanted to have objects related to the goDionysus painted on his walls?

s Where is the light coming from in this paintinHow can you tell?

s Do you think these images had a religious si

nicance for the Roman home-owner? Why owhy not?

s How are the walls of your bedroom at home dorated? What materials have been used?

Image40,detail Image41,detail



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points to consider

s After the emperor Augustus came to power, theillusionistic Second Style of wall painting wassucceeded by a fashion in which architecturalforms became elongated and delicate rather thansimulating real architectural elements. The wallno longer opened out illusionistically into threedimensions; instead, small landscapes and other

scenes were placed in the center of a wall whose0 atness was emphasized.

s The Museum’s panels from the imperial villaat Boscotrecase are painted in the Third Style.Some of the imagery in them relates to the po-litical success of Augustus in conquering Egyptand thereby becoming the sole ruler of theempire. They include scenes with Egyptian godsas well as representations of swans, the sacred

birds of Apollo, the god to whom Augustusattributed his victory in Egypt.

Roman Wall Painting and the Third Style

Toward the end of the rst centuryb.c., the SecondStyle of Roman wall painting was superseded bythe so-called Third Style (ca.20 b.c. – a.d. 20). Inthe Third Style, artists no longer tried to create thillusion of the wall as a window that opened ontolandscape or cityscape vista with solid-looking buings and objects. Instead, the wall was usually pai

a monochrome background color to emphasize it0 at surface, and then decorated with elongated,insubstantial columns and candelabra embellishewith delicate plant and animal forms. These columoften framed mythological scenes, landscapes, ogures that seemed to0 oat in the middle of the wallSome walls have central panels with a large simulapainting. The style is sophisticated and elegant.

Vitruvius, the late-rst-centuryb.c.architectand writer, was appalled by the decorative natur

of Third Style painting. In his bookDe Architectura ,he wrote: “Imitations based upon reality are nowdisdained by the improper taste of the present. …Instead of columns there rise up stalks; instead ofgables, striped panels with curled leaves and volu… Slender stalks with heads of men and of anim[are] attached to half the body. Such things neithare, nor can be, nor have been. … For pictures canbe approved which do not resemble reality” (7.5.3, 4).

42.Ten fragments of fresco incorporated in areconstruction of acubiculum nocturnum(bedroom), known as the Black RoomRoman, Augustan, last decade of 1st centuryb.c.

From the villa of Agrippa Postumusat Boscotrecase91i x 45in.(233 x 114.3cm)Rogers Fund,1920 (20.192.1–10)



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Despite Vitruvius’ condemnation, the ThirdStyle proved to be widely popular, particularly amongmembers of the imperial family and their friends.

The Museum’s Roman Wall Paintingsfrom Boscotrecase

The Museum possesses seventeen ne Third Stylepaintings from a villa at Boscotrecase, near Pompeii,

which was owned by Agrippa, a close friend andadviser of the emperor Augustus, and later by hiswidow Julia, the emperor’s daughter. (For a discus-sion of the survival of wall paintings from the Bayof Naples, please see the entry for images40–41.)Agrippa’s son Agrippa Postumus became the ownerof the villa in11 b.c., following his father’s death. Thefrescoes were probably painted during renovationsbegun at this time. These paintings are very similarto a series of walls found in the Villa Farnesina in

Rome, and may well have been executed by artistsfrom Rome.Some of the paintings from Boscotrecase are

large-scale mythological scenes; please refer to Art of the Classical World , nos.402–403. The Black Room,illustrated here, was one of a series of south-facingbedrooms in the villa that looked toward the sea.The fragments of this room’s walls in the Museum’scollection are decorated with attenuated architecturalmotifs that frame small0 oating landscapes. A

low red podium is the base for impossibly slendercolumns that support a pavilion roof and a narrowcornice painted to give the illusion of shallowniches. On the back wall, a small landscape0 oatsinside the columns of the pavilion. The columns are0 anked by slender candelabra with leafy projectionson which perch swans, the bird of Apollo, patrongod of the emperor Augustus. Swans also appear asdecorations on public imperial monuments erected

at this time, such as the monumental Altar of Peace(Ara Pacis) in Rome.

The candelabra support yellow plaques withEgyptianizing scenes, a reminder of the Roman an-nexation of Egypt after the death of Queen Cleopatrain 30 b.c.After Egypt became part of the empire,a rage for all things Egyptian exploded at Rome,extending to the decoration of private homes. Thedelicate designs, obviously not intended to be realarchitectural elements, reinforce a sense of the wall as

being simultaneously0

at and of innite depth.The villa of Agrippa Postumus at Boscotrecasewas a private imperial residence. Nonetheless, theimperial family chose to allude to its military successin these decorations.



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s Describe the layout of this panel. Do you get sense that these are real architectural element

s What birds do you see?

s Can you identify the central vertical object thsupports the yellow rectangle?

s

Describe the gures in the yellow painted panDo their dress and pose look Roman to you?

s Why do you think the walls of the Black Roocontain Egyptian motifs? What clues, if any, these motifs give us about the identity of thevilla’s owners?

exercise

Compare these wall paintings with the onesfrom Boscoreale (images40–41). What similari-ties do you see between the designs of the twsets of walls? What di. erences? Which set of walls looks more “real” to you? Why or whynot? Which decoration do you prefer? Why?



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points to consider

s Beginning in the early rst centuryb.c., the0 oorsof Greek homes were often covered with multi-colored pebbles arranged in geometric and0 oraldesigns, a technique called mosaic.

s By the third centuryb.c., designs had becomemore sophisticated. Often a central design, or

emblema , would be made with small, nely cutstones, or tesserae, and would resemble a painting.It would be placed in the center of a0 oor mosaicthat had larger stones and a simpler design.

s Romans of the late Republic began to usemosaics in their0 oors. In one famous examplefound at Pompeii, the so-called Alexandermosaic, a Hellenistic painting was copied forthe 0 oor of a villa. Other famous paintings

were copied in mosaics.s During the empire, mosaics were mass-produced,

often in black and white designs, for the0 oorsof homes and bath complexes. The Romans alsobegan to use mosaics with glass tesserae for thedecoration of walls and ceiling vaults.

s The subject matter of mosaics was often tailorto the use of the room. For example, marinethemes were commonly used in the baths.

The Technique of Mosaic

The use of pebbles arranged in simple geometric

designs as paving for0oors dates back to the eighthcenturyb.c.in the Near East, while the earliest

Greek pebble0 oors with patterns are dated to thefth centuryb.c.These early mosaics usually hadsimple designs, which could be geometric or guand used only two shades of pebbles, dark and ligThey were primarily used in private homes.

By the end of the fourth centuryb.c., designshad become more sophisticated, and a wider rangcolored pebbles was used. Artists began to use tes

lated mosaic (opus tessellatum), in which pieces of stoneor marble were cut into cubes and tted together ibed of mortar. Within a century, artists were cuttinpieces of stone of many colors and assorted sizes aarranging them in elaborate compositions with shings of color that simulated painting (opus vermiculatu).Sometimes these pictorial mosaics, calledemblemata ,were set into the middle of a0 oor and surrounded by acoarser mosaic with a simpler, often geometric, pa

43.Tesselated oor panel with garlanded womanand geometric patternRoman, Mid-Imperial,2nd half of 2nd centurya.d.

Mosaic;89 x 99in.(226.1 x 251.5cm)Purchase, Joseph Pulitzer Bequest,1938(38.11.12)



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Mosaics in the Roman World

Roman mosaics with elaborate central designs beganto appear by the later second centuryb.c.Amongfamous examples is the so-called Alexander mosaic, areproduction of a late-fourth-centuryb.c.painting of Alexander the Great, the Macedonian king, ghtingthe Persian ruler Darius at the Battle of Issus in333b.c.This monumental narrative mosaic was foundin a Pompeian private home. A similarly ambitious

painting-like mosaic, depicting a Nile River land-scape, was found at Praeneste, near Rome, and datesto the late Republic. Simpler0 oors with bigger stonesand only two or three colors were the norm for lessa2 uent homes.

During the empire, mosaics were mass-produced,usually in overall black and white designs and withoutemblemata , for villas, apartments, and bath complexes.Overall geometric or0 oral designs, or dark guresagainst a light background, were the most popular

motifs. The0oors of the vast Roman complexes wereoften decorated with marine scenes. The Romans also

extended the use of mosaic to the decoration of wallsand vaults as well as to fountains and outdoor grot-toes. Many of these mosaics used tiny glass tesseraeand had more in common with wall painting thanwith0 oor mosaic in the designs that were created.Baths and tombs were the most common structuresto be decorated with wall and vault mosaics. Thistype of decoration would also prove to be popular on

the walls of early Christian churches.

The Museum’s Mosaic

In the Roman period, Daphne-Harbiye was a popularresort where wealthy citizens from Antioch (in south-eastern Turkey) built their holiday villas, just as richRomans constructed opulent villas around the Bay of Naples. The Princeton Archaeological Expedition toAntioch and Syria in the late1930s found the remainsof several handsomely decorated houses and villas atDaphne. The Museum’s mosaic was found in an olive

grove. (A second mosaic, found with it, is now in theBaltimore Museum of Art.)This rectangular panel represents the entire

decorated area of a0 oor. The centralemblema (panel)contains the bust of a woman who wears a wreath of 0 owers around her head and a0 oral garland over herleft shoulder. She looks to her left. She is sometimesidentied as Spring, but she may represent a moregeneral concept of worldly abundance and opulence.Such a design would have been appropriate in a house

devoted to the “good” life.The emblema is surrounded by a geometric patternof squares and lozenges that give the illusion of being three-dimensional forms. Both the gure andthe border are composed of beige, muted green, andmuted red tesserae. The dating of the mosaic is basedin part on the fact that it was made using somewhatlarger tesserae than those that were preferred duringthe rst half of the second centurya.d.



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s Why do you think that ancient Greeks andRomans covered their0 oors with pebblesarranged in designs?

s Describe the di. erent geometric forms in theborder of this mosaic. How does the artist makthem look three-dimensional? Does this deviremind you of a more modern artist with whomyou might be familiar (such as Escher)?

s Describe the gure in the central panel. Do th0 owers she wears give you a clue to her identiWho do you think she is?

s Do you think this is a portrait? Why or why n

s What kinds of 0 oor coverings do we use todayAre any of them similar to mosaics? In what w



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points to considers The technology for casting or molding glass was

developed in the second millenniumb.c.by theEgyptians and Mesopotamians, but it was costlyand slow, and so glass was used chie0 y for smallluxury vessels.

s The technology of glassblowing seems to havedeveloped in the rst centuryb.c., and it meant

that glass could be mass-produced cheaply andeasily in a great variety of sizes and shapes.

s By this time, Rome had become the dominantcity in the Mediterranean world and, accordingly,craftsmen0 ocked there from all over the empireto establish workshops. Rome became an impor-tant center for glass production.

s In addition to mass-produced blown glass,

Roman craftsmen also produced handmade piecesusing complicated techniques. One of these tech-niques was cameo glass, in which di. erent colorsof glass were fused together in layers and thencarved, producing a white image against a darkbackground in imitation of carved stone cameos.

s The cameo sh plate gives the beholder the impres-sion of marine creatures swimming in the dark sea.

The Manufacture of Glass

The technology for making glass rst appeared inEgypt and Mesopotamia in the second millenniumb.c., and spread to the Italian peninsula in the rsmillennium. These early glasswares were not blowrather, they were cast or formed on a core, a muchmore labor-intensive process. Glass was used inEtruria and Magna Graecia during the Republic, bit only became widespread at Rome in the mid-r

centuryb.c.As Rome became the major city of thMediterranean in the late Republic, craftsmen of types0 ocked there from around the region, and thiin0 ux included glassmakers.

At some point, the technology of glassblowindeveloped, and it made possible the quick and chmass production of glass. As a result, glass0 oodedthe Roman world. Glassware was used for tablewperfume containers, funerary urns, transport vessthe tesseraefor mosaics, and even windowpanes. T

popularity of glass was so great for products suchcups and bowls that it replaced the terracotta vessthat had previously been used.

Although blown glass was the most popular awidespread type, Roman glassmakers continued tuse more labor-intensive processes, such as castinfor luxury glasswares.

44.Fragment of a large platter or tabletopRoman, Julio-Claudian,1st half of 1st centurya.d.Cast and carved cameo glass;

overall:9h

x 20i

in.(24.1 x 52.7cm)Gift of Henry G. Marquand,1881(81.10.347)



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Cameos and Cameo Glass

Carved cameos became fashionable in the courtsof the Hellenistic East, and they continued to bepopular at the Augustan and Julio-Claudian courts.These were ornaments carved out of sardonyx, aform of quartz that occurs naturally, with layers of white stone alternating with color. By carving backfrom the surface of the gemstone, the artist couldcraft a white relief decoration against a darker back-

ground (or the reverse, if desired).Cameo glass was a luxury form of glassware thatattempted to duplicate in glass the e. ect achieved bygemstone cameos. Cameo glass was a Roman innova-tion. The technique is not completely understood bymodern scholars, but it involved the combining of two di. erent colors of glass to form layers, with thelight overlay color being cut down so that the darkbackground color would come through.

The preferred color scheme for cameo glass was

an opaque white layer over a dark translucent bluebackground, although, on rare occasions, multiplelayers of glass were applied, resulting in stunningpolychromy. Such glass was very di1 cult to produceand thus very expensive.

The Museum’s Cameo-Glass Plate

The Museum’s cameo fragment, possibly from a

serving platter or tabletop, is notable both for itssize and for its marine theme. Originally it must havebeen about42 inches in diameter, making it one of the largest examples of ancient cast glass known. Thebackground glass is deep purple, reminiscent of the“wine-dark sea” described by the poet Homer in theIliad . The purple glass has been overlaid with patchesof white opaque glass carved into marine animalssuch as the scallop, crab, squid, and clam that

seem to swim on the surface of the piece. To make

this object, it is likely that pieces of overlay in theapproximate size of each sea creature were heated andfused onto the large piece of background glass, thencarved individually.

The Museum’s fragment is said to have beenfound on the island of Capri, where the emperorTiberius lived in a luxury villa for the last decadeof his reign. Certainly the imagery of the piece isappropriate for a seaside villa. And, if the fragmentbelonged to a serving dish, the swimming sea crea-

tures are a reminder of the edible delicacies it oncemay have held.Other examples of Roman luxury glassware, made

using varying techniques and dated to approximatelythe same period as the glass tabletop, are illustratedin Art of the Classical World ; please refer to the fragmentof a bowl with an erotic scene (no.388), the skyphos(no.389), the garland bowl (no.390), and the opaqueblue jug (no.392).



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s Describe the decoration of the plate. What kindsof creatures can you identify? Do they come fromthe earth, the sky, or the sea?

s Why do you think the background of the plateis purple?

s Do you think this plate was used every day? Whyor why not?

s What does the decoration of the plate tell usabout Roman interest in, and knowledge of, thenatural world?

s Why do you think the development of glass-blowing technology was so important in theancient world?

expanded exercise for the teacher

Refer to the other examples of Roman luxurglass listed above. The techniques by which is made are explained in Art of the Classical Worl.On a visit to the Museum, discuss with the sdents these di. erent techniques and the e. ectsachieved in the various pieces of glassware.



19 3


points to consider

s Silver vessels and utensils were owned only by thewealthy, and they were symbols of status, probablydisplayed more than they were used.

s The Museum possesses a pair of handled silverdrinking vessels, once gilded, which are decoratedwith playful images of childlikeerotes frolicking

and riding a panther, but also holding downturnedtorches, a motif with sorrowful connotations. Thismixture of happy and sad images suggests that theartisan chose these images from a pattern bookbecause they created a pleasing composition.

s The Museum’s cups are very similar to a pairfound at an imperial villa at Boscoreale, and theymay have been produced by one of the leadingworkshops of silversmiths at Rome.

s For an example of a skyphos in the same shapebut made from fused canes of polychrome mosaicglass that include bands of gold leaf betweentwo layers of colorless glass, see Art of the Classical World , no.389.

The Roman Dinner Party, or Convivium

Fine drinking vessels would have had a practical at the typical Roman dinner party, theconvivium.The conviviumwas modeled on an Etruscan variationof the classical Greek drinking party known as thsymposium. Asymposiumwas an after-dinner drinkingevent that was restricted to citizen men, who reclion couches and listened to poetry, played games,

discussed political events.The Romanconvivium, in contrast, was open tocitizen women as well as men. The emphasis waseating rather than the later drinking. There also wan element of social hierarchy in the Romanconvivium,since a patron often hosted the event for his clienwho were of lesser status. Theconviviumtook placein the dining room, thetriclinium, which had reclinincouches, each able to hold three participants, arraaround three sides of the room.

Such parties could be extremely lavish if the hwished to0 aunt his wealth by serving rare and costfoods on gold and silver platters. Such ostentatioufeasts were often mocked by contemporary writeFor example, Petronius, the rst-centurya.d.authorof theCena Trimalchionis , told the story of three characters’ attendance at a dinner given by Trimalchio, afreedman who put on a vulgar and extravagant me

45.Pair of skyphi (drinking cups) withrelief decorationRoman, Augustan, late1st centuryb.c. – early1st centurya.d.

Silver; overall:3i

x 8k

in.(9.5 x 20.6cm),diam. of bowl5in.(12.7cm)Purchase, Marguerite and Frank A.Cosgrove Jr. Fund and Lila AchesonWallace Gift,1994(1994.43.1, .2)



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The Museum’s Silver Drinking Cups

Possession of silver was a sign of both social statusand wealth. These silver drinking cups, of thehighest quality of workmanship, are similar in sizeand decoration except that one has a single handleand the other has two. These sophisticated silvervessels were probably intended for display as muchas for actual use.

Still bearing traces of the original gilt, the two

cups are decorated in high relief (repoussé) witherotes (personications of the Greek god of desire) frolick-ing and playing musical instruments. Oneeros ridesa rearing panther, associated with the god of wine,Dionysus. Certainly the revelry of theerotes would beappropriate for vessels that were probably used incon-vivia . However, othererotes on the cup are shown with

down-turned torches, a motif that was commonlyused in funerary reliefs to symbolize the extinguishingof life. The motif can also be interpreted as signify-ing the extinguishing of love. Such a combination of joyful and sorrowful images may be an indication thatthe artist chose these designs, probably from a patternbook, because they were pleasing to the eye ratherthan for their iconographic implications.

The high quality of craftsmanship seen in thesecups suggests that they were produced by a leading

Roman workshop, which may also have producedtwo very similar cups, part of a set of 109pieces of tableware, found at an imperial villa near Boscoreale.



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s Look closely at the scenes on the cups. Whatkinds of gures are represented? What are thdoing? What kind of mood do these scenes ev

s Do you think the owner of these cups would hused them every day? Why or why not? What kof occasions do you think they were used for?

s

How do you think these cups were made? Do ythink they are more valuable than the gladiatocup described elsewhere in this section (image34)?Why or why not?



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LESSON PLANS

lesson planTHE POWER IN PORTRAITS

Grade level:Upper elementary through high school

Objectivess Students will look at and discuss Roman art through its portrai-

ture, including how portraiture carried messages of power andauthority.

s Students will compare portraiture on Roman imperial coins to theportraits and symbols on the currency of the United States, a coun-try that, in its formative years, identied itself with Rome. Theywill further explore the legacy of Rome in U. S. architecture.

ImagesImage 1 Ring-stone with intaglio bust of Julius CaesarImage 2 Portrait of a manImage 3 Colossal portrait of AugustusImage 4 Cameo portrait of the emperor AugustusImage 5 Portrait bust of the emperor Gaius, known as CaligulaImage 7 Aurei of the Twelve CaesarsImage 9 Portrait of the co-emperor Lucius VerusImage 10 Portrait of the emperor CaracallaImage 11 Portrait of the emperor CaracallaImage 12 Portrait head of the emperor Constantine I

MaterialsDrawing paperPencilsCompassesCrayons or markers

IntroductionRead the Historical Overview and the following excerpteddescriptions of images1–5, 7, and9–12. (For further infor-mation about these images, refer to the section, Power andAuthority in Roman Portraiture.)

Image 1: Often in Rome, coin portraits were copied by beingcarved in relief on gems or sealing ring-stones, such asthis one showing Julius Caesar. Julius Caesar was the rstRoman to issue coins with his portrait.Image 2: Republican Romanswanted portraits that ex-pressed the individual’s identity by stressing age and experi-ence in a non-idealized manner. In contrast with the Greektaste in portraiture, in which portrayal of the body wasimportant to the characterization of the person, for theRomans depiction of the facial features was sufcient.Images 3 and 4: Augustus, the rst Roman emperor, realized

that his public portrait image could serve as an instrumentof propaganda. Prototypical portrait copies were dispersedthroughout the Roman world and displayed in public places.Through these statues and busts, as well as through coinswith the emperor’s image, everyone in the empire was poten-tially made aware of what the emperor looked like and wasreminded of his power and authority.

Stylistically, Augustus followed the Greek example andchose an idealized, classicizing image that, while capturinghis individual features, never aged or changed during his ftyyears in power.

In the public sphere, Augustus emphasized that hewas the rst citizen among many equals. He might berepresented in any of his roles: in a toga, as a statesmanand citizen; wearing armor, as commander of the army; orveiled, as chief priest and responsible overall for maintain-ing good relations with the gods on Rome’s behalf. In theprivate sphere, it was not uncommon for the emperor tobe shown with the attributes of the gods. After his death,Augustus was deied, and public representations of himsometimes showed him with divine characteristics.Image 5: Caligula’s portrait type clearly stresses his resem-

blance to his grandfather Augustus, yet he has characteristicsthat individualize him as well.Image 7 : Roman imperial coinage, dispersed throughout theempire, bore the image of the emperor and his inscribedname, so his subjects would learn what he looked like. Thereverse of imperial coins sent a message from the emperor.It might picture a favored deity, personication, or familymember; show an important building that the emperor haderected or commemorate a battle he had won; or advertiseimperial virtues. The portrait types on the coins of the

Julio-Claudian emperorsresemble each other in order to

emphasize the dynastic ties of the successors to Augustus.Later emperors favored a more realistic type if it suited theirpropagandistic purposes.Image 9: Beginning with Hadrian in the early secondcenturya.d., emperors began to wear beards. Hadrian madethis choice to show his appreciation of Greek culture, sinceGreek philosophers, poets, and statesmen wore beards.His successors, such asLucius Verus here, continued thefashion as a way of expressing their dynastic continu-



19 7

ity with the past. Also beginning in the second century,sculptors depicted the longer hairstyles by increasing theiruse of the drill to carve deeply textured locks of hair thatcreated a dramatic contrast with the smoothness of carvedesh. They also began the practice of incising the pupilsand irises of their subjects’ eyes rather than simply indicat-ing them through paint.Images 10 and 11: After half a century of bearded emperorswho followed the Hellenic model, the emperorCaracallaadopted a simple hairstyle. The marble portrait (image10)shows short-cropped hair and stubbly beard, with head

turned dramatically and with furrowed brow. It gives us theimpression that this is a man of quick and decisive action.Image 12: This clean-shaven portrait type showsConstantine,the rst Roman ruler ofcially to tolerate Christianity. Withbangs brushed over his forehead and an unlined face, theportrait bears a marked resemblance to those of his deiedpredecessors, reminding viewers of earlier emperors,such as Augustus, and, by association, of their successfulreigns. However, the huge, upward-looking eyes and theextreme simplication of the facial planes give the por-trait an abstract and detached quality that projects power

and belief rather than individuality.DiscussionShow the students images1–5, 7, and9–12(provided indigital format on the enclosed CD-ROM). Ask them totake two minutes to describe each one in three to four sen-tences. At least one of the sentences should compare andcontrast a portrait to a previous one. After this exercise,show the images again, pausing to discuss each in depthand to draw out information from the students’ descrip-tions. What similarities and differences do they see amongthe portraits over time? Discuss what these resemblancesand changes might signify.

ActivitiesHave the students imagine that each of them is a Romanemperor or empress. Distribute the drawing supplies andhave the student “emperors” design self-portraits by whichtheir fellow students will get to know them, includingindications of their status and authority. They should con-sider the following:

s Is the portrait to be public or private?s Is it just a head (or bust) or a full-sized statue?s If it is full-sized, what garments or attributes shoul

be included to show the aspects and responsibilitiebeing an emperor or empress?

s Will it refer to ancient Greek styles?s Will it show connections to the portraits being de-

signed by other student “emperors”?

Arrange the portraits in succession around the classroand have each student write a poem about a classmateportrait, lauding that particular emperor or empress.

Next, ask each student “emperor” to design both thobverse and reverse of an imperial coin. In preparatiothis activity, carefully observe images1, 4,and especially7, and read and discuss their accompanying descriptioYou might also look at images of imperial Roman coionline, such as on the Museum’sTimeline of Art History(www.metmuseum.org/toah). Each student “emperoshould make a list of the features found on the impericoins, as well as the reasons these features, and shoulembody these features in his/her own coin design.

Now, have the students make up a list of the featurfound in United States currency, both coin and paperand the reasons for these features. They should investiarticles, books, and websites, such as those for the UnStates Mint (www.usmint.gov/kids/coinNews) andUnited States Treasury (www.ustreas.gov/education/facoins/portraits.shtml).

Compare the two lists and discuss their similaritiesand differences.

As an extension of this exercise, discuss how “Romanthe United States was at its founding, and how “Romait seems today. The section in this resource entitled ThRelevance of Rome will provide useful background. Uonline resources, books, or eld trips, have the studenexplore the Roman elements (including dependence oancient Greek culture) of certain local, state, and fedegovernment buildings—whether it occurs in their art architecture, the governmental concepts the structuresembody, or the terminology used to describe them. Onpossible assignment might be to have each student pic

lesson plans



198

state. The students could investigate the government andpublic buildings of their chosen state’s capital to see how“Roman” they seem and report their ndings to the class.Which states seem to have the more “Roman” buildings?Can any conclusions about the inuence of Rome on thepresent-day United States be drawn from this data?

Mediations:Discussion for High School StudentsBelow are two excerpts from theMeditations by theAntonine emperor Marcus Aurelius (r.161–180 a.d.) to beused to stimulate discussion and/or debate in the highschool classroom. (These excerpts are available as a pdf onthe CD-ROM. Copies may be distributed to the students.)

Marcus Aurelius was educated by many famousteachers, including the orator Fronto. From the ageof twelve, he showed an interest in philosophy, andevventually it became a key feature of his life. He wasmuch inuenced by a school of philosophy calledStoicism, but his writings draw from Platonism andEpicureanism as well. His philosophical musings onhuman life and the ways of the gods were recorded in

Greek in a personal notebook, and they have come downto us as theMeditations.His legacy as a philosopher-rulersurvives today.

Some possible questions to consider when discussingthese excerpts: What do the quotations indicate aboutRoman life and culture? What do they say about theimportance of history and art? About leadership? Areany of the concepts expressed relevant to your life orthe modern world? What qualities does Marcus Aureliusadmire in a person in the rst quotation? In the second,what does he seem to be saying about the importance of

earthly activities?

Book Three, 5In your actions let there be a willing promptitude, yet aregard for the common interest; due deliberation, yet noirresolution; and in your sentiments no pretentious over-renement. Avoid talkativeness, avoid ofciousness. Thegod within you should preside over a being who is virileand mature, a statesman, a Roman, and a ruler; one who

has held his ground, like a soldier waiting for the signal toretire from life’s battleeld and ready to welcome his relief;a man whose credit need neither be sworn to by himself nor avouched by others. Therein is the secret of cheerful-ness, of depending on no help from without and needingto crave from no man the boon of tranquility. We have tostand upright ourselves, not be set up.

Book Four, 33Expressions that were once current have gone out of usenowadays. Names, too, that were formerly household

words are virtually archaisms today; Camillus, Caeso,Volesus, Dentatus; or a little later, Scipio and Cato;Augustus too, and even Hadrian and Antoninus. Allthings fade into the storied past, and in a little while areshrouded in oblivion. Even to men whose lives were ablaze of glory this comes to pass; as for the rest, the breathis hardly out of them before, in Homer’s words, they are“lost to sight alike and hearsay.” What, after all, is immor-tal fame? An empty, hollow thing. To what, then, must weaspire? This, and this alone: the just thought, the unselshact, the tongue that utters no falsehood, the temper that

greets each passing event as something predestined, ex-pected, and emanating from the One source and origin.

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (121–180 a.d.), Meditations.Translated withan introduction by Maxwell Staniforth. (Baltimore, Maryland: PenguinBooks,1969)

lesson plans



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lesson planROMAN BELIEFS

Grade level:Middle and high school

Objectivess Students will discuss the images and symbols the Romans used

to depict their gods as well as how they honored them.s Students will discuss Roman domestic gods.s Students will discuss the Romans’ burial customs.

MaterialsPaperPencils

Crayons, markers, paintsClay

1. Honoring the Gods

ImagesImage 15 Statuette of JupiterImage 16 Relief fragment with the head of MarsImage 17 Statue of VenusImage 20 CamillusImage 21 Statuette of Cybele on a cart drawn by lions

IntroductionThe Romans believed that each deity had a particularfunction and areas of inuence in the world. Initially, theRoman gods included a mixture of Italic, Etruscan, andGreek deities. As the Romans’ territories expanded, theyac-cepted non-Roman gods as well (image21). It was essentialto honor the gods by building temples with altars nearby,where priests and attendants (image20) made sacrices. If pleased, the gods would assure victory to Roman armies(image16), grant the emperor great powers (image15), andprovide agricultural plenty to their people (image21). For

personal devotion and prayers, households might possessstatuettes of the Roman gods (image15).

DiscussionShow the students the images above and after reading thedescriptions of these works, lead a discussion about howthe Romans viewed their gods. Discuss what features thestudents think a powerful god of nature would need toprotect people from oods, storms, re, and other disas-ters. What features would a god of war need to display the

powers necessary for success in battle? What about a gwho has the power to assure plenty of food? Or providsuccess in business? Or fame as a singer or artist?

ActivitiesAsk the students to depict a god of their own choice acreation. They may draw or paint them and should besure to include symbols or attributes worn or held thatconvey their power. Alternately, they may write a detadescription of the god. The whole class—or a group ostudents—might produce a play about these modern gdescribing what they do and how they get along.

2. Household Protection

ImagesImage 18 Statuette of alar (see also one of the posters)

IntroductionRoman families kept paired statuettes of small but powful deities calledlares (image18) in their homes to protectthem and their households.Lares were guardian spirits

that may have represented the ghosts of family ancestoThe family placed statuettes of thelares in shrines in thecentral courtyard of the house. There they could pray tthem and make offerings when the family needed helpOften the family worshipped other household gods, suas the penates,who guarded the kitchen.

DiscussionDiscuss with the students what thelares of their homesmight look like. What features would show their poweto protect and bring health and happiness? What woula modern household god look like? What abilities wouhe/she need to guard your kitchen and provide good foo

ActivityWhen they have discussed and decided on theirappearance, ask the students to make a painting or adrawing of their gods and describe the symbols they hor wear to show their powers. Alternately, they could three-dimensional forms out of clay.

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3. With Your Family Forever: Art for the Tomb

ImagesImage 23 Cinerary urn with arms and war trophiesImage 25 Sarcophagus with the Triumph of Dionysus

and the Four SeasonsImage 24 Funerary altar of Cominia TycheImage 27 Portrait of a young woman with a gilded wreathImage 28 Portrait bust of a veiled womanImage 29 Portrait bust of a woman

IntroductionFrom the many ancient Roman tombs that archaeologists

have uncovered, it seems that some Romans believed thatthe soul lived on after death. During the Republic andearly empire, the Romans frequently cremated the bodiesof the deceased, and the ashes were placed in carved urns(image23). In later times, bodies were placed in sarcophagi(image25). Often many generations in a family wereburied together with portrait busts (images28, 29), carvedaltars (image24), or paintings of family members (image27). In imperial times, tombs often were above groundand were large enough for living members of the family togather in order to commemorate their ancestors.

DiscussionDiscuss with the students the idea of ancestors and howthey might be honored. Perhaps they remember theirown ancestors or have heard stories about them. Howwould they portray their favorite ancestors and/or familymembers in a painting? What features of these peoplewould they emphasize to show their character? Whatdesigns would they place on a funerary urn or sarcophagusto show their ancestors’ accomplishments?

Activity

Ask the students to design their own funerary monumentsto commemorate an ancestor. Let them choose the kind of monument they would like to make (portrait, ash urn, altar,sarcophagus). After they have completed their drawings,have them discuss why they chose their formats and theparticular qualities of the individuals they illustrated.

lesson planTHE ROMAN HOUSEHOLD

Grade level:Middle and high school

Objectivess Students will identify the members of one hypothetical Roman

household.s Students will explore the relationships within a Roman household.s Students will research the role of the family and household in

Roman society.

Materials

Construction paperPaper and pencilsGlue sticks

ImagesImage 2 Portrait of a manImage 20 CamillusImage 23 Cinerary urn with arms and war trophiesImage 25 Sarcophagus with the Triumph of Dionysus and the

Four SeasonsImage 28 Portrait bust of a veiled womanImage 31 Portrait bust of an aristocratic boyImage 35 Beaker with chariot raceImage 37 InkwellImage 38 Ink penImage 40 and 41 Frescoes from a villa at Boscoreale

IntroductionIn the hierarchical Roman world, the word “status”described the legal and social position of an individualwith respect both to that person’s household and to thebroader civil community of Rome. The individual’s placein Roman society was determined by wealth, freedom,and Roman citizenship. The social hierarchy included thesenatorial order, the equestrian order, and the rest of thefree population. The rst two had wealth requirementsand were largely hereditary. The senatorial order consistedof wealthy landowners who were expected to devotethemselves to unpaid public service. The equestrian orderconsisted of the ofcer corps, civil administrators, andbusinessmen. Below these two ranks was the vast mass of the free urban poor. The status of freedman was given tothose who had been released from slavery by their formerowners; many of these were economically successful. At

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the bottom of the social order were slaves; althoughthey were not free, some slaves rose to great positions of responsibility, managing the master’s estates or tutoringhis children, for example. Some earned enough money tobuy their freedom and to become freedmen/women.

The family ( familia ) was the basic unit of Romansociety. The eldest male ( paterfamilias ) was the head of household. He had the authority to control matters of marriage, divorce, property, and economics, and the lineof descent passed through him. His wife, children, andother relatives lived with him. Slaves and servants were also

part of the household in wealthy families.The role of a woman in Roman society was to marry, bearchildren, and run the household. Women did not have theright to vote or own property. They could, however, attendsocial events or become priestesses; women of the lowerorders worked outside the home. There is historical evidencefor outstanding and inuential women in Roman society.

Roman marriage was monogamous and was usuallyarranged by the fathers of the couple. Girls were marriedat around the age of twelve, while boys could be anywherefrom a few years to much older. Marriage was undertaken

for political or economic reasons rather than for romance;it was intended to produce heirs.The extent of literacy in the Roman world is difcult to

assess; however, it is likely that most children whose familiescould afford it received at least an elementary education.Higher levels of education were usually available only toboys, many of whom were schooled by private tutors.

DiscussionAfter reading the descriptions of the images listedabove, discuss the works of art using the following ques-tions as a guide:s What does the image represent?s Of what material is the object made?s For what purpose was the object made?s In the case of the portraits, how have the subjects

been represented?s How would you like to be represented?

ActivitiesDivide the class into groups of six. Have each groupform a Roman household complete with name, age,and role of each household member and write a shordescription of each. For example:s The paterfamilias , a wealthy equestrian who owns and

runs a vineyard adjoining his farm-villa at Boscore(see images2, 40, 41)

s His wife,matrona of a household with three children(see image28)

s The older son, an army ofcer (see image23)s

The middle son, training to be a priestly attendant(see image19and the entry for image20)s The youngest son, who is just learning to read (see ima31)s A slave who tutors the youngest son (see images37, 38)

s Ask each student to research a certain aspect of Rodaily life that would affect the family members. Forample: the house and estate, education, art and mudress, sports and games, military, and religious prac

s

Create a visual family tree. (Look at images2, 20,and28as examples of individuals who might be includeIndicate a personal name for each individual. Studenmight research Roman names in the library or onlinand use as many rst names as they can that are derifrom Roman names but that we use today (Julian anAugustus, for example).

s Draw a diagram of the family villa rustica atBoscoreale. Include images40and41in a written descrip-tion of the rooms.

s Describe an outing to the chariot races in the CircuMaximus. Include image35in the narrative.

s The paterfamilias is in ill health. Describe the preparatithat are being made for his burial. Include image25.

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My image would be beneath your feet. I wear awreath of owers and am surrounded by manycubes of stone in geometric shapes. (image43)

Remember my name and the age at which I died.My curly hair is my best feature. (image24)

Lion power draws my large chariot. I wear a longdress and hold a musical instrument. (image21)

I am a shiny pair for fancy dining! One of myyoung friends is riding a wild animal. (image45)

Surrounded by my followers and the fourseasons, I ride my panther around this largemarble container. (image25)

Every home needs a small gure of me. Eat, drink,and dance, and I will protect you. (image18)

This stone box holds my ashes. I want to beremembered for the successes in my life. (image23)

I was once part of a Roman room. My

garland is painted rather than real. (image41)

I look rather grumpy and old and am goingbald. I am carved of stone. (image2)

I’m larger than life to show my power, althoughI’ve lost everything except my head! (image12)

WHEN IN ROME: A TREASURE HUNT FOR GRADES 1–4

Instructions for the Teacher

Project images2, 12, 18, 21, 23, 24, 25, 41, 43, 45in the classroom (they areavailable in digital format on the CD-ROM). After you have observedand discussed the images, make copies of the treasure hunt gameopposite and distribute them to the students. Ask them to match thepicture with the corresponding clue below.

9

6

4

10

7

3

5

8

1

2

Answer Key



203

My image would be beneath your feet. I weara wreath of owers and am surrounded bymany cubes of stone in geometric shapes.

Remember my name and the age at which Idied. My curly hair is my best feature.

Lion power draws my large chariot. I wear along dress and hold a musical instrument.

I am a shiny pair for fancy dining! One of myyoung friends is riding a wild animal.

Surrounded by my followers and the fourseasons, I ride my panther around this largemarble container.

Every home needs a small gure of me. Edrink, and dance, and I will protect you.

This stone box holds my ashes. I want to bremembered for the successes in my life.

I was once part of a Roman room. My

garland is painted rather than real.

I look rather grumpy and old and am goingbald. I am carved of stone.

I’m larger than life to show my power,although I’ve lost everything except my he

4321 5

6 87 109

WHEN IN ROME: A TREASURE HUN

Look at the pictures above and match their numbers with the clues below



204

History and General Background

Boatwright, Mary T., Daniel J. Gargola, andRichard J. A. Talbert. A Brief History of the Romans .New York: Oxford University Press,2006.

Many illustrations and maps, as well as agazetteer, glossary, and timeline, enhancethis excellent introduction to the Romansand their history; excerpts from the origi-nal writings of a number of well-knownRoman writers and politicians augmentthe narrative. Bibliographic references andan index are included.

Bunson, Matthew. Encyclopedia of the Roman

Empire . Rev. ed. New York: Facts on File,2002.An engaging, A–Z encyclopedia about theRoman empire, from the time of JuliusCaesar to the end of the empire in theWest, with illustrations, an index, a glos-sary, and other appendices.

Conti, Flavio. A Prole of Ancient Rome . LosAngeles: J. Paul Getty Museum,2003.

This easy-to-use, well-illustrated overviewof all facets of customs and lifestyles inancient Roman times includes a glossary,index, and timeline.

Cornell, Tim, and John Matthews. Atlas of the Roman World . New York: Facts on File,1982.

This comprehensive, intelligently writtenoverview of the Roman world includesmany illustrations, an index, gazetteer,and chronology.

Goodman, Martin.The Roman World, 44B.C.– A.D.

180. New York: Routledge,1997.Martin Goodman provides an extensiveand coherent account of Rome in the

period from Julius Caesar’s death to thereign of Marcus Aurelius. Includes an

index, a variety of maps, illustrations, andbibliographic sources.

Heather, Peter.The Fall of the Roman Empire: ANew History of Rome and the Barbarians . New York:Oxford University Press,2006.

Professor Heather, an authority on thebarbarians, explains the fall of the Romanempire in this fascinating study of itsdecline. His thesis, that Imperial Rometurned its barbarian neighbors into ahostile and destructive force, is clearlyelucidated. Illustrations, a timeline, glos-

sary, and a twenty-page list of “DramatisPersonae” enrich the text.

Kelly, Christopher.The Roman Empire: A VeryShort Introduction. New York: Oxford UniversityPress,2006.

This introduction to the Roman empirehighlights its steady and unprecedentedtransformation from city-state to super-power. Though brief, the book includesmuch of interest about life in the empire,including the demographics that were soimportant to its survival. A/ nal chapterfocuses on the many ways current depic-tions in0 uence our own conceptions of ancient Rome.

Kleiner, Diana E. E., and Susan B. Matheson, eds.I Claudia: Women in Ancient Rome . New Haven:Yale University Art Gallery,1996.

In this remarkable exhibition catalogue, theauthors use art objects to tell the story of women’s lives during the Roman empire.Many illustrations, family trees, and biblio-graphic references enhance the telling.

Mitchell, Stephen. A History of the Later Roman Empire, A.D. 284–641. London: Blackwell,2007.

This historical survey of the later Romanempire covers a period of great upheavaland transformation, from the accessionof the emperor Diocletian through thereigns of Constantine and Justinian tothe beginnings of medieval Europe andIslamic civilization. Illustrations, maps,timelines, bibliographic references, and anindex make this a complete and very usefulcompendium on the subject.

Stierlin, Henri.The Roman Empire: From the Etruscans to the Decline of the Roman Empire .

Cologne: Taschen,2002.Stierlin uses copious illustrations, plans,and maps to provide an introductionto the architecture of ancient Rome.Aqueducts, amphitheaters, grottoes,arches, homes, and baths are just someof the wonders unveiled for readers. Abibliography, glossary, chronology, andindexes are included.

Welch, Kathryn.The Romans . New York:Rizzoli,1998.

Professor Welch has written a portrait of ancient Rome for the general reader. Filledwith glimpses and anecdotes of everydaylife, from communal latrines to villas of the wealthy, this book is a vivid accountof life in ancient Rome. Many colorillustrations, an index, chronology, andbibliography augment the narratives.

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Wells, Colin M.The Roman Empire . 2d ed.Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,1995.

This is a comprehensive and colorfulaccount of the Roman empire written forthe general reader. The complex history of the empire as well as the everyday lives of the people, including tales of the lives andloves of the ruling classes, make for com-pelling reading. Includes a bibliographicessay, index, maps, and illustrations.

Woolf, Greg, ed.Cambridge Illustrated Historyof the Roman World . New York: CambridgeUniversity Press,2003.

The totality of the Roman world ispresented here with vivid illustrations andwell-written essays about many facets of Roman life, including technology, medi-cine, literature, cults, and religion. Manyappendices enhance the text.

Daily Life

Adkins, Lesley, and Roy A. Adkins.Handbookto Life in Ancient Rome . Updated ed. New York:Facts on File,2004.

This detailed handbook o. ers concise en-tries on all facets of the empire. Includesmany maps, illustrations, and an index.

Allan, Tony.Life, Myth, and Art in Ancient Rome .Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum,2005.

The achievements of ancient Rome,long celebrated in art and myth, are wellexplained in this beautifully illustrated andreadable overview. Includes a chronologyof the Roman emperors, a list of furtherreadings, and an index.

Casson, Lionel. Everyday Life in Ancient Rome .Rev. and exp. ed. Baltimore: Johns HopkinsUniversity Press,1998.

Casson’s fascinating sketches of life in theRoman world tell of wives, lovers, slaves,businessmen, trade, travel, and much more.

Connolly, Peter, and Hazel Dodge.The Ancient City: Life in Classical Athens & Rome . New York:Oxford University Press,1998.

This book explains the development of these two famous cities, their architectural

wonders, and every aspect of the lives of their citizens. More than half the book isdevoted to Rome, with particular atten-tion to the baths and water supply, one of the signi/ cant achievements of the greatRoman engineers. Numerous drawings,cross-sections,0 oor plans, and illustra-tions complement the text. A glossary andbibliography are included.

Dupont, Florence.Daily Life in Ancient Rome .Oxford: Blackwell,1994.

Professor Dupont truly conveys a “you arethere” feeling in this rich account of daily

life in ancient Rome. Details on home life,the care of infants, wealth, poverty, slavery,and many other aspects of everyday life aredescribed in this absorbing book. Includesillustrations and an index.

Sebesta, Judith Lynn, and Larissa Bonfante,eds.The World of Roman Costume . Madison:University of Wisconsin Press,1994.

This thorough study of dress duringRoman times contains many illustra-tions, diagrams, and original sourcematerials. One chapter is devoted to themost famous Roman costume of all, thetoga; other chapters cover colors, status,religious wear, bridal wear, jewelry, shoes,and more. This book is useful to both layreader and historian alike.

Time-Life Books.What Life Was Like When Rome Ruled the World: The Roman Empire, 100B.C.– A.D.200.Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life,1997.

Court records, letters, inscriptions, andother primary sources are the basis for theinformation in this readable and well-il-lustrated guide to life in ancient Rome.Includes a timeline, index, and bibliography.

Toynbee, J. M. C.Death and Burial in the RomanWorld . Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press,1971. Reprint ed., Baltimore: Johns HopkinsUniversity Press,1996.

The afterlife, funerary practices, tombs,funerary rites for the rulers and the ruledare just some of the topics discussed byProfessor Toynbee in this absorbing book.Includes many illustrations, bibliographicnotes, and an index.

Art and Architecture

Beard, Mary, and John Henderson.Classical Art from Greece to Rome . New York: OxfordUniversity Press,2001.

This provocative book, a history of therelationship between Roman art and itsGreek antecedents, both originals andcopies, is well worth reading. It is, as wa meditation on the meanings of this artwhen it was made, when it was discoverand how to think about it now in light onew scholarship and conceptual frame-works. Many illustrations, maps, a time

line, and an index enhance the content.

Dunbabin, Katherine M. D.Mosaics of the Greek and Roman World . New York: CambridgeUniversity Press,1999.

Professor Dunbabin has written a comprehensive account of, and thus a tributo, this most decorative and durable arMosaics, from ancient Greece to Christitimes, are discussed in detail. The desigof mosaics, their uses, original sourcematerials about them, and a discussionof more recent research, combine to makthis a major reference work. Includesmany photographs, maps, glossaries, abibliography, and indexes.

Elsner, Jas. Imperial Rome and Christian Trium.New York: Oxford University Press,1998.

Dr. Elsner’s interesting study documentthe origins of Christian art in Roman aA detailed timeline provides orientationand context to the thematic chapters.Includes many illustrations and maps,an index, and a bibliographic essay.

Kleiner, Diana E. E.Roman Sculpture . NewHaven: Yale University Press,1992.

A well-written, thorough study of ancieRoman sculpture and its importance tothe study of Roman history and society.Includes many illustrations, a glossary,index, and a bibliography.

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Kleiner, Fred. S. A History of Roman Art .Belmont, Calif.: Thomson/Wadsworth,2007.

Geographically and chronologically,Professor Kleiner’s tour de force capturesthe art and architecture of the vast Romanempire while seamlessly integrating thereligion, writings, people, and overallculture of the far-0 ung realm. For studentand lay reader alike, it includes a glossary,bibliography, and index.

Ling, Roger.Roman Painting . New York:Cambridge University Press,1991.

This is a thoroughly detailed assessment

of wall painting in the Roman empire.Includes many illustrations, a glossary,index, maps, and bibliography.

McCann, Anna Marguerite.Roman Sarcophagi in the Metropolitan Museum of Art . New York:MMA,1978.

This catalogue is a useful guide to Romansarcophagi, particularly in the MetropolitanMuseum’s collection. Includes many/ neblack-and-white illustrations and informa-tive bibliographic references.

Mazzoleni, Donatella.Domus: Wall Painting inthe Roman House . Los Angeles: J. Paul GettyMuseum,2004.

The sumptuous photographs and interest-ing essays in this engrossing book presenttwenty-eight famous examples of the/ nest frescoes in the homes of ancientRome. Includes bibliographic referencesand an index.

Ramage, Nancy H., and Andrew Ramage.Roman Art: Romulus to Constantine . 4th ed. UpperSaddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall,2005.

An engrossing introduction to all facetsof Roman art, the Professors Ramagehave updated previous editions to providea broad survey from the art of the earlyEtruscans to that of the time of EmperorConstantine the Great. Many illustra-tions, diagrams, a glossary, an index, and abibliography are included.

Sear, Frank.Roman Architecture . Ithaca, N.Y.:Cornell University Press,1983.

The remarkable architecture of ancientRome is clearly laid out using diagrams,photographs, drawings, maps, and chartsin this comprehensive and readable vol-ume. That many of the aqueducts, roads,arches, and buildings are still standingmore than2,000years later is testamentto the skill of the architects and engineerswho designed and built the infrastructureof the empire. A glossary, index, andbibliographic references are included.

Strong, Donald.Roman Art . 2d ed. New York:Penguin,1990.

This survey of the arts of the Romanempire illustrates the gradual transfor-mation from Etruscan in0 uences andGreek artistic traditions to the distinctlyRoman style. Includes a glossary, index,and bibliography.

Walker, Susan.Greek and Roman Portraits .London: British Museum Press,1995.

A brief, readable introduction to thesculpted portraits of ancient Greece and

Rome. Includes illustrations and an index.

Ward-Perkins, John B.Roman Architecture . NewYork: Rizzoli,1988.

The extraordinary architectural achieve-ments of ancient Rome are delineated inthis well-illustrated volume. Includes abibliography and index.

Power and Authority

Goldsworthy, Adrian.The Complete Roman Army.London: Thames & Hudson,2003.

The Roman army, generally considered themost successful ghting force in historyuntil modern times, maintained the vastempire for over900years. Examining allaspects of the subject, from soldiers’ livesto the battle plans of individual wars, thisbook provides a thorough grounding inthe subject and includes many illustrations,a bibliography, and index.

Matyszak, Philip.Chronicle of the Roman Republic:The Rulers of Ancient Rome from Romulus to August.New York: Thames & Hudson,2003.

Accounts of the lives of the leaders whocreated the Roman empire make compel-ling reading. Many illustrations, plans,timelines, a glossary, bibliography, andindex are included.

_____. The Sons of Caesar: Imperial Rome’s First Dynasty. New York: Thames & Hudson,2006.

This history of the Julio-Claudian dynastyis the fascinating tale of one family’slegacy. Very readable and well illustrated,

this is the saga of Julius Caesar, Augustus,Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero,who, in the transition from a republic toan autocracy, devised an imperial systemwhich has had ramications through theages. Includes a bibliography, glossary,index, family trees, and maps.

Scarre, Chris.Chronicle of the Roman Emperors: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial Rom.London: Thames & Hudson,1995.

This history of the Roman emperorsbrings to life all the famous rulers

and some less so. From Augustus toConstantine their reigns and lives areexamined. Timelines, illustrations, and con-temporary sources add to the fascinatingdetail. Includes an index and bibliography.

Religion and Mythology

Gardner, Jane F.Roman Myths. The Legendary Past .Austin: University of Texas Press,1993.

Professor Gardner’s interesting and readableoverview of the ancient Roman legendsexamines numerous versions from theancient authors. Includes many illustrations,an index, and bibliographic references.

Wiseman, T. P.The Myths of Rome . Exeter, UK:University of Exeter Press,2004.

Professor Wiseman focuses on the Romanmyths that are fully entwined with Romanhistory. The text is strengthened withquotes from original sources in historyand poetry, family trees of the ruling elite,and many illustrations. Includes a timechart, bibliography, and index.

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20 7

Sources

Conte, Gian Biagio.Latin Literature: A History.Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,1999.

This superb history of Latin literature isa masterful account of all the major Latinauthors and their works from the thirdcenturyb.c.to the eighth centurya.d.Veryuseful appendices complement the text;they include comparative chronologicaltables of Greek and Roman history andculture, an alphabetical list of Greek au-thors and their texts, a glossary of Romanculture, and a list of rhetorical terms.

Pliny, the Elder.Natural History. Translatedby H. Rackham.10vols.2d ed. Cambridge,Mass.: Harvard University,1983 – 95.

Virgil.The Aeneid . Translated by Robert Fagles.New York: Viking,2006.

Virgil’s epic tale of the founding of Romeis brought to life in Professor Fagles’remarkable and lucid translation. Theintroduction by Bernard Knox and Fagles’own postscript clarify the text. Includes avery useful pronounciation glossary as well

as bibliographic references.

Vitruvius.The Ten Books on Architecture .Translated by Morris Hicky Morgan. NewYork: Dover,1960.

Books for Students

Chrisp, Peter. Ancient Rome Revealed . New York:Dorling Kindersley,2003.

Ancient Rome comes alive with many im-ages and much information in this uniquebook. Transparent pages enable the readerto reread facts while looking at di. erentvisual interpretations of the same subject.This is a very good introduction to thisextraordinary civilization done with theusual Dorling Kindersley thoroughness.

Corbishley, Mike.Illustrated Encyclopedia of Ancient Rome . Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum,2004.

An interesting encyclopedia for students,enhanced with illustrations and quotesfrom famous Romans as well as a tableof contents that groups the entries intothematic categories.

Harris, Jacqueline L.Science in Ancient Rome .Danbury, Conn.: Franklin Watts,1998.

Rather than studying science for its ownsake, the Romans used science from othercultures to their advantage, developing newmethods in public health and in the art of

building and the use of materials. All thishas been our inheritance, and JacquelineHarris presents this information in areadable, well-illustrated account. Includesa glossary, bibliography, and index.

James, Simon. Ancient Rome . Eyewitness Books.Rev. ed. New York: Dorling Kindersley,2004.

Eyewitness Books are an excellentintroduction to any subject and this bookabout ancient Rome is no exception, use-ful for adult and young person alike andvery well illustrated. Includes an index.

Macaulay, David.City: A Story of Roman Planning and Construction. Boston: Houghton Mi2 in,1974.

This is another in David Macaulay’s neworks about architecture. The planningand construction of an imaginary Romancity, so carefully drawn and described,comes vividly to life. Includes a glossary.For readers of all ages.

Morley, Jacqueline. A Roman Villa: Inside Story.New York: Peter Bedrick Books,1992.

Diagrams and many drawings reveal what lifewas like for those who lived in Roman villas.

Osborne, Mary Pope.Pompeii: Lost & Found .Illustrated by Bonnie Christensen. New York:Knopf,2006.

This irresistible book tells the tale of Pompeii before the eruption of Vesuviusin a.d. 79buried the town and many of itsinhabitants. The work of the archaeolo-gists who have been slowly uncovering thetown over many years is also discussed.The fresco-like illustrations and paletteenhance the authenticity of the story.

Usher, Kerry.Heroes, Gods & Emperors from RMythology. New York: Schocken Books,1984.

The legends of ancient Rome re0 ect howthe Romans saw themselves and theirworld. Illustrations, an index, and an explanatory page about some of the symbare included.

Watkins, Richard.Gladiator . Boston: HoughtonMi2 in,1997.

The gladiators of ancient Rome are leg-endary and this book deals with all aspeof their training and battles, including thnaumachia (sea ghts) in manmade lakes

and0 ooded amphitheaters. Includes anindex, glossary, and bibliography.

Selected Online Resources

Note: Please be aware that the content of websites may change without notice. It is anecessary to verify the identity of the supering authority of the website; this informatiois usually available on the rst page. We urgall teachers to preview Internet sites beforeassigning them to students. The sites sugge

below were reviewed in March2007.

The Metropolitan Museum of Artwww.metmuseum.org

Timeline of Art Historywww.metmuseum.org/toah

The Timeline of Art History, part of theMetropolitan Museum’s website, is con-tinually updated and revised. The sectioon Roman art has an excellent overviewof Roman art history with chronologiesmaps, and thematic content.

The British Museumwww.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/world/rome/rome.html

This site spotlights works from the BronAge toa.d. 313, from the territory of theentire Roman empire, with particular at-tention to Roman Britain. Includes a toucreated for children about the Trojan War

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The Field Museumwww.eldmuseum.org/pompeii/pompeii.asp

A special exhibition,Pompeii: Stories froman Eruption, includes information aboutHerculaneum, Oplontis, Terzigno,volcanism, and images of artifacts fromexcavations in this region.

The Louvre—Roman Artwww.louvre.fr

This website provides not only an im-mense database with information aboutthe Louvre’s Roman and Etruscan antiqui-ties, but also maps, a timeline, and virtual

tours. Be sure to click on the word Englishwhen rst entering the site.

Museum of Fine Arts, Bostonwww.mfa.org

“Art of the Ancient World” is the MFA’sumbrella phrase for its collection of artifacts from ancient times. Selectedhighlights from the Etruscan and Romancollections, thematic tours, Etruscan tombpainting, and information about Romanemperors and empresses are available onthis website.

Roma2000www.roma2000.it/zmunaro.html

This site provides links to monuments andmany museums throughout Rome thathave important archaeological collections,including the National Museum of Rome(Baths of Diocletian, Octagonal Hall,Palazzo Massimo, and Palazzo Altemps),the Capitoline Museums, and the VillaGiulia National Museum.

The Soprintendenza Archeologica di Pompeiwww2.pompeiisites.org

This webpage demonstrates the variety of ongoing work sponsored by the VesuvianArchaeological Sites’ System. Locations in-clude Pompeii, Herculaneum, Boscoreale,Oplontis, and Stabia.

United States Mintwww.usmint.gov/kids/coinNewsUnited States Treasurywww.ustreas.gov/education/faq/coins/portraits.shtml

Use these websites to nd backgroundinformation on the United Statesmonetary system for the Lesson Plan,The Power in Portraits.

The Vatican Museumsmv.vatican.va/3_EN/pages/MV_Home.html

O. ers virtual tours and highlights of

the Gregorian Etruscan Collections,featuring ne examples of Etruscan andRoman antiquities.

DVD and Video

We advise all educators to preview these mate-rials before integrating them into lesson plans.Only you can be the judge of what materialsare best for your needs. You may elect to showall or parts of a given program.

Ancient Rome: The Story of an Empire that Ruled the World . Vol. 1: Republic of Rome ; Vol.2: Age of Emperors ; Vol. 3: Building an Empire ; Vol.4: The Enduring Legacy(each vol.50min.). New York:The History Channel and A&E TelevisionNetwork,1998.

Scholars provide details about Rome’searly history, from the Etruscans to theend of the empire.

Ben-Hur . 211min. New York: MGA/UAHome Video,1959. Also available on DVD.

During the rst centurya.d., Judah Ben-Hur, a young Hebrew prince, is throwninto slavery by the Romans after a tragic ac-cident. He eventually wins his way back tohis home and family. Judah’s love for a slavegirl and his triumph over adversity is setagainst the backdrop of the historic strugglebetween captives and the mighty empire.

Life, Times and Wonders of Rome & Pompeii . 71min.Chicago: Distributed by Questar Video,1994.

The history and culture of Ancient Romeis explored and recreated through com-puter graphics, lm footage, and artworks.

The Roman Empire in the First Century. DVDArlington, Va.: PBS Home Video,2001.

The history of the mighty, far-reachingempire in the rst centurya.d., from thereign of Augustus to the reign of Trajan,from triumph to chaos, is presentedthrough the stories of emperors, poets,plebeians, and slaves.

The Sunken City. 50min. Series: AncientMysteries, New Investigations of theUnsolved. New York: A&E TelevisionNetwork,1995.

The port of Ostia was a jewel in thecrown of the Roman empire. Once a vitalseaport twenty miles from Rome, todayit is deserted. When the empire began tofall, Ostia declined with it and, over thecenturies, the surrounding waters haverisen to engulf the town.

Trajan’s Column. 50min. New York: TrecanniVideo Library,1989.Relates the history of and describes the fa-mous second-centurya.d.marble columnerected in Rome by Emperor Trajan.

Who Built the Catacombs? 50min. Series: AncientMysteries. New York: A&E TelevisionNetwork,1996.

In this mysterious world, the religiousoutcasts of the second-centurya.d.Romanempire hid and worshipped in secret.

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acanthus: a kind of Mediterranean plant with large spreading leaves. Itwas used as a decorative element on Corinthian capitals and also was a

symbol of death.

amphitheater: an elliptical structure with a central arena for the stagingof gladiatorial contests and animal combats.

apse: a semicircular space within a Roman building. Typically a basilicawould have an apse at one end.

arch: a curved architectural member that spans an opening.

atrium: the central room of a Roman house. It had a hole in the ceilingand a pool in the center of the oor to catch rainwater.

aureus: the most valuable Roman coin, made of gold.

barrel vault: a semicircular ceiling over parallel walls.

basilica: a building type used for law courts and conducting business,which usually stood in the town forum. It consisted of a longrectangular hall with an apse at one end and three aisles separated bycolumns. The central aisle had a raised ceiling and clerestory windows.Often the exterior of the building was colonnaded.

cameo: a relief carved from a stone that has layers of different colors,such as sardonyx.

capitolium: the main temple for civic worship in Rome and other cities.It was dedicated to the three chief gods, Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva.

cardo: the name of the north-south street in a Roman town laid out onthe grid system.

cavea: the rounded space of a theater containing seats for the spectators.

colonnade: a row of columns.

columbarium: a type of communal building to hold ash urns of the cremated. The name comes from the structure’s resemblance t

dovecote, since the urns, as well as portrait busts, were placed in in the walls similar to the nesting spaces in such a birdhouse.

column: a weight-bearing architectural member that has a base, acylindrical shaft, and a capital (ornamental top).

concrete: a building material made of small stones or rubble(aggregate), lime mortar, water, and volcanic sand (pozzolana).

consuls: the two chief magistrates of the Roman state, elected ann

cubiculum: the bedroom of a Roman house.

damnatio memoriae: a decree by the senate that condemned an empand ordered that all images of him and references to him be oblite

decumanus: the principal east-west street of a Roman town laid outhe grid system.

denarius: the most common Roman silver coin.

domus: a single-family house.

encaustic: a painting technique in which heated wax was mixed wpigment. Used for the painting of mummy portraits in Roman Eg

engaged column: a column set into the wall of a building so that onhalf projects.

fasces: bundles of elm or birch rods bound together with an ax, usa symbol of the magisterial power to punish.

forum: the center of political and administrative activities in a Rotown. It was a large open space containing government buildings,markets, and temples.

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freedman: an emancipated slave with most rights of a citizen. Slavescould sometimes buy their way to the status of freedman, or they mightbe freed by their owner in his will. Children of freedmen were full citizens.

fresco: a wall-painting technique in which the pigment is applied tonewly plastered walls; the paint bonds with the plaster as both dry,creating a very durable surface.

hypocaust system: a device used in Roman baths. The oor of a roomto be heated was raised on small brick stilts, and then hot air from acentral furnace was pumped under the oors to heat them. The heatwould also rise up through the walls to heat the entire room.

iconography: the meaning or symbolism of a work of art.

imperator: general or commander, the root of the word “emperor.”

insula: a Roman apartment house, usually with ve or six stories.Several apartments on each oor surrounded a central courtyard. Oftenthere were shops on the ground oor. The structures were usually builtwith brick-faced concrete.

lararium: a shrine to the Roman household gods calledlares . Everyprivate home had one.

lares: the Roman household gods.

lenos: a sarcophagus shaped like a bathtub, with rounded corners.

mosaic: patterns or pictures made by embedding small pebbles or piecesof stone or glass (tesserae) on oors or walls.

necropolis: a “city of the dead”—a cemetery, always located outsidethe city walls.

orchestra: the at space in front of the stage building in a theaterwhere the actors perform.

papyrus: a plant that grows in the Nile River. Its bers can be processedto make a form of writing paper that was used in Roman Egypt.

paterfamilias: the male head of a Roman family.

patricians: Romans from noble families.

plebeians: the mass of Romans who were not members of noble families

pontifex maximus: the chief priest of Rome. During the empire, theemperor was the pontifex maximus (today it is the term applied to theCatholic pope).

pozzolana: a type of volcanic earth. When mixed with water, it sethard and was not water-soluble. It was mixed with aggregate to makeRoman concrete.

princeps: rst citizen. A title adopted by the rst emperor, Augustus,when he established his sole rule, as a means of suggesting that he wassimply the rst among equals and ruled in concert with the Senate. Intruth, he was the sole ruler.

sarcophagus: a cofn for a dead body, usually made of stone. Wheninhumation became popular in Rome during the second centurya.d.,sarcophagus production became a major industry in the Roman world.

Senate: the legislative body of the Roman Republic; it lacked real

power in the imperial era.

stadium: a track for chariot racing, elongated with one curved end.

strigil: a curved piece of metal used for scraping the body clean afterbathing or exercising.

tessera: one of the cubes of glass or stone that were combined togetherto make a mosaic.

tetrarchy: a system of rule in the later Roman empire in which fourrulers each governed a geographic section of the Roman world.

toga: the principal article of clothing for a Roman male citizen. Itwas a semicircular piece of cloth that could be put on only with theassistance of attendants.

triclinium: the dining room of a Roman house.

tumulus: a type of round burial mound used by the Etruscans, lateradopted on a gigantic scale by the emperors Augustus and Hadrian fortheir tombs.

vault: a ceiling constructed by using the principle of the arch andextending it.

veristic style: the realistic portrait style of the Republic.

villa: a luxury home outside the city.

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