roman imperial artwork
DESCRIPTION
A research paper disecting the occurence of greek mythology in roman art work with regards to meaning and purpose.TRANSCRIPT
Roman Imperial Artwork:
The Application of Greek Mythology as Symbol
Derek Shultz
ARTH 305 Ancient Art and Architecture
Dr. Thomas Russo
April 28, 2009
Roman Imperial Artwork:
The Application of Greek Mythology as Symbol
Shultz 1
There are names that register all across the world as symbols of history, power, intelligence,
and beauty. These names have developed individual identities that are being applied and used
centuries after their initial conception. Everything from sciences and technology to entertainment
and education has had these characteristics applied by the simple addition of a name. These names
trace their origins back to ancient Greece and have not only influenced the present, but also many
cultures and religions throughout the past. A mythology was born in Greece many centuries ago and
contains the names of many individuals that are still widely known today. Zeus, Hera, Poseidon and
Aphrodite are only a small portion of these identities that have transcended time and culture. Greek
mythology was a powerful form of religion that had many influences on the people of the
surrounding lands. The power of this mythology came from its multitude of stories that contained
heroes, villains, tragedies and victories. The names of the characters in these stories are what the
mythology is based on as well as the morals they represent. The individuals mentioned in the events
of Greek mythology were portrayed in many different ways depending on the purpose of the
application. Artwork, literature and word of mouth were used to spread the mythology for
education, worship, and imitation. Imitation, in particular, was commonly used toward societal
members of high status in not only Greece, but later societies such as Rome. The application of
themes and attributes from Greek mythology to an individual’s portraiture was thought to transform
the identity of the individual from a person to a deity in the eyes’ of their peers; therefore, Roman
artwork has been found to contain many instances of Greek mythology, especially in work
containing emperors and empresses of the Roman Empire.
Mythology and religion have been a part of humanity since the first story was told from one
human being to another. Greek mythology was developed as the major means for spreading and
explaining the gods and stories of tribes in the area that we now call Greece. These tribes settled
Shultz 2
before and during 800 BCE and used a process of animism to explain the natural elements around
them and other phenomena in the world. Animism is the introduction of human qualities to
inanimate objects and was used by early Greeks for the purpose of gaining a better understanding
about their surroundings1. A majority of Greek mythology deals with issues of creation and shares
many elements with stories of other civilizations such as Babylon and Assyria. The questions of
creation dealt with the origin of the earth, the introduction of humans to the earth, and the reasons
for why evil exists. Later tribes that settled into Greece brought their own elements of mythology
that dealt with ideas of conquest, violence and extreme behavior. Other settlers brought and
developed ideas of farming and provided stories that related to agriculture and life. These stories
brought to Greece by vast amounts of tribes would later gain many human like figures who would
become the heroes and gods that are known today.2
The success of Greek mythology in terms of its ability to spread can be attributed to some
word of mouth; however, it was from literature and art work that the true connection between
people and mythology was made. Literature has been the difference between the success and failure
of many religions throughout time and Greek mythology was no exception. The Greek creation
stories were first written down by the poet Hesiod in the eighth century BCE. His, Theogony, deals
with the origin of the world and the origin of the gods as they are known in common Greek myth.3
The work of Hesiod was followed around a century later by Homer. The Odyssey and the Iliad were
considered two of the greatest works in history and center around the Trojan War. The war is
believed to have taken place in the late 12th
century BCE and Homer’s Iliad looks at the heroes,
religion, and love at the center of this epic struggle. The Odyssey follows the path of one man,
Odysseus, after the Trojan War and introduces the world to new myths and familiar gods. Poems
and plays also delivered popular mythology to the masses in the forms of tragedies that were based
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on the heroes of highly admired myths. Herodotus, an ancient historian, traveled through Greece
and has documentation of many local Greek myths that have been unaltered through the later
centuries. The compilation of ancient writings, the continuous use of the oral storytelling, and even
the creation of visual arts allowed Greek mythology to solidify as a form of religion around the
Mediterranean and created a group of stories that have stayed intact through the rise and fall of that
religion.
Greek mythology is derived from a unifying story that provides the history and background
for which the entire religion and belief are based. The beginning contains a deep nothingness that is
known as Chaos. From this darkness come two beings of great power. One was called Gaia,
goddess of the earth, and the other was called Tartarus, ruler of deep underground. These two
constitute the creation of the world and they were soon joined by Eros, the god of love. Gaia used
Eros to create her husband, Uranus, the god of the sky. Gaia and Uranus gave birth to many
children, the first of which were twelve giants, six male and six female, called the Titans. More, less
attractive, children were created by Gaia and Uranus until Cronus, the youngest of the Titans, took
over of the earth and sky by defeating his father, Uranus. Cronus married his sister, Rhea, and
produced children with her; however, Cronus had been warned that one of his children would kill
him so he would eat each newborn that Rhea gave birth to. Gaia managed to save one of Rhea’s
children by tricking Cronus into eating a rock. The saved child, Zeus, grew up wanting revenge
against his father’s actions and he did so by hiding a potion in Cronus’ wine. The potion made
Cronus throw up Zeus’ brothers and sisters who were Poseidon, Hades, Hera, Hestia, and Demeter.
These gods and goddesses became the new rulers of the world after they were saved from Cronus.
Zeus then freed all the children of Gaia that Cronus had imprisoned and they became loyal servants
of Zeus. The new Olympians made home on Mount Olympus and raged furious battles with the now
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jealous Titans. The gods overpowered the Titans and Zeus locked them in the depths of Tartarus.
Later, Gaia gave birth to another son, Typhon who became a vicious creature and wanted control of
the heavens and the world. Zeus and Typhon waged an epic war until Zeus was victorious and
banished Typhon to Tartarus as well. This sequence of events is at the heart of Greek mythology
and set the stage for many other gods, goddesses, and heroes.4
There are twelve Olympian gods who are said to reside on Mount Olympus and they are
lead by Zeus and Hera. Zeus is the god of the sky, while Hera is the goddess of women and
childbirth. The five other male Olympians are Apollo, god of the sun, Hermes, messenger of the
gods, Poseidon, god of the sea, Hades, god of the underworld, and Ares, god of war. The five other
female Olympians are Artemis, goddess of the moon and hunting, Aphrodite, goddess of love and
beauty, Athena, goddess of wisdom, Hestia, goddess of the hearth, and Demeter, goddess of crops
and harvests.5
Ares is a lesser appreciated member of the Greek Olympian gods. He was viewed poorly by
many Greeks because of his murderous and destructive actions in the field of battle. However, Ares
was worshiped by many for his power to provide victory in battle and strength in life. [1.1] Ares is
the son of Zeus and Hera and he plays a major role in Homer’s The Iliad. This is one of few
appearances that Ares makes in mythology until later in Roman history.6 Aphrodite is a much more
beloved and well known mythological deity. She is portrayed with multiple origins that range from
a birth in the sea to conception from other deities. These debates range within classic Greek works
and both are accepted. She was viewed as the most beautiful goddess and saw herself in a similar
way. [1.2] Aphrodite had multiple love interests in the mythological stories and was even a
surrogate mother. Many people worshiped her based solely on her beauty and wanted her protection
in marriage, love, and child birth.7 Demeter is another Greek deity that received less recognition
Shultz 5
than that of Zeus or Hera, but held her own as an Olympian goddess. Demeter watches over
harvests, nourishment, fertility, and a green earth. She is a bringer of the seasons and a protector of
marriage. Demeter was widely viewed as a giver, provider and protector. [1.3] She would look over
those who looked up to her and was a deity of high reverence.8
The creation of humans is credited to Zeus who, after three tries, gained the help of a giant
named Prometheus and they created the ancestors of the Greeks and Romans that we know today.9
Many humans within Greek mythology have earned status of hero because of amazing feats they
achieved in their lives and one of the most popular of these heroes is Heracles. [1.4] He was the
offspring between the relations of Queen Alcmene of Thebes and Zeus. Hera was jealous of all
Zeus’ children, including Heracles, and made many attempts to sabotage Heracles’ life. Eventually,
she possessed him with mindless rage that caused him to kill his family. To earn forgiveness for his
actions Heracles endured twelve labors that gained him immortality and allowed him to join his
father on Mount Olympus.10
These twelve labors showed the intelligence, strength, and
perseverance of Heracles which made him one of the most well known myths throughout the world.
Greek mythology spread quickly through all the cities of Ancient Greece and became a commonly
accepted and used means of religion. The polytheism of Greece was common to religions around
the Mediterranean and gave Greek myth an easier transition into the time of the Romans.
The Roman Empire began its conquest in the 3rd
century BCE and by 264 BCE they
controlled all of Italy. A century later all of Greece was under the rule of the Roman Empire and
became another victim in the massive spread of Rome across their known world.11
Romans
encountered many new religions during their conquest; however, they did not ban new religions that
were not Roman. They were actually quite the opposite and accepted and even adopted many
aspects of religions found in conquered areas. Rome’s polytheistic religion allowed for easy
Shultz 6
incorporation of many other gods and goddesses, even those from Greece. Roman religion has
much dissimilarity from Greek religion in both the organization and communication. Roman
mythology has one base story that centers on the founding of Rome by two brothers, Romulus and
Remus. Other stories within the mythology are scattered and unorganized because there was a lack
of literature on the subject. Roman mythology finally gained stability when poets began to borrow
from Greek example and wrote the mythological stories down for others to read.
Many Romans were fascinated by the Greeks and borrowed much of their cultural identity
to use as their own. Greek mythology became a way for Romans to tie the loose ends of their
mythology together. The plethora of gods and goddesses in Greece allowed Romans to relate their
own gods by common characteristics and to fill in missing links with myths from the Greeks. The
twelve Olympian gods of Greece were quickly identified by new Roman names based on
similarities in what they presided over or how they acted. The male gods changed from Zeus to
Jupiter, Hermes to Mercury, Poseidon to Neptune, Hades to Pluto, Ares to Mars, and Apollo
remained the same. The females were converted from Hera to Juno, Artemis to Diana, Aphrodite to
Venus, Athena to Minerva, Hestia to Vesta, and Demeter to Ceres.12
The Romans were influenced
by the Greeks in all elements of life and many of these elements had strong ties to this now shared
mythology. Roman emperors also adopted many of the traits from Greek mythology in order to
promote their rule and self image throughout the empire. This involved the application of Greek
mythological themes and characters to portraiture of the emperor all throughout the empire. Romans
especially grasped the more heroic and attractive myths of the Greeks in order to promote their own
superiority as an empire and as individuals. Images of power, strength, and wisdom were commonly
used in an effort to promote the dominance of the Rome and its leaders. Some of the most noted
Shultz 7
Roman emperors and empresses have been strongly identified with common Greek/Roman
mythology for reasons ranging from their own ego to community involvement.
Hadrian was the successor of Trajan as emperor of Rome. He ruled from 117 to 138 CE and
was a highly respected leader in the Roman Empire. Hadrian had a very disconnected relationship
with Rome and its Senate. He chose to spend most of his rule in the provinces outside of Rome all
throughout the empire. Hadrian gained a great respect for Ancient cultures especially Ancient Greek
art and architecture. [1.5] He was the first Roman Emperor to portray himself as a deity while still
in power which was a direct reflection of the ancient influence. He also used this Greek persuasion
to establish his legacy in the Roman Empire as a great builder. Hadrian created some of the greatest
built forms in Rome such as the Pantheon, his villa at Tivoli and Hadrian’s Wall.13
All of these
forms showed his devotion to ancient culture and his devotion to maintaining the stability of the
Roman Empire. Hadrian married Vibia Sabina in 100 CE and had an unhappy and uneventful
marriage with her. [1.6] The two were rarely seen together and both had separate love lives. Sabina
had many encounters with aids around her home and Hadrian had a more famous relationship with
Antinous.14
Both the emperor and empress were still good to the empire and both had many
instances of praise by individuals in the community.
Hadrian and Sabina are portrayed together as the imperial couple in a work of art that
strengthens their bond with the application of Roman mythology. This work of art called, The
Imperial Group as Mars and Venus, represents the Emperor and Empress as the two Roman deities
Mars and Venus and was composed in the 2nd
century CE. [1.7] This coupling of the two deities
with this Roman couple was very intentional. Mars and Venus, originally Ares and Aphrodite, are
considered lovers in Greek mythology and this relationship transferred later into Roman mythology.
The representation of Sabina seems to be more of an addition to the main figure of Hadrian. Sabina
Shultz 8
is shown in a traditional Greek portrayal of Aphrodite with intent to present the beauty of the
empress with the application of the goddess of beauty. The drapery of the empress’s cloth and her
pose next to Hadrian are easily likened to Greek statues of Aphrodite. However, Aphrodite is
usually shown with uncovered breasts, which is not the case with Sabina. The simple explanation is
that it was improper to expose an empress and all the other attributes of the statue still allow Sabina
to represent Venus successfully.15
Hadrian is more idealized in a classic nude Greek arrangement.
The strength and beauty of Hadrian is shown through his physique in the statue with limited attire to
represent the strength of the empire itself. Hadrian stands in a classic contraposto pose while
bearing the crested helmet, baldric, sword and breastplate that are common attributes of Mars. [1.8]
It is curious that a ruthless killer such as Ares would be chosen to represent an emperor. When the
characteristics of Ares were incorporated into the god, Mars, he became a much more respected and
well loved deity. Rome worshipped Mars because of his strength and they could relate to him with
all of the empire’s military conquests. Mars was a very appropriate choice of representation for
Hadrian as he was an individual representation of the strength for the entire Roman Empire. There
is an interesting story that goes with this statue because the original heads of Hadrian and Sabina are
no longer there. Instead, they have been replaced by a later imperial couple of the Roman Empire,
Lucius Verus and his wife Lucille.16
The statue maintained its original purpose of imperial
propaganda because the Greek symbolism and mythology are still intact.
Once Hadrian set the standard for deification during his rule it became a trend for later
emperors and empresses. One later emperor, Commodus, had a representation for being egotistical
in his reign from 161 to 192 CE. Commodus was the son of Marcus Aurelius who was considered
one of the greatest Roman Emperors. He chose to disregard many of the needs of the empire and
instead worked toward personal gain and pleasure. Commodus was good looking and he considered
Shultz 9
himself to be a god. This mindset eventually led to his assassination by the people closest to him.
During Commodus’ reign he commissioned a work of art that epitomizes imperial portraiture with
an application of Greek mythology.17
Commodus applied the mythic hero of Heracles to an imperial
portrait bust of himself for reasons that were solely based on imperial propaganda. This propaganda
was not normal in comparison to his predecessors because Commodus was not promoting himself
as an emperor, but rather as a god. The application of Heracles was unique in that it was Heracles
after he completed his labors and became a god. This image was rarely used in imperial portraiture
because it was such a highly revered status of the myth. Commodus grasped hold of this image as a
perfect representation of his status on Earth and wanted the piece commissioned for that reason.18
To examine the work, Bust of Commodus as Hercules from 190 CE, it is necessary to first
examine earlier works that contain the image of Commodus in order to establish the correct face on
the sculpture in question. [1.9] When looking at portraits of Commodus it becomes apparent that he
chose to be represented in an idealized manner rather than in a realistic state. Commodus chose to
represent himself like his father in terms of facial hair and skin texture. The composers of the
Commodus portrait busts gave him silky smooth skin and deeply drilled the curls in his hair to add
dramatic contrast that is very Greek in aesthetic.19
Commodus wanted to be viewed as perfect in
every way to establish himself as a god equal to Jupiter. These features fit directly with Bust of
Commodus as Hercules; therefore, the subject can be confirmed and the application of the myth on
that subject can be examined. [1.10] The famous attributes of Heracles are clearly established on
this portrait bust and it takes quick identification to establish that this was the intended myth to
portray. Commodus is holding the club of Heracles and the apples of the Hesperides which was one
of the twelve labors. The emperor is also wearing the lion-skin headdress of Heracles, another
reference to one of the twelve labors. These symbols apply the attributes of the god, Heracles, to
Shultz 10
Commodus and there is still further application of symbols of greatness on other parts of the bust.
Signs of the zodiac and a kneeling Amazon portray Commodus as a victor in battle and a supreme
celestial being; however, these claims are purely for propaganda since Commodus never had great
victories in battle.20
[1.11] Commodus was considered a maniacal, self-centered individual and this
bust of him was purely for his own ego. It was meant to show the Empire how great Commodus
believed he was and how great they should believe he was. There are other portrait busts, however,
that are completed out of respect for the subject rather than political self- propaganda.
Julia Domna was the wife of the Roman Emperor, Septimius Severus, and is considered one
of the most well respected empresses of the Roman Empire. The two were married in 187 CE and
Severus was emperor from 193 to 211 CE. She saw herself as a motherly influence on Rome and
wanted to take that role to heart while she was empress.21
Domna was a strong spirited woman in
Rome during the time her husband was in power. She surrounded herself with the greatest writers,
philosophers, and artists to become educated and well rounded as a person.22
Julia Domna was a
provider to the people of Rome and gave her knowledge and wealth in support of a city that she felt
a maternal connection to.
The representation of Julia Domna as a Greek deity was meant to pay homage to a highly
respected individual rather than to idolize a high ranking member of society. The Portrait of Julia
Domna as Ceres is a prime example of an empress being promoted to a deity by the people rather
than by the government or herself. [1.12] The portrait dates to 203 CE and allows the features of the
empress to stand equally with the attributes of the goddess. To examine this piece of art it is again
necessary to examine a previous work featuring the empress, Julia Domna. [1.13] There are key
items that separate Domna from other empresses in terms of imperial portrait busts. The feature that
is most predominant and most distinguishing is the wig that Domna is pictured as wearing in her
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portraits. This wig parts in the middle and falls to both sides of her head in a wavy fashion. This wig
has been called a helmet hair by many, but it manages to simplify the process of identifying Julia
Domna from other empresses in similar sculpture.23
Once the identification of the empress is complete, it is necessary to identify the myth. The
drapery of the fabric indicates the presence of a deity, but it is the symbolic attributes that
distinguish one from the next. The objects in the hands of Domna are linked to Ceres because they
are the forms of fruits and grains and belong to the goddess of agriculture, Ceres.24
This
mythological being seems very appropriate for the empress that she has been attached to. The
charitable acts, wealth of knowledge, and provider of foods in famished times would all be
characteristics of Julia Domna that have strong ties to Ceres. People in Rome would have looked up
to her much like they look to the gods and goddesses. It would have been very easy to worship this
empress because of her generosity and wealth in all aspects of her life.
Greek mythology has been transferred through various artistic media in a simple attempt to
answer worldly questions and connect with others in the form of religion. Once the questions were
answered, the attributes of the mythological beings became used for more individual use as
representations of high status individuals. These individuals, particularly Roman emperors and
empresses, were portrayed in imperial portraiture with applications of mythology applied to their
figure. These applications varied greatly depending on the subject, the myth, and the reason for
applying the myth in the first place.
Hadrian and his wife Sabina were portrayed in a loving embrace to present an image of
togetherness to the Roman public. This image was achieved through the application of lovers in
Roman myth. The individual attributes of these deities also enhanced the emperor and empress by
showing them as beautiful, strong and protective individuals. This was a prime example of imperial
Shultz 12
propaganda to reassure the Roman Empire. A more personal application of Greek mythology to a
Roman emperor was conducted by Commodus. This application differs from Hadrian and Sabina
because the work of Commodus was completely self-centered and egotistical in design. It was
meant to idealize the emperor and portray him to the Roman Republic as a supreme being. This was
an extreme application of mythology for personal gain with no regard to the needs of the empire. A
third application of mythology to Roman imperial portraiture was used to represent a respect for a
highly admired individual in the community. Julia Domna was a highly revered Roman empress
that did great things for the community in both knowledge and charity. Her donations to the
community were greatly appreciated by the people of Rome and one individual artist chose to
portray her as a goddess of similar reverence. The sole intention of this artwork was to depict the
wonderful nature of Julia Domna and her great influence on not only the artist, but the entire Roman
Empire. There are many applications that Greek and Roman mythology can achieve in the realm of
portraiture. Roman imperial portrait busts, with the application of Greek mythology, were used to
depict an idea to the citizens of Rome. These ideas ranged from a sense of security, a personal
admiration of oneself, and a personal respect of royalty. There is careful consideration put into the
application of a particular myth on a Roman subject. The history of the mythological being, the
history of the person being portrayed, and the style used in the artwork are all important to the
successful depiction of the Roman imperial portrait.
Shultz 13
Annotated Bibliography
Bingham, Jane. Classical Myth: A Treasury of Greek and Roman Legends, Art, and History.
North America: M. E. Sharpe Inc., 2008.
This book allowed me to fully understand the basic stories of Greek mythology. It
introduced me to the history and origin of the myths and gave a strong family tree for
identifying the history of the gods.
Davis, Kenneth C. Don’t Know Much About Mythology: Everything You Need to Know About the
Greatest Stories in Human History but Never Learned. New York: Harper Collins
Publishers,
2005.
This book gave me a detailed understanding of the stories behind each individual god. It
allowed me to focus on each Olympian god in order to find identifying characteristics of
each.
Elsner, Jas. Art and Text in Roman Culture. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1996.
I was able to use this book to follow some of the origins of Roman mythology and it gave
me material to examine the path that the mythology took in its integration of Greek beliefs.
Freeman, Charles. Egypt, Greece and Rome: Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean. New
York:
Oxford University Press, 2004.
This text book allowed me to find information on the emperors and empresses of Rome.
This information allowed me to establish key traits of each individual in order to discuss
their reasons for mythological portraiture
Hanfmann, George M. A. “Personality and Portraiture in Ancient Art.” Proceedings of the
American Philosophical Society 117, no. 4 (August 15, 1973): 259-285. JSTOR
(accessed April 1, 2009).
This article gave me great examples of Roman and Greek portraiture that gave me ideas
about the mindsets that individuals had when commissioning a portrait. It was helpful to
establish my ideas and reasoning about Roman imperial portraiture with mythological
applications.
Kleiner, Diana E. E. Roman Sculpture. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1992.
This book was helpful when it came to identifying works of art and looking at key traits
within them. I was able to gather some expert insight by using this book in my discussion
about the artwork in question.
Shultz 14
Kousser, Rachel. "Mythological Group Portraits in Antonine Rome: The Performance of
Myth." American Journal of Archaeology 111, no. 4 (October 2007): 673-691.
Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed April 1, 2009).
This was another helpful article that allowed me to see how mythological beings were
portrayed in Rome. I was able to see comparisons between my chosen works of art and the
ones expressed in this writing. I gathered a lot of insight about the inner thought of Greek
mythological portraiture.
Louvre. “Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Antiquities: Roman Art”. The Louvre, Paris, France.
http://www.louvre.fr/llv/oeuvres/detail_notice.jsp?CONTENT%3C%3Ecnt_id=1013419867
3225778&CURRENT_LLV_NOTICE%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673225778&FOLDER%3
C%3Efolder_id=9852723696500819&baseIndex=26&bmLocale=en, Accessed April 21,
2009.
This website was from a museum and it allowed me to look at artwork and find useful
information that would be difficult to find otherwise. This website also gave ideas and
features in the statue that I might have missed otherwise.
Ramage, Nancy H. Roman Art: Romulus to Constantine. New York: Abrams, 1991.
This book was filled with art from Rome and aided in my discussion on the work of
Commodus and other imperial portraiture.
Ruebel, James S. “Politics and Folktale in the Classical World.” Asian Folklore Studies vol. 50,
no. 1(1991): 5-33. JSTOR (accessed April 1, 2009).
This reading was useful because it gave me some of the mindsets and ideas that were alive
in both Greece and Rome. I was able to gather some knowledge about the mythologies and
politics and the similarities and differences between the two cultures.
The Getty. “Bust of Sabina”. The J. Paul Getty Trust,
http://www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artObjectDetails?artobj=7629, Accessed April 21, 2009.
This was a museum’s website that gave me the ability to find the necessary artwork for my
comparisons. The website also provided useful information about each of the artworks such
as date and location.
Wheeler, Mortimer. Roman Art and Architecture. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1964.
This was another useful source to strengthen my knowledge of imperial portraiture in Rome
and also gave me glimpses of other Roman work with Greek mythology application.
Woodford, Susan. Images of Myths in Classical Antiquities. United Kingdom: Cambridge
University Press, 2003.
Shultz 15
This book was helpful in my comparison of Julia Domna to Ceres. It had useful information
on Ceres and gave me a good image to work with in the artwork identification and analysis.
Shultz 16
Images
1.1 1.2
1.3 1.4
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1.5
1.6
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1.7 1.8
1.9 1.10
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1.11 1.12
1.13
Shultz 20
1 Bingham, Jane. Classical Myth: A Treasury of Greek and Roman Legends, Art, and History.
North America: M. E. Sharpe Inc., 2008. pg 7.
2Bingham, Jane. Classical Myth: A Treasury of Greek and Roman Legends, Art, and History.
North America: M. E. Sharpe Inc., 2008. pg 11.
3 Ibid. 4 Bingham, Jane. Classical Myth: A Treasury of Greek and Roman Legends, Art, and History.
North America: M. E. Sharpe Inc., 2008. pg 12-17.
5 Bingham, Jane. Classical Myth: A Treasury of Greek and Roman Legends, Art, and History.
North America: M. E. Sharpe Inc., 2008. pg 19.
6 Davis, Kenneth C. Don’t Know Much About Mythology: Everything You Need to Know About the Greatest
Stories in Human History but Never Learned. New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 2005. pg 203. 7 Davis, Kenneth C. Don’t Know Much About Mythology: Everything You Need to Know About the Greatest
Stories in Human History but Never Learned. New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 2005. pg 200. 8 Davis, Kenneth C. Don’t Know Much About Mythology: Everything You Need to Know About the Greatest
Stories in Human History but Never Learned. New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 2005. pg 205. 9 Bingham, Jane. Classical Myth: A Treasury of Greek and Roman Legends, Art, and History.
North America: M. E. Sharpe Inc., 2008. pg 20.
10 Bingham, Jane. Classical Myth: A Treasury of Greek and Roman Legends, Art, and History.
North America: M. E. Sharpe Inc., 2008. pg 58.
11 Bingham, Jane. Classical Myth: A Treasury of Greek and Roman Legends, Art, and History.
North America: M. E. Sharpe Inc., 2008. pg 8.
12 Bingham, Jane. Classical Myth: A Treasury of Greek and Roman Legends, Art, and History.
North America: M. E. Sharpe Inc., 2008. pg 19.
13
Freeman, Charles. Egypt, Greece and Rome: Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean. New York: Oxford
University Press, 2004. pg. 488-490. 14
The Getty. “Bust of Sabina”. The J. Paul Getty Trust,
http://www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artObjectDetails?artobj=7629, Accessed April 21, 2009. 15
Louvre. “Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Antiquities: Roman Art”. The Louvre, Paris, France.
http://www.louvre.fr/llv/oeuvres/detail_notice.jsp?CONTENT%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673225778&CURRE
NT_LLV_NOTICE%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673225778&FOLDER%3C%3Efolder_id=9852723696500819
&baseIndex=26&bmLocale=en, Accessed April 21, 2009. 16
Ibid. 17
Freeman, Charles. Egypt, Greece and Rome: Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean. New York: Oxford
University Press, 2004. pg. 547. 18
Ibid. 19
Ramage, Nancy H. and Andrew Ramage. Roman Art: Romulus to Constantine. New York, Harry N. Abrams,
Inc., 1991. pg. 216-217. 20
Kleiner, Diana E. E. Roman Sculpture. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1992. pg. 276-277. 21
Freeman, Charles. Egypt, Greece and Rome: Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean. New York: Oxford
University Press, 2004. pg. 549. 22
Kleiner, Diana E. E. Roman Sculpture. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1992. pg. 328.
23
Kleiner, Diana E. E. Roman Sculpture. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1992. pg. 326. 24
Woodford, Susan. Images of Myths in Classical Antiquity. Cambridge, Mass: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
pg. 144-146.