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Art & Architecture

Rome and the

Vatican CityBrigitte Hintzen-Bohlen

With contributions by Jürgen Sorges

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The Eternal City: its Origins in Legendand History

As with all cities whose origins areshrouded in obscurity, many myths havegrown up around the founding of Rome.Aeneas, who fled with his father Anchisesand his son Ascanius from the burning cityof Troy to the coast of Latium, where hemarried the king’s daughter, was reveredas the ancestor of the Romans. One of hisdescendants was Numitor, king of AlbaLonga, whose daughter Rhea Silvia wasimpregnated by Mars the god of war andbore him the twins Romulus and Remus.Her uncle Amulius, who claimed the

throne for himself, set the twins adrift in abasket on the Tiber after their birth, butProvidence saved them. A she-wolf suckledthe brothers until they were rescued by theherdsman Faustulus. As young men theyavenged their deposed grandfather and,fulfilling the prophecy of an oracle,founded a city on the Palatine Hill – the cityof Rome. They quarreled because Remusignored the sacred boundary or pomeriumdrawn around the city by his brother, andsacrilegiously crossed it; Romulus killedhim for this transgression. A settlementgrew up, but now the Romans neededwomen to give them children and so theyabducted the Sabine women, daughters of a

neighboring tribe in thenearby mountains; theSabines declared war onthem. Through the treach-ery of Tarpeia, daughter ofthe Roman officer com-manding the citadel, theSabines managed to takethe stronghold. The warwas brought to a happyconclusion only by thecourageous intervention ofthe Sabine women, whoflung themselves betweenthe combatants – theirhusbands on one side, theirfathers and brothers on theother. In resolution of theconflict, the Sabines settledon the Quirinal Hill, thetwo tribes were united, and

10

Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein, Goethe in the Campagna,1787, oil on canvas, 164 × 206 cm, Städelsches Kunstinstitut,Frankfurt

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Location• Capital of the Republic of Italy and the

Comune di Roma province• Situated in central Italy, on the plain of the

Campagna Romana, and at the foot of thevolcanic hills of the Latium region

• Height above sea level: 13 m (43 feet) at thebend of the Tiber – 138 m (453 feet) atMonte Mario

• Built on both sides of the Tiber, which flowsinto the Tyrrhenian Sea at Ostia some 20 km (12.4 m) away

Area• City of Rome: 209 km2

• Comune di Roma, with 35 outer city quar-ters and six suburbs: 1508 km2

Climate and best time to travel• Mediterranean climate with mild winters

and hot summers• Ideal time to travel: early summer and

October, when the days are sunny but nottoo hot

• Particularly crowded at Easter• August is the traditional vacation month in

Italy, very hot with many stores and restau-rants closed

Population• Number of inhabitants in 1991: 2.77 million• Strong demographic growth since Rome

became the capital of Italy, particularlybecause of immigration from the southernprovinces

• 1951 the number of inhabitants in the historiccity center has dropped from 424,400 to150,000

Local government• Civic administration: a mayor with a resi-

dence in the Palazzo dei Senatori on theCapitol, an upper house of 14 city council-lors, a town council of 80 members

State officials• State president, with a residence in the

Palazzo Quirinale• Parliament of deputies (sitting in the Palaz-

zo Montecitorio)• Senate (sitting in the Palazzo Madama)

Economy• The service sector (tourism, radio, televi-

sion, publicity, and fashion) employs 1.1million workers, i.e. nearly 80%

• 250,000 are employed in administration andmanagement, with banks, stock brokers,and insurance companies steadily growingin importance

• Only about one-fifth of the population isemployed in industry, though new companiesare increasingly setting up in the outer

32

Rome and the Vatican in a Nutshell


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Palazzo dei Conservatori

The Roman scholae (guilds) had their officialand judicial guildhall on the lower floor ofthe old 14th-century palace on the right-hand side of the Piazza del Campidoglio,while the “conservators” had their officialrooms on the upper floor. As a result of thegrowing importance of this supervisoryarchitectural body and its care of monu-ments in the 15th century, the palace,which was converted around 1520, adoptedas its name the Palazzo dei Conservatori, areference to the Conservators. MichelangeloBuonarroti intended to renovate the front

wing of this building, and the work wascarried out to his plans by Giacomo dellaPorta in 1564 –1568. The façade is impres-sive with its colossal Corinthian design, aform seen here for the first time in a secularRoman Renaissance building. Corinthianpilasters link the two floors of the façade.On the ground floor of the building, itopens into a portico with a flat entablatureresting on Ionic columns, which echo thehalf-columns on the back wall. The upperfloor is divided up by windows, which areframed by columns and surmounted by asegmented gable. A balustrade runs aroundthe high entablature, with ancient statuesin each of the axes of the colossal pilasters.

52 The Capitol


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258 The Quirinal

Fontana del Tritone

Shortly after the completion of the PalazzoBarberini, Bernini created the Fontana delTritone (Triton Fountain) for Urban VIII onthe Piazza Barberini in 1642. Four dolphinsstanding on their heads, with the family

coat of arms visible between them, form thebase of the monument, which has no otherarchitectural structure. Their tails supportan enormous scallop shell in which Triton,a sea god with a human torso and a fish’stail, is seated. He is holding a conch shell inhis raised hands, blowing it to send a jet ofwater high into the air.

The PalazzoBarberini

Pope Urban VIII (pontificate1623–1644), who was oneof the most enthusiasticbuilders in Baroque Romeand employed the twoleading architects of the day,Borromini and Bernini,acquired a palace with avigna (vineyard) from DukeAlessandro Sforza in 1625.Carlo Maderno began con-verting this palazzo into aresidence for the Barberinifamily, and after his deathBernini took over super-vision of the work with thecollaboration of Borromini(until 1633). The plans as awhole are ascribed mainlyto Maderno, who chose anunusual ground planbecause of the building’ssituation and the large


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350 The Caelian Hill

The North Façade with the Benediction Loggia

The architect Domenico Fontana hadalready set a vestibule before the northerntransept on the Piazza di S. Giovanni inLaterano as early as 1586–1589; it wascommissioned by Pope Sixtus V and consistsof a two-story arcade with paintings inside.The pope would give his traditional blessingon Ascension Day from the loggia. Insidethe vestibule is a bronze statue of Henry IVof France by Nicolas Cordier, made in 1608.Because Henry made generous donations to

the chapter, all the heads of state of Francehave been made honorary canons of thebasilica ever since.

Filipo Gagliardi (Died 1659), Interior of the OldLateran Basilica, S. Martino ai Monti Fresco

Emperor Constantine adorned the firstmonumental Christian church in Romewith gold, silver, and mosaics. It was a four-aisled columned basilica with transepts and

apse. Along the entire widthof the nave was an almostsquare atrium, to serve as a place of meditation andpurification. Fifteen col-umns of Numidian marbleseparated the broad centralnave from the narrower sideaisles, and each of the broadarches had to span a gap of 4 m (13 feet). A triumphalarch on high pillars markedthe border between the naveand the transept with thealtar in the center. In theapse behind this the pope’schair stood on a raised dais.The nave and aisles were not vaulted, and the rooftimbers were uncovered, asis evident from the fresco inS. Martino ai Monti, whichhas an illustration of the oldchurch building.


0–400 400–600

900–1000 1000–1100

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Celestine I (422–432): 431 Council ofEphesus decides that the Virgin Maryshould be venerated as the Mother of God.

Felix IV (526–530): 529 Benedictine Orderfounded by Benedict of Nursia.

Gregory I, The Great (590–604): The firstmonk to be pope, he founds the secularpower of the papacy in Italy by centralizingthe papal properties and so graduallybecomes ruler of the City of Rome.

S. Giovanni in Laterano (after 313)Old St. Peter’s (under Silvester I, 3rdcentury; left)S. Marco (under Marcus 336)S. Costanza (1st half of 4th century)S. Pudenziana, has oldest figurativemosaic in its apse (Siricius)S. Paolo fuori le Mura (end 4th century)

S. Sabina with one of the oldest depiction ofthe crucifixion of Christ on its wooden door(Celestine I)S. Maria Maggiore (Sixtus III, 432–440)S. Stefano Rotondo (Hilarus, 461–468 /Simplicius, 468–483)Mosaic on the triumphal arch in S. Lorenzofuori le Mura (Pelagius II, 579–590)

Sergius III (904–911): 910 Benedictine Abbey at Cluny founded; the “timeof the immoral popes” begins, as they come under the influence of theirmistresses.

John XII (955–964): Otto I, first Holy Roman Emperor, renews the ChurchState and secures the emperor’s right in the election of the pope.

Gregory V (996–999): Appointed first German pope by his cousin, Otto III,and in return crowns Otto emperor (below).

Leo IX (1049–1054): Combats the sale of offices and marriage for priests;1054 first Great Schism in the Church, the final split between the Easternand the Western Churches.

Nicholas II (1059–1061): 1059 Lateran Synod transfers the election of thepopes to the cardinals.

Gregory VII (1073–1085): 1075 Formulates the rights of the pope (DictatusPapae); forbids lay investiture and the sale of offices and insists oncelibacy; start of the investiture conflict with Henry IV, over whether thesecular ruler may appoint bishops and abbots; 1077 Rome plundered by theNormans; retreat of Henry IV andthe pope banished.

Urban II (1088–1099): 1096 FirstCrusade, which ends with theconquest of Jerusalem (right).

Leo I, The Great (440–461): 445 Emperor Valentinian III recognizes theprimacy of the bishops of Rome in the Western world, making Leo I the firstreal pope (above).

SS. Cosma e Damianowith a mosaic in the apse(526;above)

Fresco in the Mary Oratory in S. Pudenziana (1080)Frescoes with the legend of St. Clement in S. Clemente (11th century; left)

S. Bartolomeo underBenedict VII, 977 (left).

Peter (30–67): 64 Persecution of the Christians in Rome under Nero; 67 cruci-fixion of Peter on the Vatican Hill and his burial in Ager Vaticanus (below).

Callistus I (217–222): Lays great stresson exceptional status of the bishopsof Rome and so creates the “idea of the papacy.”

Miltiades (311–314): 313 Edict of Milanunder Constantine proclaims principleof tolerance and so ensures completereligious freedom for Christians.

Damasus I (366–384): Demandsdoctrinal authority for the bishops ofRome with reference to their succes-sion to Peter; as a consequence thepapacy gradually develops.

Siricius (384–399): 391 Christianity becomes the state religion in the Romanempire and the bishop of Rome is acknowledged as the supreme authority inthe Church.

Th

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Imp

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Pop

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JoelDrunkenness

of NoahDelphic

Sibyl

The Flood

Erythraean Sibyl

Noah’s Sacrifice Isaiah

Fall from Graceand Expulsion

from the Gardenof Eden

EzekielCreation

of EveCumaean

Sibyl

Creationof Adam

Separation ofLand and Water Daniel

Persian Sibyl

Creation of theSun, Moon, and

Planets

Separation ofLight and Dark-

ness

Libyan Sibyl

Jeremiah

Judith and HolofernesDavid and Goliath

Zachariah

Zorobabel Josiah

Osiah Ezekias

Roboam Asa

Solomon Jesse

Moses and the Brazen Serpent

JonahDeath of Haman

The Sistine Chapel 523


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March 12, 1514. To celebrate the consecrationand enthronement of the new pope, Leo X deMedici, King Emanuele of Portugal sent a partic-ularly weighty gift. Moreover, it was very muchalive. The Vatican court watched in amazementas an archibestia arrived, a primeval beast thathad not been seen in Rome since the time of theCaesars. It was a live elephant named Annoneafter the Carthaginian general Hanno, and fromthat day on it lived in a stable on the edge of theVatican Gardens. These gardens adjoined thenew cathedral of St. Peter’s, that was thenunder construction, and the new buildings of theVatican papal palace. The mighty Leonine Wall,built in the 9th century, protected the groundsfrom the gaze of the curious. But in 1514 therewas not much for the curious to see. The greaterpart of the Vatican Gardens was really a vege-table garden used to supply the papal kitchens.The narrow paths led between vegetable andherb beds and fruit trees.

In time, however, the Vatican Gardens wereturned into an extensive park with countlessdecorative architectural pieces, enticing visi-tors to stroll and linger. Five centuries earlier thegrounds, with their enclosing walls and watch-towers, had no buildings. Only the plane treesand pines of the bosco, the wood, that are stillimpressive today, dominated the scene. In thosedays it was common to call this the selva, thejungle. Hidden in the ground beneath the wildvegetation slumbered the remains of the

circuses of Nero and Caligula, the foundationsof Roman villas of the 2nd century A.D., and partof the Ager Vaticanus with many early Christianand heathen graves. In the early 16th centurythe terrain offered ideal conditions, not only forAnnone and his keeper, and gradually acomplete zoo was built up here amid the culti-vated gardens. By 1516 the pope had alreadyreceived another present, a live Indian rhinoc-eros. This species was completely unknown inEurope, and the German artist Albrecht Dürerhad to use his imagination for a copperplateengraving he made in 1515 that has sincebecome famous.

The jungle behind St. Peter’s rapidly becamea magic wood. The newly discovered world wasregularly shown to courtiers, cardinals, anddiplomats from America, Africa, and Asia intheatrical presentations. Artificial stands werebuilt in the Cortile del Belvedere, the biggestinner courtyard in the Vatican Palace, for thespectators to applaud the taming of theseutterly foreign creatures. Annone was a spec-tacular sensation, and he cost the papal court,eager for amusement, a considerable sum inupkeep. The satirist Pietro Aretino calculatedthat the elephantine eating machine, which heconceded was extremely intelligent, ate 100ducats a year in food. His keeper, GiambattistaBranconi, a confidant of Raphael, bore theprestigious title “elephant tutor.” Annone’sfeatures can still be seen today in the Vatican

540

A Small Paradise – the Vatican Gardensby Jürgen Sorges


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Aedicule (Latin aedicula, “small house or temple”): Twocolumns, pillars, or pilasters framing a portal, window,or niche and bearing an entablature and a triangular orsegmented gable. Alabastron (Gk.): Small Greek ointment container,originally made of alabaster, later also of clay or bronze;in shape long or spherical with a narrow neck.Allegory (Greek allegoria, from allegorein, “to depictdifferently”): In art history, the representation of con-cepts or ideas through images, usually in the form ofsymbols or personifications. During the Renaissance,particularly in Italy, much use was made of mythologicalallegory based on writings of classical antiquity.Allegory also flourished in Baroque painting, often in apolitical context, one of the leading exponents being theFlemish artist Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640). Altar (Latin alta ara, “raised sacrificial table”): Inancient Greece and Rome, the place set aside for cultacts in the holy area in front of a temple, especially thesacrifice of animals or the offering of libations. In theChristian era, the table on which the mass is cele-brated. The high altar usually stands in the apse of achurch that faces east; smaller altars are frequently setin the side apses or chapels or in the crypt. The artisticdecoration of early Christian altars usually consisted of an antependium related to the saint to whom thechurch was dedicated. Later altars were elaboratelydecorated. See Altar retable, Antependium.Altarpiece (Latin altare from altus, “high,” “raised up”):A painting or sculpture used to decorate an altar. In theearly Middle Ages, sculptures or work in precious metalwere used to adorn altars; later paintings were intro-duced. An altarpiece can consist of a single work ormultiple panels. A reredos is an altarpiece that risesfrom the ground; a retable is an altarpiece that standson the back of the altar, or on a pedestal behind it. SeeAltar retable, Antependium. Altar retable (Latin alta ara, “raised sacrificial table”

and retabulum, “rear wall”): An artistic work set on (orbehind) an altar. In the Middle Ages the retable restedon the back part of the altar table, while in theRenaissance and Baroque eras it stood on a substruc-ture behind the altar. In the Middle Ages the retableconsisted initially of goldsmith work or relief sculpture;later, paintings also appeared, either a single picture orseveral panels. In the Late Gothic period the retablewas given an architectural frame and extended withside panels. In the Renaissance and the Baroque itconsisted of only a central panel. See Altarpiece.Ambo (Greek ambon, “rise,” from ambainein, anabainein,“to climb”): In early Christian and early medieval churches, a podium raised on several steps with a

566 Glossary

Glossary

Retable

Central panel

Predella

Antependium

Pinnacles

Altar retable: Gothic altarpiece with a central sectionand two side panels

Side panel

Side panel


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reading desk from which biblical texts and sermons wereread out; an early form of pulpit. A stone ambo placedbefore a choir screen was usually enclosed by a balus-trade. If a church had two ambos, the northerly one, forthe Gospel readings, was often more richly decorated,with two flights of steps and an Easter candlestick. Thesmaller ambo to the south was called the Epistle ambo. Inthe 14th century the ambos became part of the roodscreen or pulpitum that was inserted between the choirand the nave, or were replaced by a pulpit.Amphitheater (Greek amphitheatron, from amphi, “onboth sides, all around” and theatron, “theater”): Inancient Rome, a form of open air theater on an ellipticalground plan and with rising tiers of seats; often used foranimal baiting and combat between gladiators.Amphora (Lat. amphora; Gk. amphoreus, “containerwith a handle on both sides”, from amphi, “on bothsides”, and pherein, “carry”): Bulbous storagecontainer used by the Greeks, with two handles and upto 3 feet (1 m) in height. Antependium (Latin ante, “before” and pendere, “tohang”): Originally, a cloth hanging down in front of thealtar table in a costly and richly decorated material, orpainted canvas, leather etc. Later, the name for any kindof altar covering or screen, e.g. textile or wood. SeeAltarpiece. Antiquity (Latin antiquus, “old”): Ancient Greece andRome. Antiquity begins with the early Greek migration inthe second millenium B.C. and ends in the west in A.D. 476 when the Roman emperor Romulus Augustuluswas deposed by the Goths (ca. A.D. 475); in the east(Byzantium), antiquity ends in A.D. 529 when the PlatonicAcademy was closed by Emperor Justinian (reigned527–565).Apocalypse (Greek apokalyptein, “unveil,” “reveal”): Theend of the world, notably as described in the Revelationof St. John, the last book in the New Testament. St. John’svivid account of the violent end of world and of the LastJudgment was often used by artists. Apostle (Greek apostolos, “messenger,” “advancefighter”): One of the twelve disciples of Jesus selected

Glossary 567

Antique masonry: Most frequent types of Roman facedconcrete building (top to bottom): opus incertum, opustestaceum, and opus reticulatum


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© h.f.ullmann publishing GmbHOriginal Title: Kunst & Architektur Rom

ISBN 978-3-8480-0371-6

Project Management: Ute Edda Hammer, Kerstin LudolphEditing: Uta Büxel, Daniela Müller, Jutta Allekotte, Frank Zimmer

Layout and Typesetting: Holger CrumpPicture Research: Monika Bergmann, Astrid Schünemann

© for the English edition: h.f.ullmann publishing GmbH

Translation from German: Peter Barton, Anthea Bell and Eileen Martin in association with Cambridge Publishing Management

Editing: Chris Murray in association with Cambridge Publishing Management Typesetting: Cambridge Publishing Management

Project Management: Sheila Hardie and Anna James for Cambridge Publishing ManagementProject Coordination: Tammi Reichel

Coverdesign: rincón² medien gmbH, CologneOverall responsibility for production: h.f.ullmann publishing GmbH, Potsdam, Germany

Printed in China, 2013

ISBN 978-3-8480-0320-4

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1X IX VIII VII VI V IV III II I

[email protected]

FrontispieceThe Arch of Titus and the Forum Romanum

Note:Information regarding the location of works in museums and churches as well as

concerning opening times are subject to change.

Front Cover: Pantheon Interior, RomePhoto: © Sergey Kelin / Shutterstock

Back Cover: St. Peter, Photo: © agk-images / Bildarchiv Monheim; Spanish Steps, Photo: Achim Bednorz© h.f.ullmann publishing GmbH; Portait of a young girl, Sappho, Photo © akg-images / Nimatallah

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This excerpt by h.f.ullmann publishing is not for sale. All rights reserved. The use of text or images in whole or in part, as well as their reproduction, translation, or implementation in electronic systems without the written consent of the publisher is a copyright violation and liable to prosecution. © h.f.ullmann publishing, Potsdam (2016) You can find this book and our complete list on www.ullmannmedien.com.

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