0czjE0

dic)-l-

.

-4-,

in

C

I

4-,in

inCCin

C0)

Cc-iIa)

C

0)in

CinI0)Cin

inC

LI)

C.404-

a)

ir

-d

-d

C

-4-,

C

c)-I-CC

H

Peas

ants

and

the

Wor

ldin

toexper

imt

with

new

ones

.A

lthou

ghse

ver

alatt

empt

sw

ere

made

,-

one

dese

rves

spec

ial

men

tion:

the

Puer

toR

ICO

proje

ctle

dby

Julia

nSt

ewar

dand

condu

cted

byst

uden

tsw

hoha

vesin

cebe

com

em

ajor

contr

ibut

ors

tonth

ropo

l0gM

llit

erat

ure,

incl

udin

gR

ober

tM

anne

rs,

Sidn

eyM

intZ

,El

ena

Padi

la,

Ray

mon

dSc

heel

e,and

Eric

Wol

f.B

ased

on

field

wor

kcondu

cted

inth

ela

te194

0S

,th

epr

oject

was

dire

ctly

re

late

dto

two

majo

rpub

licat

ions

inth

eth

odol

ogic

alre

thin

king

oft

hepe

riod:

Stew

ard

sAr

eaRe

sear

ch:

Theo

njan

dPr

actic

e(1

950)

,a

meth

odolo

gica

lhan

dboo

k;and

The

Peop

leof

Puer

toRi

co(S

teward

etal.

1956

),w

hich

conta

ins

the

subs

tant

ive

findi

ngs

ofth

est

udy.

Wor

ldSY

Stem

The

ory

Alth

ough

thes

eand

rela

ted

stud

ies

contr

ibut

edto

ape

riod

ofm

eth

odo

logi

calf

erm

enti

nth

e195

0S

,th

ein

fusi

onof

depe

nden

cylit

erat

ure

and

worl

dsys

tem

pers

pect

ives

inth

e19

60s

and197

oS

prod

uced

aneven

more

serio

uscr

isis

of

nth

ropo

1ogi

cal

confid

ence

.D

epen

denc

ylit

erat

ure

(gen

erally

asso

ciat

edw

ithits

most

popu

lar

and

extr

eme

spok

esm

ani

And

reG

unde

rFr

ank;

see

his

1967

and

1969

work

s)and

the

clos

ely

rela

ted

world

sYst

emlit

erat

ure

(gen

erally

ass

ocia

ted

with

lmnt

anU

elW

alle

rste

iflse

ees

peci

ally

his

1974

and

1979

work

s)ca

me

from

outs

ide

anth

ropo

logy

but

off

ered

impo

rtant

impl

icat

ions

for

the

anth

rop0

l0gi

lst

udy

of

peas

ants

.W

riter

sin

this

trad

ition

did

not

star

tw

ithth

epe

asan

tvill

age,

and

the

ders

tand

ing

ofv

illag

elif

ew

as

not

thei

rcho

sen

prob

lem

.R

athe

r,th

eyw

ere

tryi

ngto

acco

unt

for

the

cre

atio

nand

pers

iste

nce

ofec

onom

icba

ckw

ardn

ess

or

unde

rdev

eloP

rnent,

and

they

arg

ued

that

back

war

dnes

sw

asa

dire

ctpr

oduc

tof

the

deve

lopm

ento

fcap

italis

m.

The

basic

ass

um

ptio

nsofa

world

SYSt

empe

rspe

ctiv

ear

eth

ese:

i.A

soci

alsc

ient

ists

houl

dst

udy

soci

alw

hole

s.In

the

mode

rnw

orld

,th

ere

isonly

one

effe

ctiv

eso

cial

who

le,a

nd

that

isth

ew

orld

syst

em.

a.Th

ew

orld

syst

emis

inte

grat

edec

onom

ical

lyra

ther

than

polit

ica

lly.T

hati

s,it

isa

world

econom

yco

mpo

sed

of

num

ero

us

polit

ical

lyin

depe

nden

tbut

econom

ical

lyin

terd

epen

dent

stat

es.

.

The

world

syst

emis

econom

ical

lydi

ffer

entia

ted,

com

pose

dof

(a)a

core

,co

nsi

stin

gof

the

stat

esat

the

deve

lope

dce

nte

roft

hew

orld

econom

y(fo

rexam

ple,

the

Uni

ted

Stat

esand

nort

hwes

tern

Euro

pe);

(b)a

perip

herY

consi

stin

goft

heunde

rdev

elop

edst

ates

inth

eso

-cal

led

Thi

rdW

orld

(fore

xam

ple,

Boliv

ia,

Hon

dura

s,and

Jam

aica

)and

(c)a

sem

iper

iphe

rYic

om

pose

dof

buffe

rsta

tes

that

have

more

opp

ortu

nitie

sfo

rde

velo

pmen

tth

anpe

riphe

ral

stat

es,

exer

cise

som

ede

gree

of

eco

nom

icin

fluen

ceover

thei

rneig

hbor

Sbu

tar

enoneth

eles

snot

co

re

(fore

xam

ple,

Mex

ico,

Ven

ezue

la,S

outh

Afri

ca,a

nd

vario

usM

edite

rra

nean

and

East

Eur

opea

nco

untr

ies).

4.T

his

inte

rnat

iona

llyst

ruct

ured

ineq

ualit

yis

ade

eply

roote

dhi

sto

rical

prod

uCts

cre

ate

dw

ithth

efo

rmat

ion

ofa

capi

talis

tw

orld

econ

om

yin

the

sixt

eent

hcentu

ryand

shap

edac

ross

four

centu

ries

ofc

olo

nia

land

post

colo

nial

chan

ge.

.

Soci

alpr

oces

ses

inpa

rticu

lar

regi

ons

can

beunde

rsto

odonly

inte

rms

oft

hepl

ace

and

func

tion

oft

hose

regi

ons

with

inth

ela

rger

world

syst

em.

Inde

ed,

itis

com

mon

for

world

-sys

tem

theo

rists

toexpl

ain

prob

lem

sin

the

perip

hery

or

sem

iper

iphe

rYin

term

sof

two

fact

ors:

(a)de

velo

pmen

tsocc

urr

ing

inth

eco

re;

or

(b)th

em

ain

tena

nce

requ

ire

ments

ofth

esy

stem

asa

who

le.

Ifth

ispe

rspe

ctiv

eis

take

nse

rious

ly,

itse

ems

tole

ave

no

spac

efo

rth

ean

thro

polo

gYm

ost

anth

ropo

logi

sts

prac

tice.

Yet

many

anth

ropo

logi

sts

who

dota

keth

isse

rious

lYha

veal

soqu

estio

ned

key

prov

isio

nsof

the

world

-sys

tem

pers

pect

ive.

The

peop

lew

eliv

ew

ithand

writ

eabo

utge

nera

llyliv

ein

the

perip

hery

and

sem

iper

iphe

ryofW

alle

rSte

ins

world

syst

em.

As

the

pric

eof

thei

rpr

oduc

tsco

llaps

eson

world

mar

kets

,as

fore

ign

corp

orat

ions

buy

up

thei

rla

nd,

or

asoth

erfo

reig

nin

vest

ors

aba

ndon

wha

thad

once

been

apr

ospe

rOus

iliv

ely

regi

ofl

the

capi

talis

tcore

prof

ound

lyin

fluen

ces

perip

hera

lreg

ions

and

the

peop

lew

holiv

ein

them

.B

utw

eal

sose

em

ajora

spec

tsoft

heir

econom

ic,s

oci

al,a

nd

cultu

ral

life

that

cannotb

eex

plai

ned

inte

rms

ofth

eco

re.

We

see

livel

yre

gion

alm

ark

etin

gsy

stem

Sin

whi

chlo

cally

prod

uced

com

modi

ties

are

cir

cula

ted.

We

see

loca

lm

erc

hant

sw

hofo

llow

entr

eP

rene-

lst

rate

gies

that

are

atodd

sw

ithth

est

rate

gies

offo

reig

nin

vest

ors.

And

on

occa

sion

and

unde

rco

ndi

tions

not

of

thei

rch

oosi

ng,

we

see

loca

lpe

ople

ado

ptin

ga

varie

tyof

form

sof

resi

stan

ceto

the

dem

ands

ofl

ocal

and

fore

ign

capi

tal.

Alth

ough

we

try

tose

epe

asan

tsas

part

of

the

wid

erw

orld

,w

eal

sovie

wan

app

roac

hth

atatt

empt

sto

expl

ain

every

thin

gin

term

sof

the

needs

or

dyna

mic

sof

the

capi

talis

tco

re,

or

of

the

syst

emas

aw

hole

,as

prof

ound

lyfu

nctio

nalis

tand

redu

ctiv

e.Th

eat

tem

ptto

main

tain

anan

thro

polo

gica

lper

spec

tive

with

ina

glob

alfr

ame

pres

ents

enorm

ous

hist

oric

aland

eth

odol0

gil

prob

lem

s.Th

ischa

pte

rfo

cuse

son

thes

epr

oble

ms

buti

tdi

scus

ses

them

inth

eco

nte

xtof

anex

ampl

efr

omV

enez

uela

.A

fterp

rese

ntin

gth

eex

ampl

e,w

edi

scus

sa

varie

tyofi

ssue

sth

atar

ise

from

it.

Will

iamRo

sebe

rrY

peas

ants

und

the

Wor

ld11

311

2W

illia

mRo

sebe

rry

AV

enez

uela

nE

xam

ple

The

Boc

on

Dis

trict

isth

epo

litic

alde

sign

atio

nfo

rtw

ohi

ghriv

erval

leys

surr

ounde

dby

mounta

inw

alls

inth

eV

enez

uela

nA

ndes

.1

Itis

rela

tivel

yis

olat

ed,

thou

ghha

rdly

inac

cess

ible

.The

majo

rhig

hway

sth

atconnect

west

ern

Ven

ezue

law

ithCa

raca

spa

ssth

roug

hlo

wla

nds

toth

enort

hand

south

.Fr

omea

ch,

asin

gle

road_

trea

cher

ous

inth

era

iny

seas

on

Cros

ses

the

cord

iller

ato

the

mounta

inval

ley

and

tow

nof

Boc

on.

As

one

cross

esth

em

ounta

ins

and

driv

espa

stpe

asan

thou

ses

prec

ario

usly

perc

hed

on

mounta

insl

opes

,th

esm

ell

of

cooki

ngfir

esand

the

sigh

tof

coffe

edr

ying

on

smal

lpa

tios

or

on

the

edge

of

the

pave

men

tsof

bana

nas

or

bunc

hed

blac

kbe

ans,

or

of

the

head

of

afr

eshl

ybu

tche

red

hog

hang

ing

from

the

rafte

rsnear

the

hous

eentr

ance

isenough

toco

nvin

ceth

etr

avel

erth

athe

or

she

isente

ring

adi

ffer

ent

world

.If

the

trav

eler

spen

dsm

uch

time

inBo

con

,the

first

impr

essi

onw

illbe

valid

ated

toa

cert

ain

exte

nt.

The

encl

osed

val

ley

form

sa

disc

erni

ble

econom

icand

soci

alunit,

with

the

tow

nofB

ocon

se

rvin

gas

abu

lkin

gand

dist

ribut

ion

cente

rfo

ranum

bero

fsat

ellit

eto

wns

and

vill

ages

.The

tow

nis

also

the

capi

talo

fan

adm

inis

trativ

edi

stric

twith

inth

est

ate

of

Truji

llo.A

ndth

ere

ism

uch

inth

eto

wn

and

countr

ylif

eoft

here

side

nts

that

iscultu

rally

spec

ific.

Yet

even

the

first

impr

essi

onw

ould

bepa

rtial

.U

pon

arriv

al,

one

notic

esth

atth

eto

wn

isha

rdly

isol

ated

from

the

wid

erw

orld

.C

ara

cas

new

spap

ers

and

maga

zine

sar

ere

adily

avai

labl

e.Te

enag

ers

wear

sweats

hirts

from

u.s.

univ

ersi

ties

whe

nth

eyar

enot

wearin

gth

eir

high

scho

olunifo

rms.

Stor

esow

ned

byIta

lian

and

Ara

bim

mig

rant

sse

llcl

othe

s,fu

rnitu

re,a

pplia

nces

and

hard

war

em

anufa

ctur

edin

oth

erpa

rtsofV

enez

uela

or

inCo

lom

bia

or

the

Uni

ted

Stat

es.

Ifone

also

inve

stig

ates

som

eth

ing

ofth

ehi

stor

yand

soci

allif

eof

Boc

on,

one

quic

kly

encounte

rssu

rpris

es.A

nin

etee

nth-

cent

urY

new

spa

per

will

offe

rexpr

essi

ons

ofpr

aise

and

sorr

ow

upo

nth

ede

ath

of

Gar

ibal

di.

Avis

itto

the

countr

ysid

eto

parti

cipa

tein

afu

nera

lm

ark

ing

the

first

anniv

ersa

ryoft

hede

ath

ofa

fam

ilypa

triar

chw

illpr

oduc

eim

ages

that

confir

mth

eim

pres

sion

ofi

sola

tion

and

imag

esth

atsu

gges

tw

ider

connectio

nsand

netw

orks

.Si

tting

outs

ide

the

hous

edr

inki

ngm

iche

(aho

mem

ade

rum

)with

agr

oup

of

men

whi

leoth

ers

say

the

rosa

ryin

side

,the

vis

itorh

asto

expl

ain

whe

rehe

has

lived

and

wha

the

isdo

ing.

And

hele

arns

tohi

ssu

rpris

eth

atal

loft

hem

en

have

been

toC

arac

asw

ithin

the

past

year

,som

est

ayin

gfo

rsev

eral

month

sto

work

.

He

liste

nsas

they

star

tto

exch

ange

sugg

estio

nsab

outw

ork

opp

ortu

nitie

sand

mpl

oyer

sas

som

eof

thei

rnum

berb

egin

topl

ananoth

ertr

ipto

the

city

durin

gth

esla

ckse

ason.

Thes

esu

rfac

eim

pres

sion

sgi

veonly

ahi

ntoft

hepr

oble

ms

that

con

fron

tthe

anth

ropo

logi

stw

hoatt

empt

sto

unde

rsta

ndpe

asan

teco

nom

icand

soci

allif

ein

term

sof

loca

land

daily

inte

ract

ions

and

rela

tions

hips

and

inte

rms

of

the

wid

erec

onom

icre

latio

nsand

field

sofp

ower

that

affe

ctth

ose

daily

and

loca

lint

erac

tions

.

The

Impo

rtanc

eof

Coffe

eTh

epr

imar

ypr

oduc

tof

the

Boc

on

Dis

trict

isco

ffee.

Inth

ese

cond

half

of

the

nin

etee

nth

centu

ry,

Boc

on

was

one

of

ase

ries

of

high

val

leys

inth

eV

enez

uela

nA

ndes

that

bega

nto

attr

act

mig

rant

sfr

omoth

erpa

rts

ofV

enez

uela

and

imm

igra

nts

from

south

ern

Euro

pe,

espe

cial

lySp

ain

and

Italy

.The

mig

rant

sse

ttled

on

uncla

imed

natio

nall

ands

asw

ella

son

disp

uted

indi

geno

usre

serv

ela

nds

(resgu

ardoS

)and

star

ted

smal

l-sca

leco

ffee

farm

s.Th

eE

urop

ean

imm

igra

nts

sett

led

into

wns

like

Boc

on

and

com

bine

dpe

ttyco

mm

erce

with

the

coffe

etr

ade.

Thes

etr

ader

sw

ould

buy

the

coffe

efro

msc

atte

red

farm

ers,

ofte

nexte

ndin

gcre

ditt

ose

cure

ase

tofc

off

eepr

oVid

ing

clie

nts.

The

trad

ersw

ould

then

org

aniz

em

ule

trai

nsth

atw

ould

carr

yth

eco

ffee

over

the

mounta

ins

toa

low

land

city

,w

here

the

coffe

ew

ould

bede

posi

ted

inth

ebr

anch

ware

hous

esof

aM

arac

aibo

trad

ing

com

pany

.Fr

omth

ew

are

hous

e,it

would

becarr

ied

toa

port

on

Lake

Mar

acai

boand

then

ship

ped

byst

eam

erto

Mar

acai

boand

even

tual

lyto

Ham

burg

or

New

Yor

k.Th

eM

arac

aibo

Com

pani

esexte

nded

cred

itto

loca

ltr

ader

ssu

ch

asth

ose

inB

ocon

,fo

llow

ing

stra

tegi

essi

mila

rto

thos

efo

llow

edby

loca

ltr

ader

sin

thei

rde

alin

gsw

ithlo

calf

arm

ers.

Sinc

eth

enin

etee

nth

cen

tury

,th

en,

loca

lfa

rmer

sha

vebe

enpa

rtof

aco

mpl

exw

ebth

ateven

tuaM

yconnecte

dth

emto

the

cente

rsoft

hew

orld

econom

y.W

hen

one

rem

em

bers

that

coffe

eis

subje

ctto

dram

atic

pric

eflu

ctua

tions

,th

eim

porta

nce

oft

hese

connectio

nsbe

com

esev

enm

ore

app

aren

t.Ef

fect

sof

ade

clin

ein

pric

esw

ould

bem

ulti

ple.

Letu

ssa

yth

atth

epr

ice

ofc

offe

edr

oppe

dby

50pe

rcen

tdur

ing

anin

tern

atio

nalC

risis.

(This

isa

mode

stass

um

ptio

n:D

urin

gth

ede

pres

sion

of

the

1930

S,

pric

esin

Ven

ezue

ladr

oppe

dto

one-f

ourth

oft

heir

1928

leve

l.)W

ithsu

ch

adr

op,

the

loca

ltr

ader

must

prov

ide

the

Mar

acai

boCo

mpa

nyw

ithtw

ice

asm

uch

coffe

ejus

tto

meet

his

prev

ious

lyco

ntr

acte

dde

bts.

Todo

this

,he

must

pres

shi

slo

calp

rodu

cers

topr

ovid

ehi

mw

ithm

ore

coffe

efo

rth

esa

me

rea

son.

Bec

ause

coffe

eis

ape

renn

iala

nd

does

not

prod

uce

ayi

eld

fort

hefir

stfe

wye

ars

afte

rpla

ntin

g,th

efa

rmer

isnoti

na

flexi

ble

posi

tion

and

cannot

resp

ond

easi

lyto

the

swin

gsofm

ark

etpr

ices

.T

hede

scrip

tion

oft

his

dist

ricti

sbas

edon

mat

eria

lfou

ndin

Ros

eber

ry198

3.

114

Will

iamRo

sebe

rry

But

letu

ssa

yhe

give

sin

toth

ede

man

dsof

the

Boc

on

trad

erand

plan

tsm

ore

coffe

e,expa

ndin

gin

tom

argi

nall

ands

that

will

bele

sspr

odu

ctiv

eor

expa

ndin

gin

tola

ndth

atha

dpr

evio

usly

been

devo

ted

tofo

odcr

ops

.Th

eim

med

iate

effe

cts

may

bedr

amat

ic.

Wha

teve

ref

forts

are

unde

rtake

n,so

me

oft

hefa

rmer

sand

som

eoft

hetr

ader

swill

beun

able

topr

ovid

eenough

coffe

eto

meett

heir

debt

obl

igat

ions

.Eve

nth

ose

who

dow

illfa

cedi

fficu

lties

inpr

ovid

ing

for

thei

rfa

mili

es.

They

will

have

less

inco

me

topu

rcha

sefo

odand

oth

ernec

essi

ties,

and

the

ex

1pans

iofl

ofc

offe

ew

illha

vele

ftth

emw

ithle

ssho

meg

row

nfo

odfo

rthe

hous

ehol

d.If

pric

esre

cover

ina

few

year

s,th

ede

cisi

onto

expa

ndcof

fee

acre

age

(exten

dedm

any

times

over

inoth

erre

gion

s)m

aycontr

ibut

eto

asi

tuat

ion

ofo

verp

rodu

ctio

nth

atw

illcontr

ibut

eto

yeta

noth

erm

ar

ketc

risis

.The

expa

nsio

nm

ayal

sole

adto

anec

olo

gica

lcris

isth

atm

aynotb

ecom

eapp

aren

tfor

deca

des.

Itis

readi

lyapp

aren

t,th

en,

that

the

att

empt

tounde

rsta

ndth

ecof

fee

econom

yof

l3oc

on

must

enga

gea

var

iety

of

leve

lsof

anal

ysis

.O

nem

ust

take

into

acco

untt

hevario

usle

vels

atw

hich

econom

icac

tors

are

ope

ratin

gand

mak

ing

deci

sion

sth

ataf

fect

Boco

n&

inN

ewY

ork,

Ham

burg

,Mar

acai

bo,B

ocon

.O

nem

ust

exam

ine

the

stra

tegi

esofl

ocal

merc

hant

sand

ofl

ocal

prod

ucer

sin

ord

erto

unde

rsta

ndth

elik

ely

out

com

eofa

crisi

sor

the

resp

onse

tope

riods

ofec

onom

icbo

om.4

ndone

must

consi

dert

heoth

erar

eas

from

whi

chpe

ople

have

com

eto

Boc

on,

the

prac

tices

,tra

ditio

ns,a

nd

valu

esth

atm

igra

nts

and

imm

igra

ntsb

ring

with

them

toan

expa

ndin

gre

gion

.

Petro

leum

Yet

the

invo

lvem

ent

of

Boc

on

with

aw

ider

world

isnot

limite

dto

the

coffe

eec

onom

y.Tw

oadd

ition

alre

latio

nsde

serv

em

entio

n.W

hen

peop

leth

ink

of

Ven

ezue

la,

they

thin

knot

ofc

offe

ebu

tof

petro

leum

.A

lthou

ghco

ffee

was

Ven

ezue

las

most

impo

rtant

expo

rtin

the

late

nin

etee

nth

and

early

twen

tieth

centu

ries,

petro

leum

has

dom

inat

edV

enez

uela

sec

onom

yand

polit

ysin

ceth

e192oS

.Th

edi

rect

and

indi

rect

effe

cts

have

been

rem

arka

ble.

The

petro

leum

sect

orits

elfe

mpl

oys

few

peop

leand

prod

uces

enorm

ous

wealth

.In

the

supp

ort

serv

ices

and

indu

strie

sth

atgr

ewup

aro

und

petr

oleu

m1

and,

more

impo

rtant

,in

the

expa

nsio

nof

the

stat

ese

ctor

on

the

basi

sof

roya

lties

from

pe

trol

eum

com

pani

es1

anucle

usw

asfo

rmed

for

the

tran

sfor

mat

ion

of

Ven

ezue

la.

Gro

wth

of

the

stat

ese

ctor

and

of

apo

pula

tion

of

mid

dle-

inco

me

bure

aucr

ats

stim

ulat

edth

egr

owth

of

ala

rge

tert

iary

sect

orof

com

merc

eand

serv

ices

,ase

ctor

loca

ted

ina

num

ber

ofc

ities

butm

ost

impo

rtant

lyin

Cara

cas.

The

petro

leum

expa

nsio

nw

as

occ

urr

ing

justa

sth

eco

ffee

econom

y

Peas

ants

and

the

Wor

ld11

5

ente

red

into

am

ajorc

olla

pse

with

the

1930

Sie

pres

sion

.Th

epo

stu

late

dnga

tive

conse

quen

ces

of

acr

isis

desc

ribed

abov

ew

ere

realiz

edw

itheven

grea

ter

sever

ity.T

oth

isda

y,th

efa

llof

coffe

eis

anevent

of

trem

endo

ussy

mbo

licim

port

inV

enez

uela

npu

blic

mem

ory

.W

ithth

echa

nges

ass

ocia

ted

with

the

petro

leum

econom

y,ho

wev

er,

resi

dent

sfr

omB

ocon

and

oth

erco

ffee

area

sco

uld

move

toci

tiesl

ike

Mar

acai

boor

Car

acas

.Th

ism

ovem

ent

has

been

soim

porta

ntth

atit

isdi

fficu

ltto

limit

one

sst

udy

toB

ocon

w

ithou

ttak

ing

into

acco

unt

popu

latio

nm

ovem

ents

betw

een

Boc

on

and

Cara

cas

and

oth

erci

ties.

Itis

notun

com

mon

tofin

dan

aged

farm

erw

how

illte

flyo

uth

atal

l ofh

ischi

ldre

nliv

ein

Car

acas

and

that

hevis

itsth

emth

ere

once

aye

ar.

The

second,

rela

ted,

deve

lopm

ent

conce

rns

the

impa

ctof

the

pe

trol

eum

tran

sfor

mat

ion

on

thos

ew

hoha

vere

main

edin

Boc

on.

The

grow

thoft

heV

enez

uela

nst

ate

has

resu

lted

inin

crea

sing

centr

aliz

atio

nofp

oliti

csand

econom

ics.

Ove

rth

epa

st30

year

sth

ego

vern

men

thas

cre

ate

da

num

bero

fcre

dita

nd

mark

etin

gpr

ogra

ms

that

have

disp

lace

dpr

ivat

em

erc

hant

sfr

omth

eir

form

erly

dom

inan

tpos

ition

inth

eco

ffee

econom

y.A

tpr

esen

t,th

ego

vern

men

tis

the

most

impo

rtant

cre

dito

rand

coffe

ebu

yer

inB

ocon

.C

redi

tde

cisio

nsin

varia

bly

requ

ireap

prov

alin

ace

ntr

aloffi

ce,

meanin

gth

atlo

cal

farm

ers

are

incr

easi

ngly

depe

nden

tupo

nth

ecentr

algo

vern

men

t.Su

chde

cisi

ons

invo

lve

polit

ica

lfav

oriti

smas

wel

l,gi

ving

the

party

inpo

wer

incr

ease

dle

vera

geover

loca

lfar

mer

s.T

heH

isto

rica

lDim

ensi

on

The

desc

riptio

nof

the

Boc

on

Dis

trict

alre

ady

sugg

ests

one

of

this

cha

pter

sm

ost

impo

rtant

poin

ts.T

ooofte

nanth

ropo

logi

sts

have

form

ula

ted

thei

rpr

oble

ms

and

condu

cted

thei

rst

udie

sw

itha

shal

low

time

fram

e.W

hen

func

tiona

listp

ersp

ectiv

esw

ere

dom

inan

t,th

issy

nchr

onic

focu

sw

as

take

nas

apo

into

fhon

or.

On

the

one

hand

,it

was

arg

ued

that

the

hist

ory

of

the

peop

lew

est

udie

dco

uld

not

bere

cover

ed.

On

the

oth

erha

nd,i

twas

sugg

este

dth

atev

enif

hist

oric

alpr

oces

ses

could

bekn

own

(and

inm

any

case

sit

beca

me

clea

rth

atdo

cum

enta

ryand

ora

lhis

toric

also

urc

es

wer

em

uch

riche

rtha

nha

dbe

ensu

ppos

ed),

his

tory

itsel

fco

uld

tell

us

ver

ylit

tle.

Age

netic

app

roac

hw

as

rejec

tedin

favo

rof

anan

alyt

ical

ap

proa

ch;

the

ope

ratio

nand

func

tioni

ngof

apa

rticu

lar

soci

alfe

atur

eco

uld

beex

plai

ned

inte

rms

of

the

stru

ctur

eof

the

soci

alre

latio

nsof

the

pres

ent.

Econ

omic

anth

ropo

logi

sts

were

espe

cial

lypr

one

tosu

cha

sync

hron

icbi

as,g

iven

the

ass

um

ptio

nsth

eyw

ere

taki

ngfr

omec

onom

ics

and

the

natu

reof

the

data

(inpu

t-out

put

analy

ses,

hous

ehol

dbu

dget

s,pr

ice

fluct

uatio

ns,a

nd

the

like)

they

were

colle

ctin

g.Th

usth

ecl

assic

monogr

aph

mig

htco

nta

inan

intro

duct

ory

ii6W

illiam

Rose

berry

cha

pter

that

would

incl

ude

ase

ctio

non

histo

ry,b

utth

ehi

stor

ical

sket

chw

ould

not

bein

tegr

ated

with

the

soci

aland

econom

ican

alys

isin

the

book

sco

re.

Yet

ahi

stor

ical

pers

pect

ive

isfu

ndam

enta

lto

all

att

empt

sto

plac

elo

cal

regi

ons

with

ina

world

syst

em.

Such

ape

rspe

ctiv

eha

sse

ver

aldi

men

sion

s,and

the

anth

ropo

logi

stw

how

ould

use

aw

orld

-sys

tem

ap

proa

chm

ust

beca

refu

lnott

ore

duce

his

or

herh

isto

rical

unde

rsta

ndin

gto

the

sim

ple

stat

emen

tth

ata

parti

cula

rreg

ion

has

long

been

part

ofa

capi

talis

teco

nom

y.

The

Impo

rtanc

eof

Stud

ying

Patte

rns

ofCh

ange

over

Tim

eIt

shou

ldbe

clea

rth

atth

enatu

reof

the

rela

tions

hip

betw

een

alo

cal

regi

onand

the

world

econom

ych

ange

sw

ithtim

e.D

urin

gth

eco

loni

aler

a,B

ocon

and

the

Ven

ezue

lan

And

esin

gene

ralw

ere

quite

marg

inal

toth

eco

loni

alec

onom

y.A

lthou

ghone

can

com

eup

with

alis

tof

impo

rts

and

expo

rtsfo

rthe

perio

dth

atsh

ows

are

latio

nshi

pbe

twee

nth

ere

gion

and

the

em

erg

ing

cente

rsoft

hew

orld

econom

y,it

would

bein

app

ropr

iate

tosu

gges

ttha

tone

could

unde

rsta

ndth

edy

nam

ics

ofl

ocal

life

or

oft

here

gion

alec

onom

yonly

inte

rms

ofth

eneeds

or

dyna

mic

soft

hew

orld

syst

emor

oft

hesy

stem

sco

re.

Dur

ing

the

nin

etee

nth

cen

tury

,th

ede

velo

pmen

tof

aco

ffee

econom

ybr

ough

tth

ere

gion

into

am

uch

more

inte

gral

rela

tions

hip

with

the

cente

rsof

the

world

econom

yas

the

inte

rnat

iona

ldiv

isio

nofl

abor

inte

nsifi

ed.

Cap

italw

as

inve

sted

inth

ere

gion

,V

enez

uela

nand

Eur

opea

nim

mig

rant

sse

ttle

din

the

re

gion

,and

fund

amen

tala

spec

tsofl

ocal

life

depe

nded

on

coffe

epr

ices

dete

rmin

edels

ewhe

re.E

ven

durin

gth

ispe

riod,

how

ever

,itw

ould

bein

adeq

uate

totu

rnone

satt

entio

nso

lely

toin

tern

atio

nalc

off

eem

ark

ets.

Loca

lm

erc

hant

sw

ere

inde

bted

tola

rger

trad

ing

hous

es,

but

they

did

not

act

as

thei

rage

nts.

Rat

her,

they

purs

ued

pers

onal

inte

rest

sth

atw

ere

not

necess

aril

yid

entic

alw

ith,

and

inm

any

case

sw

ere

contr

adi

ctor

yto

,th

ein

tere

sts

of

fore

ign

merc

hant

sor

of

the

syst

emas

aw

hole

.Dur

ing

the

twen

tieth

centu

ry,t

here

gion

scl

ose

inte

grat

ion

with

the

worl

dm

ark

etw

as

loos

ened

asco

ffee

decl

ined

;ye

tlo

cal

dyna

mic

sw

ere

draw

nm

ore

tight

lyth

anbe

fore

into

the

proc

esse

sof

the

worl

dsy

stem

as

Ven

ezue

labe

cam

ean

oil

repu

blic

.A

sin

dica

ted

abo

ve,

this

prec

ipita

ted

anatio

nal

tran

sfor

mat

ion

that

had

prof

ound

loca

lconse

quen

ces.

Furt

herm

ore,

the

impo

rtan

ceof

this

ques

tion

cannot

bere

duce

dto

aho

mily

that

would

tell

us

sim

ply

that

the

natu

reof

the

rela

tions

hip

betw

een

alo

calr

egi

onand

the

world

syst

emis

const

antly

cha

ngin

g.It

isal

soim

port

antt

ore

cogn

ize

that

the

soci

alre

latio

nsth

atcha

ract

eriz

eone

peri

odor

one

type

of

rela

tions

hip

contin

ueto

carr

yso

cia

l,econom

ic,

and

polit

ical

weig

htin

asu

bseq

uent

peri

od.

The

de

Peas

ants

and

the

Wor

ld11

7

velo

pmef

ltofa

coffe

eec

onom

yin

trodu

ced

fun.

amer

Ltal

chan

ges,

buti

t!w

as

not

cre

ate

douto

fthi

nair

.Stru

ctur

alfe

atur

es(fo

rexam

ple,

mark

etin

gsy

stem

Sro

ad

netw

orks

,fo

rms

of

prop

erty

sett

lem

ent

patte

rns,

clas

sre

latio

ns)o

fth

eco

loni

alec

onom

yse

rved

asth

eim

med

iate

con

text

for

the

inve

stm

ent

of

capi

tal

inco

ffee

prod

uctio

n.M

any

of

thes

efe

atur

esw

ere

tran

sfor

med

;so

me

could

betr

ansf

orm

edonly

thro

ugh

apo

litic

alst

rugg

lebe

twee

nlib

eral

sand

conse

rvat

ives

durin

gth

ela

stha

lfoft

henin

etee

nth

centu

ry.

The

Impo

rtanc

eof

unde

rsta

ndin

gthe

Past

inO

rder

toEx

plai

nth

ePr

esen

tA

noth

erconse

quen

ceofa

nhi

stor

ical

app

roac

his

the

fres

hpe

rspe

ctiv

eit

prov

ides

on

the

loca

lact

ors

them

selv

es.

Too

ofte

n,anth

ropo

logi

sts

deba

teth

ere

lativ

ew

eig

htofl

ocal

,re

gion

alnatio

nal,

and

inte

rnatio

nalf

acto

rson

the

activ

ityofl

ocal

peas

antS

art

isan

s,or

trad

ers

as

ifth

ese

acto

rsw

ere

sim

ply

hist

oric

algi

vens

,re

ady

toac

tw

ithin

and

bein

fluen

ced

byth

epr

esen

tsi

tuat

ion.

This

ispa

rticu

larly

true

whe

nw

econsi

der

peas

antr

ies

the

stru

ctur

eofw

hich

may

bepr

ojecte

din

toa

dim

past

and

who

sefo

rmat

ion

may

bese

en

aslo

gica

llyand

hist

ori

cally

prio

rto

the

influ

ence

of

aw

orld

syst

em.

Inl3

ocon

,ho

wev

er,

smal

l-sca

lefa

mily

farm

sbe

gan

toapp

ear

only

with

the

form

atio

nof

a

coffe

eec

onom

yin

the

nin

etee

nth

centu

ry,

inas

soci

atio

nw

itha

tran

sfo

rmat

ion

of

prop

erty

rela

tions

hips

that

brok

eup

form

erly

impa

rtibl

eco

loni

alpr

oper

ties

and

indi

geno

usre

serv

ela

nds.

Ina

fund

amen

tals

ense

,th

ever

yem

erge

nce

ofa

peas

antry

was

tied

toth

ere

gion

sin

tegr

atio

nw

ithin

an

inte

rnat

iona

ldi

visi

onof

labo

r.Fu

rthe

rmor

e,m

any

of

the

smal

lfar

mer

sw

hotu

rned

toco

ffee

or

who

moved

into

the

regi

onto

plan

tco

ffee

wer

ebe

com

ing

more

entr

epre

neuria

l,contr

actin

gde

bts

and

plan

ting

anex

port

com

modi

tyon

thei

rbe

stla

nds

durin

ga

perio

dofe

conom

icbo

om.

Cer

tain

asp

ects

oft

heir

stra

tegy

were

bequ

eath

edto

thei

rch

ildre

nand

gran

dchi

ldre

nas

a

boom

econom

yente

red

into

crisi

s.Th

ere

spon

seof

smal

lfa

rmer

sto

the

mid

twef

ltie

thtu

rYcr

isis

would

mak

elit

tlese

nse

unle

ssone

unde

rsto

odth

ese

nin

etee

nth-

cent

ury

lega

cies

.

Clos

edan

dO

pen

Peas

antC

omm

uniti

esIn

one

sense

this

poin

tish

ardl

ysu

rpris

ing.

Ina

prel

imin

ary

typo

logy

ofL

atin

Am

eric

anpe

asan

trieS

made

over

thre

ede

cade

sag

o,Er

icW

olf

(195

5)su

gges

ted

anopp

ositi

onbe

twee

ncl

osed

and

ope

npe

asan

trie

S.Th

edi

stin

ctio

nw

as

base

din

hist

ory.

The

clos

edty

pecorr

esp

onde

dto

form

ernucl

ear

area

sin

Mes

oam

eric

aand

Peru

that

had

prec

olon

ial

stat

esy

stem

sand

peas

anta

gric

ultu

re.T

hecorp

orat

eco

rn-

I I

uS

Will

iamRo

sebe

rry

munity

was

seen

asa

colo

nial

prod

uct

1fix

ing

the

indi

geno

uspo

pula

tion

on

the

grou

ndas

aso

urc

eof

labo

rand

tax

reven

ue.

The

ope

nty

pew

as

seen

toem

erge

infr

ontie

rzones

durin

gth

enin

etee

ntht

hh1Y

ex

pans

ion

ofe

xpo

rtpr

oduc

tion.

The

Boc

on

peas

antry

was

clea

rlyope

nin

Wol

fsse

nse

(seeC

anci

ans

disc

ussi

onin

Cha

pter

6).To

oofte

n,ho

wev

er,t

hehi

stor

ical

natu

reofW

olfs

dist

inct

ion

iSlo

st,

espe

cial

lyw

hen

nth

ropo

l0gi

st5

stud

ycl

osed

type

s.Fi

eldW

orke

r5m

ayha

vea

bitt

osa

yab

outt

heea

rlyco

loni

alpe

riod

and

the

cha

nges

intr

odu

ced

byconqu

est,

butt

hey

will

then

skip

over

four

centu

ries

toth

eeth

nogr

aphi

cpr

esen

tas

ifth

ein

terv

enin

gpe

riods

invo

lved

no

fund

am

enta

lch

ange

s.R

ecen

tre

eval

Uat

iofls

dem

onst

rate

,how

ever

,th

atth

ede

velo

pmen

tof

expo

rtpr

qduc

tion

incr

ops

such

asco

ffee

intro

duce

dim

porta

ntcha

nges

incl

ose

zones

iust

asit

was

crea

ting

peas

antri

esin

ope

nzones

.O

nere

cent

stud

yha

sre

exam

ined

the

hist

ory

ofm

any

of

the

com

muniti

esin

Chi

apas

,a

regi

onof

som

eof

the

most

exte

nsiv

eanth

ropo

logi

cal

field

wor

kfl

recent

deca

des,

and

has

foun

dfu

ndam

enta

ltr

ansf

orm

atio

nsin

thos

eco

mm

uniti

esw

ithth

ede

velo

pmen

tof

coffe

epr

oduc

tiofl

the

mig

ratio

nof

Indi

ans

tow

ork

on

low

land

plan

tati0

nsand

the

like

(Was

serst

rom

1983

).A

mon

gth

em

ost

inte

rest

ing

of

the

new

deve

lopm

ents

,bot

hin

this

stud

yand

else

whe

re,i

sthe

rein

terp

reta

tion

oft

hede

velo

pmen

toft

heciv

ilrel

igi0

ushi

erar

chy.

Fund

amen

tal

asp

ects

oft

his

syst

emar

enow

seen

toha

veem

erg

eddu

ring

the

nin

ete

enth

centu

ry(R

usand

Was

sers

trom

1980

;C

hanc

eand

Tayl

or19

85).

nth

ropo

l0gi

5ts

who

try

topl

ace

peas

antri

esin

aw

ider

world

,the

n,cannot

beconte

ntw

itha

sync

hrof

licap

proa

ch.T

hey

need

topa

ycl

ose

att

entio

flto

the

com

plex

inte

rpla

yofe

xte

rnal

pres

sure

and

inte

rnal

re

spon

seover

time

and

need

tobe

awar

eof

the

poss

ibili

tyth

atth

ose

feat

ures

ofp

easa

ntlif

eth

atse

emm

ost

trad

ition

alor

cust

omar

ym

aybe

1 the

resu

ltsof

past

impo

siti0

fl5re

spon

seS

or

acco

mm

oda

tions

.Itm

aybe

that

the

trad

ition

alpe

asan

tisp

arto

fam

ode

rnhi

stor

y,a

hist

ory

that

has

plac

edth

epe

asan

tin

aw

ider

world

.

The

Met

hodo

logi

calD

imen

sion

This

hist

oric

ally

orie

nted

world

-sys

tem

pers

pect

ive

pres

ents

anum

ber

of

thod

olO

gica

ldi

lem

mas

for

the

anth

ropo

logi

st.T

hefir

stcon

cern

sth

eapp

ropr

iate

leve

lor

unit

ofa

nal

ysis

.How

does

one

talk

abo

utlo

calr

egi

ons

inte

rms

ofl

ocal

,nat

iona

l,and

inte

rnat

iona

lfac

tors

wit

hout

losi

ngth

odo1ogic

contr

ol?

The

Wal

lers

tein

solu

tion_

that

one

stud

ies

soci

alsy

stem

sas

who

les

and

ther

efor

econcentr

ates

on

the

world

syst

emits

elf_

leav

esno

room

for

anth

rOPo

l03.

Mos

tanth

ro

Peas

ants

and

theW

orld

119

polo

gist

Sw

hopa

yatt

entio

nto

such

issu

esw

ill&v

ant

tost

art

with

alo

calr

egi

onand

att

empt

tosa

yso

met

hing

ab6u

ttha

treg

ion

inte

rms

ofl

ocal

and

extr

aloc

alre

latio

nshi

psand

soci

alfo

rces

.Yet

they

will

beconfr

onte

dby

aconst

ant

met

hodo

logi

cals

trai

n.U

nfor

tuna

tely

,m

ost

of

the

meta

phor

santh

ropo

logi

sts

use

tota

lkabo

utsu

ch

ast

rain

are

eith

ersp

atia

lor

invo

lve

som

econcept

ion

of

analy

tical

laye

rsor

leve

ls.Th

ecl

assic

early

conce

ptio

nw

asJu

lian

Stew

ard

sle

vels

ofs

oci

ocul

tura

lint

egra

tion

(Stew

ard19

55).

Der

ived

from

his

evolu

tiona

ryst

udie

s,it

arg

ued

that

earli

erle

vels

ofso

cial

org

ani

zatio

n(fo

rexam

ple,

fam

ily,b

and,

and

com

munity

)wer

ein

corp

orat

edbu

tnot

fully

subs

umed

with

inhi

gher

leve

lsofo

rgan

izat

ion.

Thu

sth

efa

mily

,once

am

axim

alunit

oforg

aniZ

atio

niw

as

inco

rpor

ated

with

inst

ates

with

out

losi

ngits

dist

inct

ive

char

acte

r.W

hen

this

concept

was

app

lied

toth

est

udy

ofc

om

plex

soci

etie

s,one

could

stud

yth

evario

usso

cio

cultu

ral

leve

lsand

thei

rin

terr

elat

ions

.Sp

atia

lm

eta

phor

sre

sult

from

anth

ropo

logi

sts

field

prac

tice.

We

stud

yin

com

muniti

es,

and

asw

econsi

der

the

effe

ctof

natio

nala

nd

glob

alph

enom

ena

1w

eas

kw

hat

with

inth

elo

cals

ituat

ion

isto

beunde

rsto

odin

term

sofl

ocal

rela

tion

ship

sand

wha

tis

tobe

unde

rsto

odin

term

sofl

arge

rfor

ces.

As

we

ask

thes

equ

estio

ns1

we

ofte

nst

artw

ithan

impl

icit

or

expl

icit

spat

ialm

ode

lth

atm

oves

from

com

muniti

esto

regi

ons

tonatio

nsto

the

world

.

The

Prob

lem

with

aR

egio

nalA

ppro

ach

As

anth

ropo

logi

sts

beca

me

diss

atis

fied

with

com

munity

stud

ies,

som

eof

them

moved

tow

ard

regi

onal

stud

ies.

Alth

ough

this

alte

rsone

sde

finiti

onofl

ocal

and

nonlo

calr

elat

ions

,itd

oes

little

toadd

ress

the

centr

alm

eth

odol

ogic

alpr

oble

m.I

tten

dsto

rem

ove

anth

ropo

logi

sts

from

the

intim

ate

daily

inte

ract

ions

that

have

been

the

sourc

eofm

uch

eth

nogr

aphi

ckn

owle

dge,

yeti

tdoe

snotn

eces

saril

ygi

veth

ema

bird

s-

eye

vie

w.I

ndee

d,th

eym

ayst

illha

vea

w

orm

s-e

yevie

w

inth

atm

any

oft

hefo

rces

and

rela

tions

that

affe

cta

regi

onar

elo

cate

dels

ewhe

re(cf

.C.

Smith

1976

:3).

Reca

llth

eV

enez

uela

nex

ampl

e.To

unde

rsta

ndB

oco

n,

one

has

tota

lkabo

utth

efo

rmat

ion

ofa

coffe

eec

onom

yin

the

nin

etee

nth

centu

ry,t

heco

llaps

eoft

hate

conom

yin

the

conte

xtofa

pe

trol

eum

boom

,th

em

igra

tion

ofre

side

nts

toC

arac

asand

oth

erci

ties,

and

the

centr

aliz

atio

nof

the

Ven

ezue

lan

stat

eand

itsin

crea

sing

role

inlo

call

ife.R

egar

dles

sofw

heth

erone

star

ted

with

alo

calc

om

munity

or

the

Boc

on

Dis

trict

asa

who

le,m

ost

ofth

ese

deve

lopm

ents

would

bese

en

asex

tral

ocal

,and

the

vie

wone

gets

of

them

from

Boc

on

isnecess

aril

ypa

rtial

.

Peas

ants

and

the

Wor

ld12

112

0W

illiam

Rose

berry

The

Impo

rtanc

eof

Und

ersta

ndin

gM

acro

level

Influ

ence

son

Micr

olev

elBe

havi

orTo

reso

lve

the

met

hodo

logi

cal

dile

mm

a,w

eneed

tom

ove

beyo

ndth

esp

atia

land

laye

rca

kem

eta

phor

sw

euse

tode

scrib

eit.

Our

earli

erdi

scus

sion

show

edth

atth

ever

yfo

rmat

ion

ofm

any

regi

ons

and

com

muniti

esis

tied

totr

ansf

orm

atio

nsin

the

world

econom

y.To

igno

reth

e-

world

econom

yand

stud

ya

loca

lre

alm

apa

rtfr

oma

nonlo

cal

realm

may

pres

erve

anal

ytic

alrig

or,

but

atth

eexpe

nse

of

hist

oric

alunde

rst

andi

ng.

Toav

oid

this

,w

eneed

toco

nce

ntr

ate

on

rela

tions

hips

that

tran

scen

dsp

atia

lbo

unda

ries,

that

take

the

app

aren

tlyexte

rnal

and

mak

eit

inte

rnal

toour

mode

lof

aso

cial

situ

atio

n.A

nthr

opol

ogis

tsdo

nts

tudy

vill

ages

,w

rote

Cliff

ord

Gee

rtz(1

973:

22),

th

eyst

udy

invill

ages

.A

lthou

ghhe

was

mak

ing

aso

mew

hat

diff

eren

tpo

int,

this

insi

ght

isre

leva

ntto

the

pres

ent

disc

ussi

on.

As

we

stud

yin

com

mu

niti

es,

we

need

tobe

crea

tive

inour

conce

ptua

lizat

ion

and

stud

yof

rela

tions

hips

,ins

titut

ions

,and

netw

orks

that

are

app

aren

tlyfo

reig

nto

the

com

munity

.Le

tus

consi

derr

ecent

att

empt

sto

doth

is,be

ginn

ing

with

our

Ven

ezuela

nex

ampl

e.Th

eau

thor

spr

inci

palm

etho

dolo

gica

ldec

isio

nin

Do

con

was

toconcentr

ate

on

coffe

e.Su

cha

com

modi

tyorie

ntat

ion

can

beextr

emel

yuse

fulb

ecau

seth

ein

vest

igat

oris

deal

ing

with

apr

oduc

ttha

tis

prod

uced

loca

llybu

texcha

nged

on

world

mar

kets

.In

the

case

ofB

ocon

6,co

ffee

was

the

prin

cipa

lmeans

ofi

nteg

ratio

nbe

twee

nth

ere

gion

and

the

natio

nand

world

inth

enin

etee

nth

and

early

twen

tieth

cen

turie

s.A

nin

vest

igat

orco

uld

deal

with

loca

lpro

duct

ion

arr

ange

men

t5th

etr

ansf

orm

atio

noff

orm

sofl

ande

dpr

oper

tyand

work

org

aniz

ati0

flre

latio

nsw

ithlo

cal

merc

hant

s,co

nnec

tions

betw

een

loca

lm

erc

hant

sand

trad

ing

com

pani

esand

soon.

Of

cours

e,ce

rtai

nki

nds

of

info

rm

atio

nar

enec

essa

rily

lost

insu

cha

stud

y.A

lthou

ghco

ffee

dom

inat

esth

elo

cale

conom

y,it

occ

upi

esa

smal

lper

cent

age

ofcu

ltiva

ble

surf

ace

area

.A

ndth

ere

isa

livel

yre

gion

alm

ark

etin

gnetw

ork

com

plet

ely

sepa

rate

from

the

coffe

etr

ade.

Such

choi

ces,

and

the

recogn

ition

that

one

s

stud

yis

necess

aril

ypa

rtial

,are

basic

toan

thro

polo

gica

lfie

ldw

ork.

With

acom

modi

tyorie

ntat

ion,

how

ever

,one

can

shift

the

spat

ial

focu

sat

vario

uspo

ints

inth

ere

sear

ch.

Inth

eV

enez

uela

nst

udy,

the

auth

orconcentr

ated

on

the

tow

nof

Boc

on,

the

cente

rof

aco

ffee-

prod

ucin

gre

gion

and

the

hom

eof

agr

oup

ofc

offe

em

erc

hant

s.Fr

omth

atpo

int,

the

stud

yco

uld

shift

itsfo

cus

tow

ard

loca

lpr

oduc

ers

byfo

llow

ing

the

mer

chan

ts

netw

orks

,or

itco

uld

turn

att

entio

nbe

yond

Boc

on

tow

ard

the

trad

ing

com

pani

esby

follo

win

ganoth

erse

tofn

et

work

s.G

iven

are

late

dse

tof

rese

arc

hpr

oble

ms

this

stud

yconcen

trat

edon

rela

tions

hips

betw

een

merc

hant

sand

nall

farm

ers

with

inth

ere

gion

,co

mbi

ning

arch

ival

rese

arc

hin

the-

land

regi

stry

(whe

reit

was

poss

ible

tore

const

ruct

chan

ges

incr

edit

stru

ctur

esby

exam

inin

gold

mort

gage

s)and

inte

rvie

ws

with

key

figur

es.

The

stud

ydi

dnot,

how

ever

,move

tow

ard

the

wid

erw

orld

with

the

sam

ede

tail.

Itdi

dnot

expl

ore

the

arch

ives

oft

heM

arac

aibo

trad

ing

com

pani

esth

emse

lves

or

exam

ine

thei

rrela

tions

with

Ger

man

or

Am

eric

anm

arke

ts.

Exam

ples

ofIn

nova

tive

New

Mac

rolev

elRe

sear

chO

ther

stud

ies

have

been

equa

llyse

nsi

tive

tolo

cal

proc

esse

sw

hile

payi

ngm

ore

att

entio

nto

deve

lopm

ents

beyo

ndlo

calr

egio

ns.T

wo

re

cent

work

spr

ovid

em

ode

lsfo

rfut

ure

work

.A

nnSt

oler

sre

cent

stud

yoft

hepl

anta

tion

belt

inSu

mat

ra(1

985)

was

notl

imite

dto

asi

ngle

com

modi

tybu

tconcentr

ated

on

the

plan

tatio

nbe

ltofS

umat

ras

East

Coa

st.

The

regi

onpr

oduc

edru

bber

,to

bacc

o,te

a,and

palm

oil,

am

ong

oth

ergo

ods.

Wha

tmost

clea

rlym

ade

the

regi

ona

unit

was

the

conjun

ction

of

plan

tatio

npr

oduc

tion

and

Dut

chco

loni

alism

.In

unde

rtaki

nghe

rst

udy,

she

condu

cted

field

wor

kin

the

regi

on,

inte

rvie

win

gw

ork

ers,

fore

men

,and

manage

rsand

stud

ying

one

oft

hequ

asi-p

easa

ntvill

ages

.B

utsh

eal

soexam

ined

arch

ives

inSu

mat

raand

the

Net

herla

nds,

and

whi

lein

the

Net

herla

nds

she

inte

rvie

wed

retir

edpl

anta

tion

manage

rs.

Bec

ause

Java

nese

mig

rant

sconst

itute

much

oft

hela

borf

orce

,sh

ew

as

able

toin

corp

orat

ein

sigh

tsfr

omea

rlier

field

wor

kin

Java

asw

ell,

notin

gfu

ndam

enta

ldi

ffer

ence

sbet

wee

nJa

vane

sevill

age

life

and

the

att

empt

tore

const

itute

the

sem

blan

ceofp

easa

ntlif

ein

apl

anta

tion

conte

xt.

Chr

isG

jordin

gs(fo

rthco

ming

)stu

dyof

apr

opos

ed(b

utnever

real

ized

)copp

erm

inin

gpr

oject

inPa

nam

ais

also

inno

vativ

e.G

jordin

gwas

concern

ed

abo

utth

epo

tent

iali

mpa

ctoft

hepr

oject

on

the

Gua

ymiI

ndi

ans,

and

hew

as

also

inte

rest

edin

thei

rde

velo

ping

resi

stan

ceto

the

proje

ct.To

ass

ess

impa

cts

and

gain

insi

ghti

nto

the

form

atio

nof

new

soci

alm

ovem

ents

,he

had

tocondu

ctlo

cal

field

wor

k.A

full

unde

rst

andi

ngoft

heim

pact

oft

hepr

oject

also

requ

ired

anal

ysis

ofn

atio

nal

and

inte

rnat

iona

lde

velo

pmen

ts.

Gjor

ding

esc

hew

eda

spat

ial

defi

nitio

nofh

isunit

ofa

nal

ysis

and

concentr

ated

on

the

min

ing

proje

ctits

elf.

This

allo

wed

him

toex

plor

eth

ero

leoft

hepr

oject

with

inth

eP

anam

ania

nst

ate

spl

ans

fore

conom

icand

polit

ical

deve

lopm

ent,

the

plan

sof

vario

usm

ulti

natio

nalc

orp

orat

ions

that

ente

red

and

with

drew

from

the

proje

ct,flu

ctua

tions

with

inth

ein

tern

atio

nalc

opp

erm

ark

et,

deci

sion

-m

aki

ngpr

oces

ses

atth

eW

orld

Ban

k,and

the

incr

easi

ngly

ass

ert

ive,

ifco

nff

ictu

al,

att

empt

sby

Gua

ymi

Indi

ans

tofin

dan

app

ropr

iate

re

spon

seto

apr

oject

they

cam

eto

rega

rdas

ath

reat

toth

eir

livel

ihoo

d.Fi

eldw

ork

invo

lved

resi

denc

eam

ong

the

Gua

ymi,

buti

talso

invo

lved

Peas

ants

and

the

Wor

ld12

3

ape

riod

of

time

inPa

nam

aCi

tyin

terv

iew

ing

gove

rnm

ent

offi

cial

sas

wel

las

time

inN

ewY

ork

inte

rvie

Win

gm

ulti

natio

nal

exec

utiv

esand

Wor

ldB

ank

offi

cers

.B

oth

of

thes

est

udie

soffe

rmode

lsfo

rfu

ture

anth

ropo

logi

calw

ork

.Li

keth

eV

enez

uela

stud

y,th

eyco

nce

ive

alo

cal

situ

atio

nin

agl

obal

conte

xt.

Also

like

the

Ven

ezue

last

udy,

anal

ysis

oft

here

latio

nsofp

rodu

ctio

nand

exch

ange

invo

lved

with

expo

rtco

mm

odi

ties

prov

ides

the

means

for

asi

gnifi

cant

expa

nsio

nofa

nth

ropo

l0gi

focu

s.U

nlik

eth

eV

enez

uela

stud

y,th

eyar

ele

ssro

ote

din

apa

rticu

lar

loca

le;

the

field

-w

ork

ers

condu

cted

rese

arc

hat

the

cente

rsoft

hew

orld

econom

yas

wel

las

the

perip

herie

Sand

they

made

cert

ain

aspe

cts

ofth

edy

nam

ics

of

the

cente

r(co

lonial

polic

ies

mark

etflu

ctua

tions

,co

rpor

ate

inve

stm

ent

stra

tegi

es,

lend

ing

agen

cyre

quire

mef

lt5and

soon)i

nter

nal

toth

eir

analy

sis

ofp

artic

ular

regi

ons

inth

epe

riphe

ryoft

hew

orld

syst

em.

The

prob

lem

of

Soci

alH

omog

enei

tyin

Peas

ant

Com

mun

ities

Ase

cond

meth

odol

ogic

alis

sue,

notr

est

ricte

dto

world

-sys

tem

analy

ses,

issi

mul

tane

ousl

ycre

ate

dand

obs

cure

dby

the

styl

eofp

rese

ntat

ion

ado

pted

inth

isch

apte

r.W

eha

veta

lked

abou

tpe

asan

tsand

the

world

as

ifpe

asan

tsw

ere

asi

mpl

e,undi

ffer

entia

ted,

and

isola

ble

grou

p.Th

ism

ake

sse

nse

inte

rms

ofa

nan

thro

polo

gica

lhis

tory

:Mos

tof

the

issu

esdi

scus

sed

inth

ischa

pter

cam

eout

ofan

anth

ropo

logi

calm

ove

tow

ard

the

stud

yof

peas

antp

opul

atio

ns.

The

pres

enta

tion

mak

esle

ssse

nse

,

how

ever

,in

term

soft

heco

ncr

ete

soci

alsi

tuat

ion

ofa

ctua

lpea

sant

ries.

Inth

efir

stpl

ace,

peas

antri

esar

ege

nera

llych

arac

teriZ

edby

mark

edso

cial

diff

eren

tiatio

n.A

few

hous

ehol

dsm

aybe

able

,in

most

year

s,to

prov

ide

for

them

selv

esw

ithou

tse

ndi

ngho

useh

old

mem

bers

tow

ork

els

ewhe

refo

rwag

esand

with

outt

urni

ngto

the

mark

etex

cept

fort

hose

ess

entia

lsth

atcannotb

epr

oduc

edon

the

farm

.Som

eho

useh

olds

will

bem

ore

favo

rabl

ysi

tuat

ed,

hirin

gla

bore

rsand

selli

ngm

uch

of

thei

rpr

oduc

e.(W

ithexpo

rtco

mm

odi

typr

oduc

tion

such

asth

atfo

und

inB

ocon

,m

ark

etre

latio

nsar

em

ore

com

plic

ated

fora

lloft

hety

pes

dis

cuss

ed

here

.)M

any

hous

ehol

dsw

ill,

how

ever

,be

less

favo

rabl

ysit

uate

d,and

they

may

have

tose

nd

som

eho

useh

old

mem

bers

out

tow

ork

on

are

gula

rbas

is.I

ndee

d,so

me

mem

bers

oft

heho

useh

old

may

work

outs

ide

sofr

eque

ntly

that

itis

more

app

ropr

iate

toconsi

dert

hem

prol

etar

ians

.In

the

seco

nd

plac

e,anth

ropo

logi

sts

stud

ying

rura

lpe

ople

sha

venot

deal

tsi

mpl

yw

ithpe

asan

trieS

.Fro

mqu

iteea

rlyon

they

have

also

stud

ied

enti

eth-

cent

ury

plan

tatio

nzones

with

popu

latio

nsof

rura

l

prol

etar

ians

.Th

ePu

erto

Rico

proje

ctcoord

ined

byJu

lian

Stew

ard

exam

ined

ara

nge

ofr

ura

ltyp

es,

from

the

peas

ants

prod

ucin

gto

bacc

oand

coffe

ein

the

inte

rior

toth

eru

ral

prol

etar

ians

on

corp

orat

esu

gar

plan

tatio

nsO

flth

eco

ast.

Inde

ed,

Sidn

eyM

intz

sst

udyo

fa

plan

tatio

ncom

munity

on

Puer

toRi

cos

south

coas

tint

rodu

ced

the

conce

ptofr

ura

lpr

olet

aria

nto

anth

ropo

logi

cal

disc

ours

e(S

teward

etal.

1956

;M

intz

1953

,19

59,1974a,

1974

b).

Sinc

eth

en,a

nth

ropo

logi

sts

have

exam

ined

ara

nge

ofp

rodu

ctiv

eente

rpris

esand

rura

ltyp

es.

Yet

the

prob

lem

isev

enm

ore

com

plex

.A

naly

tical

dist

inct

ions

are

easy

whe

nw

econtr

ast

aco

mm

unity

ofpe

asan

ts

with

acom

munity

of

pr

olet

aria

ns.

But

thes

edi

stin

ctio

nsbe

com

em

ore

diffi

cult

whe

nth

ein

vest

igat

oris

att

empt

ing

tounde

rsta

nda

popu

latio

nofs

mal

l-sca

lela

ndow

ners

who

farm

thei

rlan

dbu

twho

also

regu

larly

enga

gein

wage

labo

r.In

som

eca

ses,

the

mix

of

farm

work

and

off-

farm

work

isun

evenly

dist

ribut

edw

ithin

the

hous

ehol

d,w

ithone

mem

ber

(say,

the

husb

and

and

fath

er)m

ain

tain

ing

the

farm

whi

leoth

erm

em

bers

(sons

and

daug

hter

s)w

ork

els

ewhe

re(on

oth

erfa

rms,

innearb

yto

wns

,as

labo

rers

or

asdo

mes

ticse

rvants

),and

whi

leoth

erm

em

bers

(thew

ifeand

daug

hter

s)ta

kein

laun

dry

or

mak

ela

cefo

rsa

leto

merc

hant

s.In

such

case

s,a

pr

olet

aria

tse

ems

tobe

hidd

enw

ithin

ape

asan

tcom

munity

(cf.M

intz1974a)

.Th

eco

mpl

exity

ofr

ela

tions

hip

isnot

rest

ricte

dto

the

rela

tions

hip

of

peas

antt

opr

olet

aria

n.O

urim

age

ofpe

asan

tsis

ofte

none

that

em

pha

size

san

agr

icul

tura

lst

rate

gyw

ithth

eho

useh

old

unit

farm

ing

api

ece

of

land

and

work

ing

off

the

farm

for

wag

esto

supp

lem

ent

farm

pro

duce

.Rec

entr

ese

arc

h,ho

wev

er,s

how

sth

atsu

chho

useh

olds

enga

gein

avarie

tyofr

epr

oduc

tion

and

accu

mula

tion

stra

tegi

es,i

nclu

ding

weav

ing,

sew

ing,

bric

km

akin

g,co

oki

ng,p

etty

trad

e,and

the

like.

The

cla

ssic

imag

eoft

hepe

asan

tmay

beth

ere

sult

ofa

nagr

icul

tura

lbia

sin

our

mode

lsth

atbl

inds

us

toa

larg

epo

pula

tion

ofs

impl

ecom

modi

typro

duce

rsw

ithlit

tleac

cess

tola

nd.I

talso

prec

lude

sa

more

soph

istic

ated

unde

rsta

ndin

goft

heac

tual

repr

oduc

tion

stra

tegi

esoft

hose

peop

lew

eca

llpe

asan

ts(fo

rgoo

ddi

scus

sionS

ofs

impl

ecom

modi

typr

oduc

er5

see

Coo

k19

7