rostow,gandhi,participatory deve,compatible

7/28/2019 Rostow,Gandhi,Participatory Deve,Compatible

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DIFFUSION MODEL OF DEVELOPMENT

Communication effects research has given scope for the diffusion model. As you already are

aware of, the mass media and opinion leaders pass on the information on innovations to the masses. In

other words, they diffuse the knowledge of new practices and innovations among the target audiences.

There was a long debate on the question whether ideas were developed separately in each

culture or were borrowed by others. The evolutionary school contended that each major culture

developed individually and independently. By the end of the nineteenth century, the evolutionary

theory came into criticism for its inconsistencies. The new protagonists contended that most cultures

exhibited elements of borrowed culture more than what had developed from within their own culture.

Later researchers by 1940s identified the role of mass media in national development. The external

influence on societies for development became the basis of diffusion model. Rogers defined the

development of individuals as 'the process by which individuals change from a traditional way of

life to a more complex, technologically advanced, and rapidly changing life style' . Everett is an

important contributor to diffusion studies.

The diffusion model contained five stages of adoption. The process of adopting innovations depended

upon several factors. The five stages are awareness, interest, evaluation, trial and adoption.The first stage is awareness. Here the individual is exposed to the innovation. However, he

lacks complete information. At the second stage of interest, he seeks more information to understand

the innovation. In the next stage, he evaluates the innovation in the light of his needs, both present and

future. He may decide to try the innovation little and this can be called the trial stage. When he decides

to continue the use of innovation, it finally results in adoption. In the early stages of awareness mass

media play a vital role, but at the evaluation and adoption stages interpersonal sources of information

carry more influence than others. Rogers also identified these five stages as knowledge, persuasion,

decision, implementation and confirmation.

The diffusion model was criticised because:

a. It concentrated mostly on media and their messages. In effect, it had a bias of communication

efforts;

b. Consequently, it never paid any attention to the media content;

c. The knowledge of the adopters or target audience was not properly measured;


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d. Pro-source bias;

e. Pro-innovation bias;

f. Never identified the real causes behind backwardness, and

g. One-way flow of message.

MECHANISTIC MODEL

Jan Servas, who is an advocate of participatory approach to development, has identified two

streams of strategies for development and compared them. Accordingly, the first one is called

mechanistic. This model considers that people need to be helped because they lack abilities and

sources to develop on their own. This is also known as problem-solving model which considers the

strategist knows everything and the target audience has no knowledge whatsoever. Inevitably, the

Western knowledge is described as superior. Here the agent of change is either the policy-maker or

researcher. For them, people are nothing but targets. Leaders are appointed by higher authorities and

mass media are used to carry the messages of development. The communication process is top-down

and one-way. The whole process is designed to be of short-term and prefers evolutionary changes in

the society for development.

PARTICIPATORY MODEL OF DEVELOPMENT

The other extreme to the mechanistic model is organic model. It is in total variance with the

mechanistic model. According to the organic model, people do not depend upon charity. In fact, they

can help themselves. The process that makes them help themselves is called empowerment. The

attitude is not problem solving, but posing the problem to the people. The model considers

participation of the people in the developmental process ever-ending. They also share knowledge since

everyone has something to offer. The rational knowledge is also considered as useful and relevant.

People themselves are change agents, and are considered as subjects and actors as well. Leaders areselected by people themselves and leadership qualifications were co-operation, delegation and

adaptability, as listed by Srinivas Melkote. The organic model emphasised on the integrated media use

and two-way Communication. While the mechanistic model opted for hierarchical and vertical

organisational structure, the organic model preferred a two-way horizontal structure. This facilitated

listening to people and also transmission of information both ways. The planning is of long-term, open


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ended and its evaluation is done by participants themselves. The organic model aimed at the removal

of causes of underdevelopment and also at making structural changes in the society.

However, participation has different meanings for different people. organic model, which is also

known as participatory model has its own problems. They can be:

1. Unstable and non-receptive political climate in the country concerned;

2. Feudal & dictatorial system that does not promote democratic participation;

3. Lack of local leadership and institutions;

4. Control of production means by a few;

5. Total marginalisation of the down-trodden sections of the society;

6. Gender inequity;

7. An unwilling government;

8. Paucity of funds, and9. Infrastructural inadequacies affecting grassroot participation.

The participatory model looks interesting and relevant. However, several factors affect its efficacy.

Ashcroft and other thinkers suggested a development communication model called knowledge-

sharing model. It was to be on a co-equal basis. The experts argued that both the benefactor and the

beneficiary by sharing knowledge had an equal chance of influencing each other. Nair and White

framed a transactional communication model to support this idea.

The model identified three levels of participation was active, creative and continuous. Quasi

participation was less focused and laid less emphasis on two-way communication. Low participation

did not pay much attention either to the need for change or communication.

DEVELOPMENT SUPPORT COMMUNICATION

Initially the focus was on communication for development, which emphasized on big media

and government-people communication. However, after its detailed evaluation, a new concept,

development support communication, emerged. The development support communicator was the link

between the technical experts and the people. His job was to bring them together to interact with co-


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equal partners. In development communication, it is found that a common communication language

was absent. The practitioners of development projects and beneficiaries are attempting to solve the

problem. Development Support Communication model has the characteristics which are listed here:

1. Basically it is development agency based;

2. It has horizontal knowledge sharing mechanism between experts and receivers;3. Aims at grassroots level development;

4. The focus is on participatory method, and

5. For communication, small media like video, film strips, traditional forms, group and inter-

personal communication are used.

The ultimate objective of DSC is to create a lasting mutual trust between the benefactors and

beneficiaries. It envisages a pro-active role for the common people in development process.


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GANDHIAN MODEL

Mahatma Gandhi, the apostle of non-violence, brought political independence to India from the

British rule. At the same time, he had his own thesis of development. Mahatma Gandhi knew the needs

of the people in a country of villages. He proposed a holistic approach to development. Gandhiji

combined moral and spiritual values with economic goals that contributed for an over-all development

of both the individual and society.

Gandhi's economic philosophy was greatly influenced by Ruskin's UntoThis Last. From this book: he

learnt: (a) that the good of the individual is contained in the good of all; (b) that a lawyer's work has the same

value as the barber's, in as much as all have the same right to earn from their work; and, (c) that a life of labour,

i.e., the life of the tiller of the soil and the handicraftsman is the life worth living. Further, Gandhi was also

inspired by the ideas of Thoreau, Tolstoy, and Kropotkin. Tolstoy's principles of simplicity, asceticism, and

equalitarianism became a part of Gandhi's philosophy. Besides, the Indian scriptures (the Bhagavad Gita, and

the Upanishads) and Indian saints such as Kabir, Mira, and Guru Nanak, also left a deep impression on Gandhi.

Gandhi's ideas on economics are embedded in his philosophy of life. Gandhian economics differs from

mainstream economics in the following manner

1) It replaces the assumption of the perfect mobility of labour with the assumption that community and family

stability should have priority.

2) It rejects the more-is-always-better principle and recognizes that there is such a thing as 'enough' material

wealth.

3) It recognizes that consuming more than 'enough' creates more problems than it solves, and causes consumer

satisfaction or utility to decline, rather than increase.

4) It aims at a better quality of life, rather than higher standards of livingas propagated by other economists.

Let us have a clear idea of Gandhi's philosophy of life to understand Gandhian economics. Gandhi

viewed life as a whole, and not in its isolated compartments. According to the Indian scriptures, there are four

aspects of an individual's life: Artha (money), Kama (desire), Dharma (righteousness), and Moksha

(liberation). These aspects are interrelated, and, therefore all of them should be harmoniously developed. Money

is required to satisfy the basic requirements of life, however, it is not the end in itself. Man's aim is not to

multiply worldly desires and engage his whole life in acquiring wealth to satisfy all his desires. Gandhi's ideas

on economics are a part of his general philosophy of life. In these ideas, he outlined principles on which he

wanted to build the ideal socialist society. The principles are as follows:


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1) Humanism: Man is both the means, and the end of all activity. He is also the measure of performance.

Everything functions with a human face. All ideas, institutions, and actions are to be judged in terms of whether

they help in building a better man.

2) Simple Living: Gandhi had faith in materialism without lust and passion. Material progress must be

subservient to moral growth. The ultimateaim of man is not to accumulate wealth and enjoy luxuries of life, but

to attain the higher values of life, and to lead a simple and full life. Simple living and high thinking should be

the motto of life.

3) Social Justice: Society is divided between rich and poor, between the strong and the weak, between the

privileged and unprivileged, and between the elite and the masses. The principle of social justice requires that

the former must help the latter in fulfilling their basic requirements. The ideal functioning of the society must

aim at providing social justice and reducing inequalities.

4) Non Violence: Social change is to be brought about through non violent methods. Ends and means are

inseparable in life, and only good meansyield good results. An ideal society can only be established by adopting

peaceful and non violent means, and not through hatred and war. In Gandhian economics, the principle of non

violence means the following things: (a) the absence of capitalistic exploitation; (b) the decentralization of

production units; (c) cheaper defense organization; (d) less inequality of income; and (e) self sufficiency of

communities.

5) Love and Co-operation: An ideal society should be established on theprinciples of love and cooperation. In

such a society, the love of othersand not self love; co-operation and not egocentric acts, pre-dominate.Relation

between humans should be based on truth, love, and cooperation,and not on money and matter.

6) Harmony: The ideal economic condition according to Gandhi is selfsufficiency of the economy. Forthis, the following harmonies should bemaintained: (a) the requirements of the people must be in harmonywiththe resources of the economy and,; (b) production technology shouldmatch the country's requirements.The core assumptions on which the Gandhian model was based were:

1. True India can be seen only in its villages, not in cities.

2. Exploitation of the villages and villagers by the urban people should stop.

3. Minimum needs or basic needs of the people should be fulfilled first.

4. Physical labor is compulsory for all and they should earn their living through such labor. Then

everyone understands the real dignity of labor.


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5. People should opt for indigenously (swadeshi) produced products and institutions.

The ethical balance between ends and means was greatly emphasised by Gandhiji. This was

essential to the success of non-violence. The Gandhian model underscored the importance of village

economy for not only its self-sufficiency but also of the entire country. When needed, villagers couldbuy or get things from outside, which they did not produce. The stress was also on khadi and village

industries that would manufacture the basic products of everyday life and offer work for everyone.

Production of soap, paper and metal, hand pounding, oilseed crushing and other such methods were

preferred because they employed manual labor: He thought machines would make manpower

redundant, but accepted technologies that meant to generate employment or did not affect it.

One of the best principles of economic and political philosophy was decentralisation of

political and economic powers. According to him, this could be achieved by the introduction of

Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs).

Each village would manage all its affairs in the sense it will have legislative, executive and

judicial powers to manage its own economy. It would also take care of health, sanitation and

education. In a way, every village functioned as a republic.

The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act of 1992 envisaged self-governance through PRIs over

the country. .

The co-operative system, Gandhiji believed, would make rural India prosperous. Co-operative

farming was also recommended. Credit cooperatives, weavers and diary co-operatives would change

the lives of the rural people by freeing them from the strangle-hold of money lenders. Though India

has a large number of co-operative societies and banks, still money lenders exploit the village folk.

Trusteeship, Gandhiji thought, would end exploitation of man by man. He considered that all

natural resources including land should have collective ownership so that the entire community would

benefit. Rich people were to act like trustees of the society and help poor people to develop

collectively.

The Mahatma did not approve the modern education system. He advocates an education

relevant for everyday life, not merely a collection of information. His educational system was to

develop the full potential and talents of young minds. It was practical education aimed at self-reliance

and high degree of morality. He called it as 'Nai Taleem'. The primary premise of Gandhian

economic philosophy is 'production by the masses, not mass production.


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An Evaluation of Gandhian Theory of Development

Gandhian economic thought appears to be very logical and impressive. However, it suffers from

following deficiencies:

1) Gandhi was not an economist in any professional sense. His economic ideas lack systematization, and lay

scattered here and there in his writings. He attempted no economic analysis and presented no theoretical model.

2) In fact, Gandhi has not studied the writings of the western economists. He only studied Marx and that, too,

late in his life during his detention in 1942. Whatever he wrote or said about economics was the natural outburst

of his ethical and philosophical thought, and was not adopted from any book. 3) His thinking on economics

does not contain any technical knowledge that has analytical value. He was a practical idealist. and was

immediately interested in solving the problems of poverty and inequality in his country.

4) The solutions he suggested called for a socioeconomic revolution through non-violent means. According to

him, to achieve this objective, the countrymust act according to sarvodaya principles. It is a great fantasy to

expect that the rich would shed their acquisitive tendencies and would help their poor brethren to get out of

their poverty.

5)Universalising the idea of non-violence, he hoped, would bring about a change of heart. However, to think

that all countries would follow the path of non-violence is mere wishful thinking.

Despite the generally inoperative nature of Gandhian philosophy, Gandhi must be credited for

emphasizing the role of small scale industries and agriculture in the development of the Indian economy. Almost

all the economists recognize the importance of small scale industries, and the need for their decentralization in

an overpopulated and rural based underdeveloped country. Gandhi also correctly realized that in such an

economy, reorganization and revitalization of agriculture is a pre-condition to economic development. It has to

evolve from the people.

rostow,gandhi,participatory deve,compatible

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