BIRDSOF BRITAIN AND EUROPE

COMPLETE

Rob Hume

DORLING KINDERSLEY

BIRDSOF BRITAIN AND EUROPE

COMPLETE

DK LONDONSenior Art Editor Ina StradinsSenior Editor Angeles GaviraDesigner Kirsten CashmanDTP Designer Rajen ShahProduction Elizabeth Cherry, Melanie DowlandManaging Art Editor Phil OrmerodArt Director Bryn WallsCategory Publisher Jonathan MetcalfIntroduction: Designers Helen Taylor, Kenny Grant; Editor Claire Musters; Picture researcher Bobbie Leah

Picture Editor Chris GomersallIllustrator Andrew Mackay

DK DELHIManaging Art Editor Shuka JainProject Designer Shefali UpadhyayDesigner Pallavi NarainDesign Assistance Elizabeth Thomas, Sukanto Bhattacharjya,

Suresh KumarDTP Designer Umesh AggarwalManaging Editor Ira PandeProject Editor Atanu RaychaudhuriEditor Rimli Borooah

LONDON, NEW YORK, MUNICH, MELBOURNE, AND DELHI

First published in Great Britain in 2002 by Dorling Kindersley Limited80 Strand, London WC2R 0RLCopyright © 2002 Dorling Kindersley LimitedA Penguin Company

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may bereproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmittedin any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owners.A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 13: 978 0 7513 7354 7ISBN 10: 0 7513 7354 0

Reproduced by Colourscan, SingaporePrinted and bound in Portugal by Printer Portuguesa

see our complete catalogue atwww.dk.com

CONTENTSHow This Book Works 6

INTRODUCTIONEvolution 8

Anatomy 10

Life Cycle 12

Courtship and Mating 14

Nests and Eggs 16

Plumage 18

Flight 20

Feeding 22

Song and Calls 24

Migration 26

Western Palearctic 28

Wetlands 30

Estuaries and Low-lying Coasts 32

Rocky Coasts, Islands, and the Open sea 34

The Far North 36

Northern Mountains andMoorlands 38

Southern Mountains and Crags 40

Lowland Heath and Mediterranean Scrub 42

Farmland and Grassland 44

Forest and Woodland 46

Gardens, Parks, and Towns 48

Watching Birds 50

Conservation 52

SPECIES GUIDEDivers and Grebes 55

Petrels and Shearwaters 64

Gannets, Cormorants, and Pelicans 70

Bitterns and Herons 74

Storks 84

Flamingos 84

Wildfowl 89

Birds of Prey 120

Gamebirds 145

Rails, Crakes, and Coots 154

Cranes and Bustards 154

Waders 163

Skuas, Gulls, and Terns 201

Auks 201

Pigeons and Doves 231

Cuckoos 231

Owls 238

Nightjars 238

Swifts 248

Kingfishers, Bee-Eaters, Rollers, and Hoopoe 252

Woodpeckers and Wryneck 257

Larks 264

Martins and Swallows 272

Pipits and Wagtails 278

Wrens, Dippers, Waxwings, andAccentors 288

Chats and Thrushes 294

Warblers and Allies 313

Flycatchers 313

Tits and Allies 341

Nuthatches, Wallcreeper, and Treecreepers 351

Shrikes 356

Orioles 356

Crows 362

Starlings 362

Sparrows 374

Finches 379

Buntings 394

Rare Species 404

Vagrants 455

Glossary 468

Index 469

Acknowledgments 479

Length 18cm (7in) Wingspan 25–30cm (10–12in)

Social Winter flocks Lifespan Up to 5 years

Order Passeriformes Family Motacillidae

Widespread and familiar, the Pied (or White) Wagtail is frequentseen in and around towns, often feeding on areas of tarmac,

concrete, or stone slabs. It is also frequently seen on roofs, from whiit typically calls before moving off: its call is a usefulindicator of its presence. In summer, it can be foundanywhere from builder’s yards and woodsheds toremote quarries and natural cliffs and along stony riveror lake sides.Although creating few identificationproblems, its non-breeding plumages are quite complex.VOICE Calls loud, musical chrip, chuwee, chrruwee, andvariants, merging into harder, unmusical tissik or chiswit;song mixes similar calls and trills.NESTING Grassy cup in cavity in bank, cliff, orwoodpile, in outbuilding or under bridge; 5 or 6 eggs;2 or 3 broods;April–August.FEEDING Feeds very actively on ground, roofs, orwaterside mud or rocks, walking, running, leaping upor sideways, or flying in pursuit of flies; takes insects,molluscs, and some seeds.

Pied Wagtail

MALE (SUMMER; PIED)

SIMILAR SPECIES

GREY WAGTAIL 32;yellow rump; see p.287

YELLOW WAGTAILjuvenile, similar tojuvenile; differentcall; see p.286

JUVENILE

MALE(SUMMER)

white streakson wings

black cap, cthroat (whitand throat obreeding se

greyer head andupperparts thanadult male’s

blackishrump

greyer backthan male’s

buffishbelow

black bac

long, white-edgedblack tail

FEMALE(PIED)

IN FLIGHT

yellowunder tail

browner

COMMUNPied Wagtailsin hundreds icentres or ins

HOW THIS BOOK WORKS

INTRODUCTION

6

This guide covers just under 800 bird species from theWestern Palearctic region (Europe, the Middle East, and

North Africa). The species are organized into three sections:the first profiles common European species, with each given detailed, full-page treatment; the second covers over 200 rarer birds in concise, quarter-page entries; the thirdsection consists of a list of rare visitors (vagrants) as well asbirds that live in North Africa and the Middle East.

COMMON SPECIESThe main section of the book featuresthe 321 most commonly seen Europeanbird species. Each entry follows thesame easy-to-access structure.

INTRODUCTION The species are organizedconventionally by order and family.This means related birds appeartogether, with a group introduction.

MAPS

Each profile includes a map showing the range of the species, with colours reflecting seasonalmovements. Migration ranges are not alwaysmapped, as some migrants simply leave one site,turn up in another, and are not seen in between.

LENGTH, WINGSPAN AND WEIGHT:length is tip of tail to tip ofbill; measurements areaverages or ranges.

SOCIAL: the social unit thespecies is usually found in.

LIFESPAN: the average ormaximum life expectancy.

STATUS: the conservationstatus of the species; thesymbol † means the dataavailable can only suggest a provisional status.

DESCRIPTION

Conveys the main featuresand essential character ofthe species including:

VOICE: a description of thespecies’ calls and songs.

NESTING: the type of nest andits usual location; thenumber of eggs in a clutch;the number of broods in a year; the breeding season.

FEEDING: how, where, andwhat the species feeds on.

COLOUR BAND

The information bands atthe top and bottom ofeach entry are colour-coded for each family.

COMMON NAME

MAPS

See panel left.

IN FLIGHT

Illustrations show the bird inflight, from above and/orbelow (note that differencesof season, age, or sex are notalways visible in flight).

SIMILAR SPECIES

Similar-looking species areidentified and the keydifferences pointed out. 3 = male, 2 = female

HABITAT/BEHAVIOUR

Additional photographsshow the species displayingtypical behaviour in one ofits preferred habitats.

KEY

SummerdistributionResident allyearWinterdistributionSeen onmigration

1

1

PIPITS AND WAGTAILS

PIPITS AND WAGTAILS

278

Family Motacillidae

which breeds beside fast-flowing streams, is a regular bird on urban rooftops in winter.

Male and female plumages are often differentand winter plumages are duller than summerones; juveniles are also recognizably different.Some species are resident in Europe, othersmigrate to Africa for the winter.

GREY OR YELLOW?Although called the Grey Wagtail, this bird confuses many people with its yellow coloration.

WHILE SIMILAR TO LARKS, these aresmaller, slimmer birds with longer tails

and a more steeply undulating flight.They lackthe larks’ prolonged song-flights but the pipitshave more ritualized song-flight patterns andless varied songs.

PIPITSStreaky brown is the typical description of apipit: species can be hard to tell apart. Calls help,as does the time of year, habitat, and location.Similar species pairs may have different lifestyles,such as Meadow Pipits (moorland in summer,lowlands in winter) and Tree Pipits (woodlandedge in summer,Africa in winter). There is littleplumage variation between sexes and seasons.

WAGTAILSMore boldly patterned or more colourful thanpipits, the wagtails are often associated with wateror wet meadowland. Pied and White Wagtails,however, are more likely than almost any otherbird to be seen on tarmac or concrete inurban areas and even the Grey Wagtail,

LONG CLAWMeadow and Tree Pipits are closely similar,but the Meadow Pipit has a long hind claw, at least as long as the toe, as seen here: on a Tree Pipit it is shorter.

PIPITS AND WAGTAILS

285

Weight 19–27g (11⁄16 – 7⁄8oz)

Status Secure

Species Motacilla alba

tly

ch

OCCURRENCEBreeds throughout Europe; foundonly in summer in N and E Europebut widespread in winter. Veryvaried habitat, often near waterand in built-up areas, feeding oncar parks, pavements, and roof-tops, but not usually in gardens.

whitishface

white belly

sootyflanks

chin, andte chinoutside

eason)

ck

FLIGHT: quick, direct, with long undulating boundsand bursts of wingbeats.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

blackbreast

NAL ROOSTs sometimes roost n trees in town

side factories.

M. a. alba(mainland Europe)

SUBSPECIES

MALE

pale greyback

brownerwings withwhite bars

JUVENILE

greyercap

HOW THIS BOOK WORKS

7

RARESPECIESOver 200 less commonbirds are presented on pp. 404–454. Arranged in the same group orderused in the main section,these entries consist ofone clear photograph ofthe species accompaniedby a focused description.

FLIGHT PATTERNS

Simple diagrams are used to illustrate the sevenbasic flight patterns. The broadly horizontal linesindicate whether the species has a level, swooping,or undulating flight, with the wingbeats representedby up and down strokes to indicate bursts ofwingbeats, regular flaps, and speed.

CLASSIFICATION

The top band of each entryprovides the scientific order,family, and species names(see p.468 for fulldefinitions of these terms).

PHOTOGRAPHS

These illustrate the species in different viewsand plumage variations. Significant differencesrelating to age, sex, and season are shown andthe images labelled accordingly; if there is novariation, the images have no label. Unlessstated otherwise, the bird shown is an adult.

SUBSPECIES

Panels show significantsubspecies, togetherwith distribution anddistinguishing features.

SEEN IN THE UKSpecifies the months in whichthe species is found in the UK.

Bird is present Bird not presentJ

J

Sparrowhawk-like: straight, with several quick,deep beats between short, flat glides.

Woodpecker-like: bursts of wingbeats betweendeeply undulating glides.

Finch-like: light, bouncy action with flurries ofwingbeats between deep, undulating glides.

Gull-like: continually flapping, with slow, steadywingbeats

Duck-like: continually flapping, with fastwingbeats.

Swallow-like: swooping, with burst of wingbeatsbetween glides.

FLIGHT PATTERNS

This feature illustratesand briefly describesthe way the speciesflies. See panel below.

wingbeats

GROUP NAME

The commonname of the group the speciesbelongs to isat the top ofeach page.

Kite-like: deep, slow wingbeats between soaringglides.

1

1

VAGRANTSVery rare visitors andperipheral speciesare listed at the backof the book with abrief description,including where thespecies is from.

VAGRANTS

455

The list that follows consists of birds thatoccur only very rarely in Europe, known

as vagrants or accidentals. It also looks a littlefurther beyond Europe, to list those birdswhose normal range is the Middle East andNorth Africa, so covering a total faunal areaknown as the Western Palearctic.

Vagrants to Europe arrive from Asia andNorth America (and fewer from Africa).Western Europe, especially the UK, is wellplaced to receive birds that are blown offcourse from eastern North America and crossthe Atlantic. It was thought that such birdscross the ocean on board ship, but it is now

accepted that even small birds can, with afollowing wind, survive a flight across theAtlantic, although they probably do notsurvive long afterwards. Larger species,however, such as some wildfowl, may live foryears in Europe and a few (that have beentrapped, ringed, and released in order tofollow their movements) have even returnedto North America in subsequent years.Theseare not, in any true sense, European birds, butare included here to complete the range ofspecies that have been recorded. Many appearagain, others may not: by their nature these“accidentals” are unpredictable.

VAGRANTS

Common Name Scientific Name Family/Scientific Name Description

Ostrich

Ostrich Struthio camelus Ratites/Struthidae Vagrant in North Africa, fromsouthern Africa

Albatrosses

Shy Albatross Diomedea cauta Albatrosses/Diomedeidae Large seabird from southern oceans

Yellow-nosed Albatross Diomedea Albatrosses/Diomedeidae Large seabird from southern chlororhynchos oceans

Black-browed Albatross Diomedea Albatrosses/Diomededae Long-winged seabird from melanophris South Atlantic

Wandering Albatross Diomedea exulans Albatrosses/Diomedeidae Large seabird from southern oceans

Petrels and Shearwaters

Black-capped Petrel Pterodroma hasitata Petrels and Shearwaters/ Large petrel from CaribbeanProcellariidae

Atlantic Petrel Pterodroma incerta Petrels and Shearwaters/ Large petrel from South AtlanticProcellariidae

Soft-plumaged Petrel Pterodroma mollis Petrels and Shearwaters/ Large petrel from South Atlantic Procellariidae

Fea's Petrel Pterodroma feae Petrels and Shearwaters/ Large, rare petrel from MadeiraProcellariidae

Zino's Petrel Pterodroma madeira Petrels and Shearwaters/ Large, rare petrel from MadeiraProcellariidae

Bulwer's Petrel Bulweria bulwerii Petrels and Shearwaters/ Dark, long-tailed petrel from Procellariidae mid-Atlantic islands

Streaked Shearwater Calonectris Petrels and Shearwaters/ Vagrant in Middle East, fromleucomelas Procellariidae tropical oceans

Flesh-footed Shearwater Puffinus carneipes Petrels and Shearwaters/ All-dark shearwater from Procellariidae Indian Ocean

Audubon's Shearwater Puffinus lherminieri Petrels and Shearwaters/ Small shearwater from Procellariidae Indian Ocean

Blyth’s PipitOnly recently observed with any regularity in Europe,Blyth’s Pipit is difficult to identify, resembling Richard’sand juvenile Tawny Pipits (see p.279). It is fractionallysmaller than Richard’s, with a shorter tail, a slightlyricher underside colour, a slightly shorter, pointed bill,and shorter hind claws. It may look more like a smallpipit species and more wagtail-like thanRichard’s, but only close observationand several clearly heard calls canseparate them for certain.OCCURRENCE Very rare vagrantin NW Europe, from Asia.VOICE Slightly higher thanRichard’s, less explosive,with fading, breathyquality, psh-eee.

438

LARKS/PIPITS AND WAGTAILS

Family Motacillidae Species Anthus godlewski

Length 15–17cm (6–61⁄2in) Wingspan 28–30cm (11–12in)

Dupont’s LarkIn its hot, sandy, open, often saline habitat, Dupont’sLark is usually difficult to see: it prefers to run ratherthan fly when disturbed.This streakylark stands upright, showing a closelystreaked breast and white underside.In flight, the wings lookplain above, pale below(unlike Skylark or CalandraLark, see p.265, 270), andthe tail a little longer than onCrested Lark (see p.266).OCCURRENCE Rare and localin E Spain and North Africa,in short, sparse, vegetation.VOICE Call thin choo-chee; song short,whistling, fluty notes.

Length 17–18cm (61⁄2 –7in) Wingspan 30cm (12in)

Family Alaudidae Species Chersophilus duponti Family Motacillidae Species Anthus richardi

Length 17–20cm (61⁄2 –8in) Wingspan 29–33cm (111⁄2 –13in)

Richard’s PipitThis is a large pipit, Skylark-like (see p.265) in its size,bulk, and general plumage. It often stands upright,breast pushed out, on long, thick legs, its bold, strongbill quite distinct.There is no trace of a crest.The faceis marked by a bold whitish area around the eye witha dark mark beneath; there is a thick black lineon each side of the throat (less marked on a Tawny Pipit, see p.279).The long tail is often bobbed.OCCURRENCE Regular, but rare, late autumn migrant in NW Europe, from Asia.VOICE Loud, rasping schreepand quieter variations.

very longhind claws

long blackish tailwith white sides

wagtail-likeshape

Olive-backed PipitLooking rather dark and uniform above or bright andstreaked in front in a brief view, this pipit reveals asubtle pattern on closer examination. It is greenish,with very soft streaking above, and has a dark cap, abroad, bright cream stripe above the eye, a dark stripethrough the eye, and a cream spot on the ear coverts.The underside is bright yellow-buff to buffwith bold blackstreaks. It frequentlywalks in longishvegetation, bobbingits tail, but flies intotrees if disturbed.OCCURRENCE Rarevagrant in NW Europefrom Asia, mostly in late autumn.VOICE Tree Pipit-like hoarse or buzzing speesor tees.

Length 14–15cm (51⁄2 –6in) Wingspan 24–27cm (91⁄2 –101⁄2in)

Family Motacillidae Species Anthus hodgsoni

shorttail

curvedbill

flattishcrown

long,narrowneck

bold darkstreaks onpaleunderside

INTRODUCTION

8

EVOLUTION

Most scientists believe birds evolved from dinosaurs.Whether the firstbirds climbed trees and began to glide back to the ground, or ran

along the ground and learned to lift off, is still debated.What we do knowis that, over hundreds of millions of years, birds spread over the globe andadapted to exploit every habitat except deep underwater. Some speciesare still evolving separate subspecies today.

MILLIONS OF YEARS AGO150 125 100 75 50 25 0

150 125 100 75 50 25 0

ANCIENT BIRDSGamebirds are ancient, but havechanged little over millions ofyears. One group, the grouse, are adapted to survival on a verysimple diet in demanding habitats.

BIRD ANCESTRYThis table shows the relationships between modernbirds (all within the sub-class Neornithes), and theirage. Using the branches of the evolutionary tree we

can see how different groups split from commonancestors. Songbirds divided off from the rest more than 100 million years ago.

Ratites, Tinamous

Waterfowl

Gamebirds

Button quails

Woodpeckers, Barbets, Honeyguides, Toucans

Colies

Cuckoos, Hoatzin

Parrots

Swifts, Hummingbirds

Turacos, Owls, Nightjars

Songbirds

Pigeons

Cranes, Rails

Birds of Prey (except New World vultures)

Grebes

Tropicbirds

Gannets, Cormorants

Frigatebirds, Penguins, Divers, Petrels,Albatrosses

SPECIALIZED SPECIESThere are only five species ofdivers worldwide, all found on

northern lakes and sea coasts.They have a very specializedaquatic lifestyle.

THE MISSING LINKIn 1861 a series of fossils were found inlimestone beds in Germany that pointedto the relationship between dinosaurs and birds.The fossilized creature, named

Archaeopteryx, is now viewed as the“missing link” because it is very

bird-like in appearance, with well-developed feathers that are just like

those of a modern bird, and yet still has many reptilian features such as teeth

in its jaws and a long, flexible, bony tail.

Sandgrouse, Shorebirds, Gulls, Terns,Auks

Herons, Ibises, Flamingos, Pelicans, Storks, New World Vultures

Neornithes

Jacamars, Puffbirds, Hoopoes, Hornbills, Trogons, Rollers, Bee-eaters, Todies, Motmots, Kingfishers

ARCHAEOPTERYX

9

NATURAL SELECTION“Only the fittest survive.” That is the theory of natural selectionand it is true that the birds best adapted to an environmenthave an advantage over the rest and produce offspring thatperpetuate their own genetic make-up.There are many ways in which a species may evolve in response to changinghabitats or food. If such a change happens in only one part of a species’ range, and the birds in that area remain separate,they may change so much that they can no longer interbreed.The result is two species instead of one.There is a halfwaystage: two groups may differ in size or colour, but canstill interbreed.At thispoint they are called“subspecies”or “races”.

PERSISTENT STARLINGThe common Starling is successful through most ofEurope but does not breed in Iberia and North Africa,where the Spotless Starling replaces it. This latter speciesmust have evolved in isolation but has persisted despitean influx of common Starlings into Spain every winter.

Extinction is forever: the total loss of a species from the world.Modern rates of extinction areexceptionally high and stillaccelerating. In Europe, however,we have lost only one species inhistorical times: the Great Auk.This large, flightless relative of theRazorbill bred in Scotland butwas hunted until few remained;the final survivors were killed bycollectors of stuffed birds.The lastpair to be seen alive were thenkilled off Iceland in 1844.

EXTINCTION

CHAFFINCH

BRAMBLING

EVOLUTION THROUGH ISOLATIONTwo finches in the family Fringillidae are alike in size,shape, pattern, and even in their behaviour and calls.The Chaffinch and the Brambling evolved as twospecies from one ancestor. The Ice Age forced onepopulation (later the Chaffinch) southwest, the other(which became the Brambling) southeast. Ice caps onmountains in the centre separated them for millennia.

SubspeciesSpecies

Class

Order

Family

Genus

Aves (Birds)

Passeriformes (perching birds)

Motacillidae (pipits and wagtails)

Motacilla

CLASSIFYING BIRDSThe purpose of classifying birds is to indicate the relationshipbetween them while at the same time giving each species aunique name. Birds are grouped into “orders”, each with one or more “families”.The next subdivision is the “genus”, whichhas one or more “species” (denoted by a two-part name). Somespecies are split into “subspecies”, indicated by a third name.

Motacilla cineriaMotacilla flavaMotacilla alba

M. a. alba M. f. flava M. f. feldegg

EVOLUTION

INTRODUCTION

10

ANATOMY

Although there is a huge diversity in shape,size, and outer appearance, all birds have a

similar internal structure.They are vertebrates,so have a jointed internal skeleton with twoforelimbs and two hindlimbs, just like fish,reptiles, and mammals – including humans.

Their bones are like ours, but the proportions arevery different. For example, the wing bones arelike a human arm; the “inner wing” equivalent toour forearm, and the “outer wing” like the bonesof our hand.What makes them unique is thatthey are the only animals with feathers.

tertials

greater coverts

alula (bastardwing)

scapulars

secondaries

rump

upper tailcoverts

primaries;outermost“notched” to createslots

mantle

primary coverts

median coverts

lesser coverts

marginalcoverts

nape

chin

throat

hindneck

crown

forehead

BIRD SKELETONThe spine is fused solid with noflexibility except in the neck and tail.The skull is lightweight and the jawsextend into the bill. The breastbone isa deep keel on birds with large flightmuscles, but shallow on gliders. Theexposed “leg” is like a human’s foot.

toes and claws

UNDERSIDEThe wing feathers form several tractsattached to different bones. The outerwing is formed with long flight featherscalled the primaries while the inner wing is shaped by the back flight feathers calledsecondaries. These large quills are coveredat the base by several rows of smallerfeathers, known as “coverts”. At thebase, a triangle of feathers called theaxillaries fills the “wingpit”. The head, belly, breast, and flanks are covered by shorter,less flexible feathers.

CROSS-SECTION OF BONEBirds need to weigh as little aspossible in order to be able to fly. To keep their skeletons light yetstrong, the bones are honeycombedwith airways.

jawboneshave a hornysheath

wide claviclesor “wishbone”

sternum or breastboneforms a keel, to whichbreast muscles attach

tail

fused spine

lightweight skullwith air spaces

hiddenknee joint

foot

belly

vent

bill

breast

under tailcoverts

axillaries

flanks

ankle joint

TOPSIDEThere are several rows of feathersalong the inner half of the spread

wing: the marginal coverts, lessercoverts, median coverts, and greater

coverts (simple enough, as they getlarger towards the back), and the trailing

edge is formed by the secondaries. Theouter half repeats the pattern but the covertsat the base of the primaries are restricted to apatch on the “wrist”, with the addition of thealula or bastard wing. At the base of thewing, the shoulder feathers, or scapulars,form an obvious patch each side of the back.

tail

full length ofprimaries revealedon open wing

11

ANATOMY

PRIMARY COVERTDOWN FEATHER

innerweb

outerweb

shaft

TAIL FEATHERCONTOUR FEATHER

WALKINGThe long hind claw istypical of small birds, such as pipits, that run or walk in grassy places.

CLIMBINGTwo backward-facingtoes and strong clawsallow climbing birds togrip onto a branch.

HUNTINGSharp, hooked clawsgrasp live prey; a stronggrip makes the hind claw a lethal weapon.

SWIMMINGWebbed feet provideextra thrust under thewater’s surface, which isideal for swimming.

WING MARKINGSLook at the feather tracts on a bird whenperched and in flight. On some speciesmost feathers are visible on the closedwing. On others, such as this Gull-billedTern, the primaries and secondaries arehidden: all we can see are the primary tips.A large area between the back and thewingtips is formed by rounded, plain greyfeathers called the tertials. On some birdsthese are large and obvious but in flight, asthe wings straighten, they may slide outof sight under the scapulars.Thereforewhat is a prominent feature at restmay disappear in flight.

FEETThe shape of the feet indicates thelifestyle of a bird. For example, webbedfeet or toes with broad lobes each sideaid swimming, while feathered feet helpprevent heat loss.There are variations,but below are four of the main shapesand details of the actions they enable.

FEATHERS

Feathers not only allow flightand keep a bird warm and dry,but they also add a variety ofcolour, pattern, and shape. Somedevelop purely for decoration,while others provide crypticpatterns to help the bird avoidpredators.The large, stiff quillsthat support a bird in the air, the“flight feathers”, and the equally

large tail feathers, are usuallywider on one side than the otherto create the aerofoil shape thatgives a bird extra lift.They areoverlain at the base by smaller“coverts”.The feathers thatsmooth the shape of a bird’sbody are the contour feathers,while loose down feathers forman insulating underlayer.

primarytips

COMPLEX STRUCTUREFeathers are amazingly complex.This close-up shows that the vaneseach side of the centralshaft “zip” togetherwith minute hooksand barbs.

tertialshidden inflight

OPEN AND CLOSED WINGSThis Gull-billed Tern has very long,tapered, pointed wings that reach well beyond its tail when folded butextend to reveal the obvious “wrist”(or carpal) joint and the elbow jointcloser to the body. Only the fore edgeof the inner half of the wing has anysolid muscle; the rest is just feathers.

secondaries now visible onspread wing

tertialscover halfof primaries

wing covertscoversecondaries

scapulars

“wrist”

“elbow”

MARCH

JANUARY

JULYJUNEMAY

FEBRUARYMARCHAPRILMAY

NOVEMBEROCTOBERSEPTEMBERAUGUST

FEBRUARY

LIFE CYCLE

INTRODUCTION

12

BREEDINGSome Black-headed Gulls may pair up in latewinter or early spring in their second year, butmost are not ready to breed until their third year.

Abird’s appearance can vary significantly as a result of age or seasonal change. Newly

hatched, chicks may be naked or downy. Thedown is quickly replaced by a first set of feathers,called the juvenile plumage. In autumn, some of these feathers are moulted and replaced (thewing and tail feathers are usually retained) toproduce a first winter plumage. In the followingspring, a partial moult produces the first summerplumage. From late summer onwards, all thefeathers are replaced in a complete moult. Smallerbirds may now be in their adult plumage; largerspecies, such as many of the gulls and birds ofprey, have more intermediate (immature) stages:second winter, second summer, third winter,

third summer, and so on (as illustrated here by theBlack-headed Gull, whose sequence of plumages isrelated to the seasons).There are variations on thetheme. For example, while most birds have theirbrightest plumage in summer, wildfowl are at theirbest while pairing up in midwinter; the malesbecome dull in summer, in an “eclipse” plumage.

white underside, no trace of juvenilebrown on sides of breast

juvenile wingfeathers are now a year old, fadingpaler

dark hood fadesto paler brownin late summer;deep red bill

immaculate greyupperparts

black andwhitewingtips

head gains partialbrown hood

OCTOBER1

back now palegrey, all brownfeathers replaced

FIRST WINTERAugust–March. An autumn moult of the head and body only (notwings and tail) produces thewinter plumage.

1

MARCH

FIRST SUMMERApril–August. Another partial moult (head and body only again) in springproduces this summer plumage.

1

DECEMBER

ADULT SUMMERApril–August. A partial spring moult creates the dark brownhood of the adult’s spring and summer plumage; the wingand tail feathers are retained from the previous winter.

1

MAYAPRIL

SEPTEMBER

SEPTEMBERAUGUST

JANUARY

JANUARY FEBRUARY MARCH

JUNE

13

LIFE CYCLE

JUVENILEJune/July. The chick grows its juvenile set of feathers,ready for its first flight.

ADULT WINTERSeptember–March. A completeautumn moult creates the winterplumage: white head, dark ear-spot,and new, unworn wing feathers.

SECOND WINTERSeptember–March. The first completemoult in autumn gives entirely newwinter plumage.

HATCHINGApril/May. The eggshell is “pipped”

as the chick breaks it open with its“egg tooth”, a knob on the bill thatis quickly lost. Chicks are downy andready to leave the nest within hours.

wing feathersmoult once eachyear, head andbody twice

brightredlegs

deepredlegs

tawny breast-bandobvious but soonreplaced by white

white head withdark spot bright red

bill withdark tip

much tawnybrown onback, head,and neck

pure greyback andupperwings

all-white tail,no trace ofbrown

DECEMBER

AUGUST

OCTOBER

1

1

1

1 BREEDINGIn its third year the gull is now ready tobreed. A spring moult produces a hoodagain; the white wingtip areas wearaway more quickly than the black.

1

VARIATIONS

Although most larger species follow a similar pattern of partial moultingand plumage changes, some may be inmoult almost all the time. Big eaglesand vultures always have a few missingor half-grown feathers. Female HenHarriers moult some wing featherswhile incubating eggs while RedKites normally moult after breeding,but if they lose eggs or chicks they nolonger need to be in top condition somoult earlier. Large species are notmature enough to breed until they areseveral years old, while small speciescan breed at just one year of age.

PROLONGED ADOLESCENCEFulmars change little in appearance accordingto age or season, but they may be seven yearsold before they are mature and able to breed.

RAPID CYCLESGamebirds such as the Red-legged Partridgeare in full plumage and ready to breed beforethey even reach one year in age.

INTRODUCTION

14

COURTSHIP AND MATING

COURTSHIPCourtship has two functions. It bonds pairs togetherin a lasting partnership but, initially, it also helps thefemale to choose which male to mate with.A femaleis impressed by the size, colour, ability of a male toperform complex courtship rituals, and sometimeseven his competence at fighting off other males.These attributes indicate that a male is fit, strong,and efficient.A female will invest a huge amountof time and energy intothe rearing of her chicksand therefore must makethe right decision whenchoosing which male to breed with.

THE LEKA lek is a communaldisplay ground wheremales of some species,such as these BlackGrouse, have mockbattles. The outcome isserious, though: femaleschoose the strongest,most dominant males to mate with.

FIT TO BREEDWildfowl have ritualized calls anddisplays specific to their species.This male Ruddy Duck is literallyblowing bubbles to impress: he rattles his bill against his breast feathers, forcing air frombetween them into the water.

Birds spend most of their time keepingtheir distance from each other.To

breed, they must break down barriers sothat they can come into contact, if onlybriefly.Those that rear young together as

pairs need a stronger, longer-lastingpair bond, so that they can rely onone another to risk their lives forthe sake of their young. Courtshipmust help foster this trust.

MUTUAL DISPLAYGannet’s ritualized postures reinforce their commitment to their nest and to each other. They “fence” with raised bills in greeting and bow with open wings to show “ownership” of the nest.Fencing develops into nape nibbling,mutual preening, and mating.

TOP MALEA male Pheasant calls and thrashes his wings,raising his tail to make himself look as big as he can. He does this in order to dominateother males and attract a hen. Once he has her attention, he will tilt towards her, droopinghis nearside wing and spreading his tail, toshow himself off to best advantage.

CHASE AND DISPLAYA male Redshank is determined to mate with the hen of his choiceand must impress her with hispersistence and colourful displays.She will eventually give in to him ifshe is suitably interested. Courtshipdisplays continue for some weeksas the pair learn to trust each otherand accept close contact in order to mate and share parental duties.

15

COURTSHIP AND MATING

PROMISCUITYThe male Capercaillie mates withmany hens. This gives him as manychances as possible to sire healthyoffspring. Afterwards, he hasnothing more to do with the hens.

REVERSAL OF ROLESIn a few species, such as theDotterel, the female is larger andbrighter than the male. She lays aclutch of eggs for him to incubate,then goes off to find another male.

MUTUAL PREENINGStrengthening the bond between a male and femalebird takes many forms. These Guillemots are preeningeach other; such intimate contact means that all theusual barriers that keep individuals apart have beenbroken down while they are rearing their offspring.

BREEDINGWhen it comes to reproducing, thereisn’t just one favoured strategy. Evenwithin some species there is variation.The Dunnock may form a simple pairthat stays together all summer, but somemales have more than one mate and,indeed, so do some females. Evenwithin apparently monogamous species,fidelity is not always the norm, andshould one of the pair die, the survivorusually has little difficulty finding a new mate. Unless the population is in decline, there is usually a healthy surplus.

MATINGThe act of mating is brief, but can be frequent. Ospreysmate scores of times duringthe egg-laying period, but a single mating is enough to fertilize a whole clutch of eggs. Most birds mateon the ground or a perch.However, Swifts may mate in the air whereas ducks,such as these Goldeneyes,mate on water.

MONOGAMOUS BONDSMost birds are monogamous, althoughmany are quick to seize the chance tomate with a passing stranger. It seems that an extra mate is viewed as insuranceagainst possible failure, as it doubles thechance of finding a fit and successfulpartner. Some species, such as the MuteSwan, however, pair for life and maintaina year-round bond that is rarely broken.

EGGS AND HATCHING

INTRODUCTION

16

Abird’s life, behaviour, and appearance revolves around finding a mate and producing eggs in order to ensure

the survival of its genes.The nest is a safe place to lay thoseeggs, incubate them, and raise the resulting brood, soindividuals will spend time locating and building theperfect nest for their situation.

BUILDING A NESTThe birds within a species will create nests that areremarkably constant in terms of size, shape, structure,and the materials from which they are made; buildingsuch nests seems to be instinctive. However, differentbirds use an extraordinary variety of techniques tocreate a whole range of structures. Some of these are little more than scrapes in the ground with a fewpebbles or shells as lining. Others are hugely complex,

and some are masterpiecesof construction andeffective camouflage.

TYPES OF EGGSWhile most eggs are ovaland have a camouflagepattern, there are variations(some examples pictured).Eggs laid out of sight in darkholes, for example, are white.Gamebirds and owls layspherical eggs, while wadingbirds lay pear-shaped eggs.Aerial species such as Swifts have narrow bodies so they lay longitudinal eggs.The pearshape of the Guillemot’s eggprevents it from rolling off thenarrow cliff ledge it is laid on.

NEAT ARRANGEMENTWaders lay four eggs that fitneatly under the sitting bird’sbody. The pointed ends alsoaccommodate the long, foldedlegs of chicks that can runwithin hours of hatching.

THE HATCHING PROCESSChicks call to each other and totheir parents from within theegg, helping to co-ordinatetheir hatching. They use a tiny “egg tooth” on thebill tip to break the shelland then struggle until theypush the two ends apart.

CONICAL

DUPING

Some species habitually lay their eggs in other birds’nests and leave them to rear their young. Not all ofthese birds remain parasites at all times. Many ducks,and even Swallows and Starlings, lay eggs in othernests while still incubating a clutch in their own.

CUCKOOThe Cuckoo never makes itsown nest. Once hatched in afoster-parent’s nest, its chickthrows all other eggs out togain their sole attention.

CUP NESTMost small birds make an open,cup-shaped nest that has a roughbase, a neat superstructure, and afine, soft, warm lining for the eggsand chicks. This kind of nest cantake a week or more to build.

NESTS AND EGGS

FORCING BREAKING OUT

PEAR SHAPED

CRACKING

SPHERICAL

LONGITUDINAL

COLLECTINGMATERIALPuffins line theirburrows with grass and scrapsof vegetation fromnearby slopes.

ELLIPTICAL

OVAL

17

NESTS AND EGGS

NEST SITES FOR ALL PURPOSESMost nests are vulnerable to predators, which may eat the eggs, chicks, and sometimes even the adult that is within the nest. Even wooden nestboxes maybe raided by woodpeckers. So birds think about thesafest place to locate their nests. Small birds tend tohide their nests away in thick bushes, or suspend them beneath the long branches of conifers. Many species nest inside holes that they either stumbleacross or excavate themselves in trees or earth banks.Larger species may rely on inaccessibility and make

large nests of sticks in plain sight at the tops of trees.

TUNNELLINGINTO SANDSand Martins dig a metreinto a solid earth or softsandstone cliff with their feet. The inner end of the tunnel thenbroadens out into a nest chamberthat will house four or five chicks.

NO NESTThe Little Ringed Plover makes a shallow scrape in sand forits eggs, giving it little or no lining. When disturbed, the birdruns off and relies on the eggs’ camouflage pattern to savethem. While hawks and eagles make large nests, falconsnever do: they lay their eggs straight onto a bare ledge.

PLASTERWORKThe Nuthatch uses a woodpecker’s hole or a natural hole in a tree. It plasters the entrancewith mud to get a perfect fit – just big enoughfor it to squeeze inside – which shouldprotect the nest from predators.

NESTING ON BUILDINGSWhite Storks have long nested on buildings,especially on church towers, although some still use trees. In parts of Europe theyuse telegraph poles. In Spain, poles withcartwheels are provided specially for them.

COMPLEX STRUCTUREThe Long-tailed Tit’s nest is a masterpieceof spiders’ webs, moss, lichens, andfeathers. It is hard to see, and stretchesas the chicks grow bigger.

FLOATING NESTBlack-necked Grebes build floating

heaps of weed that are anchored to the bottom. If they have to

leave the site, they cover theireggs with a few scraps of

weed in order to hidethem from predators.

TREE HOLEWoodpeckers, such as this LesserSpotted Woodpecker, excavate holesin living trees, using their chisel-like bills.The nest chamber is left unlined apartfrom a few chippings.

MARKINGSFeathers create complex patterns butthese usually have regular structures.On the head, the crown may have a central stripe and darker sides; abovethe eye may be a superciliary stripe,while through the eye there could be an eye-stripe.Wings may have wingbarsacross the tips of the coverts or alongthe base of the flight feathers.Theremay be streaks, spots, or bars on thebody. Each of these marks helps us to distinguish individual species.

INTRODUCTION

18

PLUMAGE

Feathers are unique to birds.They keep themwarm, are lightweight, and add aerodynamics

that allow flight.They also provide colours andpatterns that are used for camouflage, display,and communication. Feathers are renewed at

least every year by a process of moult, but olderones can look slightly worn and faded.All birdskeep their plumage in as good a condition aspossible by frequent preening and bathing inwater or sometimes in dust.

MALE AND FEMALEPlumage differences between sexes may just be focused on the colour or pattern. However,they are often structural too as a lot of malesare bigger than the females.

SUMMER AND WINTERSummer plumage is intended to look good,to show off to other males and females.In winter this is less important –camouflage is a better option tokeep safe from predators.

SUBSPECIESSubspecies or races occupy isolatedareas and may look subtly different.Birds tend to be larger in cold areasto reduce heat loss.The Wheatearfound in Greenland, forexample, is bigger thanthe European race.

Male

Female

camouflagepattern protectsfrom predators

fanned tail toimpress females

Winter

male at hismost strikingin summer

Summer

clean greyand palebuff

RED-LEGGEDPARTRIDGE

DUNNOCK

lengthwisestreaks

eye-ring

wingbar

hoodor cap

bars

superciliary stripe

CIRLBUNTING

CHAFFINCH

MISTLETHRUSH

spots

Juvenile

white body giveslong-distancevisual contactwhen feeding

European raceWHEATEAR

Greenlandrace

brownerabove,brighterbelow

dark plumageprevents mistakenattack byterritorial parent

HERRINGGULL

SNOWBUNTING

camouflaged,not needingto display

Adult

tailpattern

JUVENILE AND ADULTMany young birds don’t look like their parents.This is because young have no need to impress possible mates.It is more important for them to becamouflaged from predators and to avoid being mistaken for an intruding adult.

eye-stripe

rumpcolour

CAPERCAILLIE

19

PLUMAGE

CAMOUFLAGEA major function of plumage pattern is to break up theshape of a bird so it is hard to see. Both predators and preyuse camouflage: one to get close to its meal, the other toavoid detection. For example, Oystercatcher flocks confusepredators with a mass of dazzling white patches.

Not all birds are perfect examples oftheir species. Some are “aberrant”,because of some genetic deficiency.“Albinos” are all-white,“albinistic”birds are partly white, and “leucistic”birds look pale and washed out throughlack of pigment.“Melanistic” individuals have too much pigment, and lookexceptionally dark. Other variations are a normal part of everyday life. Forexample, feathers naturally bleach andfade in the sun and wear away at the tipsduring the course of months of wear.

ABERRATIONS AND VARIATIONS

MOULTINGMoult is a well-ordered process. Eachworn feather is pushed out when a newone grows through the skin at its base.The new feather begins as a tiny bump– a “goose bump” – on the skin andgrows as a shiny sheath that bursts openat the tip to reveal the soft webs. Onmost birds moult is not easy to see, buton some larger ones it is possible tospot gaps where feathers are missing.Old feathers usually become paler andpure colours, such as grey and green,tend to turn browner as the feathersage.These contrasts can sometimes beseen on a bird at close range, or in aphotograph, but most studies of moultrely on trained bird ringers, who catchbirds and examine their stage of moultbefore releasing them.

HIDING AWAYStripes on the front of aBittern make it extremelyhard to see when itstretches upright in thedead reed stems of winter.It is much easier to spot in the summertime.

BAR-TAILED GODWIT IN MOULTThe stretched wing reveals five old outermostprimaries (the longest wingtip feathers), a gap whereseveral have been shed, and a few new inner ones.Some missing wing coverts also reveal spaces in theneat rows of white feathers. This is the complete

autumn moult, so this bird is changing fromsummer to winter plumage, probably in

August or September.

WHITE BLACKBIRDThe normally black Blackbirdquite often throws up partlywhite variants. This is a minorgenetic flaw; such birds are“albinistic” or “partial albinos”.

WEAR AND TEARThis gull has gaps in its wings and tail.Some feathers have been shed andnot yet replaced while others are simply worn and faded,which alters thewing pattern.

INTRODUCTION

20

FLIGHT

All the birds that are found within Europe can fly. It is this ability that allows them to travel the globe, moving far and

wide to exploit seasonal abundances of food while escaping anyshortages. It is fascinating that these small creatures are able tofly across oceans, mountains, and deserts, although suchjourneys often tax them to the limit.Their most significantfeatures, which provide them with the means to fly andcontrol the direction of that flight, are their wings and tail.

WING AND TAIL SHAPEThe shape of wings varies from species to species (asshown below), and is largely dependent on the type of flight used. Generally, long, narrow wings (such as a Swallow’s) are most efficient for sustained, fluent,manoeuvrable flight. Long, broad wings enable manybirds to ride the winds using little energy. Short, round

LAPWING

wings allow for shorter bursts of rapid, whirring beatsand provide fast acceleration – useful for ground-dwelling birds escaping predators.Tails are used forbalance, steering, and braking; a long, stiff tail ensuresgood balance while a forked tail or long tail that canopen and close like a fan acts as a rudder and a brake.

long,narrow

very broadand blunt

BUZZARD

long,rounded

broad,rounded

HOVERING LESSER KESTRELBirds of prey can hover while they search for food.To do this, they position their head into the wind,flicker their wings, and fan their tail.

BALANCE AND CONTROLLarge birds such as eagles and buzzards have a delicacyin the air that belies their size and shape.Their fingeredprimary feathers are “notched” on each side, creatingslots at the wingtip to increase stability within flight

and reduce turbulence.Their remarkablebalance and precise control in flight allow

them to home in on and catch their prey.

CHAFFINCHGREAT TITSWALLOW

PHEASANT

RED KITE

verylongand thin

mediumlength,square

long, deeplyforked

long spike,wide base

notched,fanned,twisted

short,wide

LONG-TAILEDTIT

short,notched

short,blunt

long, angled,bowed andflexible

short,stiffstiff, fingered

slim,angled

long,flexible fan

short,round

KESTREL

EXPERT EAGLEA White-tailed Eagle raises itswings, separates the wingtipfeathers to allow air to slip through,fans its tail as a brake, then swingsforward to strike with its feet. Ituses powerful wing flaps to climbaway from the water with its load.

21

FLIGHT

TAKING OFFGetting airborne uses a lot of energy. Many birds takeoff into the wind from dry land, flapping their wingshard in a figure of eight pattern to create lift andforward propulsion; others jump from a clifftop or tree, moving forwards into the air. Most water birdsneed to run along the surface of the water in order to build up the necessary momentum.

LANDINGBirds fly surprisingly fast and so have to reduce their speed quickly beforelanding. Most birds swing their bodiesbackwards and fan their tails to assistbraking, flapping their wings against thedirection of flight. Just before impactthey thrust their feetforward to act asshock absorbers.

TAKING OFF FROM LANDThis Grey Heron stretches forwards, pushes down as hard as it can with its wings, and leaps up with a powerful spring of its legs to rise into the air.

CO-ORDINATION AND SPEEDTravelling in flocks requires great co-ordination. Each bird takes itscue from the bird ahead or to oneside of it, so the decision of theleading bird to turn, rise, or fallcarries fluidly through the flock.Many birds can fly at speed, butsustaining this is costly in energy.

CO-ORDINATIONA mixed flock of Oystercatchers and Knots makes aremarkable sight in the air as it turns and twists likesmoke, without a single collision. Such birds havesuper-quick reactions and tight control.

HEAVYWEIGHT SWANThe Mute Swan is close to theupper weight limit for flight. Itneeds to run along the water toget aloft: its legs are too short togive much of a leap from dry land.

TAIL BRAKEThis Woodpigeon (below) has its head up, feet ready to pushdown, and its wings well back. Its broad tail, when fully spread,

acts as an air brake and enables a safe landing.

SHORT BURSTS OF SPEEDGrey Partridges have deep breastmuscles and short wings, which allow bursts of low, fast flight.

SETTLING ONWATERWater cushions thisMallard’s landing,while its webbedfeet act as skis. Itswings beat forwardand back to reducethe overall speed.

22

INTRODUCTION

22

FEEDING

Birds eat a wide range of items from a variety of sources; some, for example, perch to eat berries

while others dive into water to fish.The overall shapeof a bird is a strong indication of what it eats and how it obtains its food.This is most obviously revealed in theshape of its bill, but there are also clues in its head andneck shape, and the length and shape of its legs and feet.

BLUE TIT

CHAFFINCHREED WARBLER

BLACKBIRD

GREY HERONAVOCET

MALLARD GOLDEN EAGLE

BILL SHAPEThere are many subtlevariations in bill shape,but there are a few basicforms that perform specificfunctions. For example, long, thinbills probe into soft mud and sand tograb worms, and thick beaks crackseeds or pluck grass. Hooked bills, onthe other hand, can tear flesh, whilesaw-toothed bills are able to graspand hold on to slippery fish.

forages forworms andberries

tears grassand roots

probes forworms indeep mud

sweepssideways fortiny shrimpsin water

graspsfish

dabbles forseeds fromwater

pecks attiny insectsand seeds

tearsmeat

picks upinsects

cracksseeds andpicks upcaterpillars

WATER FEEDERSBirds use various methods to obtain food from water.Some wade or swim in order to pick insects from thesurface and shore line. Others dive headlong into thewater to catch fish. Razorbills actually dive as deepdown as 100m (330ft) underwater, using their wingsto propel them downwards. Grebes, divers, cormorants,and diving ducks are able to dive underwater from their sitting position on the surface, while other birds, such as swans, reach the bottomby “upending” and using their long necks.

UPENDINGThis Shelduck is unable to reachthe bottom by just dipping itshead under the water’ssurface, so it gets a littledeeper by swinging itswhole body over andstretching its neck.

DABBLING“Dabbling” involves opening the beakwhile skimming it across the surfaceof the water. Dabblers filter waterthrough a fine mesh at the sides oftheir bill in order to trap tiny seedsand organisms thatthey then swallow.

FISHINGA Kingfisher catches fish bygrabbing them, not stabbing,despite its sharp bill. It usuallydrops from a perch, then fliesback up with a fish in its beak. It will then beat the fish against a branch before swallowing it.

PROBINGThe long bill of a Godwit is the ideal tool for pushing deep into soft mud in order to probe for worms and molluscs. However,if the ground is too hard it cannot feed.

CURLEW

GREYLAG GOOSE

23

FEEDING

23

BERRY EATERSRedwings and other thrushes gorge themselvesin the autumn and early winter if the berry crop is good. If the crop fails then they must turn toworms and other food,or fly great distances insearch of berries andfruit elsewhere.

TEARING GRASSGeese use their broad bills to tear at grass, shoots,and roots. This type of food is easy to find, so theyare able to feed together without needing to defendtheir territories to gain sole use of the food supply.

LAND FEEDERSBirds of all shapes and sizes are land feeders. Many,such as pigeons and finches, feed on the ground aswell as in trees, depending on the time of year. Geese,some waders, and pipits are, on the other hand,exclusively ground birds; some birds, such as bustardsand cranes, are so big that they have no option but tostay on the ground. Others, such as woodpeckers,prefer trees, and chip away at bark to locate insects.The type of food that they eat affects the way that birdcommunities feed. Some take in food that is spreadover a wide area but is not very abundant, so theydisperse themselves in order to avoid competing witheach other. Others eat food, such as seeds, that is onlylocated in a few places. It is often in plentiful supply,however, which allows them to feed in sociable flocks.

TEARING FLESHBirds of prey catch food with their feet, which have incrediblysharp talons. However, they often kill the prey and rip it apartusing their hooked bills.

AERIAL FEEDERSCatching insects in flight is a skilful operation, and is undertaken in different ways. Nightjars have tiny bills butwide mouths that are fringed with bristles – these allow themto catch flying moths after dark. Swifts catch tiny insects highin the sky by day while swallows chase bigger flieslow down over meadows. Hobbies also catchbigger insects, as well as small birds, but use their feet to do so.All of theseexamples eat their prey inmid-air. Flycatchers and manywarblers, however, return to aperch once they have snappedup their prey.

FLY-CATCHING EXPERTThe Spotted Flycatcher sits alertand upright on a perch until itspots a small moth or a fly. It dartsout, twisting and turning withgreat agility, to catch the prey inits bill with a loud “snap”, thenreturns to the same perch to eat its meal at leisure.

KLEPTOPARASITISM

Many birds are quick to takeadvantage of smaller, weaker speciesby stealing their food.This is calledkleptoparasitism. For example, GreatBlack-backed Gulls harry Puffinsreturning to their burrows with fishwhile Black-headed Gulls chaselapwings in fields, forcing them todrop juicy worms. Sometimes evenone bird of prey will rob another.

POWERFUL SKUASGreat Skuas not only kill birds but also forcedown and steal food from other seabirds suchas Kittiwakes, Fulmars, and even Gannets.

PROBING IN THE GROUNDThe Hoopoe uses its slim, faintly curved bill to probe into loose soil andunder clumps of earth or roots to reachworms, grubs, and a variety of insects.

INTRODUCTION

SONG AND CALLS

Birds’ voices are remarkably far-carrying and canconvey a variety of messages to other birds.A bird

will use many vocal sounds but each type is normallyconstant within a species.This helps us to use song andcalls to identify individual birds. Usually it is the malesthat sing to attract females for mating and to repelother males from their nesting area.

UNIQUE INSTRUMENTSBirds have no voice box or larynx, but a muscular organ called the syrinx atthe base of the windpipe.A series ofmembranes are stretched and relaxed bybunches of muscles, and vibrate as airpasses across them. Some birds have asimple syrinx so produce little varietyof song. But complex ones producegreat variations in pitch and quality.

SYRINXA bird can use the

muscles within the syrinx,which are attached to

rings of cartilage, to change the soundthat is produced.

VARYING FUNCTIONSIt can be difficult to distinguish between asong and a call but basically they have differentfunctions.A song is primarily used to attract amate or to defend a territory. It can be variedand intricate, made up of a complex set ofnotes. Calls are usually simpler and are used topass on information – such as an alarm call warning of a predator. Such calls are high andthin, to penetrate through dense woods. Birdsalso call in flight, purely to keep in touch.

UNMUSICAL PERFORMANCEThe Fulmar sits on its nesting ledge and greets its mate as it flies by, or settles alongside it, with a burst ofraucous, throaty cackling. To us the calls are coarse andunmusical, but they probably help Fulmars to identifyeach other and are an important part of courtship.

CONSTANT REPETITIONThe Song Thrush is easy to identify when in song. It sings a few notes – mellow or loud andchallenging – in a short phrase. Each quick burstof notes is repeated two or three times beforeanother theme is introduced.

AGGRESSIVE DEFENCELoud, harsh cries are given by terns, gulls, andskuas, such as this Long-tailed Skua, when theychase intruders that venture too close to theirnests. Their alarm notes have an obvious urgency,sounding hysterical if their chicks are threatened.

24

trachea

membrane

cartilagerings

muscle KEEPING IN TOUCHMany calls are contact notes,which are used by birds asthey go about their everydaylives. Such calls help to keepflocks and family groupstogether as they feed ormove about, even when they are within thick cover.

SONG AND CALLS

25

WHERE ARE YOU?Young birds in large colonies may wander away fromthe nest and can easily be lost. Only their own parentsfeed them. Loud, whining calls help these young gullsto keep in touch with their parents.

SCREAMING DISPLAYSwifts form high-speed "screaming parties" thatdash around in the sky calling loudly. This practiceseems to have a social significance within thebreeding colony. They call asthey approach the nest,too, alerting their partnerto their imminent arrival.

No-one is really sure why somany birds sing most persistentlyat dawn. It is a wonderfulexperience, especially in a largewood just as the sky brightens on a spring morning. Suddenly all the territorial birds for milesaround sing loudly together; butthe performance is short-livedand the song becomes erratic.

EARLY PERFORMERIn most areas the Robin is one of thedominant songsters in the dawn chorus. It also sings under street lights at night,apparently fooled by the artificial lighting.

DISPLAY DRUMMINGSnipe dive through the air with tailfeathers outspread, creating a vibrantbleating noise known as “drumming”.

MECHANICAL SOUNDSNot all sounds that birds create are vocal. Some species producedistinctive mechanical sounds during their display that have the same function as song, communicating with other birds within their species over long distances.The Snipe combines its bleatingsound with a visual display, using a steeply undulating, switchbackflight. Some pigeons clap their wings together in display but also usethis same movement to raise an alarm. Certain owls and nightjars doa similar thing, clapping their wings beneath their bodies in displayflights.The woodpecker uses a purely mechanical sound (see below).

DRUM ROLLA different mechanical sound, alsocalled “drumming”, is made by awoodpecker. It creates a suddenburst of sound by rapidly vibratingits bill against a resonant branch.The abrupt drum roll carries wellthrough a dense forest.

HUNGER CALLBaby birds stimulate their parents to feed them bycalling loudly, just like a human baby cries forattention. They risk attracting a predator, so theparent is forced to provide food to keep them quiet.

DAWN CHORUS

INTRODUCTION

26

MIGRATION

Northern Europe is full of insect food in summer,when long days allow birds time to feed both

themselves and their young. Such resources are too good to miss, but few birds can survive in the far north in winter when the days become short and cold. Only by huge movements of millions of birds can they exploitfeeding opportunities to the full.The regular rhythms ofmigration are an essential part of many species’ existence.

INSTINCTIVE MOVEBirds migrate by instinct. In many species adults andyoung birds migrate separately, but the youngsters aresomehow programmed to move at the right time andto follow the right routes. Some gather into largeflocks and migrate together. Others simply slipaway one night alone, embarking on a journeythat remains one of nature’s most magical anddramatic undertakings. Before proceeding withsuch a journey a bird needs to ensure that it isin tiptop condition – this often requires some careful preparation.

MAKING THEIR WAYBirds navigate in a number of ways.They certainly use the sun and the starsand may also see polarized light, whichallows them to judge where the sun iseven on cloudy days.They probably havea magnetic sense too, and may even beable to detect the position of the poles as

they refer to the sky, which would indicatetheir latitude.What we still don’t

understand is how they know which way they should fly.

WHEN TO DEPARTChanging day length in spring andautumn is more of a clue that the timeis right to migrate than changes intemperature. A bird’s internal clocktakes note of the seasonal changes and stimulates a restlessness atmigration time. It also starts off thehormonal changes that make physicaladjustments, such as the accumulationof extra fat for long-distance journeys.

OVERLAND FLIGHTSBroad-winged birds such as WhiteStorks use up too much energy inflapping flight so must glide overlong distances. To do this, they mustbe able to gain height, which theydo by riding thermals or “bubbles”of warm, rising air. These only formover land, so the birds must crossthe sea at the narrowest points,such as Gibraltar and Istanbul.

READY TO GOSwallows and HouseMartins migrate by day,feeding on insects as theygo. They gather in largeflocks in autumn, beforemaking a move togethertowards Africa.

NIGHT MIGRANTSMany songbirds, such as Goldcrests,migrate at night, relying on the stars to

find their way. A sudden onset of cloud and fogmay “ground” thousands of them along a coast,making exciting birdwatching the next morning.

PUTTING ON WEIGHTSmall warblers such as the SedgeWarbler double their weight beforethey migrate. Sedge Warblers eataphids in reedbeds before flyingacross the Sahara in one flight that

may last four days. Others feast onrich, sugary berries before they migrate.

Such birds quickly put on layers offat: essential fuel for their journeys.

Canadian Arctic islands

North America

A SIGN OF THE SEASONSMigrating geese make a marvellousspectacle and sound. In parts of northernEurope they are a visible sign of thechanging seasons as they migrate south

in autumn and north in spring.

27

GLOBETROTTERSWaders and wildfowl are amazing travellers but so are somesmall, familiar birds. For example, Swallows from the UnitedKingdom travel to the far south of Africa in winter. BarnacleGeese fly north in spring to breed around the Arctic. Suchbirds that breed in the far north remain in the south till latein May, when the Arctic snows begin to melt.The mapbelow shows three examples of long-distance migration.

DASH FOR THE NORTHThe Arctic Tern is one of thegreatest globetrotters. It breeds in24 hours of daylight in the Arctic,then spends the northern winterin 24-hour daylight, flying oversouthern oceans before makingthe journey north again.

SWEEPING SOUTHWest Europe is on thegreat East Atlantic flyway,which is a migration routefor birds from vast areasof the Arctic and northernEurope. The path ofwaders such as Knotsmakes a huge sweepsouthwards, emptyingregions on both sides ofthe Atlantic in autumn.

WINTER WANDERERSFieldfares move south and west inwinter to avoid cold weather. Inmidwinter they may be forced totravel further still if there is severecold or snow, but they return as soon as conditions improve.Several species are nomadic,wandering wherever there is food during the winter months.

MEADOW PIPITMeadow Pipits are summer visitors in someareas, resident in others. Those that breed in the north go south for winter (see map).winter range

Greenland

Iceland

Jan Mayan

Svalbard Novaya Zemlya

Franz Joseph Island

KARA SEA

BARENTS SEA

Europe

BLACK SEA

CASPIANSEA

Africa

South America

ATLANT ICOCEAN

NORTHATLANT IC

ARCT IC OCEAN

SOUTHATLANT IC

Canary Islands

Madeira

Azores

Cape VerdeIslands

Sahara Desert

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

KEY

Some species are resident, remainingin the same area all year round.Others are what are called partialmigrants.This means that part of thethe species population is resident,inhabiting an area that can sustainthem year round, while the otherpart lives in less hospitable areas andso needs to migrate south during the winter months to find food. seen on migration

residentall year

summerrange

Arctic Terns

Knots

Fieldfares

2,000km

2,000 miles

PARTIAL MIGRANTS

MIGRATION

INTRODUCTION

28

BEWICK’S SWANA number of species breed widely around the Arctic and move to western Europe in winter to escape severeweather conditions. The Bewick’s Swan is typical of these.

ROBINRobins are related to

thrushes and evolved inWestern Palearctic forests.They adapted to forest life,finding worms and insectsin earth turned up by

moles and foraging wildboars. More recentlythey have turned togarden habitats.

Europe, North Africa, and Asia (north of the Himalayas) form one large entity, called the

Palearctic. It is identified by a characteristic set ofplants and animals, which adhere to natural ratherthan political boundaries.This book focuses onthe western part of this region – west of the UralMountains – giving an overview of the birdlife inan area extending slightly beyond Europe.

DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS“Palearctic” refers to the arctic conditions endured bymuch of the region in the Ice Ages; the legacy of thisremains, with several species still moving back to areas fromwhich they were driven by the ice.The Western Palearctic isclaearly delimited by the sea in the west and the Sahara in the south,but its eastern boundary is harder to draw.Within this region, thehabitats available to birds are amazingly varied.Arctic and Siberianhabitats provide tundra and a belt of dense forest.There are also

grasslands and steppes and a mixed European zone withtemperate forests, wetlands, and mountains.The

Mediterranean has distinctive hot, dry summers and cooler winters, while North Africa and the

Middle East are hot and arid but also havesnow-capped mountain peaks. Birds have

adapted in many ways to this great rangeof challenges and opportunities.

SONG THRUSHThrushes are found almostworldwide, but form adistinctive part of WesternPalearctic birdlife. They include some of the bestknown songbirds in Europe,such as the Blackbird, andwidely travelled migrants, such as this Song Thrush.

DARTFORD WARBLERWarblers include many typicalPalearctic forms. The DartfordWarbler is one of several centredon Mediterranean heathland.

WESTERN PALEARCTIC

WHEATEARThe Wheatear is an exceptionally widespread representative of its

family, breeding from Africa to the Arctic. Other wheatears prefer tostay in more southerly regions, in hot, often semi-arid, habitats.

29

PALEARCTIC BIRDSMost Palearctic birds are unique to the region.Of the hundreds of Palearctic songbirds, forexample, only 16 also occur in the Americas. Ofthe rest of the bird species in the region, just 100are found in the Americas.There is more of anoverlap with the Orient and Africa, but there arestill 65 genera that are only ever found in thePalearctic. However, the Western Palearctic hasonly half as many species as the Eastern Palearctic.

THE REGION AND ITS BIRDSThe Western Palearctic includes Europe as well ascountries around its edges (the region is outlined inpink here). The Canary Islands, Azores, and NorthAfrica are Palearctic in their birdlife. In the MiddleEast, the mix includes African and Oriental species.

A SELECT FEWWhile there are just threespecies of kingfisher in theWestern Palearctic, and onlyone occurs in Europe, there are 88 worldwide. In someways the Palearctic is moreeasily defined by what it lacksthan by what it has. What itdoes have, nonetheless, is aunique combination of birdlife.

SpainPortugal

Morocco

Algeria

Tunisia

Libya

IraqSyria

JordanIsrael

Cyprus

Turkey

Ukraine

PolandBelarus

Estonia

LatviaLithuania

FinlandNorway

Sweden

Denmark

RussianFederation

Lebanon

Egypt

UnitedKingdom

Republicof Ireland

France

GermanyBelgiumLuxembourg

Italy

Switzerland

Netherlands

HABITAT RANGEWestern Palearctic habitats create a varietyof bird communities. Those living in deserts,which have hot days and cold nights, facequite different challenges to those innorthern forests and on high ground.

WESTERN PALEARCTIC

CanaryIslands

Madeira

Niger Chad

SaudiArabia

GeorgiaAzerbaijanArmenia

Kazakhstan

FaroeIslands

Iceland

Svalbard

Greece

Albania

Crete

Czech RepublicSlovak Republic

BosniaCroatiaSlovenia

Austria HungaryRomania

Moldavia

Yugoslavia

Bulgaria

Macedonia

DISTRIBUTIONVarious distribution patterns occur in theregion. Birds such as the Kestrel breedacross Europe,Africa, and Asia. Others,such as the Long-eared Owl, breed inNorth America, Europe, and Asia.Species found across Europe andAsia are labelled “Palearctic”,while the Robin is solely“European”, and the DartfordWarbler “Mediterranean”.

Azores

FRESHWATER MARSHESBitterns, Marsh Harriers, Reed Warblers, and Bearded Tits all

depend on areas of reed growing up from the shallowwater found within freshwater marshes.They build

their nests in the safety of dense reeds, using the stems and leaves as nest materials.

Bitterns need wet reedbeds, so they cancatch fish without going into the

open. Bearded Tits feed on bothinsects and seeds in the reeds.

INTRODUCTION

30

WETLANDS

SWANS ON WET PASTUREBewick’s and Whooper Swans arewild, migrant swans from the norththat travel to wet grassland areas innorthwest Europe each winter.

SALINE SPECIALISTGreater Flamingos require salty water full of tinyinvertebrates and algae. They sweep their odd billsupside down through the water to filter out food.

LOWLAND FLOODS AND WASHESWet grasslands with scattered pools are great places forbreeding waders in spring. In winter, the areas flood andbecome magnets for waterfowl. Many of thebest areas are managed as nature reserves; bycontrolling water levels and grazing livestockthe best conditions for birds can be produced.

Wetlands include a range of watery habitats, from theedge of the sea to lakes, reservoirs and lagoons,

rivers, marshes, and seasonal floods.Water means just onething to birds – abundant food, in the form of fish,invertebrates, and plant material.Wetland birds exploitthese food stocks in innumerable ways: swimming on orunder water, wading into it, flying over it, or living inthe dense, upright stems of plants found alongside theedge. Unfortunately, many of these habitats have beenreduced by centuries of drainage and some wetlandhabitats and their birds are under serious threat today.

REED WARBLERSmall patches of reed are perfectfor this songbird. Its strong feetprovide a good grip on uprightperches. It weaves its deep, cup-shaped nest around several stems.

MARSH HARRIERThis bird of prey flies low over the reedslooking for prey, such as young waterbirds.

WETLAND FEASTFlood plains and low-lying river valleys flood duringheavy rainfall. Worms, insects, seeds, and othervegetable matter float to the surface or are washedup at the water’s edge for waterfowl to feed on.

31

WETLANDS

ADAPTATIONSFine mesh located at the sides of their bills allow

dabbling ducks to sieve seeds from water.They skimtheir opened beaks across the surface to take in water

before filtering it.The distinctively

long toes of Egrets,Moorhens, andBitterns spread theirweight and supportthem as they walk on

floating vegetation. Coots and grebes have long, lobedtoes, which aid propulsionwhen they are in water.

The uniquely flattened andround-tipped bill of theSpoonbill sweeps sideways, half-open, through the shallowwater, until it touches a fish. Itthen quickly snaps its bill shutin order to feed.

WHERE TO WATCH

1 LAKE MYVATN,ICELANDThis northern lake sees anabundance of birds includingCommon Scoters, Long-tailedDucks, Wigeon, Barrow’sGoldeneyes, Harlequin Ducks, Red-necked Phalaropes,Whooper Swans, and Ptarmigan.

2 OUSE WASHES, UK This is made up of pools and low-lying grassy fields that often flood.Breeding birds include Snipe andBlack-tailed Godwit; migrantwaders and terns are frequent; andin winter there are Wigeon, Pintail,and Bewick’s and Whooper Swans.

3 COTO DOÑANA,SPAINThis vast coastal wetland seesSpanish Imperial Eagles, Black Kites,White Storks, Little and CattleEgrets, Purple and Night Herons,Black-Winged Stilts, Avocets, Ruffs,Spoonbills, and Whiskered Terns as well as an abundance of waders,ducks, and geese throughout the winter months.

4 CAMARGUE,FRANCE A huge southern delta complex full of rice fields and lagoons –breeding sites for egrets, herons,Greater Flamingos, and Avocets.

5 ALBUFERA MARSHES,MAJORCAThis large reedbed with small openlagoons and ditches is an excellentplace in summer for Great Reedand Moustached Warblers andEleonora’s Falcons.

6 NEUSIEDLER SEE,AUSTRIA A lake and reedy marsh complex,this area has a great variety ofegrets, herons, Little Bitterns,Whiskered Terns, FerruginousDucks, and River Warblers.

7 DANUBE DELTA,ROMANIAThis magnificent, huge wetlandcomplex, leading to the Black Sea,is a vital habitat for Dalmatian andWhite Pelicans and PygmyCormorants. There is also anabundance of herons, egrets,spoonbills, Glossy Ibises, Black-Tailed Godwits, Whiskered Terns,Penduline Tits, Red-footed Falcons,and White-tailedEagles here.

8 PORTO LAGO,GREECE This lake and coastal marsh attractsDalmatian and White Pelicans,Great White and Little Egrets, and a host of other wetland birds.

1

2

3

46

7

5 8

LITTLE EGRET

SPOONBILL

WILDFOWL BONANZALowland reservoirs have greatconcentrations of wildfowl. Inwinter, huge roosts of gullsappear as lakes freeze over.

Wetland areas

RESERVOIRS AND LAKESHuge numbers of water birds penetrate far inland totake advantage of lakes, which add variety to birdlife inotherwise dry areas. Reservoirs with natural shores areexcellent, especially if the water level falls, as the mudattracts migrant waders. Flooded gravel workings havesteep shores and so few waders, but are ideal for ducks.The dragonflies found there are food for Hobbies.

LITTLE EGRETWith a changing climate,this egret has spreadnorth in westernEurope. It isattracted to lakesand open shores.

DABBLING TEAL

GREATER FLAMINGOS

flattenedbill tip

INTRODUCTION

32

DUNES ANDLAGOONSSand consolidates into tall,grassy dunes with damphollows ideal for waders,Skylarks, and MeadowPipits. Shallow lagoonsabove high tides offerfeeding areas for gulls,Shelducks, and RingedPlovers, while dry sandspits are nest sites for terns and waders.

ESTUARIESA muddy estuary is an excellentsource of food for numerous birdsas fish, tiny snails, worms, shellfish,and other invertebrates are veryabundant.The twice-daily flow ofthe tides also enriches the inter-tidal mud and sand with nutrients.Birds from vast areas of northernEurope and Asia rely on such estuaries from autumn right through to late spring as they rarely freeze over. During thoseseasons swimmers, divers, waders, probers,and aerial feeders all exploit the food that is to be found in the mud, sand, andshallow water. In the summertime, gulls,terns, ducks, larks, and pipits also breed onthe firmer salt marshes that are situated allthe way around the edge of an estuary.

Ariver broadening towards the sea deposits mud and silt over vast areas that are exposed at low tide.The

sides of such an estuary and other stretches of soft coastconsolidate into salt marshes, where muddy creeks wind through green swards of salt-tolerant vegetation.Sand dunes, shingle spits, shell banks, and sand or pebblebeaches all provide habitats for birds on low-lying shores.

ESTUARIES AND LOW-LYING COASTS

FLOCKING TO THE BEACHBlack-headed Gulls find safe refuge on offshore barsand beaches, resting between feeding sessions.

SLAVONIANGREBEGrebes breed onfreshwater lakes butmove to the sea in theautumn. SlavonianGrebes, such as this onein its winter plumage,can often be seendrifting into an estuarywith the rising tide.

SWEEPING AVOCETAn Avocet sweeps its upcurved billsideways through shallow water,catching tiny crustaceans.

SAND AND SHINGLEHarder beaches, which are made up ofsand and gravel, are not as good as softmud for long-billed, probing waders.However, these beaches are used byshort-billed waders, such as plovers,that can pick food from the surface or from between stones. Seaweed andother debris washed up at high tideform a “tidewrack” or strandline, alongwhich other birds, including some landbirds such as Starlings, can feed on tinysand hoppers and othersmall creatures.

SALTMARSH RICHESLarge marshes have an abundance of salt-tolerant plants that attract insects, so are full offood for birds. Redshanks, Black-headed Gulls,and Mallards nest in these places in summer.

33

ESTUARIES AND LOW-LYING COASTS

ADAPTATIONSThe curved bill of the Curlew is strong enough

to catch and break up crabs.With flattened, chisel-shaped bills, Oystercatchers

prise shellfish off rocks and break into them.The camouflage patterning of the Little Tern’s

eggs allows it to lay them straight onto sand or shinglewithout building a nest.They are perfectlycamouflaged against thebeach so are usually safeeven when unattended.

Broad, flattened billswith rough edges areswept in semi-circulardirections across soft mudand shallow water by Shelducks.This enables them to gather up tiny snails, which they then feed on.

Long legs allow waders, such as Knots, to standupright in water, while their long toes stop themsinking into the sticky mud.Their sensitive bill tipsallow them to probe for worms.The length of the

bill is a good clueto the depth towhich a specieswill probe andthe size of foodthey take.

LITTLE TERN

KNOTS

SHELDUCK

1 MORECAMBE BAY,ENGLANDThis is a vast estuary complexwith mostly sandy flats fringedwith extensive salt marshes andsand dunes. Firm banks above the high tide mark offer refugesfor wildfowl and waders to roostat high tide. The area attractsOystercatchers, Bar-tailedGodwits, Knots, Dunlins,Curlews, Shelducks, Redshanks,Ringed Plovers, and Turnstones.

2 THE WASH,ENGLAND The wash is a huge enclosedestuary that opens out onto theNorth Sea. Most of it is muddy,but there are sand banks at themouth and extensive saltmarshes around the edges. It sees bigflocks of Knots, Dunlins, Bar-tailed Godwits, and Grey Plovers.In winter it attracts tens ofthousands of Pink-footed Geese,Brent Geese, and Wigeon.

3 IJSSELMEER,NETHERLANDS This enclosed and part-reclaimedestuary sees migrant gulls, terns, and waders in spring andautumn while in winter it hasgreat numbers of Tufted Ducks,Pochards, Scaup, Wigeon,Goosanders, and Smews.

4 WATTENMEER,GERMANYThis is the eastern end of theNetherlands’ Waddenzee – a vast,shallow area of estuarine characterwhere over a million water birdsappear in spring and autumn.

5 EBRO DELTA, SPAINThis area is half reclaimed but isstill great for birds; in summer ithas the world’s biggest colony ofAudouin’s Gulls as well as Gull-billed Terns, Kentish Plovers, andPratincoles. In autumn and winterGreater Flamingos and manywildfowl and waders can be seen.

21 3

4

5

PINK-FOOTED GEESE

WADERS FLOCK TO SAFE ROOSTS AT HIGH TIDE

Low-lyingcoasts

WHERE TO WATCH

AVOCETS

INTRODUCTION

34

ROCKY COASTS, ISLANDS,AND THE OPEN SEA

Most of the European coastline is a “hard” coast of some kind, with rocks or cliffs and stony beaches.The majority of these shores are

less attractive to birds than soft estuaries and marshes, but seabirds muststill come to land on cliffs and islands in order to breed.

ROCKY ISLANDS, OFFSHORE STACKS, AND CLIFFS

ROCKY AND STONY SHORESStony beaches and wave-washed rocks do see some waders fromautumn to spring.Typical rocky shore waders are short-billed species such as Turnstones and Purple Sandpipers, which feed on invertebrate food found among weedy, barnacle-encrustedrocks right at the edge of the waves. Knots, Dunlins,Curlews, even migrant Common Sandpipers,however, often feed around flatter rocks by the

shoreline. Nearby higher rocks andisolated islets out of reach of

predators offer solid sites fornesting gulls and terns.

HIGH TIDE REFUGEEven though they feed on muddyestuaries, waders may move tonearby higher rocks when the tidecovers the mudflats. The Dunlinsshown here may be joined byRedshanks, Knots, Bar-tailedGodwits, and Curlews.

Within western Europe, some of the rocky islands,offshore stacks, and mainland coasts that have sheer cliffs see birds in huge numbers. Most seabirds nest in colonies and so choose the best of these sites,

at which Gannets, Fulmars, Herring Gulls,Kittiwakes, Guillemots, Razorbills,

and Puffins create some ofEurope’s finest bird

spectacles. Different

island areas see particular seabirds coming in to nest in burrows created in crevices in rocks or cliffs,old rabbit burrows in soil, or burrows they dig outthemselves. Mediterranean and Cory’s Shearwaters,for example, prefer the Mediterranean, while ManxShearwaters nest around Britain and Ireland; BlackGuillemots and Arctic Terns prefer to nest on low,rocky islets, while Shags and Cormorants like broadledges on larger cliffs.

NOCTURNAL VISITORStorm Petrels spend most oftheir time at sea but mustcome to land to nest. As theyare easily captured by gulls,they will only land after dark.

CLIFF NESTCliff ledges are out of reachof predators, so attractseabirds. They are difficultplaces though: seabirds’chicks would fall to theirdeaths if they didn’t havethe natural instinct to keepstill on a tiny ledge. Shagsbuild big nests of sticksand weed, Kittiwakescreate a nest on thetiniest outcrop, while

Guillemots do notmake nests at all.

SHELLFISHEATEROystercatchershammer openmussels onseaweedy rocks.

35

ROCKY COASTS, ISLANDS,AND THE OPEN SEA

OPEN SEAMany birds live at sea outside the breeding season.Gannets, Fulmars, Puffins, petrels, and shearwaters stay way out in the middle of the Atlantic. Migrantsfrom much farther south pass European coasts ontheir ocean wanderings, including shearwaters fromthe southern hemisphere that appear west of Europein late summer and autumn.All of these birdsoccasionally come close inshore during gales butprefer life on the open sea, where there is anabundance of food such as fish, jellyfish, and plankton.But this food source is not uniformly distributed:ocean currents and seasonal changes mean the birdshave to travel great distances in order to locate food,often far from the cliffs that offer them nest sites.

ADAPTATIONSA cushioned skull and air sacs

on the head and neck help the Gannetto survive its spectacular 30m (100ft)plunges into the sea for fish.

Tubular nostrils on shearwaters andpetrels – known as “tubenoses” – helpthem to excrete excess salt. (necessarybecause they mainly drink salt water from the sea).

The pyramidal shape of Guillemots’ eggs helpsthem to incubate one egg under a wing and also stops the eggs from rolling off a narrow ledge.

SEA RESIDENTThe Kittiwake spendsmonths in the middleof the ocean. It isattracted to fishingboats, where it feedson discarded,undersized fish.

Narrow wings form stiff “paddles”that Razorbills and Puffins use to “fly”acrobatically deep underwater whenthey are in pursuit of fish.

A special bill with a fleshy “rosette” at the base helps thePuffin to keep the edges of itsmandibles parallel

as it opens them, so that it can carry a line of fishneatly held tight with its tongue.

5

2

1

3

6

4

GUILLEMOTSGuillemots dive from thewater’s surface for fishsuch as sandeels; theyrarely feed close to land.

GANNETS

WHERE TO WATCH

1 ROST, NORWAYThis island group houses many seabird colonies, includinghundreds of thousands of Puffins as well as guillemots,Razorbills, Storm Petrels, andLeach’s Petrels.

2 ORKNEY ISLANDS,UKA spectacular archipelago withFulmars, Guillemots, Razorbills,Kittiwakes, Arctic Terns, ArcticSkuas, and Great Skuas.

3 BASS ROCK, UKThis has a stunning Gannet colonythat reaches more than 40,000pairs. Also sees guillemots, Puffins,Kittiwakes, and other gulls and iseasily reached by boat.

4 BEMPTON CLIFFS,UKThese cliffs house an unusualmainland Gannet colony (most are found on islands), and one ofthe easiest large seabird colonies to see in the UK, with safe viewingplatforms above sheer cliffs. Thereare many Kittiwakes and guillemots,Razorbills, Puffins, Herring Gulls,Fulmars, and some Shags andCormorants. It is a good place toview offshore seabird migration.

5 BERLENGO,PORTUGALThis island attracts thousands of Yellow-legged Gulls, Cory’sShearwaters, Shags, and guillemots.

6 GREEK ISLANDSMany Greek islands haveYellow-legged Gulls, Cory’sShearwaters, and MediterraneanShearwaters. Some have breedingEleonora’s Falcons and Audouin’sand Mediterranean Gulls, as well as an excellent selection of landbirds such as shrikes and warblers,including migrants in autumn.

7 MAJORCA, SPAINThe Balearic Islands in general are rocky and have many cliffswhere seabirds can nest. They aregood places to view Cory’s andMediterranean Shearwaters, oftenclose inshore, as well as Yellow-legged Gulls. In late summerEleonora’s Falcons nest locally,preying on migrantsongbirds. Some isletsand headlands have therare and localAudouin’s Gull.

CORY’S SHEARWATERS

Rocky coasts

BASS ROCK

PUFFIN

7

INTRODUCTION

36

THE FAR NORTH

In the winter, the far north is a dark, frozen, and barrenplace. However, by late spring the snow is melting, the

days are starting to get very long, and insects and their larvaeabound in myriad pools.These far northern regions, withtheir summer food bonanza, attract millions of birds.They are all dependent on the Arctic during the summertime butare unable to survive there at other times of the year. Onlysuch hardy species as the Ptarmigan can remain in the farnorth all year round, the rest will appear farther south asmigrants or winter visitors.

PTARMIGANIn winter the Ptarmigan turns white to match itssurroundings. Its feet are densely feathered to help it to avoid heat loss; they also act as “snow shoes”.

ARCTIC TUNDRAOpen tundra is bleak and exposedas it is beyond the northern limitsof tree growth. It is a very toughenvironment for birds but its dwarfshrubs provide seeds and shootsas food for Ptarmigan, whichare widespread on broad, rockyridges.These ridges are also nestingplaces for Snowy Owls. Small cliffsmay have nesting birds of prey,which survive on rodents andbirds, but they usually have tomove south in winter. Skuasthat nest around the Arctic,feeding mostly on lemmings, arepurely summer visitors. It is theability to feed in perpetualsummer daylight, and the closeproximity of many pools, thatdraws geese and waders to neston the higher ridges.

ARCTIC TERNThe broad, stony tundra slopes of larger islands and headlandsare ideal for nesting Arctic Terns.

WHOOPER SWANSThis is the swan of northern lakes, bogs,and river deltas. The Bewick’s Swan, onthe other hand, breeds around moreopen, exposed tundra pools.

THE COAST AND OPEN SEAThe sea is rich in invertebrate food andfish so seabirds and ducks abound onmany of the northern coasts.This is anexciting area, as birds that are rare in

Europe head northand east into Siberiain spring, and othersthat are essentiallyArctic species appearin a handful ofsheltered bays on the fringes of theirnormal range. InEurope, this is theone small patch ofland and sea that has the character of the Arctic, so it sees some of itsgreat birds.

FULMARFulmars nest on cliffs,occupying small,earthy ledges. Theyneed access to theopen sea, where theyoften feed aroundfishing boats.

NORTHERN FJORDSSheltered bays and cold water full of fish offersecurity and food for seabirds and wildfowl in what is otherwise the bleak and windsweptfar northern tip of Europe.

37

THE FAR NORTH

POOLSFrom autumn until May or early June the pools of the tundra are frozen and covered with snow.Waders, ducks, and geese that breed up here arestill in their wintering areas until May; slightlysouth, larger lakes on the tundra fringe see birds in early spring. Once the short summer is underway, the pools are alive with insects and their larvae.Long-tailed Ducks and Red-necked Phalaropesgorge themselves on the thick rime of insect lifefound on some northern lakes. Downy chicks ofwaders and ducks can feed themselves within hoursof hatching and find life easy with so much food;but they also face a barrage of hungry predators.

ADAPTATIONSThickly feathered legs like those of the

Rough-legged Buzzard provide invaluable added warmth for life in northern areas.

White plumage helps vulnerablebirds such as Willow Grouse stay hidden,but also allows predators such as theSnowy Owl to get close to them unseen.

1 ICELANDHarlequin Ducks and Barrow’s Goldeneyesare not found anywhere else in Europe,while Red-necked and Grey Phalaropes,Brunnich’s Guillemots, Glaucous Gulls,Little Auks, Puffins, White-tailed Eagles, and Gyr Falcons are also specialities ofIceland. Thousands of pairs of Pink-FootedGeese and Whooper Swans, Black-tailedGodwits, Long-tailed Ducks, and CommonScoters breed in the area, and Iceland Gulls are regular visitors to the regionduring the winter months.

2VARANGER FJORD,NORWAYThe area around Varanger in Norway isexceptionally rich in birds during spring andsummer. Offshore migrants include Long-tailed and Pomarine Skuas and White-billedDivers, while Steller’s and King Eiders areregular visitors. A large range of excitingbreeding birds includes Red-neckedPhalaropes and Black-throated Divers.

WHERE TO WATCH

SNOWY OWL

BLACK-THROATED DIVER

WHOOPER SWANS

ROUGH-LEGGEDBUZZARD

feathered legs

The thick, strong bill of the Long-tailed Skua is also hard and hooked

at the tip.This allows it to catchsmall rodents andsome small birdsmore easily as it onlyuses its bill, not itsfeet, when hunting.

STELLER’S EIDER

In spring and summer. a few hundred spectacular Steller’s Eiders form dense

flocks offshore in food-rich seas off the extreme north of Norway.

21

Tundra areas

INTRODUCTION

38

NORTHERN MOUNTAINS AND MOORLANDS

These are tough habitats for wildlife, and many birds are only summervisitors to the uplands, breeding when insects or other small birds

are available as prey. In winter, snow and exposure to gales and rain make life impossible for all but a few hardy species. Some birds surviveon a very restricted diet, in areas that offer little variety. Nevertheless,these are imposing and often inspiring places that do see exciting birds.

NORTHERN MOUNTAINSThese mountains reproduce the cold, windswept, andbarren conditions of far northern lowlands, and sowinter sees most birds journeying south or movingto lowland areas. In summer, however, these samehabitats offer greater possibilities for migrants, asinsect and plant life has a brief period of abundanceand small rodents multiply quickly in the grasslands,providing food for predators.The rocky gullies and cragsprovide nest sites for birds andgood feeding opportunities.

DOTTERELDotterels like broad, rolling ridges andstony plateaux at high altitude, where theyfeed on insect life in summer.

MOORLANDMoorland forms on peaty ground where conditionsare cold and wet for much of the year.This meansdead plant material is slow to rot, so it builds up intothick layers of peat.Where this becomes waterlogged,extensive blanket bog forms.This is a rare habitatworldwide, but is well represented in northwestEurope. Such places are impoverished in wildlifeterms, but still attract a small selection of birds. Some

of these birds, such as Skylarks,are widespread elsewhere, whileothers are upland moor and bogspecialists. For example, Dunlinsprefer wet bogs, while GoldenPlovers choose more open spaces of grassy moors orheather for feedingand nesting.

RED GROUSERed Grouse can be scarce on heathery moors.Only where the habitat is managed for them dothey appear in large numbers. They feed almostexclusively on heather shoots and seeds.

WHINCHATThe Whinchat likes gentle slopeswith bracken and heather, oryoung conifer plantations.

EXPOSED MOUNTAIN REGIONSOn high, exposed ground the tundra-likeconditions, which include sparse vegetation,cliffs, and screes, are exploited by only asmall selection of hardy sub-Arctic birds.

39

NORTHERN MOUNTAINS AND MOORLANDS

WINTER MOORLANDOvergrazed moors have little heather and candegenerate into swathes of acid grassland.Few birds appear, but Meadow Pipits andSkylarks will feed on grass seeds and insectswhile Curlews take worms from boggy places.

1VATNA JOKULL,ICELANDThe high central plateau ofIceland is bleak and forbidding.Even in summertime, it has athick central ice cap that is almostdevoid of birdlife. Around it is aspectacular landscape that sees asmall range of birds. Bare groundprovides habitat for Ptarmigans,Snow Buntings, and rare GyrFalcons and Snowy Owls. Locally,Pink-footed Geese and PurpleSandpipers breed.

2 DOVREFJELL,NORWAYThis national park has a mix of bogs, lakes, woodland,snowfields, and mountain peaksand plateaux. Here there areRough-legged Buzzards, Cranes,Dotterels, Temminck’s Stints, Red-necked Phalaropes, Shore Larks,Bramblings, and Lapland andSnow Buntings in summer.

3 CAIRNGORMS,SCOTLAND A unique area in the UK withextensive boulder fields, screes,and cliffs in a very high plateau,where Dotterels, Ptarmigan, afew Snow Buntings, Ravens, andGolden Eagles breed.

4 NORTH PENNINES,ENGLANDThis is rolling moorland withheather and limestone grassland,dissected by wooded valleys androcky gulleys with tumblingstreams. Many Golden Plovers,Curlews, Wheatears, Snipe,Meadow Pipits, and Skylarksbreed, as well as a few Merlins,Short-eared Owls, Dunlins,Dippers, Twites, Whinchats,Stonechats, and Ring Ouzels. PURPLE SANDPIPER

THE CAIRNGORMS

CONIFERPLANTATIONSMany moorlands havebeen planted with alienconifers. These providetemporary homes forBlack Grouse, HenHarriers, and Whinchatsuntil they grow too talland dense. Chaffinches,Robins, and Coal Titsmay then move in.

ADAPTATIONSCamouflage helps Dotterels, Golden Plovers, and

other breeding birds to blend in to barren surroundings.Ptarmigan turn white in winter, helping them to

hide in the snow.Their feet are feathered to reducewinter heat loss.

The long, fine-tipped billsof Dunlin are ideal for pickinginsects and small worms frommoss-covered bogs in summer,and for probing in mud forworms during winter.

Open moors have fewperches so birds such asGolden Plovers and Skylarks

sing in flight to claimtheir territorial rightsand attract females.

Muscular gizzardsand elongatedintestines allowgrouse to swallowgrit to help grind upthe shoots of tough,heathery plants. SKYLARK

CURLEW

3

1

2

4

Mountains andmoorland innorthern Europe

WHERE TO WATCH

PTARMIGAN

featheredlegs

INTRODUCTION

40

SOUTHERN MOUNTAINS AND CRAGS

The highest, harshest, snowiest peaks of southern Europeanmountains are little different from their counterparts in the

north, but many others are snow-free and characterized by big, barecrags, dizzying cliffs, and deep gorges with rushing rivers. Forests ofbeech, oak, and pine climb high on the mountain slopes, creatingconditions that attract woodland species more characteristic ofnorthern Europe.The southern influence, however, remains strong,with the presence of birds of prey hunting overhead, and, in thevalleys, many other species that are not found farther north.

HABITAT MIXTUREWith their peaks, high pastures, and valleys, mountainousareas bring together a variety of habitats within a smallarea. From one spot it is possible to see riverside birds,woodland birds, and those characteristic of grassy pasturesand hedgerows, as well as species that prefer cliffs andcrags. Slightly further up the hillside, alpine species can beheard or seen flying across the valleys or over the highestpeaks. Superimposed upon this natural diversity there areregional differences. For example, some species, includingvarious eagles and other birds of prey, are more easterlyand so are found in the Balkans but not within Iberia. Birdsof prey have also been wiped out of some areas due tocenturies of persecution, although they remain numerousin Spain. Some species – such as eagles, vultures, buzzards,and falcons – occupy different “niches”, exploitingparticular foods and nest sites.This may allow them to live close together without competing against each other.Alternatively, it may mean that species remain apart, eachinhabiting an area that meets its particular requirements.

STUNNING PEAKSHigh mountain peaks with deep gorges andshady valleys have a great range of birds of prey,many of which nest lower down but move upeach day to hunt over high ground. Cliff faceshave their own unique birds – some move outto feed on high-altitude grassy meadows.

COASTAL CLIFFSSeveral mountain birds alsobreed on crags by the sea thatoffer safe nesting sites.

CLIFFTOP THRUSHLimestone crags are thefavoured haunt of theBlackbird-sized Blue RockThrush, which venturesanywhere from sea levelto high in the mountains.

BLACK WHEATEARWarmer, south-facing stonyslopes and crags in Iberia attractthis eyecatching wheatear, aswell as Black-eared Wheatearsand Stonechats.

41

SOUTHERN MOUNTAINS AND CRAGS

WHERE TO WATCH

ADAPTATIONSBig, soaring birds are attracted to more

southerly areas rather than northwest Europe,which lacks the warm, rising air currents that offerthem so much lift.These species have evolved tomake the best use of air currents, including coldwinds on the high tops.This enables them to travellong distances and search for widely scattered food(such as animal carcasses) over vast areas – with theleast expenditure of energy.To aid them in this,they also have exceptional eyesight.

The fine bill of the Wallcreeper probes for insect food in damp recesses, under dark overhangs on cliff faces, and deep inside shady gorges.

The strong, curved bill of theChough can overturn animal droppingsand prise cushions of grass and lichensfrom rocks to expose invertebrates.

The exceptionally tough oesophagusof the Lammergeier has developed inorder to cope with sharp-endedfragments of shattered bone,which it feeds on.The birddrops large bones onto rocksto break them into pieces smallenough to swallow.

1 MASSIF CENTRAL,FRANCE

This famous mountainous region inFrance has seen the reintroductionof Griffon and Black Vultures. Italso has natural populations of RedKites, Egyptian Vultures, Short-toed, Booted, and Golden Eagles,Eagle Owls, and Alpine Accentors.

2 PYRENEESStraddling France and Spain, the Pyrenees offer wonderful birds in spectacular settings. There is a great range of eagles,vultures, and Kites, as well as alpine and cliff birds such asPtarmigan, Wallcreepers, AlpineChoughs, Alpine Swifts, AlpineAccentors, Snowfinches, and other birds that thrive in mountains and forests.

3 SIERRA DEGUADARAMA, SPAIN This is a superb area for Black,Griffon, and Egyptian Vultures, aswell as eagles and a variety ofupland species such as the RockThrush, Blue Rock Thrush, BlackRedstart, Rock Bunting and CitrilFinch. The local Black Stork alsobreeds in a few locations within the Sierra de Guadarama.

4 SIERRA NEVADA,SPAIN Although not so rich in birds ofprey as some northern ranges, thisbig range of hills still sees Griffonand Egyptian Vultures, Golden,Booted, and Bonelli’s Eagles, andPeregrines. It is a good place tospot Alpine Accentors, Black andBlack-eared Wheatears, RockThrushes, and Alpine Swifts.

5 PUIG MAYOR,MAJORCAThe mountains and valleys ofMajorca have some remote andspectacular sites that attract BlackVultures, which are rare and local.In summer, many cliffs haveEleonora’s Falcons, Red Kites,Ospreys, Blue Rock Thrushes, Black-eared Wheatears, Rock Buntings,Alpine and Pallid Swifts, and CragMartins. Alpine Accentors only visit in the wintertime.

6 EVROS MOUNTAINS,GREECEGreece no longer has the richpopulations of birds of prey thatused to be there, but in theextreme northeast the mountainsattract specially conserved BlackVultures as well as Imperial, LesserSpotted, and White-tailed Eagles,Lanners, Long-legged Buzzards, and Levant Sparrowhawks.

GOLDEN EAGLE

2

4

1

56

3

Mountainous areas insouthern Europe

CHOUGH

GRIFFON VULTURE IN SOARING FLIGHT

TYPICAL LIMESTONE CRAGS

INTRODUCTION

42

LOWLAND HEATH AND MEDITERRANEAN SCRUB

In Northwest Europe lowland heath is a rare and restricted habitat. It is often found in a thin strip along a rocky coast

but also in special regions with sandy or acid soils, such as theNew Forest and Brecklands in England and a few areas ofthe Netherlands and northern France. In southern Europe,however, much larger areas of rough ground with short,aromatic shrubs and evergreen bushes cover sunny slopes.

LOWLAND HEATHSThese are habitats for a few specialistspecies that require the mixture of openspace and patchy scrub, which is oftenmaintained by grazing animals andperiodic fires. Dartford Warblers areresident in such areas while Nightjarsare summer visitors to them. In thesummertime a variety of birds takeadvantage of the insect food andnesting opportunities found in denseheather and gorse. Some thickets have Nightingales that prefer densevegetation down to ground level, whileopen spaces see nesting Stone-curlewsand Woodlarks, which need bare earthto pick up insects from. Dragonfliesbreed where there are pools in boggyvalleys and attract hunting Hobbies.

MEDITERRANEAN SCRUBMediterranean slopes have bare rocks, patches of short grass, cushions of short, spinyherbs, and taller, thick, evergreen bushes.This is the “garrigue” or “maquis” habitat,wonderful for birds such as Rollers, Great Grey Shrikes, and Lesser Kestrels that takelarge insects and lizards from the ground. Overhead, many kinds of birds ofprey may be seen, while on the bush tops are shrikes,which are smallbird- and insect eaters. Ground feeders as varied as Red-leggedPartridges, Hoopoes, larks, pipits, and buntings are attracted to the scrubland while the bushes have an exciting array of smallwarblers, mostly restricted to the Mediterranean region in Europe.There are some habitats that are found in just a few scatteredlocations and are home to specific species. For example, patches

of introduced cactus attract RufousBush Robins and rocky gullies

are perfect nesting sites for Rock Sparrows.

HEATHLANDCoastal heath bordering anestuary provides a unique habitat.

MEDITERRANEAN SIZZLERA typical bird found in Mediterranean scrub is the Serin,whose jingling, sizzling song is a familiar summer sound.

COASTAL DUNESA lack of water and erosion by thewind create harsh conditions formost birds. However, CrestedLarks feed in the open spaces.

RUFOUS BUSH ROBINThis large chat is one of an essentiallyAfrican family that prefers dry, sandygullies, small cliffs, and patches ofprickly pear cactus.

43

LOWLAND HEATH AND MEDITERRANEAN SCRUB

1 NEW FOREST, UK This is a large, rolling tract ofheath and forest. The grass iskept close-cropped by ponies,which makes the area ideal forWoodlarks. The gorse andheather areasattract DartfordWarblers. Snipeand Curlews nest in damppatches, whileHobbies feed over open heath.

2 BRECKLAND, UKWoodlarks and Nightjars breed infelled conifer plantations on thedry, sandy soil in this area, whileStone-curlews nest on the grassyheaths and nearby fields. Thegrassland also attracts Wheatears,Stonechats, and Curlews.

3 LA CRAU, FRANCEAn area of very dry, stony plains,with Little Bustards, Pin-tailedSandgrouse, Rollers, Stone-curlews, and various larks.

4 MAJORCAThis has many areas of heathlandworth exploring to see localMarmora’s and SpectacledWarblers as well as Subalpine and Sardinian Warblers. It is also good for Thekla Larks andShort-toed Larks. Some areas also attract Stone-curlews, RockSparrows, Woodchat Shrikes, and Rock Thrushes.

5 ALGARVE,PORTUGALThis part of Iberia has a mixtureof sand dunes, open woodland,wetland, and rich Mediterraneanscrub. Birds to be found hereinclude Short-toed, Crested, and Thekla Larks, Great SpottedCuckoo, and Sardinian, Subalpine,and Spectacled Warblers.

SUBALPINE WARBLER

ADAPTATIONSEnormous pupils allow the Stone-curlew to feed

at dawn and dusk; its large eyes are ideal for maximumlight gathering.They shrink to pinpoints by day.

The long, slender tail of the Sardinian Warblerhelps it to balance as it tips up to dive head first into a bush; the tail is also used to warn others of potential danger.

Big eyes and veryshort, wide billsfringed with bristlescharacterize the Red-necked Nightjar and Nightjar.Both these adaptations allowthem to feed after dark,catching flying moths in their mouths in mid-air.

The hooked bills of Shrikes allows thebirds to tear at theirprey, but their feet arenot especially strong.Instead, they impalelarge prey such aslizards, small birds, andbeetles on thorns, sothat they can tear atthem easily.

BOOTED EAGLEA small eagle, this species huntsother birds and small mammalsthat are plentiful on bushyslopes and heaths.

BIRD-RICH SCRUBThis bushy habitat is full of flowers andinsects, so offers up an abundance offood for birds that eat seeds or largeand small insects. The undergrowth alsoprovides plenty of secure nesting places.

NIGHTJAR

WHERE TO WATCH

DARTFORDWARBLER

HEATH AND WOODLAND IN THE NEW FOREST

1 2

4

3

Heath and scrub areas

SARDINIAN WARBLER

5

INTRODUCTION

44

Natural grassland habitats have been almosteliminated from most of Europe by

millennia of agricultural development.Thoseremaining are now rare and fragile.They host a collection of wildlife, including birds whoserequirements are very specific, and which areoften shy and easily disturbed by human activity.Change of any kind, including irrigation,ploughing, over-grazing, and encroachment bytrees, spells disaster for them.

FARMLANDAgricultural land is naturally rich and fullof birds but intensification, especiallychange from mixed farming to a dry,unvarying monoculture, removes birdsfrom vast areas of countryside. However,arable land that is ploughed for growing a variety of crops does offer feedingopportunities – a wealth of invertebratefood when the earth is turned over andinsect food in growing crops. Old,unimproved grassland, which is grazed byanimals, has a wide range of plants andinsects and many safe nest sites.

GRASSLANDDry grassy steppes have species that are adapted to living withinsemi-arid environments, including bustards, sandgrouse, and larks.They survive in such places by foraging within the short vegetation,but irrigation and development schemes have ruined a lot of thesehabitats and threaten many more, including the last great steppelands in Eastern Europe. Other grassy habitats, such asthe cold, wet northern moorlands through to hotMediterranean scrub are “farmed” by being grazedby millions of sheep.They would not look thesame nor have the same birds if such usage changedas the areas would quickly be invaded by scrub. On the other hand, too many sheep and goats reduce the variety of plants and destroy the structure of thevegetation, so grazing at just the right intensity is vital to the survival of birds and other wildlife.

FARMLAND AND GRASSLAND

WHITE STORKWhite Storks survive on farmlandunless it is intensively cultivatedand drained. They eat frogs andsmall rodents, which requiremarshy ground or tall, rich grassland.

GREAT BUSTARDSThese birds are among Europe’s most threatened, as they face pressure from agriculture.

LESSER KESTRELThis handsome falcon has suffered a long-termdecline. This may be due to the pesticides that havereduced its insect prey inboth Europe and Africa,where it spends the winter.

FOLLOWING THE PLOUGHNot all birds avoid farming activities: Lapwings, Black-headed Gulls, Jackdaws, and Rooks find food on ploughed fields.

ABUNDANT FOOD SUPPLIESGrassland in northern and westernEurope has periodic increases in volepopulations, which attracts Short-earedOwls and Kestrels in large numbers.

45

FARMLAND AND GRASSLAND

ADAPTATIONSkylarks and Calandra Larks have no perches to

sing from in open fields: they pour out prolongedsongs from high-level song flights instead.

Lapwings and Stone-curlews are happy to adapt to farmland habitats so long asthere is a mixture of pasture on whichthey can situate their nests, andbare earth where theirgrowing chicks canforage for insects.

Sandgrouse are able to survive on one drink a day and they fly hugedistances to get it.They also

carry water to theirnestlings, holding it in their belly feathers.

Geese have changed their eatinghabits and now enjoy feasting

on waste crops, such as sugarbeet tops and carrots.

Choughs feed in oldpastures, probing forants with their long,curved bills.

WHERE TO WATCH

NORTHERN VISITORSHuge numbers of geese from far northern breeding areas, includingPink-footed, Barnacle, and White-fronted Geese, have come to relyon European farmland in winter – feeding on grass and waste crops.

6

2

4

3

1

5

1 ISLAY, SCOTLANDIn summer, the damp fields heresee breeding Snipe, Lapwings,Redshanks, and Curlews.Choughs, Twites, and Rock Dovesfeed in the fields and along thefield margins. In winter, hugeflocks of Barnacle and GreenlandWhite-fronted Geese feed ongrassy pastures.

2 SALISBURYPLAIN, ENGLANDThis is an exceptional area ofchalk downland, which hasespecially large numbers ofSkylarks as well as otherwidespread farm birds such asYellowhammers and Linnets. Italso attracts some Stone-curlewand Grey Partridges.

3 TEXEL,NETHERLANDSA wonderful island to visit all yearround, it sees breeding Black-tailed Godwits, Ruffs, andRedshanks on wetter naturereserves in summer. In winter,large numbers of Lapwings,Snipe, Oystercatchers, GoldenPlovers, Brent, Bean, and White-fronted Geese, Wigeon, Mallards,Shovelers, other wildfowl, birdsof prey, and finches, includingTwites, visit the area.

4 BELCHITE, SPAINThese semi-arid northern Spanishsteppes have a nature reservearea in which can be foundDupont’s, Crested, Lesser Short-toed, Short-toed, and TheklaLarks as well as Stone-curlews,Pin-tailed Sandgrouse, variouswarblers, Hobbies, LesserKestrels, and other birds of prey.

5 BIEBRZA MARSHES,POLANDThis farmed wetland andgrassland region has rare AquaticWarblers and Great Snipes as wellas a great variety of other excitingspecies – from Black and WhiteStorks to Cranes, Corncrakes,Greater Spotted Eagles, andWhite-winged Black Terns.

6 HORTOBAGY,HUNGARYThis is a huge area of farmlandand semi-natural steppe, whichattracts Red-footed Falcons,Great Bustards, Aquatic Warblers,Rollers, Bee-Eaters, and LesserGrey Shrikes in summer. Tens ofthousands of Cranes pass by ontheir migration route and White-tailed Eagles visit in winter.

CRESTED LARK

TWITES

Grassland areas

PIN-TAILED SANDGROUSE

CHOUGH

INTRODUCTION

46

FOREST AND WOODLAND

Most of Europe would naturally be covered with forest,but human activities have destroyed many areas and left

others impoverished. Even so, Europe’s forests and woodlandsstill include such varied types as Mediterraneanevergreen oak and ancient Scots pine forest.

DECIDUOUS WOODSThe character of deciduous woods changesgreatly with the seasons, so offers differentopportunities and challenges to birds.Deciduous trees lose their leaves in winterto survive the cold. Insects are abundantand active in summer, but many of themsurvive the winter as cocoons or eggs, orhibernate, so insect-eating birds are forced to migrate unless they can turn to seeds inwinter. In contrast, many seed-eating species

are year-round woodland residents.The gnarled trunks of deciduous

trees have many crevicesfor birds to nest in.

CROSSBILLSCones have nutritiousseeds but are protected bytough, overlapping scales.Crossbills have evolved aspecial, cross-tipped billthat can prise these apart.They reach the seedsinside using their tongues.

CONIFERSConifers suit a wide variety of birds as the treesmature. Old trees and open glades at the edgeof a forest create a light, accessible area.

EVERGREEN FORESTSEvergreen trees – mostly conifers – keeptheir leaves year-round. Conifers tend to besmoother and straighter than many deciduoustrees, and have fewer holes for nesting birds.Their insect food is more uniform throughthe seasons but their seed production tendsto fluctuate, resulting in a few good yearsbetween several poor ones. Some birds breedwell in such forests during the good yearsbut move out in a nomadic search for foodwhen the seeds run out. Conifers havetough needle-leaves and their dense foliagecasts a deep shade, so few plants can growunderneath them.This reduces the variety of feeding and nesting possibilities for birds.

OAK AND BEECH WOODSOak woods (below) let in more lightthan beech (right), so have a thicker,more varied shrub layer beneath andconsequently a greater variety of birds.

PIED FLYCATCHERPied Flycatchers need holes fornesting, most easily found inmature deciduous trees.

47

FOREST AND WOODLAND

ADAPTATIONSAn elongated,

backward-pointingouter toe and a stifftail provide the GreenWoodpecker with a suregrip as it perches onbroad branches.

The stout, dagger-likebill of the Nuthatch is usedfor breaking into nuts andseeds, which it wedges intocrevices in bark.

A Woodcock’s dead-leaf camouflageis perfect for nesting on the forest floor.

A Sparrowhawk’s long tail helps ittwist and turn quickly in tight spacesbetween trees when chasing prey.

1 ABERNETHY,SCOTLANDA magnificent area of rolling moorand ancient pine forest (the largestremaining tract of native pine forestin Britain) with dense bilberry,crowberry, heather, and juniper –ideal for rare Capercaillies. Themature trees are good for CrestedTits as well as Parrot, Scottish, andTwo-barred Crossbills. Youngerplantations have Black Grouse.

2 FONTAINEBLEAU,FRANCEThis is an excellent area ofdeciduous and mixed forest andparkland, which has greatpossibilities for many woodland

species such as interesting birds of prey, six species of woodpeckers– including Black, Middle Spotted,and Grey-headed – as well as agood selection of warblers insummer.

3 PICOS DE EUROPA,SPAIN A fine mountain range in northwestSpain, often cloudy and wet butwith spectacular forested peaks andgorges and some extensive hillsideoak and pine woods, where thereare Griffon Vultures, Bonelli’s,Short-toed, Booted, and GoldenEagles, Black Woodpeckers, Crested Tits, Goshawks, andBonelli’s Warblers.

4 EXTREMADURA,SPAINWoodlands in this region are mixedor of open cork oak. It sees asuperb selection of forest andwoodland-glade birds exploiting thenesting and feeding opportunities,including Great Spotted Cuckoos,Azure-winged Magpies, and Rollers.

5 KUUSAMO, FINLANDIn a heavily forested country, this isa specialized area of mostlyconiferous forest. Rare birds includeRed-flanked Bluetails, ArcticWarblers, and Three-toedWoodpeckers. The habitat alsoattracts birds such as Waxwings,Siberian Jays, and Parrot Crossbills.

WHERE TO WATCH

SPARROWHAWK

TREECREEPERThe Treecreeper spends its whole lifecarefully searching tree bark for insects.

YOUNG CONIFER PLANTATION

CRESTED TIT

1

4

3

5

2

Woodland areas

GREENWOODPECKER

INTRODUCTION

48

GARDENS, PARKS,AND TOWNS

PUBLIC SPACESTown and city centres attract fewspecies but spilled food and scraps andthe abundance of ledges and cavities inbuildings offer food and nest sites for anincreasing number.Town and city parksare often much better areas for birds,especially if there is a lake or pond, and some shy species becomesurprisingly tame if they are not disturbed.Town or feral pigeons,which are derived from wild Rock Doves, are abundant in towns,while large lakes attract various ducks, coots, and gulls that forage forscraps. Few birds feed on roads, paved areas, and rooftops but wagtailsoften do so, finding insects trapped in rainwater puddles.The largenumbers of town pigeons are increasingly attracting predatoryperegrines into city centres and onto tall buildings in industrial areas.As towns are warmer than the surrounding countryside in winter,some species fly in specially to roost in city trees or on buildings.

BLACK REDSTARTIn much of Europe Black Redstarts nestin cavities in buildings, which take theplace of natural cliff habitats.

Gardens vary greatly according to their location: some are little more than enclosed

pieces of Mediterranean scrub while othersrepresent woodland habitats in miniature. Urbangardens bring birds right into cities and tend tohave a selection (though limited) of woodlandbirds but lack most of the bigger, shyer, or moredemanding species.Artificial food in gardens

is a lifeline to huge numbers of birds – and notjust in winter. Spring is an important periodwhen birds are trying to build up energy levelsto begin nesting but many natural foods are

running short.Town parks providebirds with shrubberies, lawns,and mature trees, while a parklake will attract wetland species.

ROOSTING WAGTAILSPied Wagtails feed on roofs, tarmac-covered footpaths,car parks, and town centre riverbanks, and each eveningcome together in large roosts for warmth and protection.They often choose ornamental trees for this, but equallyseek out glasshouses and industrial sites in towns.

URBAN SECRETSDunnocks display to one another in town parksand gardens. Their sober appearance belies acomplex social life: males and females often havemore than one mate and can frequently be seen in “wing-waving displays”.

SUBURBAN SURPRISESIndustrial areas and roads on urbanoutskirts often see birds, such as theseLapwings, flocking in large numbers.

49

GARDENS, PARKS,AND TOWNS

GARDEN FEEDERRobins are among many woodland birds that have become gardeninhabitants. They like thick hedges and shrubs, close to pieces of bareground and short grass where they can forage for worms and insects.

BIRD-TABLESBy placing food on abird-table each day weare giving birds regularmeals when natural

food may be lacking. Asan added bonus, we canwatch them as they eat.

EXPLOITING THE GARDENERBlackbirds and Robins are well known for theirbold and fearless behaviour, especially when agardener is turning over soil and they get agood chance of grabbing a worm.

ADAPTATIONSThe most successful urban birds are species that can find habitats and food that resemble their more natural requirements out of town.

Starlings have strong muscles that can open theirbills when they probe into a lawn for a leatherjacket.Their eyes are able to swivel backwards, so that they can watch for predators without having to stop searching for food.

House Martinsnaturally nest on clifffaces, but long agolearned to come intotown and nest under theeaves of buildings.Theydo have problems whendry weather makesfinding mud difficult.

Old buildings provide all kinds of holes and cavitiesfor birds to nest in, and Kestrels through to HouseSparrows and Starlings exploit these. Swifts are nowalmost entirely reliant on buildings. However, as oldbuildings are being knocked down and new housesand office blocks go up that offer no nest sites, suchbirds may find life more difficult.

Woodpigeons andtown pigeons can see a broader range of light than humanscan. Grains and seeds,which we find difficultto find on gravel, standout to their eyes asdifferent colours andare quickly pecked upwith great precision.

PRIVATE GARDENSOrdinary suburban and rural gardens are becoming increasinglyimportant wildlife havens. If thereare thick shrubberies, flowerbedswith freshly turned earth, patchesof lawn, and perhaps a few gardenponds, a suburban area can bealmost as rich as a piece of naturalwoodland.These small habitats offer a range of feeding opportunities for all kinds of birds, some of which livepermanently in the gardens while othersjust visit from nearby woods and streams.Even the shy Kingfisher and Grey Heron may make an early morning raid on a goldfishpond. Gardens are far poorer for birds, however,if they are too regimented and over-tidy.

BERRY EATERSMany birds eat berries, especially in autumnwhen they provide much needed energy. To attract birds like the Song Thrush, plantshrubs such as elderberry and cotoneaster.

WOODPIGEON

HOUSE MARTIN

INTRODUCTION

50

Notebooks are really invaluable for novice and experienced birdwatchers alike.Note down what you see if you wantto keep records at home: it is muchbetter than trying to rely on shakymemories later. If you come across a bird that is new to you, or has an unusual plumage, try to take adescription – you will need to lookclosely at the bird in order to dothis. It is a useful discipline, forexample, to look at the colourof the bill, legs, and anyspecial markings.Also writedown the calls you hear and try tomake a few sketches, however rough they are.

USING A NOTEBOOK

the “objectlens” describedby its diameterin millimetres

focusingwheel

THE ESSENTIALSChoose binoculars that you can handle

easily, and buy the best you canafford. A camera and

telescope can also beuseful in the field.

WATCHING BIRDS

There are a vast number of opportunities to birdwatch –whether you visit a different country specifically for

that purpose, go to a nature reserve, or simply look at thespecies that can be found every day in your garden or on your journey to work.You will find that there are a hugerange of birds to see and the more you look, the more youwill want to learn about the differences there are betweenthem so that you can start to identify individual species.

use a camerawith a long lensto capture detail

GETTING STARTEDIt can be difficult to get close enough to birds to identifythem as they tend to perch high on trees or far out onlakes. Don’t let this put you off, however, as with practice and experience you will learn how to pick out uniquecharacteristics from afar.The better you get, the more youwill enjoy birdwatching.To help with this process, buyyourself an identification guide, a pair of binoculars, and a notebook – a knowledgeable friend is a great asset too.

TELESCOPEfocus wheel

adjustableangle

tripod

objectivelens

BIRD BOXESMost gardens havefood but no naturalnest sites for hole-nesting birds such assparrows, tits, andStarlings. Artificialboxes give them achance to nest whereyou can watch them.

WINTER ROBINIn winter, putting out food or leaving apples unpicked on a tree will attract Robins and thrushes to your garden.

BINOCULARS AND TELESCOPESBinoculars are essential for birdwatching.They aredescribed by figures, such as 10 x 40 or 8 x 30.The firstis the magnification while the second is the diameter of the large lens. Higher magnification means largerimages, but the lenses are also larger, making it harder to hold the binoculars steady; the field of view is alsonarrower and the image duller.You will need tocompromise.There are top-quality binoculars that givereally bright images but they are still heavy andexpensive. It is best to opt for a magnification between7 and 10. If you want to look at birds far away and needmore power, consider buying a telescope. It willmagnify 20 or 30 times but you will need a 60 or80mm wide lens to let in enough light.

BINOCULARS

SLR CAMERA

51

Viewing conditions are animportant consideration.It may seem obvious butmany people forget that a white bird will look darkagainst a bright sky, while a dark brown bird may lookremarkably pale against a ploughed field or winterhedgerow.White gulls lit by low, evening light maylook orange on the sunlitside and quite blue on the shaded side; in strongsunlight they simply lookbrilliant white and darkgrey. Dull light in rain or snow may reveal thesubtleties of their greys and whites much better.

DAWNLow, weak, misty light with anorange glow, which is not goodfor revealing detail.

MISTY MORNINGMist may make a bird look largebut it hides detail of colour andpattern, or even shape.

MORNING LIGHTLow light may exaggeratecontrast, but the brightness isperfect for seeing detail.

MIDDAYOverhead sun can cast surprisinglydeep shadows and “washes out”the colours on the upperside.

INTO THE SUNLooking into bright light makes it difficult to see much more thana silhouette, even on a pale bird.

EVENING LIGHTLovely soft, warm light, butbeware a rather orange cast tomany colours.

VIEWING CONDITIONS

There is one simple rule for birdwatchers tofollow: the welfare of the bird comes first.It is easy to get carried away, and to inchforward while trying to see a bird that youthink might be rare or is one that you havenot seen before. It may be tempting to chase a bird if it starts to move away, or to tryflushing a bird out one last time, but all youwill do is scare it away. Most birds are notbothered too much by everyday disturbance,but use your common sense. Don’t disturbbirds while they are at their nests, as you mayput them in danger, and never be tempted tohandle eggs. Keep all types of disturbance toa minimum – for the sake of the birds, otherpeople, and your own view.

CODE OF CONDUCT

USING BINOCULARSIf you see a bird that you want to view close-up,keep your eyes on it as you lift your binoculars.

USING A TRIPODModern telescopes are short andneed support, preferably on agood, firm tripod. This is a clumsy,heavy combination but the rewardis unbelievably close views.

WATCHING BIRDS

INTRODUCTION

52

CONSERVATION

Conservation is simply wise management, which aims to maintain or enhance the numbers and variety of wild

species and the habitats on which they depend.The birdlifein most parts of Europe has undergone dramatic changesalmost everywhere over several centuries: little of Europe isnow “natural”, apart from the far north, some forests,mountains, and seas. It is therefore difficult to say that thepresent birdlife is “as it should be”, and that all change mustbe resisted. Most people would, however, agree that weshould at least try to maintain the variety of birds that we do have now. Every effort should be made to ensure that we do not lose any species from the European avifauna.

GREAT BUSTARDThe loss of grassland habitat, particularly to intensivefarming, now threatens the last few thousand GreatBustards more severely than ever before.

CROWDED COASTSWaders such as Redshanks use estuaries and other coastalhabitats. Unfortunately for them, coasts are also ideal forvarious developments, from ports and industry to sport andleisure. Even people using beaches may disturb feeding orroosting flocks. Estuary birds face many threats.

GLOBAL WARMINGWading birds, wildfowl, gulls, and terns that use low-lying sea coasts and nearby lagoons for feeding andnesting face severe threats from the effects of globalwarming and sea-level rise. This presents manychallenges to coastal conservation, not least findingsensitive ways to protect the coast.

DEGRADED RIVERSMany rivers are dredged andstraightened, which removes thehabitat for riverside birds that prefermuddy shallows, sheltered bays, orbeds of reed and sedges. Erosion eatsinto banks used by Kingfishers, whilepollution, especially the acidificationof rivers, affects the food supply –from tiny aquatic invertebrates to fish.An increased frequency of summerdrought also affects river birds.

THREATENED HABITATSConserving birds is not usually a case of preventingpersecution or over-hunting. Most threats arise because birds’habitats are being damaged or destroyed. No wild creature cansurvive unless its needs for food, breeding sites, and saferefuges from predators are met. Protecting habitats usuallyinvolves planning and managing human activity, especiallyfarming, forestry, drainage of marshes, and other large-scalechanges. Local developments such as building roads andairports or urban housing expansion also affect thehabitats. Food and habitat protection is often apolitical matter.A clear example of this is thefarming and fishery policies, which affectcountryside birds and seabirds acrossthe whole of Europe.

53

FINDING SOLUTIONSConservation is complicated, and to achieve a political solution tosome of the more intractableproblems conservationists must have hard facts and figures.There is no substitute for good, reliableresearch to give a solid and well-respected backing to anyconservation argument. Once the problems and their causes areunderstood, it is possible to have a more organized and objectiveapproach to finding practical andeconomic solutions which otherpeople, such as farmers, foresters, andgamekeepers, then put into practice.

Bird and habitatconservation groupsworldwide work together

in a global federation calledBirdLife International. Eachcountry has a BirdLife “partner”.The largest is the RSPB in theUK.The RSPB works for ahealthy environment that is rich in birds and other wildlife. It relieson the support and generosity of others to make a difference.Without members and othersupporters it would lack thefinance to do its work.When itdoes find and advocate solutionsto problems faced by birds in thecountryside, it relies on thewillingness of decision-makers,landowners, and others to takenotice, and act upon its advice.There are many other birdconservation bodies, bird clubs,and local groups that also play avital role in conservation. Contactyour country’s BirdLife partner for further details of societies and groups near youif you would liketo get involved.

CONSERVATIONGROUPS

RADIO TAGGINGThis Black Grouse is being fitted with a minute radio transmitter sothat its movements can be followed.Black Grouse have declined rapidly so finding out more about them andtheir problems is essential if solutionsare to be found.

CORNCRAKEIn some countries, farmers are paid to

maintain uncut field corners that provide earlyspring cover for Corncrakes, and to continue growing

hay and cutting it late in the season. Such schemes areessential for the bird’s survival.

RECORD KEEPINGConservation in Europe relies on collating facts andfigures, following trends, and identifying suddenchanges in numbers and distributions of birds.This has a proud tradition of extensive amateurinvolvement, as thousands of people add their ownrecords to the national and international data uponwhich our collective knowledge depends.

GANNET PROBLEMSPollution and discarded waste,especially at sea, may causeunexpected problems for birds.Gannets build their nests out of discarded nylon twine andother debris that can entangletheir growing chicks. Greaterawareness and improved rulesfor the disposal of waste at portsrather than overboard at seawould help solve such problems.

THREATENED LESSER KESTREL

SPECIESGUIDE

DIVERS AND GREBES

ENTIRELY WATER BIRDS except when nesting,these sleek, dagger-billed birds have thick

plumage, narrow wings, short tails, and legs setvery far back on the body. This makes it difficultfor them to move on land: they merely shuffleon their bellies, pushing with their feet, onto thenest and off again into water.Their feet are not webbed, buthave broad lobes along each toe(the hind toe is very small). Theselobes fold together as the foot ispushed forwards through water,reducing drag, but open outwhen pushed against it to givegreater propulsion.

DIVERSThese are bigger and longer-bodied than grebes, flying moreoften (indeed, the Red-throatedDiver flies from its nesting lake tofeed in the sea) and more northerlyin their distribution in summer.They have loud, wailing calls.

DIVERS AND GREBES

55

Families Gaviidae, Podicipedidae

GREBESRound-bodied but long-necked,grebes are widespread in Europe,breeding on rivers, marshes, andlarger lakes. They have barking,croaking, or trilling calls, less wildand dramatic than the divers’vocalizations. They characteristicallycover their eggs with waterweedwhenever they leave the nest, in an effort to deter predators.

RED THROAT IN SUMMERDivers have distinctive plumages whenbreeding, such as this Red-throatedDiver, but in winter they become moreanonymous in dark brown and white.

WINTER DABCHICKLike most grebes, the Little Grebe, often known asthe Dabchick, loses its bright colours in winter, buthas rich rufous cheeks in summer. A pale spot nearthe base of the bill is distinctive in all seasons.

GRACEFUL DISPLAYBlack-necked Grebes show offtheir dramatic plumage in court-ship displays; the sexes look alike.

Length 50–60cm (20 –231⁄2 in) Wingspan 1.06–1.16m (31⁄2 –33⁄4ft) Weight 1.2–1.6kg (23⁄4 –31⁄2 lb)

Social Winter flocks Lifespan Up to 20 years Status Vulnerable

Order Gaviiformes Family Gaviidae Species Gavia stellata

DIVERS AND GREBES

56

Red-throated Diver

ADULT (SUMMER)

Alow-profile, swimming bird, rarely found on land except at the nest, this diver is distinguished by its slim, tapered

bill held angled upwards. Red-throated Divers nest on smallfreshwater pools but fly off to feed at the coast.They are typicallyfound flying high overhead to and from the seain summer, calling loudly. In winter, they aremostly marine birds. Brown-backed and grey-headed with a dark red throat patch in summer,the plumage of the Red-throated Diver is lessdistinctive in winter.VOICE Loud, high wail and fast, staccatoquacking (in flight) in summer; quiet in winter.NESTING Scrape almost on shoreline, indanger of flooding; 2 eggs; 1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Dives for fish and other aquaticcreatures; underwater for long periods,reappears at some distance from point of dive.

OCCURRENCEBreeds on small, remote moorlandpools and lakes in north, but feedson sea in N Scotland, Iceland, andScandinavia. In winter, morewidespread around W Europeanshores on open coasts andestuaries, but very rare inland.

SIMILAR SPECIES

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

FLIGHT: low and straight over sea, headoutstretched, legs slightly drooped; steady, strongwingbeats.

straight bill

darker

dark eye-line

upturnedgrey bill

tapering,dark redthroat patch

striped grey nape

all-brown back

hump-backed

ADULT (WINTER)

outstretchedhead

ADULT (SUMMER)

pale duskyface

IN FLIGHT

white-speckledback

whiteface

ADULT (WINTER)

whitewingbarGUILLEMOT winter,

similar to adult winter;see p.229

BLACK-THROATED DIVER winter,similar to adult winter; see p.57

CALL POSTURERed-throated Divers, like other divers, use several strange, ritualized postureswhile calling on breeding pools in summer.

JUVENILE

DIVERS AND GREBES

57

Length 60–70cm (231⁄2 –28in) Wingspan 1.1–1.3m (31⁄2 –41⁄4ft) Weight 2–3kg (41⁄2 –61⁄2 lb)

Social Small summer flocks Lifespan Up to 20 years Status Vulnerable

Order Gaviiformes Family Gaviidae Species Gavia arctica

Black-throated Diver

oval patch of whitebars on each side

SIMILAR SPECIES

dark cap

narrowwings

OCCURRENCEBreeds on large lakes with smallislands in remote areas of N Scotland and Scandinavia. Inwinter, more widespread butscarce on coasts of NW Europe.Often in larger estuaries or broadsandy bays; rare inland.

ADULT (SUMMER)In summer, few birds can match the

exquisite patterning of the Black-throated Diver.In winter, it is duller and harder to tell from a Great Northern orRed-throated Diver, but the slightly bulbous head, slim, straight bill,and narrow body are distinctive, along with the greyish nape, palerthan the back. Small parties ofBlack-throated Divers gather incoastal bays in summer. However,this bird is generally solitary,swimming low on the sea.VOICE Wild, loud wailing notesin summer; silent in winter.NESTING Shallow scoop nearwater’s edge on island (or raft) inlake; 2 eggs; 1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Dives long and deepfor fish, reappearing far away;slides evenly head-first into waterwith barely a ripple.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

ADULT(SUMMER)

SUMMER GATHERINGBlack-throated Divers gather in impressive groups,swimming close together with heads raised.

NESTING ON RAFTBlack-throated Diver nests are often subject toflooding or left high and dry; artificial nest raftsensure greater breeding success.

FLIGHT: head low, outstretched, legs trailed;narrow wings have slightly whip-like action.

stripedneck

barred or scaly,brown-blackback

chequeredback

greynape

IMMATURE(1ST WINTER)

scaly backwhite flank patch

bill heldlevel

black throat

white breast

spotted“necklace”

grey head

ADULT (WINTER)

outstretchedhead held low

ADULT(WINTER)

IN FLIGHT

black head

GREAT NORTHERN DIVERsummer, similar to adultsummer; see p.58

RED-THROATED DIVERwinter, similar to adultwinter; see p.56

whiterface

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 70 –80cm (28–32in) Wingspan 1.27–1.47m (41⁄4 –43⁄4ft) Weight 3–4kg (61⁄2 –83⁄4 lb)

Social Solitary Lifespan 10–20 years Status Secure†

Order Gaviiformes Family Gaviidae Species Gavia immer

58

DIVERS AND GREBES

OCCURRENCEBreeds on larger lakes in Iceland.Scarce in winter but widespreadon wide estuaries, in broad, sandycoastal bays, and also on wilder,open water in W Europe; rareinland on bigger reservoirs orflooded pits.

Great Northern Diver

One of the largest divers, the Great Northern Diver has aheavy, dagger-like bill, and often an angular head shape

with a “bump” on the forehead. It is a splendidly chequeredbird in breeding plumage. In winter, its large size, very broadbody, heavy bill, and dark nape (while the barred back ispaler) are distinguishing features.A young Cormorantmight be taken for it, or vice versa, in a poor view.The Great Northern Diver typically swims verylow, back often awash.VOICE Wolf-like wailing and tremulouslaughing notes in summer; silent in winter.NESTING Shallow scrape on water’s edge;2 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Feeds on large fish, crabs, and otheraquatic life, often bringing big flatfish to surface after long dive.

FLAPPING WINGSThe Great Northern Diver, like most other divers, often sits up on thewater and flaps its wings, revealing its white underparts.

droopedneck

slenderwings

ADULT (MOULTING TO WINTER)

whiteface

long,heavybill

black neck-bandbroadbody

IN FLIGHT

ADULT(WINTER)

ADULT(SUMMER)

JUVENILE ADULT (SUMMER)

stripedwhite collar

evenly white-chequered back

blackhead

BLACK-THROATED DIVER summer,similar to adult summer; see p.57

CORMORANTimmature, similar to adult winter;see p.72

slightlyhookedbill

palerhead

slimmer bill

dark crown

blackishhindneck

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

barred back

nape darkerthan back

dark collar

FLIGHT: flies low and direct; typical long, slenderwings of diver, legs trailing, neck drooped.

trailinglegs

Length 25–29cm (10 –111⁄2 in) Wingspan 40–45cm (16–18in) Weight 100–120g (35⁄8 –4oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 10–15 years Status Secure†

DIVERS AND GREBES

59

Order Podicipediformes Family Podicipedidae Species Tachybaptus ruficollis

Little Grebe

OCCURRENCEWidespread in summer except in N Europe, breeding on broadrivers and canals, freshwaterpools, and flooded pits. Dispersalto larger waters in W Europe inautumn also takes them onto seaat times, in sheltered areas.

straight, pointed billrounded body

blunt bufftail

ADULT(SUMMER)

IN FLIGHT

ADULT(WINTER)

FLIGHT: flies little, usually very low, skittering overwater on small wings.

Little Grebes are small, dark, short-billed, and round as a ball, theirnear lack of tail rendering them especially buoyant on freshwater

rivers, lakes, and ponds.Their loud, trilling or whinnying calls ringaround marshes in summer. In winter, they often moveto larger waters, less prone to freeze, and more rarely to the coast.They may then mix loosely with otherspecies of waterfowl but tend to keep in little groups,slightly dispersed, in their own corner of the lake.VOICE High, loud, rapid trill that fades away;silent in winter.NESTING Floating mound of wet weed, anchored to stem or branch; 4–6 eggs, which the bird covers if it leaves the nest; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Dives for small fish, aquatic insects, andmolluscs, often diving under with a little leap andreappearing like a cork.

ADULT (WINTER)

SIMILAR SPECIES

BLACK-NECKED GREBE winter,similar to adult winter; see p.63

uptilted bill

whitestripe

contrasted face

MOORHEN similar to adultsummer; see p.158

brightred bill

rufous faceblackish cap

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

pale yellow spotat base of bill

buffish face

buff foreneck

ALERT ON WATERWhen alarmed, the Little Grebe looks larger-necked and less dumpy, andin winter, can look surprisingly like a Black-necked Grebe.

JUVENILE

darkwings

trailingfeet

Length 40–46cm (16 –18in) Wingspan 77–85cm (30–34in) Weight 700–900g (25–32oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure

Order Podicipediformes Family Podicipedidae Species Podiceps grisegena

DIVERS AND GREBES

60

ADULT(WINTER)

IN FLIGHT

dumpyshape

thick neck

slightly droopedneck

Red-necked Grebe

ADULT (SUMMER)

FLIGHT: low, straight, heavy, with slightly droopedneck and legs.

OCCURRENCEBreeds on reedy lakes and broadrivers in E Europe. In autumn andwinter, moves west, mostly onquiet estuaries and shelteredcoastal bays; scarce on inlandwaters such as flooded gravel pitsand reservoirs.

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

SIMILAR SPECIES

slimmer billnever yellow

smaller bill

GREAT CRESTED GREBE winter,similar to adult winter; see p.61

SLAVONIAN GREBE winter,similar to adult winter;see p.62

yellow base tostout, dagger-like bill

dark chestnutneck and breast

JUVENILE

whitish cheeksdarkaround eye

stripedcheeks

yellowon bill

dusky greyon foreneck

round head

ADULT(WINTER)

In much of northeast Europe, this is a typical bird of large, well-vegetated lakes; in Great Britain, it is mostly a late summer and

winter visitor and never common. Like other grebes it can lookdumpy, squat, and thickset, or rather slim, according to conditionsand intent: an active, feeding bird looks much more slim and alertthan a resting one. Such changes in shape can make judgementof size, especially at a distance on open water, very difficult,but this is a large grebe, along with the GreatCrested Grebe, compared with the small grebessuch as Slavonian and Black-necked Grebes.VOICE Various growling notes; silent in winter.NESTING Typical grebe nest: heap ofwaterweed with shallow depression ontop, semi-floating on fresh water amongstvegetation; 3 or 4 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Dives for food, mostly fish, but also feedson various crustaceans and insects in summer.

grey andwhite face

black capreachesbelow eye

A STRUGGLE ON LANDGrebes are unable to walk on land, and use an ungainly shuffle to leavethe nest. They are adept swimmers.

whiter foreneck

longer neck

DIVERS AND GREBES

61

Length 46 –51cm (18–20in) Wingspan 85–90cm (34–35in) Weight 800–1000g (29–36oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 10–15 years Status Secure

Order Podicipediformes Family Podicipedidae Species Podiceps cristatus

Great Crested Grebedrooping neck

white face

bold whitewing patches

legsbelowbody level

ADULT(WINTER)

IN FLIGHT

dull, darkback

unique ruff

slenderneck

dagger-likepink bill

black head plumes

ADULT(SUMMER)

white neckand breast

stripedhead

pale greyishbody

JUVENILE

taillessshape

dark backwhitebreast

pink bill

white overeye

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

OCCURRENCEWidespread except in far N Europe.Mostly breeds on flooded gravelpits, large lakes, and reservoirs;also on larger rivers. In winter,mostly on bigger reservoirs andsheltered coastal waters in W Europe; autumn migrants often on sea.

ADULT (WINTER)

stubbier billstockier and deeper

RED-NECKED GREBE winter,similar to adult winter; see p.60

SIMILAR SPECIES

The upright, slender neck with a silky white frontand bright white breast are always characteristic of

this large, dagger-billed grebe. In summer, its black cap extends intoa double, backward-facing tuft and a frill of chestnut appears on theface, used in face-to-face head-wagging displays by breeding pairs.Small groups breed close together and larger flocks form on moreopen water, such as large reservoirs, in winter.VOICE Various loud barks and growling notes in summer; juvenilesmake loud, fluty whistles.NESTING Pile of weed on water, anchored to vegetation; 3or4white eggs; 1 brood; February–June.FEEDING Dives fromsurface, staying under forlengthy periods in search of fish and large aquaticinvertebrates.

COURTINGPairs of Great Crested Grebes perform complex courting rituals, divingunderwater and surfacing with weeds that they offer each other.

FLIGHT: low, direct; head and trailing legs droopedbelow body level.

Length 31–38cm (12 –15in) Wingspan 59–65cm (23–26in) Weight 375–450g (13–16oz)

Social Pairs/Small flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure†

Order Podicipediformes Family Podicipedidae Species Podiceps auritus

DIVERS AND GREBES

62

OCCURRENCEBreeds in cool, wild pools withsome fringing vegetation inIceland, N Scotland, and N and E Europe. In winter, mostly on sea in NW Europe, especially on muddy estuaries, more rarely on reservoirs and pits inland.

Slavonian Grebe

ADULT(WINTER)

NEST BUILDINGSlavonian Grebes build soggy heaps of water weeds in which to lay theireggs, covering them for safety when they leave the nest.

FLIGHT: low, quick; may patter across water surface.

BLACK-NECKED GREBE winter,similar to adult winter; see p.63

SIMILAR SPECIES

rust-redflanks

dumpy shape

yellow bill-base

duskyforeneck

black andwhite head

well-definedwhite cheeks

pale bill tip

whiteforeneck

straight, short,pale-tipped bill

rust-red neck

small whitishspot in frontof eye

whiteforeneckand breast

whiteflanks

large whitecheeks

RED-NECKED GREBE winter,similar to adult winter;see p.60

stiff golden-yellow wedge on black head

ADULT(SUMMER)

Abird of remote, upland, northern pools in summer, the Slavonian Grebe is then easy to

identify. Its complex head pattern and plumes are used in display: like other grebes, the sexes are alike.In winter, in stark black and white plumage, it is much more like some other grebes. It typically breedsin loose groups of three or four pairs, and spends thewinter in twos and threes at most.These may be seen near Black-necked Grebes in favoured spots.VOICE High, fast, whistling trills in summer; usuallysilent in winter.NESTING Pile of weeds anchored to reed or sedgestem; 4 or 5 eggs; 1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Dives to find small fish; in summer, mostlyfeeds on insects and various aquatic crustaceans.

flat crown

uptilted bill

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

white patch on smallwings

duskier cheeks

IMMATURE (1ST WINTER)

IN FLIGHT

ADULT (SUMMER)

DIVERS AND GREBES

63

Length 28–34cm (11–131⁄2 in) Wingspan 56–60cm (22–231⁄2 in) Weight 250–350g (9–13oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure

Order Podicipediformes Family Podicipedidae Species Podiceps nigricollis

Black-necked Grebe

SIMILAR SPECIES

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

OCCURRENCEWidespread but very local; breedson pools with large amounts ofreeds and other vegetation. Inwinter, on estuaries and in coastal bays, reservoirs, andflooded pits; in spring, often on sea in Mediterranean.

trailinglegs

LITTLE GREBE winter,similar to adult winter;see p.59

straightbill

browner face

sharper contraston face

SLAVONIAN GREBE winter, similar to adult winter; see p.62

ADULT(WINTER)

pale “hook” onrear cheeks

blurred cap

uptiltedbill

NEST OF WEEDSThe Black-necked Grebe builds a typical grebe nest by piling up waterweeds. The only time it is not on water is when it is at the nest.

white patchon slimwings

IN FLIGHT

fan-shaped yellowor bronze ear tufts

peakedcrown

red eye

fine, slightlyuptilted bill

black neck

copperyred flanks

ADULT(SUMMER)

JUVENILE

dusky cheeks

greyforeneck

steep forehead

More restricted to richer, lower-lying lakes than the Slavonian Grebe as a breeding bird, the Black-necked

Grebe is more frequent on fresh water in winter. It ischaracterized by a slim, slightly uptilted bill and round headwith a peaked crown.Although it is one of the smallestgrebes, barely bigger than a Little Grebe, in breedingplumage, with head erect, it can look quite large out ona still, gleaming lake. Ones and twos may be seen onestuaries in winter, swimming very buoyantly, driftingin and out with the tide. Black-necked Grebes oftenmix loosely with other grebe species, usuallyoutnumbering Slavonian Grebes.VOICE Chattering and high-pitched whistlingnotes; silent in winter.NESTING Pile of wet water weeds; 3 or 4 eggs;1 brood; March–July.FEEDING Catches insects, molluscs, and a few fish, in lengthy dives underwater.

FLIGHT: low, weak, fluttery; head extended, legs trail.

ADULT(SUMMER)

PETRELS AND SHEARWATERS

64

FULMARThe tubular nostrils are easy to see on thethick bill of this Fulmar, as it soars in the windabove a coastal cliff.

Families Procellariidae, Hydrobatidae

PETRELS AND SHEARWATERS

SO SUPREMELY ADAPTED to life at sea thatthey are cumbersome and vulnerable on land,

petrels and shearwaters (with the exception of thecliff-nesting Fulmar) come to land only to breedand then do so only under the cover of darkness.By far the best chance of seeing most of them isfrom a ship at sea.

PETRELSLike shearwaters and albatrosses, petrels’ tubularnostrils excrete excess salt, and these birds areknown collectively as “tubenoses”. They breedin burrows or cavities, staying out of sight all day.Returning birds follow calls from their mates onthe nests and use scent to find the right burrowin pitch dark.

Petrels are mostly small and insignificant overthe open sea, but are dainty fliers, coping withthe most ferocious gales as they skim the wavecrests. They are sometimes driven close inshoreand may then find it difficult to get back out to sea, sometimes ending up, exhausted, inland.Several species, especially the Storm Petrel,follow ships to feed on organisms that aredisturbed in the wake.

The Fulmar is a larger bird, easily seen on itsopen cliff ledge nest or flying beside cliff topsduring the day.

GREATSHEARWATERAn ocean-going migrant,this species breeds in thenorthern winter on islandsin the South Atlantic.

STORM PETRELSwallow-like in its actions, theStorm Petrel feeds on tiny planktonand oily waste out at sea.

SHEARWATERSSuperb fliers, using air currents over the waves,shearwaters are almost helpless ashore and indanger from predatory gulls and skuas whenreturning to their colonies. They fly with stifflyoutstretched wings and long glides between briefperiods of wingbeats. In still air, they look ratherheavy but with a wind become wonderfullycapable, banking steeply over onto one wingtipthen to the other, showing alternately darkupperparts and light underparts as they fly pastfar offshore.Young birds may be exhausted andblown inland by autumn gales.

PETRELS AND SHEARWATERS

65

Length 45 –50cm (18–20in) Wingspan 1–1.12m (31⁄4 –33⁄4ft) Weight 700–900g (25–32oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 20–30 years Status Secure

Order Procellariiformes Family Procellariidae Species Fulmarus glacialis

OCCURRENCEBreeds in NW Europe on cliffs,earth ledges, and even buildingsor, where abundant, on grassybanks, usually close to sea. Out onopen sea, sometimes mouths ofestuaries or smaller bays.

Fulmar

IN FLIGHT

grey wingtips

yellowish white head(white on juvenile)

“tubed” nostrils

hooked bill

Gliding very low over the open sea or along clifftops, the Fulmar is a strong flier. Superficially

gull-like, it is a “tubenose” (having large, raised nasaltubes) more closely related to albatrosses. SomeFulmars spend much of the year visiting breeding cliffs, even in winter, and can be viewed at close rangeas they sail by on the wind currents.Their real home,however, is over the wildest, windswept seas of theNorth Atlantic. Large flocks, often mixed withGannets, gulls, and skuas, follow fishing fleets: Fulmarnumbers have increased in the past century with farmore food made available from these vessels.VOICE Loud, harsh,throaty cackling.NESTING On rocky orearth ledge, rarely ledgeson buildings; 1 egg;1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Feeds mostlyon fish offal fromtrawlers, small fish,jellyfish, squid, and othermarine organisms.

SIMILAR SPECIES

stiff, straightwings

mottled greyupperwingsfade browner

pale patchshort, thick neck

weak legs(unable to stand)

pale grey rumpand tail

all-grey; lacksHerring Gull’swhite patch

brownerabove

darkerhead

CORY’S SHEARWATERsee p.66

BREEDINGThe Fulmar breeds in loose colonieson ledges on steep coastal cliffs orin burrows on inaccessible slopes,but also locally on buildings.

SWIMMING IN SEADrinking saltwater, while swimmingin the sea, is normal for “tube-noses” such as the Fulmar. Excesssalt is excreted through the nostrils.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

FLIGHT: direct, on narrow, stiff, flat wings; glidingin wind, flapping heavily in calm weather low over sea.

ADULT

ADULT

contrasted whitetail and blackwingtips

HERRING GULLsee p.209

Length 45 –56cm (18–22in) Wingspan 1–1.25m (31⁄4 –4 ft) Weight 700–800g (25–29oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 20 years Status Vulnerable†

Order Procellariiformes Family Procellariidae Species Calonectris diomedea

PETRELS AND SHEARWATERS

66

This large shearwater flies lazily by – low and ratherheavily – sometimes quite close inshore, in small groups;

however, strong winds allow it to show great mastery in the air. In southern Europe and off northwest Africa, thisis an abundant seabird. In the Mediterranean, it isquite frequently seen in summer from many islandsand headlands. Near nesting areas, birds flying to theirburrows after dark make loud, strange calls, even overtowns, such as Funchal in Madeira.VOICE Loud, varied, wailing sounds near breedingsites; mostly silent at sea.NESTING Hole among rocks in scree and on cliff,or burrow on steep slope; used only at night; 1 egg;1 brood; March–July.FEEDING Takes fish, squid, shrimps, jellyfish, andwaste from fishing vessels in shallow dives fromsurface of sea.

OCCURRENCEMostly out at sea, but sometimesin broad bays or close inshore offheadlands and islands. Outsidebreeding season, in westernapproaches off Ireland, N France,and SW England.

Cory’s Shearwater

dull greyishhead with nosharp cap

hint of dark “W”across wings

long, tapered,slightly roundedwings

IN FLIGHT

SIMILAR SPECIES

HERRING GULLimmature, similarin flight; white rump; lessstiff-winged flight; see p.209

darktail-band

darkcap

whitecollar

paler head

slightly bowedwings

dark brown above

all-whiteunderparts pale bill

pale bill

FLIGHT: low, swerving slowly in long arcs; in wind,banks steeply and rises to great height.

GREAT SHEARWATERsee p.405

whiteunderwings

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

LIGHT AND SHADEStrong light gives these swimming Cory’s Shearwaters a pale-nappedappearance, with unusually dark faces and contrasting upperparts.

PETRELS AND SHEARWATERS

67

Length 30–38cm (12 –15in) Wingspan 76–82cm (30–32in) Weight 350–450g (13–16oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 25–30 years Status Localized†

Order Procellariiformes Family Procellariidae Species Puffinus puffinus

Nesting sites ofManx Shearwaters are

relatively localized, nearly all on islands; these seabirds are commonlyseen on surrounding seas and are sometimes very numerous, especiallyin the evenings as they gather prior to going ashore. In autumn, largenumbers are seen close to the shore during gales and afew are blown inland each year. Like other shearwatersand storm petrels, they only go to the nest in thecover of darkness, but many are still caught and killedby gulls.They are ungainly on land, moving with ashuffle, using legs, wings, and bill to scramble overrough ground.VOICE Loud, strangled wailing and chortling soundsat night around breeding colony.NESTING Uses rabbit or Puffin burrow or similartunnel, or hole in scree; 1 egg; 1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Flocks gather over fish or small squid,diving from surface or after short plunge from air.

OCCURRENCEOver open sea, except whenbreeding. Large colonies onislands, sometimes high up onrocky mountain peaks, more oftenin burrows in turf on lower slopes, in NW Europe. In autumn,widespread off coasts.

Manx Shearwater

FLIGHT: fast, especially downwind, with long,swerving glides, banking on one wingtip then wheelingover onto other; wingbeats fast, stiff, flickering.

IN FLIGHT

dark cap

stiff wings

SIMILAR SPECIES

GREAT SHEARWATERsee p.405

larger andbrowner

whitecollar

RAZORBILLsimilar in flight; whirrsalong with fewerglides; see p.230

black cap

whitethroat

silvery whitebelow

thin dark bill

white flankbulges up eachside of rump

weak legs,cannot stand

blackish upperparts;looks browner instrong sun

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

smaller wings

FLAP AND GLIDEIn calm air, shearwaters fly low over the water with many more deepwingbeats and short, flat glides.

Length 14–17cm (51⁄2 –61⁄2 in) Wingspan 36–39cm (14–151⁄2 in) Weight 23–29g (13⁄16 –11⁄16oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 20 years Status Localized†

Order Procellariiformes Family Hydrobatidae Species Hydrobates pelagicus

PETRELS AND SHEARWATERS

68

It is quite remarkable that such tiny, delicate creaturesas Storm Petrels spend months on end far out at

sea, surviving the most difficult weather.They returnto islands, more rarely headlands, to breed, coming toland only at night for fear of predation by gulls andskuas.At sea, they fly slightly erratically but quitestrongly, low over waves, pattering at times, orswooping like Swallows over the surface, but they are often able to overtake ferries and other ships atsurprising speed.VOICE Soft purring trill with abrupt ending, at nest.NESTING Hole amongst rocks or in old wall, or insmall burrow; 1 egg; 1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Picks up tiny pieces of offal, fish oil, andmarine invertebrates from surface of sea in flight.

OCCURRENCEMost breed in NW Europe butcolonies also in Mediterranean;otherwise, lives out at sea. Difficultto see from most coasts but can befrequent in S Ireland just offshore;elsewhere, not so frequent asLeach’s Petrel, even during storms.

Storm Petrel

short legs (unableto stand)

sooty blackbody

IN FLIGHT

LEACH’S PETRELsee p.69

SIMILAR SPECIES

FLIGHT: constant, easy, relaxed wingbeats, rollingfrom side to side or turning and dipping to feed.

slightly larger

paler band onupperwings

broad-based wingstaper and sweep back

white line alongunderwings

HOMING IN ON FOODPetrels fly very low, scattered over vast areas of open sea. Their sharpsense of smell locates oily food and small flocks gather to feed.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

HOUSE MARTINunlikely over sea; see p.277

white underside

forkedtail

all-darkupperwings

broad,roundedtail

large whiterump

settles onwater withwings raised

round head withsmall, “tubed” bill

PETRELS AND SHEARWATERS

69

Length 18–21cm (7–81⁄2 in) Wingspan 43–48cm (17–19in) Weight 40–50g (17⁄16 –13⁄4oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 24 years Status Localized†

Order Procellariiformes Family Hydrobatidae Species Oceanodroma leucorhoa

Slightly larger than the Storm Petrel, Leach’s Petrelis still a tiny bird to live out at sea all its life, buffeted

by Atlantic gales. Like other petrels and shearwaters, itventures to land only to breed and only at night (unlessit is deep inside its burrow), but may be seen offshorefrom suitable headlands in autumn gales. It may thenalso be driven inland, appearing over reservoirs ratherthan being stranded in unlikely places like some otherstorm-driven birds.VOICE Rattling, chattering coo at nest.NESTING Burrow or cavity among rocks; one birdincubates, while other is at sea, returning only atnight; 1 egg; 1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Picks up tiny, floating pieces of offal, fish oil,jellyfish, and marine invertebrates, from surface in flight.

SIMILAR SPECIES OCCURRENCEBreeds on few islands in NW Europe; more widespread in autumn in North Atlantic, butscarce in North Sea. Appearsduring gales off NW England andN Wales and is regular but rareinland in autumn gales.

Leach’s Petrel

STORM PETRELsee p.68

BLACK TERNsee p.224

BLOWN ONTO BEACHESTired by their efforts to fly out of coastal bays against a gale, Leach’sPetrels may briefly patter across the tideline or even over a beach.

pale panel onupperwings

forkedtail

sooty brownback

long, angled,arched wings

angularshape

“V”-shapedwhite rumpwith darkcentral line

darkerupperwings

broader whiterump

roundedtaildark

rump

IN FLIGHT

FLIGHT: quick, strong, tern-like, with strong beats,erratic twists, turns, leaps, and changes of speed.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

dark underwings

notch in tailhard to see

sharp-winged,tern-like shape

longerbill

GANNETS, CORMORANTS,AND PELICANS

GANNETS, CORMORANTS,AND PELICANS

70

AT FIRST SIGHT A MIXED bunch, this groupof water birds shares several characteristics,

including a long inner wing with an obvious,backward-pointed “elbow” joint near the body,and broad webbing across all four toes (wildfowlhave webs only between the front three). Theyall feed on fish, some being restricted to the sea,others coming inland too.

GANNETSThese are magnificent plunge-divers, seeing fishfrom high up and diving headlong, or fishingfrom a lower altitude if the fish are close to thesurface, spearing into the water at an angle. Theyare often seen from the coast but spend winterwell out at sea. They breed in a small number of large colonies, mostly on offshore islands.Gannets are among the most spectacular sightsin European birdwatching.

Families Sulidae, Phalacrocoracidae, Pelicanidae

DENSE FLOCKSWhite Pelicans feed and rest together in tightly packedflocks, which look wonderful when they take flight.

CORMORANTSThe Cormorant is a generalist,able to feed in the open sea,in quiet estuaries, and inlakes or rivers. It nests intrees, as well as on cliffs.The Shag nests only on cliffs and feeds insaltwater. The PygmyCormorant is a freshwaterbird in summer, nesting inmarshes, but may move tothe coast at other times.

PELICANSFamiliar, huge, ponderous birds on the water,known for the remarkable “pouch” beneath thebill, pelicans are brilliant fliers, often in beautifullycoordinated lines,V-shaped flocks, or swirlingpacks. Among the world’s biggest flying birds,they are always impressive.

FEEDING FRENZYGannets watch each other’svivid white plumage from greatdistances and can quickly homein on any good feeding spot.

CORMORANTThe big white thigh patchshows this Cormorant to bein breeding plumage.

GANNETS, CORMORANTS,AND PELICANS

71

Length 85 –89cm (34–35in) Wingspan 1.65–1.8m (51⁄2 –6ft) Weight 2.8–3.2kg (61⁄4 –7lb)

Social Flocks Lifespan 16–20 years Status Localized

Order Pelecaniformes Family Sulidae Species Morus bassanus

OCCURRENCEForms colonies on rocky islandsnorth from NW France, occupyingthem from early spring until lateautumn. Widespread in Atlanticand North Sea while feeding andmigrating, some entering WMediterranean; scarce in winter.

Gannet

The biggest of the European seabirds, related to the even larger pelicans (see p.406), the Gannet is

typically seen as a brilliant white bird offshore, circlingand diving for fish, or flying singly or in groups. It ishighly social at its nesting colonies and loosely so atsea.The Gannet’s forward-facing eyes and cushionedhead and neck equip it to pinpoint fast-moving fishand dive headlong to catch them.VOICE Regular, rhythmic, throaty chorus at nest;silent at sea.NESTING Pile of seaweed and debris on broad ledgehigh above sea; 1 egg; 1 brood; April–July.FEEDING Catches fish such as mackerel and pollackunderwater in shallow and sloping dive from air, orvertical dives from greater height.

SIMILAR SPECIES

IMMATURE(1ST WINTER)

ARCTIC SKUA dark form, similarto juvenile in flight; see p.204

much smaller

squaretail shorter

bill

GREAT BLACK-BACKED GULL immature,similar to immature in flight; see p.212

IMMATURE

long, narrowwings

narrow,pointedtail

whitebandabovetail

blackishbody withwhite spots

piebaldplumageturns whitewith age

IN FLIGHT

yellow-buffhead

protruding head

dagger-like bill

black wingtips

whiteplumage

IMMATURE

ADULT

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

DENSE COLONIESGannet colonies, usually along cliff ledges and steep slopes, are denseand often very large.

ADULT

FLIGHT: in strong winds, banks and veers like a giant shearwater; in light winds, steady, powerfulflight with regular beats of straight wings.

Length 80–100cm (32 –39in) Wingspan 1.3–1.6m (41⁄4 –51⁄4ft) Weight 2–2.5kg (41⁄2 –51⁄2 lb)

Social Flocks Lifespan 15–20 years Status Secure

Order Pelecaniformes Family Phalacrocoracidae Species Phalacrocorax carbo

GANNETS, CORMORANTS,AND PELICANS

72

Cormorant

outstretched head

broad wings

white onface

black underside

flat forehead

orange-yellownear bill

white underside

neck kinkedin flight

OCCURRENCEBreeds widely but very locallythrough Europe. Prefers shelteredestuaries and bays at coast butbreeds on cliffs; inland, onreservoirs, flooded pits, and evensmall pools.Often found in andaround harbours and marinas.

small hook at tipof thick bill

IMMATURE

mostlywhitebelow

brownback

short legs withweb across all toes

ADULT

In summer, Cormorantsare unmistakable, with

long, pale head plumesand bold facial colours;they have a round whitethigh patch in spring.They are duller in winter, butretain a distinct character, typified by their habit of perching withhalf-open wings, or swimming with back almost awash, neckupright, and bill angled upwards. Equally at home on salt- or freshwater, Cormorants are widespread and familiar in much of Europe.VOICE Growling and cackling at nests and communalroosts, otherwise a quiet bird.NESTING Bulky nest ofsticks in tree and on cliffledge, with white splashingsbeneath; 3 or 4 eggs; 1 brood;April–May.FEEDING Catches fish in longunderwater dive from surface;brings larger ones to surfacebefore swallowing them.

ADULT (SUMMER)

low body

uprightneck

bill tiltedupwards

SIMILAR SPECIES

SHAGsee p.73

slimbill

dagger-like bill

shorter neck

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

FLIGHT: strong, often high; head outstretched, longtail, rather broad wings with regular beats; long glides.

GREAT NORTHERN DIVER winter,similar to immature; see p.58

slightlysmaller

wedge-shapedhead and bill

long,broad tail

SUBSPECIES

P. c. sinensis (mainlandEurope, E England)

bold whitehead plumesin spring

PERCHINGCormorants have a distinctive perching stance, with half-openwings, upright neck, and bill angled upwards.

ADULT(SUMMER)

IN FLIGHTJUVENILE

Although sometimessolitary, Shags tend to

breed in sizeable groups andsometimes feed in tight flocks ofhundreds where they are common.They prefer the fast tide racesand rough water under rocks and cliffs, and swim in groups bravingthe most dangerous-looking conditions; they are rareinland.The Shag has an obvious close relationship withthe Cormorant and the two birds can be difficult to tellapart, but a certain slim snakiness gives the Shag adifferent character.VOICE Coarse, frenziedrattling at nests; silent at sea.NESTING Heap of grass,sticks, and seaweed on broadcliff ledge or inside cave;3 or 4 eggs; 1 brood; May.FEEDING Catches fishunderwater, after dive fromsurface, often with quick,arching forward leap.

GANNETS, CORMORANTS,AND PELICANS

73

Length 65 –80cm (26–32in) Wingspan 90–105cm (35–41in) Weight 1.75–2.25kg (33⁄4 –5lb)

Social Large flocks Lifespan Up to 15 years Status Secure

OCCURRENCEWidespread on European coastsalthough scarcer in Mediterranean.Breeds on coastal cliffs and feedsoff rocky coasts and islands.Rather scarce around harboursand estuaries and generally rare inland.

Shag

IN FLIGHT

short crest

long, slimbody

Order Pelecaniformes Family Phalacrocoracidae Species Phalacrocorax aristotelis

ADULT

steep forehead

SIMILAR SPECIES

BLACK-THROATED DIVERwinter; see p.57

CORMORANTsee p.72

flatterhead

thickerbill

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

dark brownplumage

IMMATURE

snaky neck

oily green-blackplumage

ADULT (WINTER)

roundedcrown

brownbelow

white spoton chin

ADULT(SUMMER)

slim, slightlyhooked bill

largerandheavier

white face andforeneck

SUBSPECIES

P. a. desmarestijuvenile(Mediterranean)

much whiterbelow

STANDINGThe Shag stands with wings outstretched like the Cormorant,possibly an aid to digestion after a heavy meal of fish.

FLIGHT: direct with quick beats of narrow wings;usually keeps very low over sea, even whereCormorants fly high.

JUVENILE

narrowwings

long tail

slenderhead andneck

BITTERNS AND HERONS

BITTERNS AND HERONS

74

EUROPEAN HERONS AND bitterns arewaterside birds, apart from the Cattle Egret,

but elsewhere in the world many feed in drierplaces.They share characteristics such as longlegs, dagger-like bills, a kinked neck (thicker inbitterns) that gives them a sudden, fast lunge tograsp prey, and binocular vision that allows themto pinpoint prey with precision. They are mostlyground-living birds, but fly capably.

HERONSThe larger herons are long-necked and elegant,using skill and patience when searching for prey.Although primarily fish-eaters, they eat almostanything they can catch. Egrets are generallysmaller (although the Great White Egret is verybig) and mostly white. Some have long, elegantplumes in the breeding season. Herons andegrets develop bright bill and leg colours forshort periods in spring and the facial skin mayeven “blush” brightly during courtship.

Most are social, breeding in colonies, but oftenfishing alone. The Cattle Egret feeds around live-stock and on rubbish tips, as well as on marshes,and flies to roost each evening in spectacular,flickering white flocks.

REEDBED SKULKERBitterns need water within reeds so that they can ambush unsuspectingeels and other fish without coming out into the open.

BIG TOESA Purple Heron in flight showsits deeply coiled neck andremarkably long toes, anadaptation to life in a reedbed.

Familiy Ardeidae

BITTERNSTwo groups are widespread worldwide, eachrepresented by one species in Europe.The Bitternis large, heavy-bodied, and closely patterned withblack on sandy buff. The Little Bittern is small,sexually dimorphic, with a large, pale, oval patchon each otherwise blackish wing. Both are shy and elusive.

BITTERNS AND HERONS

75

Length 69–81cm (27–32in) Wingspan 1.25–1.35m (4–41⁄2ft) Weight 0.9–1.1kg (2–21⁄2 lb)

Social Solitary Lifespan 10–12 years Status Vulnerable†

Order Ciconiiformes Family Ardeidae Species Botaurus stellaris

OCCURRENCERare bird of larger, wetterreedbeds, very local and scatteredthrough Europe. In winter, morewidespread in W Europe, forcedout by frost into smaller patches ofreed or more open water where itcan reach small fish.

Bitternmottled brownbody thick neck

much heavierthan a heron

blackish crown

short legswith verylong toes

IN FLIGHT

broad,bowedwings

long toestrail in flight

paler panel

streakedneck

dagger-like bill

Few birds are so restricted to a singlehabitat as the Bittern is to wet

reedbeds. Even drier reedbeds are of nouse to it: it must have deeper water, sothat it can find fish in the shelter of thereeds, at the edge of secret pools andditches.To maintain suitable conditions,in a habitat that naturally dries out overtime, requires a great deal of expensivemanagement work: Bitterns havegradually been lost from many past sites.VOICE Deep, hollow, rhythmic boom,ker-whooomp!NESTING Broad, damp nest of reed stems well out ofsight in thick reedbed; 4–6 eggs; 1 brood;April–May.FEEDING Catches fish, especially eels, in sudden grabof outstretched bill.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

black stripe

SIMILAR SPECIES

PURPLE HERONsee p.83

muchsmaller

longer-billed

“BITTERNING” STANCEWhen alarmed, the Bittern adoptsa camouflage posture with anupward-pointing bill.

FLIGHT: heavy, low, slow, somewhat unsteady; on bowed, rounded wings, legs trailing.

STEALTHY FISHERBitterns rely on access to fish whileremaining inside thick cover,typically in wet reedbeds.FORAGING FOR FOOD

The Bittern mostly feeds at the edge of thick reeds,moving slowly, with side-to-side shaking of the wholebody. It may be driven into more open areas byfreezing conditions.

longer-legged

LITTLE BITTERNjuvenile; see p.76

much snakier

Length 33–38cm (13 –15in) Wingspan 49–58cm (191⁄2 –23in) Weight 140–150g (5–51⁄2oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Vulnerable†

Order Ciconiiformes Family Ardeidae Species Ixobrychus minutus

BITTERNS AND HERONS

76

This tiny heron is secretive and usually difficult tosee, except in brief, fast flights low over marshy

areas when the large, oval, pale wing patches catch theeye. Occasionally, one will perch in view near the topof a stem or at the edge of an overhanging willow, andreveal its exquisite pattern. Males, especially, arebeautifully and delicately coloured, with very subtlestriping on the neck and a slight greenish gloss on theblack upperparts.VOICE Short, nasal call; nocturnal “song” ismonotonously repeated single croak.NESTING Small nest of stems in dense reeds or bush;2–7 eggs; 1 brood; May–July.FEEDING Hunts fish, frogs, shrimps, and big aquaticinsects, using stealth and patience and sudden forwardlunges to catch prey.

OCCURRENCEFound from April to October in S and C Europe. Occupies reedbedsby rivers and marshes and alsomuch smaller pools and floodedwillow thickets. Rare springmigrant in UK.

Little Bittern

bright buffneck

greenish gloss onblack upperpartslarge pale

wing patch

AQUATIC HUNTERShallow water with dense cover is ideal hunting territory for LittleBitterns, making them hard to see until they fly.

FLIGHT: quick, low, fast wingbeats, in suddenflurry; low over reedbed.

SIMILAR SPECIES

larger, darker,and spotted

light brownbody

pale wingpatch

black capand back

JUVENILE

streakedbrownback

MALE

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

SQUACCO HERONjuvenile, similar to juvenile;see p.79

� white wings� pale head

NIGHT HERON juvenile,similar to juvenile;see p.77

streakedbelow

IN FLIGHT

MALE

narrowlystreakedneck

FEMALE

BITTERNS AND HERONS

77

Length 58 –65cm (23–26in) Wingspan 90–100cm (35–39in) Weight 600–800g (21–29oz)

Social Roosts and breeds in flocks Lifespan 10–15 years Status Declining

Order Ciconiiformes Family Ardeidae Species Nycticorax nycticorax

Night Herons are mostly active at dusk and dawn,but can be seen quite well by day if discovered

at a roost.They stand on branches within trees andthickets near water, typically looking like motionless,pale spots from a distance. Once located, usuallyseveral are seen, but only when they choose to fly dothe real numbers become apparent, as quite sizeableparties sometimes leave the trees.They feed in near-dark conditions, searching for fish, in typical heronstyle, at the water’s edge.VOICE Deep, low, short, crow-like croak.NESTING Small stick nest in tree or bush; 3–5 eggs;1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Mostly nocturnal, taking small fish andlarge insects from water’s edge.

OCCURRENCEIn waterside habitats, fromreedbeds to tall trees by rivers andlakes, mostly from March toOctober in S and C Europe, butvery localized in most areas. Mayappear farther north in spring;wintering birds may be escapees.

Night Heron

SHALLOW WADERNight Herons fish at the edge of ponds and rivers, frequently being mostactive at dusk but fishing all day when they have young to feed.

SIMILAR SPECIES

BITTERN similar tojuvenile; see p.75more streaked

much smaller

JUVENILE

JUVENILE

JUVENILEADULT

streakedchest

buff breastand neck

FLIGHT: steady, direct; deep beats of slightlyarched wings; sometimes in groups.

IN FLIGHT

broad, roundedwings

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

LITTLE BITTERN 32;see p.76

bigger

black back

short,thickbill

ADULT

thin whiteplumes

blackcap

whiteforehead

yellowtinge

yellow legs(red in spring)

grey wings

dark brown wingsand back

pale spots onback andwings

Length 45 –50cm (18–20in) Wingspan 82–95cm (32–37in) Weight 300–400g (11–14oz)

Social Feeds and roosts in flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure

SIMILAR SPECIES

BITTERNS AND HERONS

Most herons and egretsfeed on fish, but Cattle

Egrets have a specialistlifestyle, following largeanimals and picking upinsects disturbed by theirhooves.They also feed on freshly ploughed earth,finding small prey turned up inthe furrows, and forage on refusetips as well.Towards evening, largeflocks fly in distinctive, shapelessflurries of white, gathering to roost in trees (sometimes close to buildings),often in thousands.VOICE Occasional short, croaking orcreaking notes.NESTING Shallow nest of sticks andreeds in tree; 4 or 5 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Catches insects disturbed bycattle, sheep, and goats; also eats frogs,reptiles, and mice.

OCCURRENCEConfined largely to S Spain andPortugal and extreme S France; rarevagrant farther north. Resident incoastal regions or centred on lakeswith thickets in which it roosts.Feeds in fields and at refuse tips,often associated with livestock.

Cattle Egret

FLIGHT: quick, direct, often in flocks; wingbeatsquite fast and deep.

CATTLE FOLLOWERCattle Egrets typically follow cattle in Europe;in Africa, they gather around great herds ofantelopes, buffaloes, and elephants.

SPARKLING WHITEFlocks in flight present a flickering, tight-packed effect, often looking much whiterthan they may appear on the ground.

Order Ciconiiformes Family Ardeidae Species Bubulcus ibis

78

SUMMER

SUMMER

yellowbillIN FLIGHT

rich buffon back

looks all-whitein flight at longrange

rich buffcrown

yellow bill, reddishin spring

rich buffon breastin spring

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

SUMMER

SQUACCO HERONsee p.79

LITTLE EGRETsee p.80

slimdarkbill

black legswith yellowfeet

smalleranddarker

dark feet

all-whitebody

dull yellowish tobrown legs

WINTER

white bodyand wings

BITTERNS AND HERONS

79

Length 40–49cm (16 –191⁄2 in) Wingspan 71–86cm (28–34in) Weight 230–350g (8–13oz)

Social Loose flocks Lifespan 5–10 years Status Vulnerable

Order Ciconiiformes Family Ardeidae Species Ardeola ralloides

OCCURRENCEMostly in Mediterranean region insummer, in all kinds of freshwaterswamps, from weedy riversides toreedbeds and extensive floods andmarshes. Only rare spring vagrantfarther north.

Squacco Heron

WHITE IN FLIGHTThe bright white wings of the Squacco Heron areobvious only in flight, low over a marsh.

FLIGHT: low, quite quick, with fast beats of slightlyarched wings; feet trail beyond tail.

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

white wings

ADULT(SUMMER)

streakedhead andneck

IN FLIGHT

dull ochre-brown back

ADULT(WINTER)

heavily streakedbreast (streakssofter on juvenile)

pale forewings

blue-grey billwith dark tip

long, streakedhead plumes

tawny-buffback

ADULT(SUMMER)

LITTLE BITTERN 32;see p.76

darkerback

blackwingtips

neat, taperedoval shape

CATTLE EGRETsee p.78

In flight, the Squacco Heron is obvious because its pure whitewings catch the eye at any angle. On the ground, however, it is

an inconspicuous bird, the white all but hidden, the head withdrawninto squat, rounded shoulders.Typically found in overgrown ditchesor streams, or on floating weeds in a larger river or marsh, it is easilyoverlooked unless disturbed.Very much a southern bird inEurope, it is found, very rarely,as a vagrant farther north.VOICE Hoarse, nasal croakingcall, but mostly silent.NESTING Small nest of grassand reeds, low down in reeds;4–6 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Stands on floatingweeds or in thick cover, huntingfish, frogs, and insects.

WING STRETCHThis heron stands with an exaggerated forwardneck stretch and open wings after preening.

SIMILAR SPECIES

larger andmuch whiter

Length 55 –65cm (22–26in) Wingspan 88–106cm (35–42in) Weight 400–600g (14–21oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure

Order Ciconiiformes Family Ardeidae Species Egretta garzetta

BITTERNS AND HERONS

80

Steadily spreading northwardsin western Europe, the Little Egret is a sparkling

white heron of marshes, poolsides, and coasts. It isoften lively, dashing about muddy creeks or even overseaweed-covered rocks in a frenzied fashion; however,like other herons, it spends much time standing still orwading in shallows, looking for prey. Little Egrets areoften found in small, loose feeding flocks; they tend toform evening roosts in traditional spots, and theseattract birds from far afield.VOICE Generally silent.NESTING Stick nest in tree, often mixed with thoseof other heron-like species; 3 or 4 eggs; 1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Catches small fish, frogs, snails, and otherwetland animals; may run around with flapping wings,or move more stealthily.

yellow feet (may bediscoloured by mud)

withdrawn head

slightlybowedwings

all-whiteplumage

IN FLIGHT

black legs

SIMILAR SPECIESOCCURRENCEFound in S Europe, north to S Great Britain, on watersides from rocky coasts to reedy lakes,but especially open, muddy orsandy shores. Breeds in treetopcolonies, often with other heronsand egrets. longer legs

with darkfeet

WINTER

stockier

GREAT WHITE EGRETsee p.81

slim blackishbill

snaky neck

pointedbreastplumes

lacks headand backplumes

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

SOCIAL FEEDINGIn areas where Little Egrets are common, small groups of these birds oftenfeed together, or spread more loosely along a shore.

FLIGHT: direct, quick, with head withdrawn, legstrailing, wings only slightly bowed.

Little Egret bluish on face

shorter,paler bill

SUMMER

SUMMER

CATTLE EGRETsee p.78

fan of plumesover tail

angularshape

muchbigger

BITTERNS AND HERONS

81

Length 85–100cm (34 –39in) Wingspan 1.45–1.7m (43⁄4 –51⁄2ft) Weight 1–1.5kg (21⁄4 –31⁄4 lb)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 10–15 years Status Secure

Order Ciconiiformes Family Ardeidae Species Egretta alba

OCCURRENCESummer visitor, migrant, or wintervisitor within SE Europe, rare at alltimes in W Europe. In reedbedsand extensive floods, or besidebig, more open lakes, or on talltrees near marshes.

Great White Egret

LITTLE EGRETsee p.80

muchsmaller

NESTING ON TREESGreat White Egrets often perch on tall trees overlooking a marsh. Theyare sociable in summer, nesting in colonies in trees.

COURTSHIP DISPLAYIn spring, the Great White Egretspreads its long body plumes in a spectacular courtship display at the nest.

When it stands next to a GreyHeron, the actual size

of the Great White Egret is apparent: it is truly agiant egret, as tall as theheron, if not standinga little higher. Slim,angular, but elegant, thisstunningly white bird is easilyseen at long range. It develops longback plumes in the breeding season, at which time the bill turns blackish.The Great White Egret oftenfeeds in grassy, relatively dry, places, leaning forward,sometimes with a fast, shimmering tremor through the whole body as it homes in on its prey.VOICE Mostly silent.NESTING Shallow plat-form of sticks in tree; 2–5eggs; 1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Catches fish,amphibians, and smallmammals in wet places.

IN FLIGHT

SUMMER

archedwings

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

FLIGHT: slow, direct, on arched wings; heavier,slower than Little Egret.

all-white plumage(long back plumesin summer)

WINTER

yellowishor blackishlegs withdark feet

SIMILAR SPECIES

yellowfeet

very longneck

yellow bill, often darkat tip

WINTER

Length 90 –98cm (35–39in) Wingspan 1.75–1.95m (53⁄4 –61⁄2ft) Weight 1.6–2kg (31⁄2 –41⁄2 lb)

Social Solitary/Small flocks Lifespan Up to 25 years Status Secure

Order Ciconiiformes Family Ardeidae Species Ardea cinerea

BITTERNS AND HERONS

82

SIMILAR SPECIES OCCURRENCEFrequents both freshwater andsaltwater habitats, from salt marshand rocky coasts to floods and fishponds almost throughout Europe.Some regularly visit garden pondsor town lakes, especially in winterwhen much habitat is frozen.

Grey Heron

PURPLE HERONsee p.83

pale greybody

white forehead

dagger-like,yellow, orange,or pink bill (dullexcept in spring)

slimmer andbrowner thin

neck

longerbill

FLIGHT: direct, on broad, strongly arched wings,head withdrawn, feet trailing; also higher, or divingdown from height with aerobatic twists and turns.

SLOW, SILENT MOVERThis heron strides silently throughshallows or long vegetation. Itstands still for long spells.

ADULT

long, narrow,black neckplume

long legs

pale greyon head

spottedforeneck

no crest

IN FLIGHT

Usually moving slowly or standing quite still beside a pool or river, this large, pale

grey heron is unmistakable. It may, however, looktall and slim with a long, erect neck, or round-shouldered andhunched with its head and neck withdrawn into the shoulders; itmay also stand high in a treetop, or fly with surprising agility highoverhead. It is typically shy, but in towns becomes remarkably boldand many now visit garden fish ponds on early-morning raids.VOICE Short, harsh fraink; rattling and croaking sounds at nest.NESTING Large nest ofthick sticks in treetop (orbush where no tree isavailable); 4 or 5 eggs;1 brood; January–May.FEEDING Catches fish,frogs, rats, and other preyin its bill, usually afterlong, patient stalk before sudden strike.

PERCHINGThe Grey Heron may sometimes be found perched on a treetop, usuallyin a hunched posture, with its head and neck drawn into the shoulders.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

black spots onwhite foreneck

grey-blackwingtips

JUVENILE

ADULT

broad, stronglyarched wings

withdrawnhead

BITTERNS AND HERONS

83

Length 70 –90cm (28–35in) Wingspan 1.1–1.45m (31⁄2 –43⁄4ft) Weight 1–1.5kg (21⁄4 –31⁄4 lb)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 23 years Status Vulnerable

Order Ciconiiformes Family Ardeidae Species Ardea purpurea

Purple Heron

SIMILAR SPECIES

muchstockier

snaky headand neck

dark stripes onbright gingerneck

dark reddishshoulder patch

rich tawnyunderparts

dark back withpaler, buff plumes

arched wingsnarrow at base

steel-greymidwingpatch

deep neckbulge

ADULT

stockierand paler

muchstockier

thickneck

GREY HERONsee p.82

BITTERNsee p.75

JUVENILE

FLIGHT: strong, steady, on arched wings with morecurved trailing edge than Grey Heron’s, neck creatingdeeper bulge, larger feet sometimes obvious.

FISHINGA secretive bird, the Purple Heron typically waits patiently at the water’s edgeor strides through reeds in search of prey.

Much more of a reedbed bird than the Grey Heron, the Purple Heron is consequently

more difficult to see unless it flies over the reeds orchooses to feed at the edge of a reedy pool. Itbreeds in small groups, but is generally a less socialbird than most herons. It has often been predictedthat the Purple Heron will spread north and breedin the UK, but this has so far failed to develop: itremains a rather rare visitor north of its usual range.VOICE Short, simple, harsh krekk.NESTING Large pile of reed stems and othervegetation, often in reeds, sometimes in trees; 4 or 5eggs; 1 brood; February–June.FEEDING Catches small fish, frogs, and aquatic

invertebrates in its long, slender bill.

OCCURRENCEGenerally more southerly bird than Grey Heron, absent from N Europe. Typically in reedymarshes, tall sedge beds, and wetmeadows. Migrants appear northof breeding range in reedbeds andovergrown flooded areas.

long, slim,spear-likebill

J A S OMA J

brownbody

thin stripeson face

palerneck

reddish underwing

large toes

widerwings

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

IN FLIGHT

ADULT

stouterbill

STORKS/FLAMINGOS

84

Families Ciconiidae, Threskiornithidae

STORKS

OF THE TWO SPECIES OF STORK in Europe,one species, the White Stork, is able to

live close to people, exploiting buildings andelectricity pylons as nesting places and feedingextensively on refuse tips. It is, however, underpressure from the destruction of freshwaterhabitats and the spread of intensive agriculture.The Black Stork is, in contrast, a forest bird andoften nests on remote cliffs.

Family Phoenicopteridae

FLAMINGOS

THIS FAMILY OF EXTRAORDINARY birdsincludes very few species, scattered world-

wide, and only one, the Greater Flamingo, isfound in Europe. It breeds in just a few largecolonies, including one at the Camargue insouthern France and one in southern Spain, butis regularly seen in sizeable flocks at a number of other shallow, salty lagoons around theMediterranean, its only habitat type.

Both are migrants, spending the winter far southin Africa. White Storks migrate in huge flocks,creating exciting birdwatching as they cross theMediterranean at the narrowest point, as theymust glide and soar to save energy and can onlygain the benefit of rising air over land. BlackStorks may migrate alone or in smaller groups,but can be seen with other large migrants, suchas eagles and kites, over the sea, or through

mountain passes. They may be forced downtemporarily by poor weather.

Nesting colonies are on very low islands, eachnest being built up from the mud: nests arevulnerable to flooding, or to falls in water levelthat allow predators to reach the colony. Theflamingos may rear very few young for severalyears but periodically have a “boom” year thatmaintains their numbers.Young birds congregatein dense “crèches” and later tend to gather aroundthe outer fringes of large flocks.

FROG FINDERThe Black Stork feeds on all kinds of smallcreatures, such as frogs, found in shallowwater or on wet meadows.

SPECTACULAR DISPLAYGreater Flamingos gather togetherand raise their heads high insynchronized “marching” displays.

One of Europe’s largest and most

boldly patterned birds,the White Stork creates aspectacular sight when it gathers in thousands onmigration to make the narrowest sea crossingspossible, at Gibraltar and Istanbul.Although stillwidespread, it is declining in much of its range asfarming becomes ever more intense and wetlandsdrier or more polluted. Reintroduction schemeshave helped in northwest Europe but leave theorigin of some western vagrants in some doubt.VOICE Silent, but rattles bill loudly at nest.NESTING Large, bulky nest of sticks on pole, tower,or roof of tall house, or in tree; 2–4 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Catches various aquatic insects, smallrodents, frogs and toads, and small fish in damp places

or shallow water.

STORKS

85

Length 0.95–1.1m (3 –31⁄2ft) Wingspan 1.8–2.18m (6–71⁄4ft) Weight 2.5–4.5kg (51⁄2 –10lb)

Social Migrates in flocks Lifespan Up to 25 years Status Vulnerable

Order Ciconiiformes Family Ciconiidae Species Ciconia ciconia

OCCURRENCEBreeds in mainland Europe otherthan far north, and migrates toAfrica in winter. Feeds on openland near marshes, rivers, andlakes, including edges of townsand villages where it often nestson high perches.

White Stork

SIMILAR SPECIES

FLIGHT: direct flight low, on long, flat, fingeredwings, neck outstretched; soars magnificently, oftenin swirling flocks.

IN FLIGHT

broad, fingeredwings

outstretchedhead

white body,often soiled

ADULT

ADULT

long, stoutred legs;majestic walk

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

WHITE PELICANshort legs; see p.406

GREY HERONbowed wings inflight; see p.82

flat wings whengliding

ADULT

grey (black andwhite in strongsun)

black rearwings

trailinglegs

PERCHING AT NESTWhite Storks often build their nest on rooftops, the size of the nestsrendering them visible at great range. The birds are typically seenstanding erect at their rooftop nests.

long red bill(dark grey onjuvenile)

neck withdrawnin flight

86

STORKS

Length 90–105cm (35 –41in) Wingspan 1.1–1.45m (31⁄2 –43⁄4ft) Weight 2.5–3kg (51⁄2 –61⁄2 lb)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 20 years Status Rare

Order Ciconiiformes Family Ciconiidae Species Ciconia nigra

86

OCCURRENCEOccupies extensive forests,marshes, and rocky areas mostly in Spain, Portugal, and E Europe,in summer. Migrates to Africaeach autumn and very few areseen outside regular range.

Black Stork

white belly

JUVENILE

long redlegs

whitewingpits

black chest

long blackneck

dagger-like, brightred bill

blackish plumagewith green andpurple gloss

Much less familiar than the stockier White Stork, the Black Stork is

a shier species which prefers wildercountry with extensive forests, marshes,and isolated crags. It is a rare birdthroughout its range, wintering in Africaand returning quite late in spring. Smallnumbers can be seen on migration overthe Pyrenees and a few “overshoot”to unexpected places in spring.VOICE Generally silent except forrasping notes at nest.NESTING Big, bulkystructure of sticks on rock ledge or high up in canopy of large trees;2–4 eggs; 1 brood;May–July.FEEDING Hunts frogs,newts, toads, and aquaticinsects in wet places, andpicks them up in its long,slim bill.

red around eye

dull greenishbill

paler legs

AT THE NESTBlack Storks nest in remote areas,not in towns or villages as doWhite Storks.

ADULT

ADULT

ADULT

FLIGHT: powerful, direct; on long, fingered, flatwings with steady beats and long glides; mastersoarer in upcurrents.

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

long, fingeredwings

flat wingswhile gliding

white headand breast

whitechest

longtail

IN FLIGHT

WHITE STORKsimilar in flight;see p.85

CORMORANTjuvenilesuperficiallysimilar in flight;see p.72

dull greenishblack back

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 80 –93cm (32–37in) Wingspan 1.2–1.35m (4–41⁄2ft) Weight 1–1.5kg (21⁄4 –31⁄4 lb)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 25–30 years Status Endangered

87

Order Ciconiiformes Family Threskiornithidae Species Platalea leucorodia

OCCURRENCEMostly found in E Europe, locallyin W, breeding around reedy lakeswith surrounding bushes, butfeeds on extensive salt pans,coastal marshes, and other areasof shallow water. Very few winterin W Europe.

Spoonbill bushy crest

spoon-shapedblack bill,tipped yellow

thickblack legs

IMMATURE

blackwingtips

much smallerand slimmer smaller

bill

orange patchunder chin

pink bill turnsblack withage

all-whiteunderwings

all-white body

LITTLE EGRETsee p.80

ADULT

FLIGHT: strong, direct, swan-like, with headoutstretched; regular wingbeats.

ADULT

ADULT

IN FLIGHT

STORKS

JUVENILE

Equipped with a flattened, broad-tipped bill, the Spoonbill isheron-like, but as white as an egret. It is a bird of marshes and

lakes with extensive shallow water, but in winter it may also befound on coastal estuaries, striding through the shallows with itsrather human-like walk.This, and its tall, upstanding presence, makeit an unmistakable bird in Europe.VOICE Silent.NESTING Shallow platform of sticksand reed stems in reeds or tree; incolonies, rarely mixed with other species;3 or 4 eggs; 1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Holds bill slightly open,partially submerged, and sweeps itthrough water from side to side, tocatch fish, molluscs, and crustaceans.

SIDEWAYS SWEEPThe Spoonbill wades slowly forwards in shallow water,sweeping its partly open bill sideways until it detectsfood; the bill is then snapped shut on the prey.

SIMILAR SPECIES

FLYING FLOCKLines and chevrons of Spoonbillstend to coordinate short glidesbetween spells of steady wingbeats.

outstretchedhead

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

shortlegs

shortbill

MUTE SWANsimilar in flight; see p.90

Length 1.2–1.45m (4 –43⁄4ft) Wingspan 1.4–1.7m (41⁄2 –51⁄2ft) Weight 3–4kg (61⁄2 –83⁄4 lb)

Social Large flocks Lifespan Up to 20 years Status Localized

Order Phoenicopteriformes Family Phoenicopteridae Species Phoenicopterus ruber

FLAMINGOS

88

SIMILAR SPECIES OCCURRENCEBreeds in a few places on largesalty lakes in Spain, Portugal, S France, Sardinia, and Turkey; morewidespread in Mediterranean asnon-breeding bird, both on saltpans and natural lakes, usually invery open, exposed areas.

Greater Flamingo

outstretched neck

red patch onnarrow wings

FLYING FLOCKFlocks form irregular shapes orlong, trailing lines while flying.

IN FLIGHT

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

black wingtips

FLIGHT: direct, quick, with neck outstretched andlegs trailed giving spear shape, with narrow wings.

greyishbody

dark greylegs

IMMATURE ADULT

greybill

extremelylong neck

whitish to palepink plumage

long, palepink legs

bright pink billwith black tip

CHILEAN FLAMINGOescapee

� grey legs with pink “knees”

� may be found on lakes of northwest Europe

ADULT

Flamingos, of which there are a handful of species worldwide, areinstantly recognizable.The downcurved bill, long neck, long legs,

and red-splashed wings of the Greater Flamingo create a dramaticand easily identified bird, one of the moreexotic in appearance in Europe.Although smallgroups occur, most live and nest in large flocks.Single birds found away from the main rangeare usually escapees.VOICE Loud, deep honking; cackling notesgive goose-like chorus.NESTING Small pillar of mud in shallow water,safe from land-based predators; 1 egg; 1 brood;April–May.FEEDING Sweeps its bill, upside down, throughshallow water, picking up tiny crustaceans;often in very shallow water but also while thebird is belly-deep, or swimming like a swan.

WADING FLOCKFlocks of Greater Flamingos typically stand in the shallows, or wade more deeplyinto the water in long lines. Sometimes they swim like swans.

89

WILDFOWL

THIS LARGE GROUP OF water birds splitsinto clear groups, with a few “in between”

species. They have webbed feet, rather short butspecialized bills, and swim well, although manyspend much of their time on dry land.

DUCKSThe two main groups are surface feeders (ordabbling ducks) and diving ducks. The formerfeed on land or from the water surface (sievingfood through their bills, gleaning grain, pluckingvegetation), sometimes tipping over (“upending”)but rarely diving. The diving ducks feed beneaththe surface, diving as they swim (not plungingfrom the air): some are animal feeders, othersvegetarian; some species feed at night.

SHELDUCKS A few large species fall between ducks andgeese, with an easy walk and rather long legsand neck, but in other respects they are morelike the true ducks.

GEESEGeese are mostly large and terrestrial, feeding ondry land or marshes but returning to water (a lakeor the sea) each night for a safe roost. They aresocial, flying in large flocks with loud, evocativecalls – among the finest sights in Europe in winter.

WILDFOWL

Family Anatidae

SWANSEuropean swans areall-white when adult(elsewhere there are black and white species).They are longer-necked than the geese, tendingto be more aquatic, but also feed extensively ondrier ground, often in mixed flocks.

SEA DUCKThe Eider is a marine bird in thenorth and west of Europe, feedinglargely on seabed shellfish.

LAND OR WATERDucks like Wigeon feed on grassyareas and in shallow water, easilyslipping between the two. Theyare highly gregarious.

THROBBING WINGSThe Mute Swan makes a uniquehumming noise with its wingswhile flying.

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 1.4–1.6m (41⁄2 –51⁄4ft) Wingspan 2.08–2.38m (63⁄4 –73⁄4ft) Weight 10–12kg (22–26lb)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 15–20 years Status Secure

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Cygnus olor

WILDFOWL

90

Mute Swanall-whiteplumage

reddish orange bill,angled down

long neck,often curvedor upright

relatively long,pointed tail

ADULT

NESTThe nest is a large mound ofvegetation built at the water’sedge. The female lays up to 8 eggs and incubates them.

smaller

black andyellow bill

BEWICK’S SWANsee p.92

wedge-shapedhead

WHOOPER SWANsee p.91

blackand yellowbill

black facial knob

OCCURRENCEMany breed on park lakes andother small pools, others onnatural lakes, reservoirs, and rivers, almost throughout Europe;in W Europe, commonly seen onsheltered sea coasts and marshes.May join other swans feeding onflat, open fields.

JUVENILE

SHELTEREDYOUNGSmall cygnets seekshelter and refugebetween the wingsof a parent swan.

THREATDISPLAYWhen threatened, theMute Swan raises itswings like sails, lowersits head, and makes aloud, rough hiss.

Alarge, familiar bird,strikingly white and obvious

even at great range, the Mute Swan is generally quite tame, evensemi-domesticated in its behaviour and choice of habitat.Territorialpairs are aggressive, even to people or their dogs, using impressivedisplays of arched wings and loud, hissing calls. In somefloodplains, small groups regularly feed on dryland, a habit that is more consistent with thetwo “wild swans”, Bewick’s and Whooper.VOICE Strangled trumpeting and hissing notes.NESTING Huge pile of vegetation at water’sedge; up to 8 eggs; 1 brood; March–June.FEEDING Plucks vegetable matter from shortgrass in fields and salt marshes, pulls the samefrom shallow water, or upends in deeper water.

FLIGHT: heavy but powerful, direct, with neckoutstretched; strong, regular wingbeats producethrobbing sound.

grey-brown plumagebecomes blotchedwhite

greybill

outstretchedneck

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

ADULT

IN FLIGHT

SIMILAR SPECIES

WILDFOWL

91

Length 1.4–1.6m (41⁄2 –51⁄4ft) Wingspan 2.05–2.35m (63⁄4 –73⁄4 ft) Weight 9–11kg (20–24lb)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Cygnus cygnus

OCCURRENCEBreeds in Scandinavia and Icelandon remote pools; in winter locallyacross NW and C to SE Europe onlarge lakes and marshes. Increasingnumbers winter on reserves withBewick’s Swans, taking advantageof artificial feeding.

FLIGHT: powerful and direct; regular wingbeatswith little wing noise.

UPRIGHT NECKSWhooper Swans have long, slim necks, held upright,with head horizontal, when alert.

DENSE FLOCKSWhooper Swans are found in dense flocks on a fewnature reserves where they are fed.

blacktipall-white

plumage

ADULT

slenderneck

smaller

reddishorange bill

less yellow on bill

rounderhead

BEWICK’S SWANsee p.92

MUTE SWANsee p.90

ADULT(TAKING OFF)

ADULT

Whooper Swan

JUVENILE

greyishbody

horizontal,pinkish or creamy,black-tipped bill

short legs

Alarger version of Bewick’s Swan, butbreeding in less northerly areas, the Whooper

Swan often winters in separate areas, although in places it can be found together with the Mute Swan and Bewick’s Swan.TheWhooper Swan is a wild, usually shy bird, far less approachable thanthe Mute Swan and, like Bewick’s, usually more terrestrial.Althoughequally large, it is a more agile bird than the Mute Swan; however,the Whooper Swan lacks the arch-necked elegance (it holds its neckbolt upright and head horizontal) and rich bill colours of the latter.VOICE Loud trumpeting call, slightly lower-pitched; simpler buglingthan Bewick’s Swan, often three or four syllables instead of two.NESTING Big, domed structure of grass and reed stems at water’sedge or built up from bottom ofshallow lake; 5–8 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Plucks leaves andstems from short vegetation ondry ground, or digs roots andwaste crops from ploughedearth; feeds on aquatic plantsmostly in summer.

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

long, flatforeheadand bill

short tail

IN FLIGHT

long yellowwedge on sideof bill extendsbeyond nostrils

long neck

Length 1.15–1.27m (33⁄4 –41⁄4ft) Wingspan 1.8–2.1m (6–7ft) Weight 5–6.5kg (11–141⁄4 lb)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Localized

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Cygnus columbianus

92

WILDFOWL

The smallest of the swans, Bewick’s Swan istypically rather stocky, although it can look

surprisingly thin-necked at times. Unlike the MuteSwan, this is a thoroughly wild swan, although incertain places where it is fed in winter, it has becomemuch more approachable. It is a very vocal bird,especially in flocks, its conversational chorus oftenpenetrating the winter gloom over long distances.VOICE Loud, bugling notes, less strident ortrumpeting than Whooper Swan; often soft,conversational chorus from flocks.NESTING Pile of grass stems and similar vegetation at edge of pool in tundra; 3–5 eggs; 1 brood;May–June.FEEDING Often grazes on grass or cereal crops, or eatsroot crops in ploughed fields; feeds less often in water.REMARK Subspecies C. c. columbianus (NorthAmerica, very rare in Europe) has tiny yellow spot on black bill.

SIMILAR SPECIESOCCURRENCEBreeds in N Siberia. In winter, movesto lowlands of W Europe, mostlyagricultural land, usually intraditional areas, occupied year afteryear. In some places, concentrateson reserves where it is fed.

Bewick’s Swan rounded yellowbill patch fallsshort of nostrils

rounded head concave bill

pale bill withdark tip

short,squaretail

all-whiteplumage

ADULT

FLIGHT: direct, strong; regular wingbeats, withsimple quiet whistle from feathers at close range, noloud, throbbing sound.

IN FLIGHT

dark legs,rarelyyellow

fairly thickneck

tightly closedwings

WHOOPER SWANsee p.91

longer bill,more yellow

larger

MIXED FLOCKBewick’s Swans, mixed with other wildfowl, including Mute andWhooper Swans, can be watched closely from hides at several reserves.Elsewhere they are shy and wild.

YELLOW BILLAny swan with yellow on the baseof the bill will be a wild migrant towestern Europe: a Bewick’s or aWhooper Swan.

largerSeen in the UK

J A S O N DJ F M MA J

IMMATURE

dull greyishbody

MUTE SWANsee p.90

orangeon bill

ADULT

WILDFOWL

93

Length 65–78cm (26 –31in) Wingspan 1.3–1.65m (41⁄4 –51⁄2ft) Weight 1.9–2.5kg (41⁄4 –51⁄2 lb)

Social Flocks Lifespan 15–20 years Status Secure

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Anser albifrons

OCCURRENCEBreeds in Greenland and far N Russia. Winters on pastures andcoastal marshes in Great Britain,Ireland, Low Countries, S France,and E Europe. Often with, or near,other geese in winter, sometimesin huge flocks.

White-fronted Goosewhite forehead blaze

pink bill

oily-brown bodylooks greyer instrong sun

outstretchedhead and neck

IN FLIGHT

ADULT

vivid orange legs

no black barsbelow

orangelegs

pale barson back

WATERSIDE GOOSEWater is essential for drinking and also as a safe refuge for night-timeroosts. Floods, broad rivers, and estuaries are preferred.

JUVENILE

FLIGHT: flies in lines, “V”s , or irregular packs,head and neck outstretched.

grey onwings

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

small,brightpink bill

yelloweye-ring

pink bill with darktipblack bars

on belly

larger

GREYLAG GOOSEsee p.96

LESSER WHITE-FRONTED GOOSEsee p.408

SIMILAR SPECIES

ADULT

broad dark tail-band

One of the most colourful and lively of the grey geese,the White-fronted Goose returns each winter to

regular locations. Its flocks often attract stragglers of otherspecies, and hence are particularly significant for bird-watchers. Knowledge of this, more common, species andits variable appearance in different lighting conditions isvaluable when trying to identify other geese.VOICE High, yodelling,yelping notes, kyu-yu, ku-yu-yu or lo-lyok.NESTING Down-fillednest on ground; 5 or 6eggs; 1 brood; June.FEEDING Grazes on firmground during steadyforward walk, taking grass,roots, some winter wheat,and grain.

SUBSPECIES

broadbellybars

orange bill

A. a. flavirostris(Greenland)

pinklegs

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 66 –84cm (26–33in) Wingspan 1.47–1.75m (43⁄4 –53⁄4ft) Weight 2.6–3.2kg (53⁄4 –7lb)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Anser fabalis

WILDFOWL

94

This large, social goosereturns each winter to

traditional areas, feeding in thesame fields and roosting on thesame lakes year after year.A dark browngoose, it has two basic forms, one long-neckedand long-billed, the other shorter-necked and more like a Pink-footed Goose in appearance. Except in the Low Countries it is ascarce bird, not usually seen in large numbers. Its long, dark headand neck and cleanly barred back help to identify it in flocks ofWhite-fronted Geese, withwhich it sometimes mingles.VOICE Deep, two- or three-syllable trumpeting, ung-ung orunk-uk-uk.NESTING Down- and feather-lined hollow on ground near bogpools, in open tundra or in forestclearings; 4–6 eggs; 1 brood; June.FEEDING Grazes on short grass;picks up grain and root crops fromstubble or ploughed fields, often intraditional areas used for decades.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in N Scandinavia on bogsand tundra pools. In winter, mostlyaround S Baltic/North Sea and E Europe; one flock in England,one in Scotland. These are intraditional sites, threatened bydisturbance and habitat change.

Bean Goose

yellow-orangelegs

pale brownbreast

orange bandon black bill

cream bars across brownback (less regular bars onjuvenile)

ADULT

ADULT

FLIGHT: strong and direct, long neck obvious; inlines of “V”s.

IN FLIGHT

finewhitetail tip

broad darktail-band

PINK-FOOTED GOOSEsee p.95

GREYLAG GOOSEpale grey on wingsin flight; see p.96

pink legs

palebill

pink onshortbill

pink legs

greyerandpaler

FLOCKSBean Geese feed in flocks, attimes mixing with other geese,often on arable land.

dark brownhead

SUBSPECIES

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

shorterneck

orangepatchon bill

dark greywings

extendedneck

A. f. rossicus(NW Siberia)

SIMILAR SPECIES

WILDFOWL

95

Length 64–76cm (25 –30in) Wingspan 1.37–1.61m (41⁄2 –51⁄4ft) Weight 2.5–2.7kg (51⁄2 –6lb)

Social Large flocks Lifespan 10–20 years Status Secure

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Anser brachyrhynchus

With large population increases in recent decades,the Pink-footed Goose is found in tens of

thousands in favoured places, with regular dailyfeeding and roosting regimes. Evening flights to theroosts, especially, are spectacular, unless the feedinggeese are encouraged to stay away all night under thelight of a full moon. By day, they feed in dense flockson fields, and are sometimes surprisingly difficult tolocate.They are usually wary and difficult to approach.VOICE Like Bean Goose but less deep, resonant ahng-unk and frequent higher wink-wink.NESTING Down-lined nest on ground in opentundra and exposed rocky slopes; 4–6 eggs; 1 brood;June–July.FEEDING Large flocks eat grass, waste grain, sugarbeet tops, carrots, and potatoes.

Pink-footed Goose

FEEDING IN FLOCKSPink-footed Geese generally feed in dense groups with much noise andactivity. They frequently mix with other geese species.

ADULT

ADULT

narrow dark tail-band

white-barred, palegrey back (browner,less neatly barred on juvenile)

darker bars on flanks

pale to richpink legs

very dark, roundhead contrasts withpale breast

small bill withpink bandbroad

whitetail tip

OCCURRENCEBreeds in Greenland, Iceland, andSvalbard. Moves to Great Britainand Low Countries in winter,roosting on large lakes, estuaries,and low-lying islands offshore;feeding on marshes, pasture, andarable land, close to coast.

FLIGHT: direct, strong flight, head and neck short;forms long lines and “V” shapes.

BEAN GOOSEsee p.94

longerneck

larger

heavierpalebill

darker andbrowner

orangelegs

GREYLAG GOOSEsee p.96

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

pale greywings

IN FLIGHT

dark underwings

ADULT

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 74 –84cm (29–33in) Wingspan 1.49–1.68m (5–51⁄2ft) Weight 2.9–3.7kg (61⁄2 –81⁄4 lb)

Social Flocks Lifespan 15–20 years Status Secure

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Anser anser

WILDFOWL

96

Of all grey geese, the Greylag (thedirect ancestor of the domestic

goose) most resembles the farmyardgoose. It is also the most easily seen greygoose in the UK because it has beenintroduced in many lowland areas wheresizeable flocks are now semi-tame andresident all year round.Winter visitorsare still wild and shy. In much of easternand central Europe, the Greylag isnaturally resident in extensive marshes.VOICE Loud, clattering, and honkingnotes like farmyard bird, ahng-ahng-ahng,kang-ank.NESTING Sparsely lined ground nest,often on island; 4–6 eggs; 1 brood;May–June.FEEDING Grazes; plucks grass and cerealshoots, digs for roots and waste grain.

OCCURRENCEBreeds widely in Europe. Largenumbers from Iceland visit NWEurope in winter, coming tocoastal marshes and pastures.Introduced (feral) birds common insome places, including S Englandand Scotland where they areresident and far less wild than most.

Greylag Goose

pink legs (rarely orange)

large palebody

brown-grey plumage(less neatly barredon juvenile)

large orangebill

pale, plainhead

FEEDINGThe Greylag Goose, like all grey geese, has a horizontal, head-downposture when feeding and shows a striking white rear.

PINK-FOOTED GOOSEsee p.95

BEAN GOOSEsee p.94

orangelegs

darker head

darkerhead

darkergrey onwings

very pale greyupperwings

outstretchedhead

pale underwings

ADULT

ADULT

SLOW FLIERSFlocks of Greylag Geese in flight are rather slower andheavier than other grey geese but become agile whenlosing height before landing.

FLIGHT: powerful, head outstretched; in “V”s andlong lines.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

smaller

ADULT

IN FLIGHT

SIMILAR SPECIES

WILDFOWL

97

Length 90–110cm (35 –43in) Wingspan 1.5–1.8m (5–6ft) Weight 4.3–5kg (91⁄2 –11lb)

Social Flocks Lifespan 20–25 years Status Localized

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Branta canadensis

OCCURRENCEMostly in UK, Scandinavia, andLow Countries, on marshes,reservoirs, and flooded pits orsurrounding grassland. Very fewwild vagrants from North Americaare seen with other geese in W Europe in winter.

Canada Goose

swan-shaped, brownbody (juvenile duller)

black legs

white rump

BARNACLE GOOSEsee p.98

black breast

smaller andgreyer

white face

FLIGHT: strong, heavy but fast; with regularwingbeats; often in “V”s.

FAMILY GROUPThe male and the female Canada Geese arealike and the goslings soon look like dullerversions of their parents.

Originally imported fromNorth America as an

ornamental bird, the Canada Gooseis now well established in many areasas a largely resident and rather tamebird, with little of the romance of “wildgeese”. Most have lost their migratoryinstinct.A remarkably successful and adaptablebird, it is sometimes considered a messy andaggressive pest in town parks. It often mingleswith equally “artificial” groups of introducedGreylags.The Canada Goose is, nevertheless,a handsome bird.VOICE Deep, loud, two-syllable,rising ah-ronk!NESTING Down-linedscrape on ground, often onsmall island; looselycolonial; 5 or 6 eggs;1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Grazes ongrass and cereals, takessome aquatic plants.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

GREYLAG GOOSE XCANADA GOOSE HYBRID

� duller head/face patterns

� orange bill� often pinkish legs

IN FLIGHT

ADULT

ADULT

white chinstrap

black bill

HONKING PARTIESFlocks of Canada Geese usuallydraw attention to themselves bytheir loud, honking calls.

palebreast

white undertail

tail and wingtipsheld high

black headand neck

FLOCK ON WATERBig flocks of Canada Geese are often seenon ornamental lakes in undisturbed estates.

ADULT

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 58–70cm (23 –28in) Wingspan 1.32–1.45m (41⁄4 –43⁄4ft) Weight 1.5–2kg (31⁄4 –41⁄2 lb)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 18 years Status Localized

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Branta leucopsis

WILDFOWL

98

Few birds so numerous as this are restricted to suchlocalized, traditional wintering sites. Barnacle

Geese are predictably found, mostly on protectedareas, from autumn until late spring, and are generallyrather shy and unapproachable except when viewedfrom hides.They are not nearly so widespread asCanada Geese and, except for a handful of escapeesand semi-tame groups, not so “suburbanized”.Adultbirds have strongly contrasted upper- and underparts,while the juveniles are duller and lack the cream tingeon the white face, which is so evident in the adults.VOICE Harsh, short bark, creating chattering,yapping, unmusical chorus from flocks.NESTING Feather-lined nest on ground or on cliffledges in Arctic tundra; 4–6 eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Large flocks graze on grass, clover, andsimilar vegetation.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in Greenland and Svalbardwith populations remainingseparate all year. Mostly in Iceland,W Scotland, Ireland, and LowCountries in winter, with migrantsthrough Baltic, on grassy pasturesand salt marshes.

Barnacle Goose

whiteunderside

ADULT

CONTRASTED COLOURSBarnacle Geese, like other goosespecies, are especially prone toshowing strong contrasts in lowwinter sun.

IN FLIGHT

IRREGULAR FLOCKFlocks of Barnacle Geese formirregular packs in flight, not “V”sor chevrons.

glossyblack neckand chest

ADULT

FLIGHT: strong, quick; flocks form irregular packs.

CANADA GOOSEsee p.97

smaller anddarker

white chinstrap

brown backdarkface

small, stubbyblack bill

blue-grey back withblack and white bars(irregular on juvenile)

pale greywings

cream-tinged white face(pure white on juvenile)

black eyepatch

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

BRENT GOOSEsee p.99

ADULT

ADULT

strongly contrastedwings and underside

SIMILAR SPECIES

WILDFOWL

99

Length 56 –61cm (22–24in) Wingspan 1.1–1.21m (3 1⁄2 –4ft) Weight 1.3–1.6kg (23⁄4 –31⁄2 lb)

Social Flocks Lifespan 12–15 years Status Localized

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Branta bernicla

OCCURRENCEBreeds on Arctic tundra. Mostlywinters in Great Britain, Ireland,and Low Countries, with largemigrations through Baltic. Pale-bellied birds from Greenlandwinter separately from dark-belliedSiberian breeders.

Brent Goose

FLIGHT: fast, strong; deep, quick wingbeats; inirregular masses or long lines.

white patch highon neck (absenton juvenile)

dark grey-brownupperparts

black legs

IN FLIGHT

pale bars acrosswings

BARNACLE GOOSEsee p.98

CANADA GOOSEsee p.97

whiteface

white chinstrap

ADULT(DARK-BELLIED)

JUVENILE

black head

black bill

ESTUARY BIRDBrent Geese arecommonly seen scatteredover estuary mud and theadjacent arable land atlow tide (pale-belliedbirds pictured).

SUBSPECIES

In winter, this goose of low-lying, often muddy, coasts is common and increasingly tame in

many areas, coming into estuaries and harbours and even feeding onroadside fields at high tide. Flocks are often on water, upending likeducks in order to feed.At low tide most arescattered over estuary mud or in theremaining narrow channels.Their pleasant,growling calls are far-carrying and typical ofmany estuaries from October to March.Although little longer than a Mallard, theBrent Goose usually looks much bigger.VOICE Rhythmic, deep, throaty rronk rronk,creating loud, murmuring chorus from large flocks.NESTING Feather-lined nest on ground nearshallow pool;4–6 eggs; 1 brood;May–June.FEEDING Eatseelgrass and algaeon mudflats,increasingly cerealsand grass on fields.

muchbigger

much paler

whitishunderparts

bold whitestern

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

uniform wingsbrownunderside

black chest

ADULT (DARK-BELLIED)

B. b. hrota(Ireland, NE England)

B. b. nigricans(vagrant fromNorth America)

whitecollar

blackishbelly

whiteflanks

LOOSE FLOCKLoose flocks of Brent Geese rise from creeksand muddy channels.

Length 58 –65cm (23–26in) Wingspan 1.1–1.33m (31⁄2 –41⁄4ft) Weight 0.85–1.4kg (13⁄4 –3lb)

Social Flocks Lifespan 5–15 years Status Secure

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Tadorna tadorna

WILDFOWL

100

Mostly but not exclusively coastal, the Shelduck is widespreadand easily identified. Family groups gather together in late

summer when most adults fly to the Helgoland Bight (Germany) tomoult; at other times, pairs or small, loose flocks are usual.The brightwhite plumage is easily visible at great range acrossdark estuary mud.With the ever-increasing number ofgravel workings in lowland areas, Shelducks have beenable to spread inland to take advantage of newlyflooded, worked-out pits.VOICE Goose-like a-ank and growled grah grah;various whistling notes from male and rhythmicgagagagaga from female in spring.NESTING In holes on ground, between straw bales, inold buildings, under brambles, and also in trees;8–10 eggs; 1 brood; February–August.FEEDING Typically sweeps bill from side to side overwet mud to find algae, snails, and small crustaceans; alsograzes and upends in shallow water.

OCCURRENCEWidespread as breeding andwintering bird on coasts but only locally in Mediterranean.Mostly found on sandy or muddyshores, especially shelteredestuaries, with some onfreshwater lakes, reservoirs, orflooded pits well inland.

Shelduckbold blackwingtips

black head

GRAZING DUCKSPairs of Shelducks may sometimes be found feeding around the shores oflakes and reservoirs.

IN FLIGHT

whitebody

pink legs

IMMATURE

MALLARD 3similar to 32;see p.101

SIMILAR SPECIES

greyerbody

yellowbill

darkgreenhead

UPENDINGShelducks often upend to feed onsubmerged plants and animals.

pink orgrey bill

whiteunderside

grey legs

brown-black capred knob on

forehead

FEMALE

FLIGHT: strong, fast-flying, but rather heavy,goose-like action.

tawny orangeband aroundforeparts

paler patchon cheek

no knobon bill

brightred bill

broad orangeband aroundchest

MALE

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

MALE

Length 50 –65cm (20–26in) Wingspan 81–95cm (32–37in) Weight 0.75–1.5kg (13⁄4 –31⁄4 lb)

Social Flocks Lifespan 15–25 years Status Secure

The most widespreadand familiar of all the

ducks, this is the one most oftenseen in town parks, coming for bread onlakes or on the riverside: but there are also many that are truly wildand shy.The different breeds of the farmyard duck are the domesticforms of the Mallard.They vary from very dark brown to all-white.The status of the wild form isobscured by the release of thousandsbred for shooting.VOICE Male whistles quietly;female has loud, raucous quark quark.NESTING Down-lined nest onground or in raised sites; 9–13 eggs;1 brood; January–August.FEEDING Takes small aquaticinvertebrates, seeds, roots, shoots,and grain from shallows whileupending or dabbling, or from dry ground.

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Anas platyrhynchos

WILDFOWL

101

OCCURRENCENests practically anywhere withinreach of almost any kind of water,from towns to remote moorlandpools and northern lakes, almostthroughout Europe. In winter,more western, often on estuarinesalt marshes but less so on opensea. Mostly feeds on arable fieldsand muddy margins of lakes.

FLIGHT: strong, fast; wingbeats mostly below bodylevel; often in groups.

GADWALL 2similar to 2;see p.102

SIMILAR SPECIES

SHOVELER 2similar to 2;see p.104

bluishforewing

white wing patch

orangebill sides

greybill

bigger bill

longerneck

PINTAIL 2similarto 2; see p.103

Mallard

MALE (SUMMER)

brown breast

whiteneck-ringFEMALE

IN FLIGHT

MALE

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

yellow bill

streaked brownbody

FEMALE

brownbill

MALE (WINTER)

blue speculum

whitetail

brownhead

becomesbrowner

curly centraltail feathers

darkbelly

whiteunderwings

purple-blue,white-edgedspeculum

greenhead

DUCKLINGSMallard ducklings follow the mother to water. They stayunder her care until they are able to take care of themselves.

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 46 –56cm (18–22in) Wingspan 84–95cm (33–37in) Weight 650–900g (23–32oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 10–15 years Status Vulnerable

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Anas strepera

WILDFOWL

102

Alarge, elegant, surface-feeding duck, with a smaller,squarer head than the Mallard, the Gadwall is

usually far less abundant. Dull colours at a distancereveal exquisite patterns at close range. Pairs are oftenseen flying over territories in spring, with characteristiccalls attracting attention. In autumn and winter,Gadwalls often flock on reservoirs and pits, frequentlyscattered through flocks of Coots (see p.159), exploitingthe food that the latter bring up from the bottomwhen they dive.VOICE Male has high, nasal pee and croaked ahrk,female has loud quack.NESTING Down-lined hollow on ground near water;8–12 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Mostly feeds in shallow water, dabbling and upending for seeds, insects, roots, and shoots of aquatic plants.

OCCURRENCEMostly breeds in mid- and W Europe, on lakes and rivers withreeds or wooded islands. In winter,more westerly, on open waters suchas big reservoirs and flooded pits,but prefers some shelter. Scarce onsalt marshes and quiet estuaries.

Gadwall

narrow, straightblack bill

dark bill withorange sides

white patch nearbase of wings

grey body

white belly

MALE (WINTER)

FEEDING GADWALL PAIRThe male (left) is “upending” to reach deeper food, a typical surface-feeding duck technique.

FLIGHT: strong, quick, direct, head protruding;frequently in pairs.

IN FLIGHT

FEMALE

MALE (WINTER)

MALE (SUMMER)pale brown head

protrudinghead

MALLARD 2similar to 2;brown bellyseen in flight; see p.101

WIGEON 2similar to 2;see p.105

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

bluespeculum

brownerhead

short bill

black stern

head paler thanMallard’s

pale orangelegs

pale area

steep forehead

white patchon wings

white patch white belly inflight

mottled brownbody

orange-sided bill

WILDFOWL

103

Length 53–70cm (21–28in) Wingspan 80–95cm (32–37in) Weight 550–1,200g (20–43oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 15–25 years Status Vulnerable

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Anas acuta

OCCURRENCEBreeds mostly in N and E Europe,sporadically in W, nesting onmoorland and coastal marshes. In winter, flocks concentrate ontraditional areas on estuaries andfresh marshes south toMediterranean, with very smallnumbers turning up elsewhere.

Pintail grey billwith blacklineswhite neck-stripe

and breastlong black tailspike

IN FLIGHT

MALE (WINTER)

FEMALE

Large and slim, the Pintail is perhaps the most elegantof all the surface-feeding ducks. It is numerous in a

few traditional wintering areas, both salt- and freshwater,but otherwise rather scarce, usually in ones and twos amongcommoner waterfowl. Individuals in autumn flocks are always a bit of a challenge for the birdwatcher, before the strikingwinter plumage of the males has fully developed.VOICE Male has low, shortwhistle; female’s quack likeMallard’s but quieter.NESTING Leaf- and down-lined hollow on ground; 7–9eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Mostly dabblesand upends in water but alsograzes on grass and marshand visits cereal fields forspilt grain.

SIMILAR SPECIES

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

MALLARD 2similar to 2;see p.101

GADWALL 2similar to 2;see p.102

LONG-TAILED DUCK 3similar to 3winter;see p.114

bluespeculum larger

orangebill

white on head

white squareon wings

short bill

MALE (SUMMER)

brown head

pale belly

grey bill

pale breast

UPENDING PINTAILSPintail drakes tip up to feed, revealing the long tail, black vent, andwhite belly.

FLIGHT: quick, straight, with head and neckoutstretched, tail long.

yellowish patch

dull greyish body

mottled grey-brown bodywith grey legs

white trailingedge

darkpatch

greybill

pointedtail

outstretchedhead and neck

FEMALE

plain, paletawny head

MALE (WINTER)

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 44–52cm (171⁄2 –201⁄2 in) Wingspan 70–84cm (28–33in) Weight 400–1,000g (14–36oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 10–20 years Status Secure

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Anas clypeata

WILDFOWL

104

Male Shovelers in breeding plumage are obvious and easily identified by their green heads, white

breasts, and chestnut sides, while females are distinctiveat close range but best identified by shape at a distance.They have the typical plumage of female dabblingducks: streaked and pale brown overall.While takingflight, Shovelers make a characteristic “woofing” noisewith their wings.VOICE Male has deep took took; female has deep,quiet quack.NESTING Down- or leaf-lined hollow near water;8–12 eggs; 1 brood; March–June.FEEDING Dabbles, often in tight, circular flocks,for seeds and invertebrates, with bill thrust forward on water surface or underwater and shoulderspractically awash.

OCCURRENCEBreeds mostly in E Europe on reedypools, generally in lowland areas.In winter, more widespread in W, on fresh water, marshes, andsheltered estuaries with grassy saltmarshes crossed by creeks. Somereservoirs attract autumn flocks.

Shoveler

bright whitebreast

dark head

pale crescenton face

FEEDING IN WATERTo reach slightly deeper food, Shovelers tip up on end, when the long,pointed wingtips become especially conspicuous.

FLIGHT: quick, agile; strong, deep wingbeats,short-tailed effect.

IN FLIGHT

grey forewings

dark rufousflanks

FEMALE

MALE (SUMMER)

MALLARD 2similar to 2;see p.101

browner forewing smallerbill

white line

bluespeculum onhindwing

long, heavy, shovel-likeblack bill

striking yellow eye

green-blackhead

streaked, palebrown body

GARGANEY 3summer, similarto 3; see p.107

FEMALE

rufous-tingedflanks

pale blue forewings

MALE

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

heavy bill withorange sides

MALE(WINTER)

SIMILAR SPECIES

WILDFOWL

105

Length 45 –51cm (18–20in) Wingspan 75–86cm (30–34in) Weight 500–900g (18–32oz)

Social Dense flocks Lifespan Up to 15 years Status Secure

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Anas penelope

OCCURRENCEBreeds in N Europe and N UK, onedges of moorland pools andlakes in forests. Much morewidespread in winter on estuariesand freshwater marshes, and ongrassy areas surrounding reservoirsand water-filled pits.

WigeonFEMALE

MALE(WINTER)

MALE(WINTER)

MALE(SUMMER)

dull grey wings

white bellywhite bandon wings

round grey body,paler than Teal

yellow foreheadchestnut headand neck

short, black-tippedgreyish bill

pink breast

bold whitepatch onwings (adult)

pointedtail

whitebelly

mottled greyish torust-brown body;dark legs

black-tippedbluish bill

FEMALE

MALLARD 2 similarto 2; see p.101

TEAL 3 similar to 3winter; see p.106

GADWALL 2 similarto 2; see p.102

longer bill

orange legslongerbill

larger body;orange legs

whitepatch

Like most ducks, the Wigeon forms close flocks on water while feeding, advancing across a salt marsh or meadow in a tight-

packed mass. Such a flock looks richly colourful and adds to theeffect with constant loud calls.Wigeon are generally shy and fly offwhen approached, large numbers forming wheeling flocks circlingabove a marsh or heading for the safety of a reservoir.They havegood reason to be wary, being the prime target of many fowlers.VOICE Male has loud,explosive, musical whistle,whee-oo; female has deep,rough, abrupt growl.NESTING In long vegetationon ground, near water; 8 or9 eggs; 1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Grazes on short grass, often in denseflocks; also feeds in shallowwater, taking seeds, shoots,and roots.

IN FLIGHT

roundhead

redder than female;retains white onwings

FLIGHT: fast, wader-like, head protruding, wingsswept back and pointed, tail pointed.

black andwhite stern

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

GRAZINGDense Wigeon flocks feed on short grass near water. The entire flockusually faces one way while feeding.

yellow patch

smaller,darkerbody

Length 34–38cm (131⁄2 –15in) Wingspan 58–64cm (23–25in) Weight 250–400g (9–14oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 10–15 years Status Secure

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Anas crecca

WILDFOWL

106

The smallest commonsurface-feeding duck,

the Teal is agile and quick inflight, its movements recallingthose of a wader. Nervous groups mayoften swoop down to a sheltered bay, only to dart over the watersurface and wheel up and away once more; sometimes several suchapproaches precede their eventualsettling. In places,Teal occur in hundredsbut 20–40 are more typical, scatteredalong well-vegetated or muddy shores,or in wet marshes.VOICE Male has loud, ringing, high-pitched crik crik that can be easily heardat long range across marshes or estuaries;female has high quack.NESTING Down-lined hollow nearwater; 8–11 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Mostly in water or on muddyshores, taking plants and seeds.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in N and E Europe onfreshwater marshes and wetmoors and heaths, including highmoorland pools. Winters morewidely in S and W Europe, mostlyon fresh waters with muddy edgesand around estuaries.

Teal

FLIGHT: quick, active, twisting; swooping in tosettle like waders.

IN FLIGHT

streakedbrown bodywith grey legs

greybill

grey body(plumagesimilar tofemale’s insummer)

thin horizontal whiteline along side

green band onbrown head

FEMALE

FEMALE

MALE(WINTER)

JUVENILE

SIMILAR SPECIES

whiteforewingpatch

WIGEON 3winter, similarto 3winter; see p.105

greyish head, sometimeswith dark-capped effect

MALE(WINTER)

black-edgedyellow triangleunder tail

bright greenpatch onhindwings

greenpatch

pale leadingedge

pale streakbeside tail

thick midwingbar

white centralbar

pale streakbeside tail

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

stripe overeye

SUBSPECIES

A. c. carolinensis 3(North America)

DRAB DUCKAn absence of bright colours onthe bill and legs helps to identifythe female Teal.

bigger,paler, andbluer body

GARGANEY 32autumn, similar to2; see p.107

verticalwhite linenear chest

WILDFOWL

107

Length 37–41cm (141⁄2 –16in) Wingspan 63–69cm (25–27in) Weight 250–500g (9–18oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Vulnerable

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Anas querquedula

Small and colourful, the Garganey is unusual in Europe as asummer visiting duck that spends the winter in Africa. It is

mostly scarce and thinly spread but spring flocks in the easternMediterranean can be substantial. In autumn, pairs orsmall groups can be found swimming with otherwildfowl.They tend to associate with Teal andShovelers and picking one or two autumn migrants outfrom a flock of mixed ducks is a challenge.VOICE Male makes short, dry rattle; female rathersilent but has short, high-pitched quack.NESTING Down-lined hollow in vegetation nearwater; 8–11 eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Dabbles and upends in water, taking tinyinvertebrates, roots, and seeds.

OCCURRENCECommon in Mediterranean inspring, and scarce breeder in N and W Europe, mostly on wet,grassy, freshwater marshes. Small numbers of migrants joinother ducks on lakes andreservoirs in autumn.

Garganey

FLIGHT: quick, twisting and turning easily; flocksalmost wader-like.

bold whitestripe over eyeIN FLIGHT

MALE(SPRING)

SHOVELER 2similar to 2; see p.104

longer billbigger

plainerface

green on wings

pinkish brownback

blue-greyflanks

dark hindwings with two equalwhite bars

JUVENILE

FEMALE

MALE(SPRING)

pale, mottledbrown plumage

dull wingpatch

palespotnearbill

pale forewings

pale lineover eye

TEAL 2similar toadult autumn;see p.106

WATERSIDE DUCKGarganeys like wet, grassymarshes and shallow floods withreeds and sedges in spring.

MALE(AUTUMN)

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

dark leading edgeto wings below

pale stripes aboveand below eye

white spotnear bill

SIMILAR SPECIES

FEMALE

blotched,dark brownplumage

Length 42–49cm (161⁄2 –191⁄2 in) Wingspan 72–82cm (28–32in) Weight 700–1,000g (25–36oz)

Social Large flocks Lifespan 8–10 years Status Secure

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Aythya ferina

WILDFOWL

108

Together with the Tufted Duck, which often associates with it,the Pochard is one of the common inland diving ducks. Flocks

are generally less active by day than Tufted Ducks, often sleeping forlong periods.They are typically tightly packed andoften made up largely of one sex, mostly males in theUK. In late autumn, hundreds of migrants may appearon a lake for a day or two and then move on at night.In summer, Pochards are dispersed and generally rarebreeding birds in western Europe, including the UK.VOICE Wheezing rise-and-fall call from displayingmale; purring growl from female.NESTING Large pad of leaves and down in reeds nearwater; 8–10 eggs; 1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Dives from surface, taking seeds, shoots,and roots; often feeds by night.

OCCURRENCEWidespread breeder on reedylakes in E Europe, rather scarce inW. Common non-breeder on freshwater in W Europe; big numberson migration in late autumn andwidespread smaller flocks onflooded pits and similar waters.

Pochard

rich red head

MALE (WINTER)

FLIGHT: fast and direct, with fast, deep wingbeats;flies in loose flocks.

IN FLIGHT

SCAUP 32;2 browner, haswhite wing-stripe; see p.109

TUFTED DUCK 2similar to 2; see p.110

SIMILAR SPECIES

pale grey backand flanks

darkstern

liver-brown backwith paler flanks

blackhead

MALE (SPRING)

FEMALE

darker body

MALE(WINTER)

long,taperedbill

pale bandon bill

IMMATURE

pale greypatch ondark bill

white ring aroundbrownish eye

peaked crown

brownbreast

brown head

dull rufoushead

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

pale greywingbar

slopingforehead

reddish eye

brownishred head

MALE (SUMMER)

drab body

3

FLAPPING WINGSPochards rise up and flap their wings in a “comfort” movement used bymany waterfowl species.

glossy blackbreast

WILDFOWL

109

Length 42–51cm (161⁄2 –20in) Wingspan 67–73cm (26–29in) Weight 0.8–1.3kg (13⁄4 –23⁄4 lb)

Social Flocks Lifespan 10–12 years Status Localized

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Aythya marila

Typically sea ducks, Scaup regularly appear inlandin small numbers, usually associated with Tufted

Ducks and Pochards, but similar-looking hybrids mustbe ruled out. Flocks of Scaup on the sea are attractive,if less lively than scoters or Long-tailed Ducks,tending to fly less and to seem much more settled andsedate on the water.They tend to prefer moresheltered parts of outer estuaries than the broad, open,windswept bays loved by the more energetic scoters.Flocks are generally quite approachable.VOICE Male lets out low whistles in display, mostlysilent otherwise; female has deep growl.NESTING Nest lined with feathers and down, onground, near water; 8–11 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Dives from surface to find invertebrates,waste grain, and aquatic plants.

OCCURRENCENorthern breeder, on wild moorsand tundra in Scandinavia andIceland. In winter, flocks found inregular, traditional places, mostlyin S Baltic and North Sea, isolatedgroups and individuals turning upwith Tufted Ducks inland.

Scaup

FLIGHT: fast and direct; looks thickset andpowerful; fast wingbeats.

FLOCK ON SEAWintering Scaup are gregarious and swim in flocks of a few score onsheltered seas, with the white flanks of adult males showing up well.

black aroundtail

pale greybackwhite

flanks

black head withgreen gloss

yellow eye

roundnape

IN FLIGHT

MALE(WINTER)

SIMILAR SPECIES

JUVENILE

smaller, paleface patch

white blazeon face

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

broad, blue-grey bill withsmall black tip all-dark

head

grey bars

FEMALE (SUMMER)

pale cheeks

MALE (SUMMER)

steepforehead

rich brown head

broad whitewingbar

red-brownhead

more blackon tip of bill

TUFTED DUCK 32; 2 has less whiteon face; see p.110

tuftblackback

POCHARD 3similar to 3; see p.108

3

FEMALE (WINTER)

MALE(WINTER)

Length 40–47cm (16 –181⁄2 in) Wingspan 67–73cm (26–29in) Weight 450–1,000g (16–36oz)

Social Large flocks Lifespan 10–15 years Status Secure

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Aythya fuligula

WILDFOWL

110

OCCURRENCEWidespread; breeds in long grassaround fresh waters such asflooded pits. In winter, widespreadand often abundant, with hugenumbers on sheltered coastalwaters, and small flocks on gravelpits, reservoirs, and sheltered coasts.

Tufted Duck

SIMILAR SPECIES

FLIGHT: fast but not manouevrable; flocks maketight, irregular packs.

This is a common diving duck, swimmingand feeding in flocks, with individuals disappearing

under in search of food. Males are strongly contrasted except in mid-summer, while females are dark and dull. Flocks are often mixed with Pochards and are worth scanningthrough for individuals of rarer species that arenaturally attracted to their company.Tufted Ducks aresometimes semi-tame and come for food on ponds intown parks. Even flocks on lakes and reservoirs oftentolerate a quite close approach, or simply swim awayfrom disturbance.VOICE Deep, grating growl; male calls with nasalwhistles during courtship.NESTING Down-lined hollow in long vegetationclose to water; 8–11 eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Dives underwater from surface to findmolluscs and insects.

FEMALE

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

bluish billwith largeblack tip

black body withwhite flanks

long, wispytuft on nape

bold whitewingbar

MALE

dark, dullbrown body

slight tuft

MALE (SUMMER)

FEMALE

dark brownbody withpaler flanks

short creston nape

yelloweye

MALE(WINTER)

IN FLIGHT

white eye-ring

POCHARD 2similarto 2; see p.108

grey billwith tinyblack tip

SCAUP 32; 2has whiteface patch; see p.109

paler

grey backon male

WINTER FLOCKTufted Ducks, with Pochards, form quiet, sleepy flocks on inland waters;these flocks are sometimes quite large.

WILDFOWL

111

Length 50–71cm (20 –28in) Wingspan 80–108cm (32–43in) Weight 1.2–2.8kg (23⁄4 –61⁄4lb)

Social Large flocks Lifespan 10–15 years Status Secure

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Somateria mollissima

An entirely marinebird, the Eider is highly

sociable and often seen in large rafts offshore.It is, however, equally familiar as a tame duck around coastal rocksand bays. Female Eiders with young in summer are easy to identifyand so are spring males, calling and displaying, in northern harbours.In a few areas, flocks of Eiders remain all year but make no attemptto nest.These groups show remarkable fidelity to certain sites.VOICE Male has sensuous,cooing aa-ahooh; female deepgrowls and kok-kok-kok.NESTING Down-lined hollowon ground, exposed or wellhidden; 4–6 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Dives from surface to take crabs, shellfish, shrimps,and starfish.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in N Great Britain, Iceland,and Scandinavia, on low-lyingcoasts and islands with rockyshores and weedy bays. Winterson sea south to W France, withlarge flocks in sandy bays and overmussel beds. Very rare inland.

Eider

IN FLIGHT

IMMATURE

FLIGHT: heavy, low, straight but fast, with deep,steady wingbeats.

SIMILAR SPECIES

MALLARD 2similar to 2; see p.101

MALE

MALE (SUMMER)

long, wedge-shaped headwith green patch

whiteupperparts

whitepatch onrear flank

blackunderparts

unbarreddark body

black crown

pinkishbreast

FEMALE AT NESTThe Eider makes a down-lined nest near water, oftenopenly, on which the female sits tight to incubate.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

MALE(WINTER)

white patchon openwing

VELVET SCOTER 32similar to 3winter in flight; see p.113

slimmer bill

darkbelly

dark hind-wings

closely barredbrown body

wedge-shapedheadand bill

wedge-shaped bill

MALE FLOCKLarge flocks of male Eiders gather offshore inestuaries and bays.

FEMALEFEMALE

Length 45 –54cm (18–211⁄2 in) Wingspan 79–90cm (31–35 in) Weight 1.2–1.4kg (23⁄4 –3lb)

Social Large flocks Lifespan 10–15 years Status Secure

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Melanitta nigra

WILDFOWL

112

OCCURRENCEBreeds on moorland pools inIceland, Scandinavia, and N GreatBritain. Winters on coasts aroundUK, North Sea, and Baltic, fewersouth to Mediterranean. Flocksfound in regular sites almostthroughout year.

Common Scoter

long, pointedtail oftenraised

slim neck

MALE(WINTER)

pale tip to wing

pointed billwith yellowpatch

thin neck

VELVET SCOTER 3similar to 3; see p.113

SIMILAR SPECIES

greyish white lower face

blackish cap

grey billdark brownbody

round head

IN FLIGHT

MALE

smaller,rounder back

contrastedface

white markunder eye

FEMALE

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

FLIGHT: fast, low; in long, wavering lines and packs;rapid, deep wingbeats and sideways rolling action.

On a calm day, if Common Scoters are close inshore, their musical calls can be heard, but usually they are seen as distant

dots appearing intermittently on the swell, or flying in long linesalong the horizon. Migrants appear for very short staysinland in mid- and late summer. Common Scotersfavour large, shallow, sheltered bays, although they areable to ride out storms with ease.Traditional sites mayhave thousands of birds, which are vulnerable to oilpollution.These sites may be inhabited throughout theyear, with large numbers of moulting birds in bays withplentiful food in late summer and autumn.VOICE Male has musical, piping whistle; female makesdeep growls.NESTING Down- and leaf-lined hollow near water,often on island; 6–8 eggs; 1 brood; March–June.FEEDING Dives from surface to find shellfish,crustaceans, and worms.

RUDDY DUCK 3similar to 2;see p.119

all-black body withduller or paler wings(browner in summer)

SOCIAL SEA DUCKLarge flocks of the very social Common Scoter often swim on heavingswell or fly low over the waves well offshore.

WILDFOWL

113

Length 52 –59cm (201⁄2 –23 in) Wingspan 90–99cm (35–39 in) Weight 1.1–2kg (21⁄2 –41⁄2 lb)

Social Flocks Lifespan 10–12 years Status Localized

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Melanitta fusca

Alarge, almost Eider-like diving duck, spending almost all of itstime at sea, the Velvet Scoter is usually seen in small numbers in

larger Common Scoter flocks. On the water, it is difficult to pick outfrom the smaller species, but the wing patches revealed in flight areimmediately obvious. Females are dark-faced in freshplumage but soon develop white face spots as the darkfeather tips wear off. Individual variation adds to theidentification problem. If a Velvet Scoter turns upinland, it may stay for a few days, giving a rare chanceto get a good look at this surprisingly elegant duck.VOICE Male whistles; female growls, but generallyquiet, especially in winter.NESTING Down-lined hollow near water; 6–8 eggs;1 brood; May–July.FEEDING Dives from surface, to find shellfish, shrimps,crabs, and marine worms.

COMMON SCOTER 3similar to 3; see p.112

SIMILAR SPECIES

all-darkwings

slenderneck

white onbreast

GOLDENEYE immature;see p.115

slimmerbill

Velvet Scoter

IN FLIGHT

broad whitewing patch

dark brownbody

thick neck

white spotson face

dark bill tapersto long tip

FEMALE

wedge-shapedface

yellowsidesof bill

whiteeye-spot

black body (brownerin summer)

MALE(WINTER)

red legs

OCCURRENCEBreeds in Scandinavia, alongcoasts and on tundra pools.Winters in North Sea and Baltic on sheltered coasts. Smallnumbers join big Common Scoterflocks in summer and autumn.

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

FLIGHT: fast, low, heavy but strong; usually director in wide arc over sea.

MALE

WHITE WING PATCHESBold white wing patches distinguish the Velvet Scoter from the CommonScoter in flight or when it flaps its wings on the water.

Length 38–60cm (15 –231⁄2 in) Wingspan 73–79cm (29–31in) Weight 520–950g (19–34oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Clangula hyemalis

WILDFOWL

114

Long-tailed Duck

FLIGHT: quick, rather heavy; small wings beat fast;splashes heavily onto water.

MALE (WINTER)

OCCURRENCEBreeds in Iceland and Scandinaviaon bleak moorland. Winters at sea off N Great Britain and inNorth Sea and Baltic, typically welloffshore but drifting into bays andestuaries with tide, especially inearly spring.

GOLDENEYE 2;see p.115

FEMALE(SUMMER)

FEMALE (WINTER)

JUVENILE (WINTER)

smudgy whiteband around eye

long, flexibletail point

white and palegrey body

whiteneck

pale flanks

thickdarkbill

dark cheekpatch

dark cheek patch

whitefacepatch

pink bandon stubbydark bill

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

While occasional individuals appear inland briefly, Long-tailedDucks are essentially marine birds, living offshore in flocks,

often mixed with scoters.They are generally lively andactive, often flying low over the waves, splashing down,then flying again.When feeding, they spend longperiods underwater.The irregular and complicatedpatterns, especially of males, may be somewhatconfusing for novice birdwatchers, although in realitythey are quite distinctive.VOICE Male makes loud, rhythmic, yodelling calls,a-ahulee; female growls.NESTING Down-lined hollow on ground near water;4–6 eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Dives from surface to take molluscs and crustaceans.

darkwings

FEMALE (WINTER)

IN FLIGHT

MALE (WINTER)

richbrownbody

MALE(SUMMER)

white rearflanks

darkflanks

SIMILAR SPECIES

longerbill

brown head with whitestripe

PINTAIL 3similar to 3; see p.103

plainerbrownhead

FAMILY GROUPBreeding Long-tailed Ducks are restricted to the far north, but are oftennumerous on suitable lakes.

WILDFOWL

115

Length 42–50cm (161⁄2 –20in) Wingspan 65–80cm (26–32in) Weight 600–1,200g (21–43oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 8 years Status Secure

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Bucephala clangula

OCCURRENCEBreeds in N Europe (but only rarelyin Scotland), in wooded areasbeside cold freshwater lakes.Numbers often increased byprovision of nest boxes. In winter,widespread on lakes, reservoirs,and estuaries.

Goldeneye

FLIGHT: very quick and strong, with rather shortwings; fast, deep wingbeats create loud whistle.

IN FLIGHT

SIMILAR SPECIES

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

FLYINGGoldeneyes areshy and quickto fly off.Their wingsmake a loudwhistling sound.

black marks onsparkling white body

green-glossedblack head withbold white spot

triangulardark bill

yellow eye

large whitebelly

extensive whiteon wing

MALE (WINTER)

body becomeswhite with age

JUVENILE (MALE)

MALE (WINTER)

dark brownhead

grey body

face develops whitespot in winter

yellow patchon grey billFEMALE

RESTING FLOCKAfter feeding well, Goldeneyes rest in flocks, headwithdrawn and tails cocked.

greyflanks

white head

SMEW 3winter, similarto 3winter; see p.116

browner darkneck

VELVET SCOTER 2similar to 2;see p.113

There are usually more Goldeneyes in a group than is usuallyapparent until they fly off: typically, at least half of these expert

divers are underwater at any one time. Usually shy, they are easilydisturbed by people on the shore or by boats, flying off in tight-packed groups with a loud whistling from their wings. Flocks aretypically predominantly females and immatures, although more adult males may appear in spring (summer males look like females).VOICE Frequent nasal, mechanical ze-zeee in display; female hasgrating double note.NESTING Down-lined tree hole and nest box; 8–11 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Dives constantly from surface to find molluscs and crustaceans.

FEMALE

Length 36 –44cm (14–171⁄2 in) Wingspan 55–69cm (22–27in) Weight 500–800g (18–29oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 8 years Status Vulnerable

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Mergellus albellus

WILDFOWL

116

In the UK, this is a scarce bird, found in small groupsat most, but in the Low Countries and the Baltic,

hundreds sometimes feed together in very active, busyflocks.The white males are usually much scarcer thanfemales and immatures, collectively known as“redheads”. Even where there are one or two males ina flock on a complex of gravel pits, they can be quitehard to spot as the birds tend to fly around a lot.Theyparticularly associate with Goldeneyes and may also befound with Tufted Ducks.VOICE Silent in winter.NESTING Tree holes, often of Black Woodpecker, nearwater, or in nest boxes; 4–6 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Dives often from surface, eating small fishand insect larvae.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in far NE Europe by lakesand rivers in forested areas. Inwinter, common in large, mobileflocks on Baltic and Low Countrycoasts, scarce on inland waterswest to Great Britain, when a fewturn up on pits and reservoirs.

Smew

largely whiteplumage

fine black lines onflanks and foreparts

white head withblack eye patch

MALE (WINTER)

MALE (WINTER)

STUNNING DRAKEThe winter male is one of the most attractive of European wildfowl. Insummer, the male Smew looks like the female.

FLIGHT: flies fast and low; broad white forepartsand outstretched neck very obvious.

IN FLIGHT

RUDDY DUCK 3winter, similar to 2; see p.119

SIMILAR SPECIES

GOOSANDER 2similar to 2;see p.117

dark grey body

brown capblackish eye patchand white crownappear in winter

muchbigger

FEMALE

FEMALE

large whiteareas on wings

large whiteforebody

JUVENILE (MALE)

outstretchedhead

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

more whiteon back inlate winter

white crestdroops overblack nape

roundedwhitecheeks

plainer brownbody

larger whiteface

WILDFOWL

117

Length 57–69cm (221⁄2 –27in) Wingspan 82–98cm (32–39in) Weight 1–1.6kg (21⁄4 –31⁄2 lb)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 8 years Status Secure

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Mergus merganser

The largest “sawbill”, with a long, serrated bill for grasping fish, the Goosander is more of a

freshwater bird than the Red-breasted Merganser,especially outside the breeding season. It is found insmall groups in winter, often looking remarkably largeon small inland lakes and pits on still, misty days. Insummer, breeding pairs prefer upland reservoirs andshallower, fast-flowing, clear streams with plenty ofboulders and stony shores. Usually a shy bird, theGoosander is easily scared off even at long range.VOICE Harsh karrr and cackling notes.NESTING Hole in trees near water; 8–11 eggs;1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Dives from surface, moving long distancesunderwater in larger lakes, to take fish.

OCCURRENCEBreeds beside rivers and lakes inIceland, Scandinavia, and N GreatBritain. Winters south to Balkansand France, mostly on fresh water.Bigger flocks mostly in regularsites on larger reservoirs, smallernumbers on pits or rivers.

Goosander

FLIGHT: often low, fast, and direct, with elongatedbut heavy shape.

salmon-pink towhite body

long tail

MALE (WINTER)

MALLARD 3similar to 32; see p.101

SIMILAR SPECIES

RED-BREASTEDMERGANSER 32;3has dark breast;see p.118

green-blackhead

thick-based,hookedplum-red bill

sharply definedwhite throat

dark collar

blue-grey body

large whitewing patch

FEMALE

dark breast

blurredface

JUVENILE

LAZY MALESIn winter, male Goosanders swim about on open water, often driftinginactive for long periods. Males look like the females in summer.

MALE (WINTER)

FEMALE

IN FLIGHT

dark brownhead

greyish body

striped face

smooth, downward-pointing crest

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

2

Length 51–62cm (20 –24in) Wingspan 70–85cm (28–34in) Weight 0.85–1.25kg (13⁄4 –23⁄4 lb)

Social Family groups/Flocks Lifespan Up to 8 years Status Secure

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Mergus serrator

WILDFOWL

118

Red-breasted Merganser

brown, black-edged breast

FLIGHT: fast, direct, with long head and neck andtail giving marked cross-shape.

IN FLIGHT

MALE(WINTER)

GOOSANDER 2similar to3; see p.117

SIMILAR SPECIES OCCURRENCEBreeds by coasts or along fast riversin N Great Britain, Iceland, Scandi-navia, and Baltic region. Winterssouth to Greece and N France,mostly on coasts. Big moultinggroups can be seen off sandy androcky shores in late summer.

FEMALE

MALLARD 3similar to 3;see p.101

sharper contrastbetween dark headand pale throat

yellowbill

MALE (SUMMER)

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

MALE(WINTER)

white collar

red legs

bold whitewing patches

broad white linebetween black backand grey flank

ginger-brown headFEMALE

wispy crest ongreen-black head

brownishgrey body

fuzzy crest

smudgyforeneck

brownishhead

slim, slightlyupcurvedred bill

A“sawbill” duck, the Red-breasted Merganser is found both on fast, clean rivers in hilly regions and at the coast in summer, and

usually on the sea at other times. It often stands out on sandy shoresor rocks. Males display to females in winterand spring with ritualized, jerky, curtseyingmovements, fanning their spiky crests andopening their bills. In winter, typically a maleor two will be seen with a handful of“redheads” (females and immatures) but inplaces a few hundred might flock together.VOICE Quiet, sometimes low, rolling croakor growl.NESTING In long grass on ground or amongrocks; 8–11 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Dives from surface to find smallfish and invertebrates.

DISPLAYING MALESMale Red-breasted Mergansers stretch forward and jerk their heads forward whileraising the rear body, in energetic displays.

WILDFOWL

119

Length 35–43cm (14 –17in) Wingspan 53–62cm (21–24in) Weight 350–800g (13–29oz)

Social Winter flocks Lifespan Up to 8 years Status Secure†

Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Species Oxyura jamaicensis

An accidental introduction to Europe, the Ruddy Duck escaped from collections in the 1950s and

has since become established in several countries. It is a freshwater bird, family parties pottering about reedyshores. It moves to larger lakes and reservoirs in winter,flocks numbering several hundreds in the mostfavoured places which have become traditionalmoulting and wintering areas.VOICE Mostly silent; odd grunts, also slaps bill againstchest in display.NESTING Large, floating pile of vegetation in tall reeds, often “roofed” over bymeshed stems; 6–10 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Dives from surface, reappearing like a cork; takes insect larvae and seeds.

OCCURRENCEBreeds on reedy pools and floodedpits in Great Britain and lesscommonly, adjacent areas ofcontinent. In larger reservoirs andmore open waters in autumn,mostly in a few flocks at regularsites, ones and twos elsewhere.

Ruddy Duck

SMEW 2similar to 3winter;see p.116

SIMILAR SPECIES

roundedbackrufous

body

all-darkwings

stiff tail, laidflat or angledupwards

MALE(SUMMER)

dull dark grey-brown body

cheek stripe

blue bill

black capand nape

MALE(SUMMER)

MALE (WINTER)

FEMALE

flattercrown

pure whitecheeks

whiteface

blackishbilldull grey-brown

body

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

darkgreybill

FLIGHT: fast, low, weak, with whirring wingbeats;direct, with little agility.

COMMON SCOTER 2similar to 3;see p.112

darker face

RED-CRESTED POCHARD 2similar to 3;see p.412

� larger� paler brown� longer bill

dark cap onpale head

large, roundhead

smallerwhite face

shortertail

DISPLAYING MALEThe male Ruddy Duck vibrates hisbill against the breast, pushing out air in a flurry of bubbles fromthe feathers.

IN FLIGHT

BIRDS OF PREY

BIRDS OF PREY

120

THIS IS A MIXED GROUP, including birdsthat eat tiny insects, others that eat dead

animals, and some that catch their own preyup to the size of small deer. Mostly splendidin flight, many are likely to remain perched for hours on end between feeding forays, whileothers are much more aerial, spending much of the day aloft.

VULTURESIncluding some of Europe’s biggest birds, thevultures soar high up, using superb eyesight tospot potential food on the ground: they eat meat,preferably freshly dead animals. They need warm,rising air or updraughts and live in southernEurope and mountainous areas.

EAGLES AND HAWKSEagles are powerful hunters with large eyes,powerful bills, and strong feet. Most have featheredlegs. Buzzards are smaller, less strong, in particularsmaller-billed, birds but also majestic fliers.Harriers are hunters over open ground, flying lowas they try to surprise prey at close range. Bird-eating hawks such as the Sparrowhawk catch preyby surprise in a short, fast dash. Kites have long,notched tails that are swivelled, acting as ruddersin their elegant flight.

WIDE SPANVultures, such as this Egyptian Vulture, have

very long wings, soaring on warm air withlittle expenditure of energy.

Families Pandionidae, Accipitridae, Falconidae

The Osprey is a fish-eating specialist,diving onto its prey from the air, while theShort-toed Eagle is a “snake-eagle”, one of alargely African group with large, yellow eyes,a big head, and unfeathered legs.

FALCONSBig falcons catch large prey and eat infrequently,spending long periods perched, but lookimpressive in the air when they do fly; smallerfalcons may be much more active. Some eatsmall mammals, others mostly insects or birds.

POWERThe Golden Eagle hasa powerful andcharismatic presence,with a keen eye andstrong hooked bill.

121

BIRDS OF PREY

Length 52–60cm (201⁄2 –231⁄2 in) Wingspan 1.45–1.7m (43⁄4 –51⁄2ft) Weight 1.2–2kg (23⁄4 –41⁄2 lb)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 30 years Status Rare

Order Accipitriformes Family Pandionidae Species Pandion haliaetus

OCCURRENCEBreeds in wild and remote placesin N Europe but much moreadaptable in S. Appears in most of Europe except for Iceland, from March to October, alongcoasts and near large lakes and rivers.

Osprey

SIMILAR SPECIES

Between a Buzzard and a large eagle in size, the Osprey is impressive, and yet sometimes easily

dismissed as a large immature gull at long range.Should it hover and then plunge for a fish, suchuncertainty is quickly removed.Any reasonable viewwould reveal its unique combination of shape andpattern.The Osprey is rarely seen far from water,although it does nest and perch well away from theshore. It perches upright for hours at a time on a tree,buoy, or offshore rock.VOICE Loud yelps and repeated, high, liquid pyewpyew pyew near nest.NESTING Huge stick nest on trees or cliffs (in thepast, on ruined buildings); 2 or 3 eggs; 1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Catches fish in steep dive.

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

short tail withtranslucentpale bands

CARRYING FISHThe Osprey hovers well but heavily over water, and catches prey in asteep, headlong dive, swinging its feet forwards to grasp prey.

FLIGHT: gull-like but strong with long, sailingglides; soars well.

glides onkinked wings

ADULT

ADULT

blackish bandalong midwings

bowed wingswhile soaring

IN FLIGHT

whiteunderparts

dark brown upperparts(bright buff featheredges on juvenile)

black stripethrough eye

ADULT

whitish crown

GREAT BLACK-BACKED GULLjuvenile, similar in flight; see p.212

� longer, plainer head

� more pointed wings

black patch on underwings

ADULT

large, sharpclaws

SHORT-TOED EAGLEsee p.127

plain head

long, broad wings

BIRDS OF PREY

122

Length 0.95–1.1m (3 –31⁄2ft) Wingspan 2.3–2.65m (71⁄2 –83⁄4ft) Weight 7–10kg (15–22lb)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 25 years Status Rare

Order Accipitriformes Family Accipitridae Species Gyps fulvus

OCCURRENCEQuite common in Portugal andSpain, rare in S France, Sardinia,Balkans, and Turkey. In all kinds of open areas, from lowlands tohigh, bleak mountain peaks,centred on a cliff or gorge wherethey roost and nest.

Griffon Vulture

FLIGHT: heavy, deep wingbeats; mostlymagnificent soaring with wings in “V”.

rich buff-brownwing covertsand back

GOLDEN EAGLEsee p.126

SIMILAR SPECIES

Amassive, long-winged, short-tailed bird, the Griffon Vulturespends much time sitting quietly on cliff ledges but flies off in

search of food each day. It may be in the air early on cold, windydays, using the wind to help it soar, but on calm, hot days it waitsuntil later in the day and uses rising currents of warm air that buildup over bare ground or cliffs. It soars with its wings raised andtwisted at the tips, the trailing edge bulging and also slightly arched,so that, as it slowly circles, its shape appears to change. From directlybelow it is broad- and square-winged but from many angles thewingtips appear more pointed.VOICE Silent apart from coarse hissing when feeding.NESTING On bare ledge in gorge or on high cliff, in loose coloniesof ten or so to several scores of pairs; 1 egg; 1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Finds carrion (dead sheep, goats, and smaller animals);often fed at special feeding stations.

darker

longerhead

IN FLIGHT

BLACK VULTUREdark underwings;see p.123

longertail

narrow lightbands ondarker brownunderwings

darker flightfeathers

wings in “V”when soaring

bulbous bill

veryshortdark tail

all-darkback

MASTER SOARERThe Griffon can travel great distances without flappingits wings at all, using warm upcurrents to gain height.

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

whitish headand neck

deeplyfingeredwingtips

pale toffee-brown back

Length 1–1.15m (31⁄4 –33⁄4ft) Wingspan 2.5–2.85m (81⁄4 –91⁄4ft) Weight 7–11.5kg (15–25lb)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 25 years Status Vulnerable

Order Accipitriformes Family Accipitridae Species Aegypius monachus

BIRDS OF PREY

123

One of the world’s largest flying birds, the Black Vulture’s

massive bulk and majestic soaring andgliding flight give it terrific impactwhenever it is aloft. It exhibits great skill atutilizing every updraught or breath of wind to soareffortlessly without wingbeats. Its flat-winged flightgives the Black Vulture a very broad, rectangular shape,which is less elegant and shapely than a GriffonVulture’s. Unlike the Griffon Vulture, it nests and oftenperches in trees (rather than on cliffs), and also spendsmuch time on the ground, especially near food such asa sheep or goat carcass.VOICE Mostly silent.NESTING Huge stick nest in flat-topped trees; 1 egg,1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Rarely catches live prey; mostly eatscarrion; also feeds at special feeding stations.

OCCURRENCERestricted to C Spain, Majorca, andvery rare in NE Greece. Resident all year in these small areas andonly very rare vagrant elsewhere.Rare vulture of mountainousregions and rolling uplands withmixed forest and open ground.

Black Vulture

GIANTS OF THE AIRA very impressive bird, the Black Vulture has great presence in the sky, evenamong equally large Griffon Vultures; its pale head and feet may be obvious.

FLIGHT: prolonged, expert soaring and gliding with very occasional deep, ponderous wingbeat; flaps heavily in cold, still air.

IN FLIGHT

very broad,square wingsheld flat

massive, dark brownbody (juvenilepaler)

palefeet

fresh feathers verydark, fade paler

flat wingswhen soaring

very darkforewings

pale head withblack mask

pale brown ruff(darker on juvenile)

ADULT

ADULT

GRIFFON VULTUREsee p.122

SIMILAR SPECIES

longerhead

two-toneunderwings

smallerwings

longer tail

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

GOLDEN EAGLEsee p.126

older immature gainswhite with age

124

BIRDS OF PREY

Length 55 –65cm (22–26in) Wingspan 1.55–1.7m (5–51⁄2ft) Weight 1.6–2.1kg (31⁄2 –43⁄4 lb)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 10–15 years Status Secure

OCCURRENCESummer visitor to Portugal andSpain, rare in S France, S Italy, andBalkans. In wooded mountainousareas, around gorges and cliffs,and also at refuse tips near smalltowns and villages, often withkites and larger vultures.

Egyptian Vulture

JUVENILE

blackwingtips

whiteforewings

Order Accipitriformes Family Accipitridae Species Neophron percnopterus

FLIGHT: magnificent soaring; occasional deep, slowwingbeat.

SIMILAR SPECIES

WHITE STORKsimilar in flight; see p.85

IN FLIGHT

GOLDEN EAGLEsimilar to juvenilein flight; see p.126

larger

square tail

extendedneck

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

whitetail

dirty whitebody

untidy ruff ofspiky feathers

yellow facethinbill

brownish acrossupperwings

Of the European vultures, this is the smallest, more the size of

a medium-sized eagle but markedlylarger than the buzzards. In pattern,however, adults have the black and whiteof White Storks (see p.85) or pelicans (see p.411),which are much bigger. Immatures are browner butspend their early years in Africa, and so are ratherinfrequently seen in Europe. On the ground, theplumage of an adult often looks dirty and drab, soiledby its foraging in filthy places, but against a blue sky, itis a splendid bird.Two or three Egyptian Vultures mayoften be seen associating with larger numbers ofGriffon Vultures.VOICE Silent.NESTING Nest of sticks, bones, and rubbish, on cliffledge or in small cave; 1–3 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Finds all kinds of dead meat, offal, and scraps.

GLORIOUS FLIGHTWhile often dirty-looking on the ground, the Egyptian Vulture against a deep blue sky in full sunlight looks stunning, almost translucent whiteand intense black.

ADULT

ADULT

palefeet

narrowhead

dark brown body

Ahuge, flat-winged bird, this eagle is now very rare over most of its former range. It survives in remote marshes and along rocky

coasts and offshore islands, and appears on extensive damp coastalplains in winter. Its presence in Scotland is due to a recentreintroduction programme.Around smallfishing harbours, it can become quitebold and relatively tame if unpersecuted.It typically sits upright on rocks orswoops into sheltered bays for fish.VOICE Shrill yaps near nest in summer.NESTING Huge pile of sticks on flatcrowns of trees or cliff ledges; 2 eggs;1 brood; March–July.FEEDING Picks sick or dead fish andoffal from water using its feet; eats deadanimals and catches seabirds and hares.

Length 70 –92cm (28–36in) Wingspan 2–2.45m (61⁄2 –8ft) Weight 3.1–7kg (63⁄4 –15lb)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 20 years Status Rare

Order Accipitriformes Family Accipitridae Species Haliaeetus albicilla

BIRDS OF PREY

125

OCCURRENCEMost common in Scandinaviaalong rocky coasts, rare in centraland E Europe, Balkans, Iceland,and W Scotland wherereintroduced on offshore isles.Winters mostly in wide openlowlands, including farmland, withones and twos appearing mostyears in some traditional areas.

White-tailed Eagle

SIMILAR SPECIES

shorterhead shorter head

longertail

GOLDEN EAGLEsee p.126

FLIGHT: heavy and direct; wingbeats deep andelastic, or flexible; soars on flat wings.

wings raisedin “V “

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

BLACK VULTUREsee p.123

darker

short whitetail

pale head

darktail

glides onflat wings

IN FLIGHT

ADULT

big, brightyellow bill

pale and dark brownblotches on back

JUVENILE

ADULT

JUVENILE

huge span of flat, deeplyfingered wings

dark brownoverall

dark tail

protruding headand neck

saw-toothedtrailing edge

SWOOPING ON PREYThis eagle dives for food with lumbering but expertagility, picking fish and offal from water with its feet.

GRIFFON VULTUREsee p.122

wings raisedin “V“ whensoaring

shorterhead inflight

Length 75 –85cm (30–34in) Wingspan 1.9–2.2m (61⁄4 –71⁄4ft) Weight 3–6.7kg (61⁄2 –15lb)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 25 years Status Rare

Order Accipitriformes Family Accipitridae Species Aquila chrysaetos

BIRDS OF PREY

126

While White-tailed Eagles and the large vultures have great bulkand a massive presence, the Golden Eagle combines size with

elegance and even delicacy in the air. It is often seen far off over ahigh peak, literally a dot in the distance, but its wide, slow circling is frequently sufficient to identify it. Close views are harder to comeby, a rare chance encounter on a high peak beingreally memorable.VOICE Occasional shrill yelps andwhistling twee-oo.NESTING Massive pile of sticks,lined with wool and greenery, onbroad cliff ledge or in old pine;1–3 eggs; 1 brood; February–June.FEEDING Eats much dead meat,mostly sheep and deer in winter;hunts grouse, Ptarmigan, crows,hares, and rabbits. OCCURRENCE

Widespread but sparse, mostfrequent in Scotland, Spain, partsof Scandinavia, Italy, Balkans, andalso in Alps. Mostly over remotepeaks or upland forests, morerarely on steep coasts, and stayshigh up, away from towns andvillages, and roads and otherdevelopments (unlike Buzzards).

Golden Eagle pale tawny toyellowish head

dark brownplumage

ADULT

IN FLIGHT

bulkybody andwings

IMMATURE

IMMATURE

blacker bodythan adult’s

wings raisedin slight “V”

BUZZARDless solidly stable inflight; see p.136

SIMILAR SPECIES

shortertail

GRIFFON VULTUREsee p.122

broaderwings

smallhead

barred darkunderwings

protruding head(less than White-tailed Eagle’s)

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

FLIGHT: direct flight steady; frequent glides; soarswith wings raised; switchback display and occasionalsuperfast stoop or plunge with wings curved back.

white on tailand wingsreduceswith age

WHITE-TAILED EAGLEsee p.125

flat wings

ADULTlong tail with palerarea at base

bigger

STANDING BIRDA standing Golden Eagle looks majestic. The thick, heavilyfeathered legs are obvious on a perched bird.

smaller

more patternedunderwings

BIRDS OF PREY

127

Length 62 –69cm (24–27in) Wingspan 1.62–1.78m (51⁄4 –53⁄4ft) Weight 1.5–2.5kg (31⁄4 –51⁄2 lb)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 15 years Status Rare

Order Accipitriformes Family Accipitridae Species Circaetus gallicus

Alarge, impressive eagle, the Short-toed Eagle is sometimes seen

perched at close range, on a highpylon or on top of a tall tree, when itscrisply barred plumage and vivid yelloweyes give it a handsome and magnificent appearance.One of the “snake-eagles”, this bird of prey has strong,bare legs, a thickly feathered, rounded head, and anowl-like face.While hunting it hovers before a long,fast plunge, with its head pulled back, wings almostclosed, and chest thrust out, reaching out with its feetat the last moment.VOICE Various short, abrupt calls, kyo, meeok.NESTING Bulky stick nest in crown of large tree;1 egg; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Catches snakes and lizards, typicallystooping onto them at speed after hover, sometimesfrom great height.

OCCURRENCEIn summer, over high, open slopes,and rocky areas with short scrub,in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy,and Balkans. Prefers some wood-land but mostly semi-naturalvegetation such as aromatic, thornyscrub; absent from farmed areas.

Short-toed Eagle

FLIGHT: glides on bowed wings pushed forward;soars with wings very long and straight, headprotruding in display; hovers with heavy, floppy action.

PERSISTENTHUNTERShort-toed Eaglesspend hours flyingover open hillsides,hovering frequently,searching for prey.

long tail

bulky, round head

grey-whiteundersidewith finebars

barelegs

yellow eye

SIMILAR SPECIES

BOOTED EAGLEpale form;see p.128

unbarredbelow

smaller

black wristpatches onunderwings

blackhead-stripe

OSPREYsee p.121

IN FLIGHT

pale brownupperside

new feathers dark,old ones paler with ragged edges

broad, roundwingtips

no dark wristpatch

variable darkhood

very paleunderwings withblackish bars

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

Length 42–51cm (161⁄2 –20in) Wingspan 1.1–1.35m (31⁄2 –41⁄2ft) Weight 700–1,000g (25–36oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 15 years Status Rare

Order Accipitriformes Family Accipitridae Species Hieraaetus pennatus

BIRDS OF PREY

128

Booted Eagle

white underside

broad, roundhead

dull brownoverall

palepatch

DISTINCTIVE PATTERNIn flight overhead, the Booted Eagle shows thin, translucent trailingedges to both wings and tail, and a pale inner primary patch; head-on itreveals bright white shoulder spots.

FLIGHT: fast, with long glides and rather flappywingbeats; frequent soaring.

IN FLIGHT

PALE FORM

DARK FORM

BOTH FORMSFROM ABOVE

roundhead

BONELLI’S EAGLEimmature; see p.129

squarershape

flat orbowedwings

whitishcrescenton rump

OCCURRENCEIn Spain, Portugal, France, and E Europe, in forests and warm,sunny, well-wooded, hilly countrywith mixed farmland and scrub,often close to villages. Thrives bestin remote regions with little distur-bance. From March to October.

longerwings bigger

Much more frequent than Bonelli’s Eagle, the Booted Eagle is a small, buzzard-sized eagle,

frequently mobbed by crows and other birds of prey.It occurs in pale and dark forms but its shape andproportions help identify it. It is typical of well-wooded, hot countryside in relatively lowland areas,avoiding the moister northwestern parts of Europe.Unlike the Buzzard, it is a summer visitor to Europe.VOICE Buzzard-like hi-yaaah and loud, musical,wader-like whistle, kli-kli-kli in display.NESTING Bulky stick nest deep inside canopy of tree,rarely on cliff ledge; 2 eggs; 1 brood; February–April.FEEDING Catches reptiles, small birds, and smallmammals on ground, often after very fast, near-vertical stoop from considerable height.

PALEFORM

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

SIMILAR SPECIES

narrowerhead

moreflexiblewings

notchedtail pointedat corners

BLACK KITEsee p.131

diagonalpale bandson wings

whitespots

long tailwith sharpcorners

well-fingeredwingtips

BIRDS OF PREY

129

Length 55 –65cm (22–26in) Wingspan 1.45–1.65m (43⁄4 –51⁄2ft) Weight 1.5–2.5kg (31⁄4 –51⁄2 lb)

Social Pairs/Families Lifespan Up to 15 years Status Endangered

Order Accipitriformes Family Accipitridae Species Hieraaetus fasciatus

Astrong and potent predator, Bonelli’s Eagle combines the power of a large eagle with the behaviour of a fast-flying,

aggressive hawk. It spends much time perching on a ledge out of sight, but periodically soars over its territory or moves off to find food; it hunts rather low down and is usuallyinconspicuous. It is generally scarce and very localized,with isolated pairs here and there in traditionalterritories, mostly in areas with steep cliffs and cragsbetween forested slopes. Only a few hundred pairs ofBonelli’s Eagle remain in Europe.VOICE Occasional bark or shrill yelp, but mostly silent.NESTING Large stick nest in small cave, deep ledge, orsheer cliff, rarely in tree; 2 eggs; 1 brood; February–April.FEEDING Elegant and powerful; hunts hares, rabbits,squirrels, partridges, crows, and pigeons.

OCCURRENCEOccupies forested hills and cragsin Spain, Portugal, S France, andBalkans; often nests and roosts indeep gorges, but not especiallyhigh up, and moves out intonearby hills and woodland tohunt. Resident.

Bonelli’s Eagle

FLIGHT: glides on flat wings with angled leadingedge; wingbeats shallow; soars, sometimes stoops at great speed.

STRIKINGAPPEARANCEIn flight, Bonelli’s Eaglelooks big and square withquite a long tail, longflat wings, and a smallhead sweeping up fromthe deep chest; the whitebody catches the light.

streaked whiteunderbody

long, narrow,straight-edgedtail

short head,held high

blackish bandon darkunderwings

pale leadingedge

dark upperpartswith white patchon back

dark-tippedtail

IMMATURE

ADULT

GOSHAWKno white patch onback; see p.139

SIMILAR SPECIES

smaller

dark midwingband

pale orange-tawny below

ADULT

JUVENILE

IN FLIGHT

plainerbelow

dark tailtip

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

BOOTED EAGLEdark form similarto immature;see p.128

rounderhead

smaller

shorter wings

Length 60–65cm (231⁄2 –26in) Wingspan 1.45–1.65m (43⁄4 –51⁄2ft) Weight 0.75–1.3kg (13⁄4 –23⁄4 lb)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 25 years Status Secure

Order Accipitriformes Family Accipitridae Species Milvus milvus

BIRDS OF PREY

130

OCCURRENCELocal in Great Britain, widespreadin Spain, Portugal, France, parts of S Europe, and north to Baltic. In open countryside and woodedvalleys, higher up in summer butin low valleys in winter, when itforages around towns and tips.

Red Kite

BUZZARDsee p.136

SIMILAR SPECIES

duller bodyand tail

stiffer, shorterwings

short round tailSeen in the UK

J J A S DNOMAMFJ

BLACK KITEsee p.131

bowed wingswhile soaring

pale band onupperwings

less contrastedbelow

FLIGHT: direct flight slow and steady with supple,deep wingbeats; often twists tail as rudder; soars wellbut not usually to any great height; very aerobatic.

Agility and mastery in the air are synonymous with the kites: theRed Kite adds the appeal of colour and pattern. It is easily

separated from the heavier, less elegant Buzzard, having more ofthe lightness of a harrier, but even greater flexibilityand elasticity in its movements.Where common, itgathers in groups of ten or even up to forty whereverfood is concentrated.VOICE High, long-drawn, wailing or squealing weieie-ee-ow, higher-pitched than Buzzard.NESTING Large nest of sticks, rags, earth, and rubbishin tree, usually well-hidden; 2–4 eggs; 1 brood;March–June.FEEDING Eats dead animals, such as rabbits or sheep;catches birds up to crow or gull size in surprise dash;also feeds on insects, earthworms, and voles.

IMMATURE

IN FLIGHT

forked tail

ADULT

ADULT

bold whitepatch contrastswith blackwrist patch

whitish to palered undersideof tail

pale rufous tail,deeply notchedwhen closed

paler thanadult

palerupperwingsthan adult’s

ADULT

pale tawny torust-red body

pale eye

whitishhead

FLEXIBLE FLIGHTThe kite flexes its wings and twists its long tail from side to side to exploitair currents to the full; it is capable of fast stoops and twisting dives.

BIRDS OF PREY

131

Length 48 –58cm (19–23in) Wingspan 1.3–1.55m (41⁄4 –5ft) Weight 650–1,100g (23–39oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 20 years Status Vulnerable

Order Accipitriformes Family Accipitridae Species Milvus migrans

With all the elegance of the Red Kite, the Black Kite lacks thecontrasted pattern and rich colours, although it is far from

uniform and far from black. Even more than a Red Kite it is likelyto snatch food from the surface of water in a fast, sweeping dive,using its feet to pick up the food and carry it as it feeds in mid-air.Generally it is more numerous in areaswhere both birds are found and more likelyto form small groups.VOICE High, whinnying peeie-ee-i-ee-i-ee.NESTING Nest of sticks, earth, and scrapsof all kinds in tree; 2–4 eggs; 1 brood;March–June.FEEDING Takes a lot of dead or dying fishfrom water or along shoreline; much deadmeat and offal or scraps of all kinds; dung,small birds, reptiles, and voles.REMARK Groups fight and chase eachother over rubbish tips.

OCCURRENCEWidespread from Spain andPortugal to Finland and south toBalkans; rare visitor to UK. Feedsaround rubbish tips and over openground, wooded slopes, coasts,and rivers; more often associatedwith water than Red Kite and stillaround towns in some places.

Black Kite

SIMILAR SPECIES

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

shallow fork in tail

FLIGHT: expert, soaring well but not high; directflight slow, with steady, deep beats; glides and circleson depressed wings with tail often fanned.

IMMATURE

small palehead

pale spotson back

bolder wingpattern

longer tail

slimmer,rakish build

flat wings

squaretail

palerump

MARSH HARRIER 2;similar in flight;see p.132

no pale diagonalband on wing

RED KITEsee p.130

BOOTED EAGLEdark form;see p.128

bowed wings

dull brownwings withpale diagonalband above

IN FLIGHT

paler undersideand head

dull and darkoverall

faintly barred,triangular, earth-brown tail, forkedwhen closed

long wings

ADULT

ADULT

SCAVENGERBlack Kites join other birds of prey and crows atcarcasses and rubbish tips, and also snatch scrapswith their feet in fast, accurate swoops.

Length 48 –55cm (19–22in) Wingspan 1.1–1.25m (31⁄2 –4ft) Weight 400–800g (14–29oz)

Social Pairs/Family groups Lifespan Up to 15 years Status Secure

Order Accipitriformes Family Accipitridae Species Circus aeruginosus

BIRDS OF PREY

132

Long-winged and long-tailed, harriers flylow across open ground or marshland.The

biggest and heaviest of them, the Marsh Harrier can be taken for adark Buzzard or a Black Kite when soaring. It is closely associatedwith reedbeds, but may be seen over all kinds of open ground,especially flat pastures with ditches, when hunting or on migration.It often perches on bush tops or trees in the middle of a marsh forlong spells. Males are generally smaller than females; they may breedin largely brown immature plumage.VOICE Shrill kee-yoo, chattering kyek-ek-ek-ek or kyi-yi-yi-yi.NESTING Large platform of reed stems among dense reeds overwater; 4 or 5 eggs; 1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Hunts low over marshes, diving to catch small birds,wildfowl, small mammals, and frogs.

OCCURRENCEWidespread north to Great Britain(rare) and S Scandinavia, in reedyareas or long grass in marshes. N and E breeders move south inautumn; some W European birdsremain all year, over marshes andflat, open countryside near coasts.

Marsh Harrier

very dark brownplumage

square grey tail

FLIGHT: low, steady or rolling, wings raised inobvious “V” in short glides; soars well.

IN FLIGHT

FEMALE

FEMALE

MALE cream patchon wings creamy

cap andthroat

IMMATURE

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

SIMILAR SPECIES

streakedunderside

twists tailin flight

HEN HARRIER 2similar to 32; see p.133

MALE

MALE

broad blackwingtips

brownback

grey onwings

pale head

broad wings held upin “V” while gliding

silvery greymidwings

BLACK KITEsee p.131

dark brownplumage

pale headmarkings

FLIGHT PATTERNLike all harriers, the Marsh Harrier has a slow flap andlong glide flight, but with a heavier, less buoyant action.

pale band onforewings

darkbelly

BIRDS OF PREY

133

Length 43–50cm (17–20in) Wingspan 1–1.2m (31⁄4 –4ft) Weight 300–700g (11–25oz)

Social Roosts in groups Lifespan Up to 15 years Status Vulnerable

Order Accipitriformes Family Accipitridae Species Circus cyaneus

Hen Harrier

pale greybody

whitishunderside

MALE

SIMILAR SPECIES

SHORT-EARED OWLsimilar to 2; see p.243

MALE

grey tail

MONTAGU’S HARRIER32; 2 has longer,slimmer wing-tips; see p.134

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

black wingtips

FEMALE

FEMALE

wings held up in slight“V” while gliding

greyrump

black wingbar

bold white rumpcream and

brown barson tail

dark brownabove

FEMALE

dark streakson bright buffunderside

whitish lineundercheeks

dark barring on silvery greyunderwings

NESTINGThis female is carryingnesting material in its bill.Hen Harriers make a bulkypad of heather stems andgrass on the ground.

FLIGHT: deceptively quick, sailing flight with wingsraised or steady, deep wingbeats; soars well.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in N and E Europe, mostlyon moorland or heaths, locally inC and W Europe, on moors andsometimes open farmland.Widespread over open groundwith short vegetation, includingmarshes, in W Europe in winter.

Hen Harriers frequent heather moors in summerbut are often found over coastal marshes or

low-lying, rough grassland in winter. Males andfemales are very different in appearance and echothe plumages of the closely related Montagu’sHarrier.As with most birds of prey, females arelarger and broader-winged than males.VOICE Near nest, loud, irregular week-eek-ik-ik-ikfrom female; more even chekekekekekek from male.NESTING Platform of stems on ground, in rushesor heather; 4–6 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Hunts low over open ground, swoopingdown on small birds and voles.

3

big,roundhead

shortertail

IN FLIGHT

Length 40–45cm (16 –18in) Wingspan 1–1.2m (31⁄4 –4ft) Weight 225–450g (8–16oz)

Social Pairs/Small flocks Lifespan Up to 15 years Status Secure

Order Accipitriformes Family Accipitridae Species Circus pygargus

BIRDS OF PREY

134

Difficult to tell from theHen Harrier in most

circumstances, Montagu’s Harrieris a slimmer, thin-winged bird moreclosely associated with arable farmland. It is also a summer visitor to Europe, and is absent in winter.This is the most delicate of all the elegant-looking birds of the family, the swept-back, tapered wingtips often enough to aididentification even at very long range.VOICE High, clear yek-yek-yek from male, chek-ek-ek-ek from female.NESTING Nest of stems and grasses on ground incorn or heather; 4 or 5 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Catches small mammals, reptiles, andsmall birds on or near ground, diving from low,gliding flight.

OCCURRENCEWidespread in N to S Great Britain(very rare) and to Baltic, from Aprilto September, over heaths, roughgrassland, marshes, and rollingcereal fields, often nesting in tallcrops. Migrants typically followlow-lying coasts but also use highmountain passes.

Montagu’s Harrier

MALE

IMMATURE MALEYoung males often look dark, witha mixture of brown feathersamong the adult grey.

IN FLIGHT

slender taperedwingtips

HEN HARRIER 32;3has broaderwings and white rump; see p.133

SIMILAR SPECIES

darkerbrown

bigger andheavier

shorter andbulkier

blunterwingtips

red-brown barson underwings

medium greyhead

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

JUVENILE

FEMALE

FEMALE

medium greyupperparts

streakedflanks

MALE

darkbrownabove

pale crescentsabove andbelow eye

unmarkedrufousbelow

pale below withbold streaks

glides withwings raised

whiterump

bandedtail

2MARSH HARRIER 2similar to 2; see p.132

long, narrow blackwingtips angled back

FLIGHT: low, elegant, with wings raised in glides;wingbeats relaxed, supple.

black baracross innerwings

BIRDS OF PREY

135

Length 50–60cm (20 –231⁄2 in) Wingspan 1.2–1.5m (4–5ft) Weight 600–1,300g (21–46oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure

Order Acccipitriformes Family Accipitridae Species Buteo lagopus

This northern buzzard sometimes appearsin small numbers well to the south of

its usual range in winter when food is short.It is clearly closely related to the Buzzardbut usually sufficiently distinct to makeidentification straightforward. In winteringareas such as the Netherlands, there may bescores or hundreds of common Buzzards forevery Rough-legged, but its regular hovering maydraw attention to it. Its trademark feathered legs areoften hard to see. Like some other northern species,its fortunes are closely linked to thefluctuating availability of its prey.VOICE Loud, low, plaintive squeal,pee-yow.NESTING Stick nest on cliff or intree; 2–4 eggs; 1 brood; March–June.FEEDING Drops onto smallmammals, especially voles and smallrabbits, from perch or after hover.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in Scandinavia in tundraand highland areas. Winters lowerdown in C Europe, few in LowCountries, very rare in UK exceptin years when small rodent food isscarce in north. Winter visitorsoften in low, expansive farmland.

Rough-legged Buzzard

FLIGHT: flight slightly more fluid and flexible thanBuzzard; soars less, hovers frequently.

ADULT

SIMILAR SPECIES

GOLDEN EAGLE juvenile,longer wings;see p.126

muchbigger

stockier

brownerhead

BUZZARDjerkier in flight; see p.136

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

IN FLIGHT

dark brown above

“frosty” palefeather edges

white tailwith darkbandsnear tip

whitishpatches onprimaries

pale head

pale chest andblackish belly

dark trailingedge (pale onjuvenile) andwingtips

ADULT

HEAD TO WINDThe pale head, dark belly, and palevent show well as this individualhovers, head to wind, searchingfor prey on the ground.

Length 50–57cm (20 –221⁄2 in) Wingspan 1.13–1.28m (33⁄4 –41⁄4ft) Weight 550–1,200g (20–43oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 25 years Status Secure

Order Accipitriformes Family Accipitridae Species Buteo buteo

BIRDS OF PREY

136

One of the most common and most widespread of birds of prey, the Buzzard is therefore a useful

yardstick by which to judge other, rarer birds. It is,however, well worth watching in its own right, too,being an impressive and exciting raptor. It is veryvariable, albeit around a relatively constant basicpattern. It soars in wavering, rising circles over nestingwoods and perches on telegraph poles and fence posts.In some areas, such as the wooded valleys of Wales, itmay be the most common bird of prey.VOICE Noisy; frequent ringing pee-yaah scream orweaker mew; calls often while flying.NESTING Stick nest in tree, or at base of bush on cliffledge; 2–4 eggs; 1 brood; March–June.FEEDING Catches small mammals, rabbits, beetles,earthworms, and some birds; eats much dead meat,including road-kill rabbits.

OCCURRENCEWidespread except in far N Europe(summer visitor in NE Europe), inwooded farmland, hills, and moorsnear crags and forest. Many moveto Low Countries and France inwinter, occupying low, flat groundwith scattered woodland.

Buzzard short, broadhead

paleundersidewith darkchest

round shoulders;hunched shape

ADULT

HEAD TO WINDA Buzzard is able to hang motionless in the wind while searching forfood; it also hovers rather heavily with deep wingbeats in calmer air.

FLIGHT: quick with slightly jerky, stiff wingbeats;soars with wings in “V”, rising in broad circles.

IN FLIGHT

dark, rich brownupperparts

barred paleunderwingswith dark tips

GOLDEN EAGLEsee p.126

SIMILAR SPECIES

bigger

plainerunderwings

pale, finelybarredtail

cream head

soars withwings raised

dark wristpatch

ADULT (PALE VARIANT)

ADULT

HONEY BUZZARDsee p.137

pale “U”acrossmiddle

longer,three-bandedtail

short, roundtail

slimhead

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

soars on flator droopedwings

BIRDS OF PREY

137

Length 52–60cm (201⁄2 –231⁄2 in) Wingspan 1.35–1.5m (41⁄2 –5ft) Weight 600–1,100g (21–39oz)

Social Migrates in flocks Lifespan Up to 25 years Status Secure

Order Accipitriformes Family Accipitridae Species Pernis apivorus

Not a true buzzard at all, this is a unique raider of wasp and bee nests, even walking about on the ground and digging out wax

and grubs with its feet. It is secretive when breeding and more easilyseen on migration, as it concentrates on short sea crossings over theBaltic and the Mediterranean on its way to and from tropical Africa.Exceptionally variable in colour and pattern, it requirescareful observation for positive identification.VOICE Infrequent whistling peee-haa, pee-ee-aah.NESTING Small platform of sticks and greenery in tree,often on old crow’s nest; 1–3 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Eats wasp and bee grubs, wax, honey, adultinsects, ant pupae, and small mammals and reptiles.

OCCURRENCEWidespread throughout Europeexcept in far N Scandinavia, andIceland; rare breeder and migrantin UK. Occupies extensive forest orwell-wooded hilly country, arrivingin April, leaving in September.Migrants cross Mediterranean andmountain regions on regular routes.

Honey Buzzard

FLIGHT: direct flight easy with elastic, deep wing-beats; soars with wings bowed or flattish, tips drooped.

BOLD PATTERNThe underside of most HoneyBuzzards is heavily spotted andbarred but the pattern varies greatlyand some are much plainer.

long wings,angled onleading edge

tiger-stripedunderwings andunderparts

narrow, Cuckoo-like head withpointed bill

BUZZARDwings held in“V” in flight; see p.136

SIMILAR SPECIES

BLACK KITEsee p.131

longer,notched tail

shortertail

stockier

broadhead

ADULT

three darkbands ontail

shorter,thickerhead

IN FLIGHT

ADULT

soars with wingsflat or drooped

long tail, widestin centre

“tiger-striped”underparts

yellow eye (darkon juvenile)

ADULT

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

dark bandson base oftail

ADULT

dark head (oftenwhiter on juvenile)

Length 28–40cm (11–16in) Wingspan 60–80cm (231⁄2 –32in) Weight 150–320g (5–12oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure

Order Accipitriformes Family Accipitridae Species Accipiter nisus

BIRDS OF PREY

138

OCCURRENCEThroughout Europe, except in Ice-land, in wooded farmland and hillsand forest. In winter, in more openareas, including salt marshes withadjacent woodland. Hunts almostanywhere, including forays intogardens where small birds are fed.

barredgreybelow

medium-lengthwings, fannedsquare whensoaring

AGILE HUNTERBroad wings and a long tail givegreat manoeuvrability in tightspaces and accuracy when hunting.

MALE

FEMALE

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

long, thin,square tail

IN FLIGHT

contrastedupperwings longer

head

In many places still scarce after decades of accidentalpesticide poisoning and centuries of persecution,

the Sparrowhawk is common and familiar in otherareas where its recovery has been complete. It typically soars over woods, perchesinconspicuously, or dashes by, low, with a flap-flap-glide action. It is bold enough tohunt in gardens and parks but is essentially a forest-edge bird, extending its huntingrange into more open country in winter. Males are much smaller than females.VOICE Repetitive kek-kek-kek-kek-kek, thin, squealing peee-ee, but generally quietaway from nest.NESTING Small, flat platform of thin twigs on flat branch close to trunk; 4 or 5eggs; 1 brood; March–June.FEEDING Hunts small birds, darting along hedges, woodland edges, or into gardensto take prey by surprise; males take tits and finches, females thrushes and pigeons.

FLIGHT: straight, with several quick, deep beatsbetween short, flat glides; soars with wings forward,tail tight closed; deep, bouncing undulations in display.

SparrowhawkJUVENILE

brownerabovethan adult

FEMALE

brownbarsbelow

barredorangebelow

bluish greyupperparts

short, smallhead

MALE

broad wings(angled back topoint in fast flight)

yellow eye

pale line overeye

SIMILAR SPECIES

more bulgingwing shape

bigger

GOSHAWK 32;see p.139

KESTREL 32similar in flight;more wingbeatsbetween fewerglides, frequenthovers; see p.140

orange on face

Apowerful, awesome predator, the Goshawk is a much moresubstantial hawk than the Sparrowhawk; females, especially, can

look remarkably large. Goshawks are scarce, through persecution, inmost areas, but making a comeback in others, including the UKwhere they have been illegally released or simply escaped toestablish wild populations.They usually sit, well-hidden,in trees and occasionally soarover forest. Goshawks are bestlooked for over extensivewoodland in early spring,soaring over their territories.VOICE Woodpecker-like, nasalgek-gek-gek and pi-aah.NESTING Remarkablylarge, flat-topped heap ofsticks and greenery closeto trunk of tall tree; 2–4eggs; 1 brood; March–June.FEEDING Hunts boldly inforest or clearings, catchingbirds from thrush size tocrows, gamebirds, andother birds or prey; alsoeats rabbits and squirrels.

BIRDS OF PREY

139

Length 48 –61cm (19–24in) Wingspan 0.95–1.25m (3–4ft) Weight 500–1,350g (18–48oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 20 years Status Secure

Order Accipitriformes Family Accipitridae Species Accipiter gentilis

OCCURRENCEWidespread except in Iceland andIreland, but mostly scarce. In well-wooded farmland and hills andforest, typically in mature wood-land with tall conifers but plentyof space beneath trees. Few inmore open country in winter.

Goshawk

JUVENILE

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

deep chestand broadshoulders

long,round tail

whitishunderside,with finegrey barring

MALE

greyish to brownishupperparts (femalewears browner)

whiteunder tail

IN FLIGHT

protruding head

broadwings

ADULTwingsfingered at tip, orangled backto point

S-shapedtrailingedge

SIMILAR SPECIES

smallhead

narrowertail

SPARROWHAWK 32;see p.138

shorter tail

BUZZARDslower flight; see p.136

BOLD PREDATORGoshawks eat prey where they happen to catch it, or carry smalleritems to regular perches.

black-streaked,rich buff below

JUVENILE

FLIGHT: direct flight fast, with deep, quickwingbeats between short glides; soars with wings atfull stretch, tail rounded.

roundhead

dark cap with palestripe over eye

brownupperparts

Length 34–39cm (131⁄2 –151⁄2 in) Wingspan 65–80cm (26–32in) Weight 190–300g (7–11oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 15 years Status Declining

Order Falconiformes Family Falconidae Species Falco tinnunculus

BIRDS OF PREY

140

OCCURRENCEAlmost everywhere in Europe,from cities to remote mountains;common around woodland andheaths, until recently on farmlandbut declining as farming systemsare modernized and food isrestricted almost to roadsideverges. Present all year but manymove south in winter.

Kestrel

pale rufousback spottedwith black

blackclaws

short, roundblue-greyhead

slim tail withblack band

pale browninner wings

outer wings palerthan on male

SIMILAR SPECIES

grey onwings

LESSER KESTREL 3similar to 3; see p.141

unspotted red-brown back

SPARROWHAWK 32;see p.138

shorter,broaderwings

MERLIN 2similar to 32;see p.144

plainerabove

MALE

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

IN FLIGHT

FEMALErufous innerwings

brown-blackouter wings

MALE

barred backand wings

FLIGHT: direct flight with deep wingbeats, fewglides; hovers conspicuously; soars with wings and tailfanned; aerobatic around cliffs.

Usually the most familiar and easily seenbird of prey, the Kestrel has nevertheless

declined in farmland areas in recent years. It isthe pigeon-sized, long-winged, daytime hunter most oftenseen perched on telegraph poles or wires or hovering overroadsides, as if suspended on a string. Unlike Sparrowhawks,there is relatively little difference in size betweenthe sexes, but much more in pattern: themale has a bluish grey head and red-brown upperparts while the female has a brown head and tail.VOICE Nasal, complaining, whiningkeee-eee-eeee and variants.NESTING On bare ledges on cliffs,in quarries, derelict buildings, highwindow-ledges, disused crows’ nests or tree holes; 4–6 eggs; 1 brood;March–July.FEEDING Catches small mammals,especially voles, and also beetles, lizards,earthworms, and small birds.

POISED FOR A DIVEThe Kestrel hovers frequently, its tail often spread likea fan. The fan-shaped tail acts as a brake when thebird is about to land.

FEMALE

BIRDS OF PREY

141

Length 27–33cm (101⁄2 –13in) Wingspan 63–72cm (25–28in) Weight 90–200g (31⁄4 –7oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 5–7 years Status Vulnerable†

Order Falconiformes Family Falconidae Species Falco naumanni

OCCURRENCEBreeds socially on buildings andcliffs and feeds over hot, openground in Spain, Portugal, S France, S Italy, and Balkans.Summer visitor declining fast in most areas; very rare out of normal range.

Lesser Kestrel

unspotted, richred-brown back

blue-greyhead

finely spotted,deep pink-buff chest

MALE

MALE

white claws

blue-greypanel

dark outerwings

FLIGHT: light, quick, with shallow wingbeats;hovers like Kestrel.

IN FLIGHT

pale cheek spot

FEMALE

black-barredback

FEMALE

Sharing the basic colours andpatterns of the Kestrel, the male

Lesser Kestrel can be distinguishedby its unspotted back, but thefemale can be very difficult to tellapart.While the smaller size of the Lesser Kestrel isnot normally obvious, its slightly stockier shape andshorter wings help in identifying it. It is also a moresocial bird, often breeding in tight colonies. LesserKestrel numbers have declined dramatically in Europein recent decades. It is, however, not certain whetherthis is caused by problems in its wintering sites in Africa or in its summer range.VOICE Fast, raucous, triple call, chay-chay-chay, and nasal, high, chattering notes.NESTING On ledges or incavities, in loose colonies;3–6 eggs; 1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Catches insects in airor from ground after hovering.

SIMILAR SPECIES

KESTREL 32;2very similar;see p.140

spottedback

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

HOVERINGThe Lesser Kestrel looks much like the Kestrel while hovering; however,its chunkier body, shorter tail, and square-ended rear aid identification.

MALE

bluish grey head

white underwings

brown tail withblack band at tip

3

brownish head

blue tailwith blackband at tip

FEMALE

Length 28–35cm (11–14in) Wingspan 70–84cm (28–33in) Weight 130–340g (5–12oz)

Social Small feeding flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure

Order Falconiformes Family Falconidae Species Falco subbuteo

BIRDS OF PREY

142

OCCURRENCEMost of Europe except far north,from April to October, breeding inclumps of trees. Hunts over openground, heaths, farmland withtrees, and marshy ground,especially around flooded pits with large flying insects.

Hobbyblack “moustache”

ADULT

SIMILAR SPECIES

PEREGRINEsee p.143

MERLIN 32;see p.144

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

DYNAMIC FLIGHTHobbies catch insects with deft turns, butmake long, fast dives after small birds.

short,narrow,plain tail

rufousthighs

plain darkback

reddishunder tail

dark below

stockier

barred, notstreaked, below

broader acrossrump andshoulders in flight

chunkierwings

plainerface

long, taperedwings

pale cheeks;pale patchon nape

slightly brownerthan adult

no redundertail

thick blackstreaks on paleunderparts

No bird outdoes the Hobby forsheer elegance when it is hawking

insects above a marsh, heath, or field ona summer evening. It floats over openspace, speeding up to take prey: itsseemingly effortless acceleration takesit into a dive, or a chase, or a smoothupward glide, before an extremely neat“take”, using its feet to catch largerinsects such as chafers and dragonflies.It is unusual among European falcons,being a summer visitor from Africa.VOICE Clear, musical, whistled kyu-kyu-kyu-kyu.NESTING No nest (like otherfalcons), lays eggs inside old nest ofRook or crow; 2 or 3 eggs; 1 brood;June–August.FEEDING Catches small birds such as martins and swallows in flight andmany insects such as dragonflies and large aerial beetles.

JUVENILE

pale patchon cheeksand throat

FLIGHT: easy, relaxed with fluent wingbeats; huntsin gliding, swooping, patrolling flight with suddentwists and changes of height, direction, and pace.

ADULT

heavystreaks

PINE TREE NURSERYA crow’s nest in a tall conifer makes an idealplace for the Hobby to nest.

IN FLIGHT

BIRDS OF PREY

143

Length 39–50cm (151⁄2 –20in) Wingspan 0.95–1.15m (3–33⁄4ft) Weight 600–1,300g (21–46oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 15 years Status Rare

Order Falconiformes Family Falconidae Species Falco peregrinus

One of the larger falcons, the Peregrine is a symbol of survival againstthe odds, these being persecution and pesticide poisoning that

threatened it with extinction. Now it has made a strong comeback; in theUK, it is more common than it has ever been, although parts of its formerrange remain unoccupied.As with most falcons and hawks, females areconsiderably larger than males. Pairs often remain together for longperiods, soaring over nesting cliffs.VOICE Loud, raucous calls at nest include throaty haak-haak-haak-haakand whining kee-keee-eeeeee and wheeee-ip.NESTING On broad ledge or earthy scrape on cliff, in quarry, or morerarely on building or on flatter ground; 2–4 eggs; 1 brood; March–June.FEEDING Kills birds of sizes ranging from thrush to pigeon or grouse,sometimes larger, often rising to take them from beneath, chasing in levelflight, or stooping from great height.

OCCURRENCEWidespread but scarce, breedingthrough Scandinavia, N and WGreat Britain, Spain, Portugal, Alps,Italy, and Balkans, in hills andcoasts with cliffs, increasingly incities. Present all year, somewandering in winter.

Peregrine

FLIGHT: direct level flight fast with quick, regular,deep, whippy wingbeats; also soars on straight, flatwings; acrobatic, with long, fast, near-vertical stoops.

black lobeson eachside of faceand neck

yellow eye-ring

IN FLIGHT

ADULT

short,squaredark tail

KESTREL 32;see p.140

yellow bill-base

closelybarredwhiteunderside

yellow feet

buff tailtip

bluish eye-ring andbill-base

STRIKING ADULTPeregrines look dark against the sky, but aclose view reveals black, white, and yellowadding sharp contrast to the overall grey.

white cheek patch

whitebreast

large, solidbody withbroadshoulders

ADULT

broadpalerump

anchor-shapedwings

HOBBYfound onlyin summer;see p.142

grey bars onflanks and belly

SIMILAR SPECIES

smaller and darker;lighter build

lighterbuild

longertail

blue-greyupperparts

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

ADULT

browner thanadult above withbuff edges

streaked below

JUVENILE

Length 25–30cm (10 –12in) Wingspan 60–65cm (231⁄2 –26in) Weight 140–230g (5–8oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure

Order Falconiformes Family Falconidae Species Falco columbarius

BIRDS OF PREY

144

Asmall, dynamic, chunky falcon of open ground,the Merlin usually keeps low, chasing down its

prey in quick, agile flights. It spends much of its timeperched on low posts, rocks, and even clods of earth,scanning the landscape. In summer, it is an elusivebird, especially if nesting on the ground, althoughtree-nesting pairs can be more demonstrative ifapproached, boldy diving at intruders.VOICE Male has quick, sharp kik-kik-ki-kik; femalehas deeper, more nasal kee-kee-kee-kee; quiet awayfrom nest and in winter.NESTING Bare scrape on ground among heather orold crow’s nest in tree; 3–6 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Mostly eats small birds, caught in flight;also eats variety of large aerial insects.

OCCURRENCEWidespread but scarce breeder onmoors in N Europe, sometimesusing slopes with trees or edges ofconifer plantations. In winter, overmost of Europe in open country-side, especially pastureland andcoastal marshes with open spaces.

Merlin

MALE

IN FLIGHT

SIMILAR SPECIES

bluish greyupperparts

small, squarehead withlittle pattern

pale tail withblack band

orange-buffbelow

small, chunkybody

broad-basedwings taperto point

brown and creambanded tail

PEREGRINEsee p.143

bold headpattern

larger

FLIGHT: fast, low, direct, with almost constantwingbeats; chases prey with in-out flicked wingaction and finally rapid, twisting, acrobatic chase.

HOBBYsee p.142

boldwhitecheeks

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

MALE

FEMALE

FEMALE

cream belowwith streaks

mud-brownabove

LOW PERCHA brown female Merlin perches on a low, mossy rock in a typical squat,upright pose, alert and ready to chase prey.

145

GAMEBIRDS

AMIXED GROUP OF GROUND birds, these areall short-legged, short-billed species that feed

on vegetable matter, some with a very restricteddiet. Their chicks, however, require an abundanceof energy-giving insects. Several have ritualizedsocial behaviour, typified by the “lekking” ofBlack Grouse. Males display in order to get thebest chance of being selected by a female, but takeno part in incubating eggs or rearing the young.

GROUSERound-bodied species with feathered legs andfeet, and typically cryptic plumages, grouse livein demanding conditions, including bleak heathermoors and high mountain tops.

PHEASANTSLong-tailed male pheasants are gorgeous birds,while females are generally smaller and duller.Some are secretive and hard to find.

PARTRIDGESSmall and rotund, partridges have far lessdifference between male and female than thegrouse and pheasants, and the males take a greaterpart in caring for the family. They are socialbirds outside the breeding season. The Quail is a smaller species and a long-distance migrant,wintering in Africa.

GAMEBIRDS

Families Tetraonidae, Phasianidae

GIANT GROUSEBiggest of all grouse is the male Capercaillie, a threatenedspecies of pine forest habitats.It is a social bird where numbersremain high, but often solitaryin summer.

FACIAL WATTLESSeveral species of gamebirds, suchas this Pheasant, have fleshy redappendages on the head. Pheasantshave been introduced for shootingin many countries.

SHOW OFFA male Black Grouse performs a courtshipdisplay at dawn; these ritualized displaysare performed in groups in early spring.

Length 37–42cm (141⁄2 –161⁄2 in) Wingspan 55–66cm (22–26in) Weight 650–750g (23–27oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 7 years Status Secure

Order Galliformes Family Tetraonidae Species Lagopus lagopus

GAMEBIRDS

146

Athickset, small-headed, round-bodied, chicken-like bird of moorand heath, the Willow Grouse is extensively shot for sport but,

unlike the Pheasant, not reared and released. Small groups keep wellout of sight until flushed at close range.The British and Irish race isdistinctive, retaining an essentially unchanged plumage pattern allyear round. Grouse have declinedover many decades in most areas,struggling to maintain high numbersin a relatively artificial environment.VOICE Remarkable, deep, staccatocalls echo across moors, kau-kau-kau-ka-ka-karrr-rrr-g’bak, g’bak, bak.NESTING Sparsely lined scrape on ground in heather; 6–9 eggs;1 brood;April–May.FEEDING Plucks shoots and seedsfrom heather while standing orwalking slowly; also takes variety of berries and seeds.

SIMILAR SPECIES

Willow Grouse

FLIGHT: explosive escape, then long, fast, low flightwith whirring beats and long glides on arched wings.

WINTER

MALE(SUMMER)

WINTER

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

OCCURRENCEOn heather moorland in GreatBritain and Ireland, most on placesmanaged for shooting, rarelymoving from breeding areas evenin hard winter weather. In northernforests and clearings in Scandinaviaand extreme NE Europe.

SUBSPECIES

L. l. scoticus(Great Britain, Ireland)

MALE

FEMALE

dark reddishbrown

dark wings

yellow-brown

all-whitebody

rich red-brown body(female yellow-brown,more marbled)

dark scalybars

whitebelly

black tail

whitewings

thick bill

thickblackbill

red over eye

whitewings

IN FLIGHT

MALE(SUMMER)

barredflanks

PTARMIGAN 32winter; see p.147 slimmer

bill

smallerpalebrown

GREY PARTRIDGEsee p.151

rusty sides of tail

PATCHY TRANSITIONMoulting birds have a contrasted look; the dark head is thelast to go white in autumn, and first to turn brown in spring.

GAMEBIRDS

147

Length 34–36cm (131⁄2 –14in) Wingspan 54–60cm (211⁄2 –231⁄2 in) Weight 400–600g (14–21oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 7 years Status Secure

Order Galliformes Family Tetraonidae Species Lagopus mutus

Ahigh-altitude grouse in the south of its range, onlower, barren ground farther north (even within

Scotland), the Ptarmigan is a smaller, more delicateversion of the Willow Grouse. In the UK, it is foundonly on the highest Scottish peaks and extremenorthern moors. It is difficult to separate from WillowGrouse in winter, and females require care to separatefrom Red Grouse in summer.VOICE Low, dry, croaking notes, especially four-syllable arr-kar-ka-karrrr; also cackling “belch”.NESTING Scrape on ground, lightly lined with grass;5–9 eggs; 1 brood; May–July.FEEDING Shoots, leaves, buds, seeds, and berries ofvariety of low-growing shrubs; also takes insects, whichare important food for chicks.

OCCURRENCEBreeds widely in Iceland, N and W Scandinavia, and very locally inScotland, Pyrenees, and Alps, onopen tundra or rocky shores, andboulder fields. In S Europe, onlyon highest stony peaks that mimictundra environment.

Ptarmigan

IN FLIGHT

“salt and pepper”barring on greyupperparts

MALE(WINTER)

WILLOW GROUSEsummer, similar to3summer; see p.146

MALE(SUMMER)

SIMILAR SPECIES

neckextended

white wings

black tail

MALE(WINTER)

thickerbill

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

red overeye

WILLOW GROUSEwinter, similar to32winter; see p.146

redderbrown

larger

white plumage;piebald in springand autumn

black linebetween billand eye round, bantam-

shaped body

FEMALE (SUMMER)

yellow specklingon brown body

white wings

small, roundhead

small billsmall, delicatebill

slimneck

MALE(SUMMER)

white belly FEMALE (WINTER)

whiteplumage

SEASONAL CHANGEVarious parti-coloured plumage patterns can be seen on the Ptarmigan in spring and autumn.

FLIGHT: flies up at close range with powerful, risingflight on stiff, fast-beating wings; long downhill glides.

Length 60–85cm (231⁄2 –34in) Wingspan 0.87–1.25m (23⁄4 –4ft) Weight 1.5–4.4kg (31⁄4 –93⁄4 lb)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure†

Order Galliformes Family Tetraonidae Species Tetrao urogallus

GAMEBIRDS

148

SIMILAR SPECIES

OCCURRENCEBreeds in Scotland and N Spain,widely in Scandinavia and fromAlps eastwards, declining in many areas. Prefers ancient,natural pine forest; more sparselyfound in pine plantations. Feeds in nearby boggy clearings withbilberry, juniper, and heather, andon treetops in winter, but remainswithin such areas all year.

Capercaillie

PINE FOREST BIRDThe Capercaillie inhabits pine forest, feeding on the treetops in winter,and in marshy clearings nearby during the rest of the year.

The largest grouse and a bird of pine forest and boggy forestclearings with thick undergrowth, the Capercaillie is sensitive

to disturbance and typically shy and secretive. It may burst almostfrom underfoot in a forest, but usually fliesup at long range from an open clearing.It is nowhere common and in some areas,including Scotland, seriously threatened.VOICE Pheasant-like crow; male in springhas prolonged, croaking “song” ending withcork-popping and gurgling notes.NESTING Hollow on ground, often at basesof trees, lined with grass, pine needles, andtwigs; 5–8 eggs; 1 brood; March–July.FEEDING Pine needles, buds of severalshrubs and trees, shoots and leaves,and berries of various herbsand shrubs, especially bilberry;feeds in trees in winter.

short,hookedthick bill

spikybeardbrown

wings

boldwhiteshoulderspot

white-speckled,broad, roundblack tail

FEMALE

MALE

BLACK GROUSE 2similar to 2; see p.149

huge,blackishgrey body

red wattle

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

MALE

FLIGHT: often flies up far away and goes off inlong, low, fast flight with heavy wingbeats; alsobursts up at close range with great clatter.

IN FLIGHT

dark bars onrufous-gingerbody

white patches onflanks and belly

FEMALE

dark barson orangetail

greyer and smaller

notchedtail

broadorangechest

SPRING DISPLAYWhere they are common, females may gatheraround displaying males in early spring.

GAMEBIRDS

149

Length 40 –55cm (16–22in) Wingspan 65–80cm (26–32in) Weight 0.75–1.4kg (13⁄4 –3lb)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Vulnerable

Order Galliformes Family Tetraonidae Species Tetrao tetrix

OCCURRENCEWidespread in N and W Britain,Scandinavia, Alps, and NE Europe,very local in Low Countries withlong-term decline. Varied habitatsincluding woodland, pastures,heaths, moors, or new plantationson heather moor.

Black Grouse

SIMILAR SPECIES

broad whitewingbar

fine pale baron mid-brownwingsslightly

notchedtail

FEMALE MALE

MALE

FEMALE

roundtail

larger RED GROUSE 2similar to 2;see p.146

CAPERCAILLIE32; 3bigger,more rufous;see p.148

blacker wingsand tail

FLIGHT: strong, often high, direct, over longdistances with regular wingbeats; occasional glides.

Alarge grouse of moorland edges and forest clearings, the BlackGrouse has declined over most of its European range.At the leks

(the spring display sites), the males display with mock fights, toimpress the reclusive females that watch from hidden vantage pointsnearby.They are subject to disturbance at leks, and the males usuallyfly off at long range if approached.VOICE Female has gruff bark;displaying male has far-carrying, dove-like, rolling coo with regular rhythmand explosive “sneeze”.NESTING Hollow on ground beneathheather or bracken, with little or nolining; 6–10 eggs; 1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Wide variety of seeds,berries, buds, shoots, leaves, andflowers of many shrubs, sedges, andtrees; chicks eat insects.

COURTSHIP DISPLAYIn spring, males gather at dawn in open places todisplay with drooped wings and lyre-shaped tails.

elongated shapebold whiteshoulder spot

large, heavy,cockerel-likebody

undertail feathersraised in display

glossyblackplumage

blue sheenon neck

curved, broad-tipped outerfeathers on tail

white patchunder tail

dark-barred,yellow-brown or grey plumage

3

DRAMATIC MALEMales on open ground are easilyvisible at great distances.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

IN FLIGHT

Length 32–34cm (121⁄2 –131⁄2 in) Wingspan 45–50cm (18–20in) Weight 400–550g (14–20oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 6 years Status Vulnerable

Order Galliformes Family Phasianidae Species Alectoris rufa

GAMEBIRDS

150

Red-legged Partridgestreaked foreneck

white stripebelow cap

grey-browncap

plain, pale brownupperparts

redbill

SIMILAR SPECIES

orangeface

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

This neat, colourful, and attractive partridge isseriously threatened by irresponsible introductions

of other species within its range, producing a mixedhybrid population. Close views are required to ruleout Red-legged Chukar hybrids which are widespreadin England. In their native range, Red-leggedPartridges are quite elusive birds of warm, open, stonyslopes and fields; in the UK, they prefer light soils inarable areas. Red-legged Partridges can often be seenperched on haystacks, barns, and farm buildings.VOICE Deep, gobbling and hissing or chucklingmechanical calls, chuk-uk-ar,k’chuk-ar, k’chuk-ar.NESTING Grass-lined hollowscrape on ground beneathlow vegetation; 7–20 eggs;1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Eats leaves, shoots,berries, acorns, and seeds,including beech-mast picked up from ground;chicks eat insects.

STAYING CLOSEFamily groups of Red-legged Partridgeswalk slowly over openground or sit togetherinconspicuously inshort stubble.

CAMOUFLAGEDespite the bright patterns of this,the prettiest partridge, it is wellcamouflaged in most situations.

OCCURRENCEResident in Portugal, Spain, France,N Italy, and introduced in UK.Breeds on ground in places thathave open slopes with scatteredaromatic shrubs and much bare,stony, or sandy ground; in arableareas with dry, sandy fields; andless commonly on grassy heathsand coastal dunes.

rufoustail

FLIGHT: runs more than flies; wings straight, stiff,beating rapidly between flat-winged glides.

dark red-brown tail

red legs

GREY PARTRIDGEsee p.151

CHUKARsee p.418

palerplainbreast

straight, stiffwings

white chin

IN FLIGHT

black, brown,and blue-greybarred flanks

black linearoundwhite face,speckledbreast

DRINKING PARTYTemporary pools attractfamily groups to drink and bathe after rain inotherwise dry areas.

This small, neat, grouse-like bird is typical of old-fashionedfarmland with meadows, arable crops, and plenty of

hedges; extensive cereal prairies suit it far less well. Its territorialcall on summer evenings draws attentionto it where it manages to survive inmodern intensively farmed landscapes. Itmoves secretively through grassy habitats,often pausing to raise its head and lookaround. Family groups gather together intight flocks, called “coveys” and sometimesfly off together in such groups if disturbed.VOICE Distinctive, mechanical, creaky,low, rhythmic note, kieeer-ik or ki-yik.NESTING Shallow scrapeon ground, lined withsome grass and leaves,well hidden under longgrass; 10–20 eggs;1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Feeds as itwalks over ground,taking seeds, leaves,and shoots; chicks feedon insects.

GAMEBIRDS

151

Length 29–31cm (111⁄2 –12in) Wingspan 45–48cm (18–19in) Weight 350–450g (13–16oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Vulnerable

Order Galliformes Family Phasianidae Species Perdix perdix

OCCURRENCEWidespread from UK, France,extreme N Spain, east acrossEurope, and north to Finland. Infarmland, heaths, dunes, andespecially traditional grassymeadows with abundant insectfood; in reduced numbers inmodern farmland with grassy fieldmargins and hedges.

Grey Partridge

FLIGHT: low, fast, on bowed wings, with quickwingbeats and short glides.

STUBBLE BIRDWinter corn stubblesprovide good habitatbut are now rarely leftfor long. Intensivefarming has led tolarge declines.

smallhead

dullbrownbill

IN FLIGHT

pale orange-brown face

palestreakson greybreast

broad, horseshoe-shaped, darkbrown patch on belly

dull brownlegs

dumpy, palebrown body

streakedback

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

rustyorangetail sides

FAST FLIGHTA covey dashes past low and fast on whirringwings, with frequent glides.

RED LEGGED PARTRIDGEflies on flatter wings with fingered tips;see p.150

whitefacepatch

PHEASANTjuvenile;see p.153

� longer, cocked tail � longer legs

larger andplainer

SIMILAR SPECIES

slightly arched, palebrown wings

Length 16–18cm (61⁄2 –7in) Wingspan 32–35cm (121⁄2 –14in) Weight 70–135g (21⁄2 –5oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 8 years Status Vulnerable

Order Galliformes Family Phasianidae Species Coturnix coturnix

GAMEBIRDS

152

This is a bird that is heard butrarely seen: it seldom flies and,

living as it does in long grass orcereals, it is almost impossible to seeon the ground unless it ventures ontoan open track. Migrants occasionallyappear in more exposed places and can then bewatched more easily, although they remain secretive andskulking.When Quails do fly, they look unexpectedly long-winged,and may be confused with other species, such as young Partridgeswhich can fly well before they are full grown. Quails usually fly in ashort, fast, low arc before dropping down out of sight,and are unlikely to be flushed a second time.They aregenerally much more common and widespread inwarmer, southern parts of Europe than farther north,but have declined in numbers in the face ofmodernized agriculture even there, and futureprospects are not very bright.VOICE Unique loud, far-carrying song, full, liquid,rhythmic quick-we-wik; also quiet mewing notes.NESTING Slight hollow lined with vegetation and well hidden in crops or grass; up to 12 eggs; 1 brood;May–June.FEEDING Walks slowly forwards, picking up seeds and shoots and snatching small insects from ground or foliage.

OCCURRENCEWidespread north to Baltic, buterratic at northern edge of itsrange. Breeds in extensive tracts of long grass or cereal fields,mostly in warm, dry areas.Increased numbers appear in some “Quail years”.

Quail

MALE

IN FLIGHT

FEMALE

SIMILAR SPECIES

rufouswings

longerlegs

dark stripeson flanks

small,rotundbody

bold creamstripes onbrown back

narrow, long,dark wings

dark,pointedtail

striped crown

smallbill

GREY PARTRIDGEsee p.151

rufoustail

MALE

black onthroat

palethroat

striped head

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

FLIGHT: low, quite quick; fast wingbeats and shortglides, almost Snipe-like but drops quickly into cover.

CORNCRAKEsee p.155

EXPOSED MIGRANTMigrants occasionally rest in fields with sparse crops and can sometimesbe seen in the open.

GAMEBIRDS

153

Length 52–90cm (201⁄2 –35in) Wingspan 70–90cm (28–35in) Weight 0.9–1.4kg (2–3lb)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 7 years Status Secure

Order Galliformes Family Phasianidae Species Phasianus colchicus

OCCURRENCEVery local in Spain, Portugal, and S Scandinavia but widespreadthrough mid- and W Europe.Found widely in varied habitats,chiefly in very mixed countryside,in arable fields, woods, reedbeds,heaths, and moorland edges.

Pheasant

FLIGHT: low, short bursts with whirring wings,trailing tail; explosive escape from underfoot.

IN FLIGHT

MALE (DARK FORM)

MALE (PALE VARIANT)

GREY PARTRIDGEsimilar to 2;see p.151

SIMILAR SPECIES

BLACK GROUSE 2similar to 2; see p.149

long, stiff,tapered tail

green-blackhead

small, bulboushead onnarrow neck

glossy bronze orcopper breastwith dark spots

pale brownbody with boldblack markings

orange-copperflanks

FEMALE

white markingson reddishbrown body

often palerumptrailing

tail

pointedtail

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJround tail

smaller

shorterlegs

The Pheasant has beenintroduced into large parts of

Europe, and the males’ loud crowing calls at dusk are distinctive overmuch of the countryside.The status and behaviour of this species aredifficult to specify because of the frequent presence of young birdsreared and released, unprepared for life in the wild, to be shot.“Wild” birds frequently resort to marshy, reedy places,as well as woodland edges where theyare most familiar and characteristic.VOICE Loud, explosive corr-kok! withsudden whirr of wings; also loudclucking in flight.NESTING Hollow on ground, underoverhanging cover such as brambles,unlined or with thin scattering of grassstems; 8–15 eggs; 1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Takes all kinds of food, fromseeds and berries to insects and lizards,from ground in its powerful bill.

WHIRRING WINGSThe call of the richly patterned malePheasant is followed by a suddenburst of wingbeats that create a verybrief, loud whirring sound.

shorter,notched tail

FEMALE

white neck-ring

MALE

RAILS, CRAKES,AND COOTS/CRANES AND BUSTARDS

154

Families Gruidae, Otididae

CRANES AND BUSTARDS

CRANES ARE TALL, upstanding, long-stridingbirds, heron-like but with smaller bills and

thicker necks that broaden into the shoulders.They have dramatic courtship displays, withelegant “dancing” and trumpeting calls. Theymigrate to southern Europe andAfrica each autumn, flyingmajestically in long linesor V-shaped flocks, and

RATHER SMALL, SLIM BIRDS, rails, crakes, andcoots are narrow-bodied, allowing them to

slip through dense vegetation; however, theirdeep bellies give a rounder appearance in a sideview. Most live in wet places. Some are resident,others long-distance migrants.

The Moorhen is common and familiar, andeasy to see; the Coot is more gregarious and alsoeasy to watch in large numbers on almost anyfreshwater pool. Others, however, such as thesmaller crakes and the Water Rail, live in suchdense vegetation that they are difficult to see at all, or come only to the edge of the reeds

RAILS, CRAKES, AND COOTS

RATCHET CALLThe repeated “crek crek” of theCorncrake is an evocative sound,which is sadly declining.

FAMILY TIESMoorhens rear several broods

and early young helpfeed later ones. Inspring, however,females fightfiercely over males.

or sedges occasionally to give a brief glimpse.They are, however, skulking rather than shy andcan sometimes be watched very closely.

The Corncrake lives in dry fields of hay andclumps of irises or nettles, away from open water;it is hard to see but easy to hear its loud, repetitive“song”. In most European countries it hasdeclined severely with modernization of farming techniques.

Family Rallidae

use traditional wintering sites and intermediateresting and feeding areas.

Bustards are threatened birds of dry, openlandscapes. The Great Bustard is huge, the Little

Bustard pheasant-sized and quick, moreduck-like, in flight. They are unableto survive in intensively farmedcountryside and, already muchreduced, face further declines.

MASSIVE MALESMale Great Bustards are considerably biggerthan the females but still can be difficult tolocate in their remote habitats.

RAILS, CRAKES,AND COOTS

155

Length 27–30cm (10 1⁄2 –12in) Wingspan 46–53cm (18–21in) Weight 135–200g (5–7oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan 5–7 years Status Vulnerable

Order Gruiformes Family Rallidae Species Crex crex

Corncrake

IN FLIGHT

FEMALE

MALE

Corncrakes skulk in hay (or iris and nettle beds early in spring)

and are hard to see, but singing malesare easy to hear especially at dusk.Migrants are generally rare and take peopleby surprise, suddenly rising underfoot andlooking surprisingly rufous.The advent ofadvanced, intensive farming threatens the survival ofCorncrakes in eastern Europe, where good numbersstill remain; last-ditch conservation efforts haveprotected them in western Scotland.There they preferhay in flowery meadows, with longer, roughervegetation in field corners or overgrowing dry stonewalls to give plenty of thick cover.VOICE Loud, repeated double-note: at distance light,scratched or rasped crik crik; at close range hard,rattling, deep, vibrating crrek crrek.NESTING Small, leaf- and grass-lined hollow onground, with grass cover to conceal top; 8–12 eggs;1 or 2 broods; May–August.FEEDING Picks insects, seeds, leaves, and shoots fromfoliage and ground, in steady, springy walk.

OCCURRENCEWidespread but scarce or rare inFrance and C Europe; very rare in Ireland and W Scotland. Breedsin hayfields and wet grass withdense cover in spring and in latesummer harvest (unable to survivein early-cut silage).

SIMILAR SPECIES

SPOTTED CRAKEsee p.157

greenlegs

white and brownbars on flanks

strong, narrowbut rounded,rufous wings

pinklegs

tawny back withbold black streaks

less greythan male

stout, shortpink bill

soft greyand buffface

greythroatandbreast

QUAIL 32;see p.152

smaller,rounderbody

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

PEERING FROM COVERThe Corncrake keeps well hidden in long grass and occasionally peersupwards into open view with its head raised.

FLIGHT: low, short flight with quick wingbeats andtrailing feet; drops down to cover quickly.

speckledwith white

greyer

darkwings

ADULT

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 22 –28cm (9–11in) Wingspan 38–45cm (15–18in) Weight 85–190g (3–7oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 6 years Status Secure†

Order Gruiformes Family Rallidae Species Rallus aquaticus

RAILS, CRAKES,AND COOTS

156

OCCURRENCEIn most of Europe except N Scandinavia in wet reedbeds,sedges, and dense reedmace bypools; also in overgrown ditches,muddy ponds, sometimes floodedplaces under willows and alders,and overgrown riversides.

Water Rail

This is often a difficult bird to see, not so much because it is shy but as a result of its habit of skulking in dense waterside

vegetation; occasionally a Water Rail on open mud willshow itself off remarkably well. Because of its habitatrequirements, it is very patchily distributed andgenerally scarce, but large reedbeds can have bigpopulations, best detected by listening at dawn anddusk for their loud, squealing calls.VOICE Loud, hard, repetitive kipkipkipkipkip, frequentloud, squealing and grunting (generally pig-like) notes.NESTING Shallow dish of broad leaves and grass stems,in vegetation raised a little above water level; 6–11eggs; 2 broods; May–August.FEEDING Mostly feeds on insects and molluscs butvery opportunistic, taking even voles and small birds,dead animals, seeds, and berries.

JUVENILE

plainerbrown

whiteunder tail shorter bill

MOORHEN juvenile;see p.158

SPOTTED CRAKEsee p.157

FLIGHT: quick, short, low flights with raised,whirring wings and dangling legs and toes.

ADULT

slate-greyhead andbreast

trailing feet

red eye

black tipof pointedred bill

pink legs

grey chest

narrowlybarred flanks

pale buffunder short,cocked tail

pale to rich brownupperparts with thickdark streaks

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

ADULT

untidy barsbelow

dull legs

REEDBED WADERWater Rails typically wade through the shallows in and around reeds andswampy willow thickets, now and then appearing at the edges.

shortbill

IN FLIGHT

SIMILAR SPECIES

RAILS, CRAKES,AND COOTS

157

Length 22 –24cm (9–91⁄2 in) Wingspan 35cm (14in) Weight 70–80g (21⁄2 –27⁄8oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Gruiformes Family Rallidae Species Porzana porzana

OCCURRENCEWidespread except in far N Europe,but everywhere very patchy. Breedsin extensive flood-meadows;migrant in wet marsh in reedyplaces, often appearing at edge ofmuddy pools and generally elusivein dense cover rather than shy.

Spotted Crake

SLIM SHAPELike all crakes and rails, the Spotted Crake appears deep-bodied from theside but end-on, it is slim, easily able to slip between reeds and sedges.

IN FLIGHT

ADULT

WATER RAILsee p.156

FLIGHT: short, quick flights if flushed from vege-tation, dropping back into cover with dangling legs.

stripedunderpartsbuff

undertail

JUVENILE

MOORHENsee p.158

longredbill

more solidlycoloured

bold whitepatchunder tail

larger

shortyellowishbill withred at base

browner onhead and neckthan adult

grey-buffneck withwhite spots

rotund from side

white barson flanks

short, oftencocked tail

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

ADULT

The Spotted Crake is another “shy” bird that hidesitself in thick vegetation but, at times, allows

remarkably close views: careful observation reveals abeautifully patterned and almost shiny-plumaged bird.Spotted Crakes in spring are elusive but can bedetected by their nocturnal whiplash calls. Most inwestern Europe are seen on migration in autumn,where falling water levels have exposed bands of mudalong the edges of reedbeds.VOICE Repeated, rhythmic, whipped, or drippinghwit, hwit, hwit, at dusk or after dark.NESTING Small saucer of leaves and stems, placed inupright stalks raised above water or in wet marsh;8–12 eggs; 1 brood; May–July.FEEDING Picks various small insects and aquaticinvertebrates from mud, foliage, and water.

Length 32–35cm (121⁄2 –14in) Wingspan 50–55cm (20–22in) Weight 250–420g (9–15oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 15 years Status Secure

Order Gruiformes Family Rallidae Species Gallinula chloropus

RAILS, CRAKES,AND COOTS

158

OCCURRENCEWidespread except in Iceland andN Scandinavia; in summer only in N and E Europe. Breeds on smallponds with overgrown margins oroverhanging branches; found inditches, rivers, ponds, lakes, andreservoirs of all kinds. Feeds insmall groups, on open, wet, grassyground, even in hedges, usuallynear water.

Moorhenrich brownback

slate-greyhead

slate-grey underside

bold whitepatch undertail

CLIMBERMoorhens are surprisingly agile,climbing trees and densehedgerow bushes.

SIMILAR SPECIES

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

IN FLIGHT

JUVENILE

FLIGHT: low, fluttery, with long legs trailing; oftenscutters over water to nearest cover.

Abird of the water’s edge and nearby marshy ground, rather than

open water, the Moorhen is widespread and surprisingly commonin many areas as it can occupy anything from a wet ditch to a largelake. Small, loose groups move slowly, feeding on damp meadows,running to cover if disturbed, and even breaking into brief flight.Only rarely is a Moorhen seen way out on open water, looking alittle uncomfortable (unlike the Coot) in such an exposed situation.VOICE Loud, sudden, throaty or metallic notes from cover, kurrukor kittik, high kik, stuttering kik-kikikikik-ik.NESTING Shallow bowl ofleaves and stems, in vegetationfrom low reeds to high in treesbut usually just above water,often in fallen or droopingbranch; 5–11 eggs; 2 or 3broods;April–August.FEEDING Picks up seeds, fruit,shoots, roots, snails, insects, andoccasionally eggs, from dampground or shallows.

WATER RAILsee p.156

bright red billwith yellow tip

diagonal white stripe

red eye brownbody

dull greenishyellow bill

ADULT

long green toes

ADULT

white bill

long, slimbill

round-backed

greenlegs

FIGHTING FRENZYMoorhens fight furiously in the breeding season, kicking withtheir feet; females fight over males.

ADULT

COOTsee p.159

glossyplumage

slate-blackbody

RAILS, CRAKES,AND COOTS

159

Length 36–38cm (14 –15in) Wingspan 70–80cm (28–32in) Weight 600–900g (21–32oz)

Social Large winter flocks Lifespan Up to 15 years Status Secure

Order Gruiformes Family Rallidae Species Fulica atra

OCCURRENCEWidespread except in Iceland andN Scandinavia; in summer only inN and E Europe. Nests mostly onlakes and flooded pits, withmarginal vegetation or overhangingbranches. In winter, on biggerlakes and more open shores.

Coot

TERRITORIAL DISPLAYCoots raise their wings and body feathers to impressand scare away rivals, and often resort to fights.

white facialshield and bill

IN FLIGHT

These quarrelsome waterbirds are often found on wide openwater on large reservoirs or flooded pits; they are rarely on the

sea.They are also frequently seen feeding on nearby grassy banks.Feeding flocks are usually bigger and more coherent than the loosegroups of Moorhens. Coots are also obviously bigger and moreheavily built. Close views reveal their broadly lobed toes, more likea grebe’s.While superficially duck-like, the Coot is really not verylike any species of European duck.VOICE Loud, explosive kowk, high, squeaky teuwk, pik, and similarnotes; juvenile has loud whistling calls.NESTING Large bowl of wetvegetation, in overhangingbranches or reeds, or on moundof semi-floating debris at water’sedge; 6–9 eggs; 1 or 2 broods;April–August.FEEDING Dives easily to feedunderwater, bouncing back uplike a cork; eats grass, seeds,shoots, snails, tadpoles, andsimilar small aquatic creatures.

SIMILAR SPECIES

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

FLIGHT: usually low, quite quick but heavy, lackingagility; big feet trailing.

ADULT

ADULT

JUVENILE

MOORHENsee p.158

slate-blackbody

slimmer

pointed tailwith whitebeneath

slim, upturned bill

blurred whiteface and throat

roundedrump

BLACK-NECKED GREBEwinter, similar tojuvenile; see p.63

yellowish bill

intenselyblack head

red eye

FAMILY GROUPCoots often nest on town park lakes, wherefamily groups are a familiar sight.

ADULT

large grey feetwith lobed toes

palerearedge

Length 0.96–1.19m (3 –4ft) Wingspan 1.8–2.22m (6–71⁄4ft) Weight 4.5–6kg (10–13lb)

Social Large winter flocks Lifespan Up to 20 years Status Vulnerable

Order Gruiformes Family Gruidae Species Grus grus

CRANES AND BUSTARDS

160

Crane

SIMILAR SPECIES

IN FLIGHT

One of Europe’s most charismatic birds, theCrane engages in spectacular communal

dancing displays in spring and summer in the wildnorth. In winter, large flocks are commonly seen in afew southern wetlands. It is mostly a rather rare migrantin between. Grey Herons are sometimes spoken of asCranes, through a confusion of names rather than any errorin identification: the two are really very different.The Craneis considerably bigger andmore dramatic than a heron.VOICE Loud, deep, clangingkrro; in spring, bugling notesas pairs display.NESTING Big, rough moundof stalks and leaves onground on which birdcrouches, hard to see;2 eggs; 1 brood; May–July.FEEDING Stridesmajestically over ground,digging up roots, grain,and insect larvae; eats acorns in winter.

GROUP DISPLAYINGLarge groups gather in spring to display, with graceful, rhythmic leapsand bows and loud trumpeting calls.

GREY HERONsee p.82

fingered tipsof wings

black faceand throat

long white headplumes neck

curledback inflight

bushy, dark-tippedfeathers bunchover tail

grey body, oftenbrown on back

thick palelower neckand chest

white napeand neck-stripe

straight, flatwings

red patch oncrown, oftenhard to see

ADULT

JUVENILE

long, thickdark legs

DEMOISELLE CRANEescapee; see p.420

ADULT

ADULT

FLIGHT: strong, direct, with head and legsoutstretched, wings held straight and flat; shallowbeats between short glides.

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

FLYING IN A GROUPCrane flocks fly in lines, “V”s,and irregular packs.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in N Europe on remote bogswithin forests or on wide, reedymarshes with little disturbance.Migrants on open ground nearcoasts. In winter, in rolling uplands,cork oak, and around large, boggylakes in SW Europe.

longneck

smaller

dullbrownhead

brownishbody

greyerouterwing

Order Gruiformes Family Otididae Species Otis tarda

CRANES AND BUSTARDS

161

Length 90–105cm (35 –41in) Wingspan 2.1–2.4m (7–73⁄4ft) Weight 8–16kg (18–35lb)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 15–20 years Status Declining

This is one of the world’s heaviest flying birds, the males beingmassive, heavy-bodied, thick-legged, strong-billed birds, and

the females markedly smaller.They live in semi-natural steppe andremote areas of cereal cultivation, but agricultural intensificationand irrigation threaten their future survival. Small groups are shyand easily disturbed, flying off powerfully with deep, slowwingbeats, revealing extensive areasof white.They are very rare outsidetheir regular range, appearing at longintervals and quite erratically onopen farmland in northwest Europein winter or early spring.VOICE Mostly silent.NESTING Unlined scrape in soil;2 or 3 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Takes small rodents,reptiles, amphibians, andinsects from ground.

OCCURRENCEVery local in Spain, Portugal, and E Europe; resident on open plainswith dry grass or cereals in undis-turbed areas, typically in areaswith extensive views all round.Very rare vagrant elsewhere.

Great Bustard

FLIGHT: strong, low, direct, with continualpowerful wingbeats.

SIMILAR SPECIES

LITTLE BUSTARD 32;see p.162

extensive whiteon wings

MALE

very muchsmaller

short,strongbill

rufousbreastheavily barred

rufous upperparts

grey headand neck

short, broadtail

slim headand neck

black and rufousbars above

FEMALE

TAKING OFFThe distinctive white underwings with black tips of the Great Bustard areclearly visible at take-off.

DISPLAYA displaying male Great Bustard isa remarkable sight, turning hiswings over to reveal large areas of white.

MALE

IN FLIGHT

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

Length 40–45cm (16 –18in) Wingspan 83–91cm (33–36in) Weight 600–900g (21–32oz)

Social Winter flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Vulnerable

Order Gruiformes Family Otitidae Species Tetrax tetrax

CRANES AND BUSTARDS

162

SIMILAR SPECIESOCCURRENCEBreeds in areas with open grass orcereals on rolling plains, often dry,stony places, in France (summer),Spain, Portugal, and Sardinia; localin Italy and Balkans. Rare vagrantoutside usual breeding areas.

Little Bustard small head

MALE

WINTER FLOCKSLarge groups gather outside the breeding season, flyingfast over open, grassy plains.

FEMALE

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

Although it resembles the Great Bustard in shape and general

appearance, the Little Bustard ismuch smaller in size, and is able tofly low and fast, whirring almost like a big pigeon or partridge. It can be verydifficult to see except in flight, occupyingwide open plains but keeping to sufficientcover in which to hide itself expertly.TheLittle Bustard has declined in many areas in the face of agriculturalintensification and is furtherthreatened by irrigation schemes.VOICE Male has short gruff noterepeated every 10 seconds or so,in spring; otherwise very quietexcept for whistling noise fromwings in flight. Female has lowchuckling note.NESTING Scrape on ground inthick cover; 3–5 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Picks seeds, grain,shoots, buds, roots, and variousinsects from ground.

FLIGHT: fast, direct, partridge-like, with quickwingbeats and short glides with wings stiffly arched.

neck feathersinflated in display

mottled sandyupperparts

whitebelly

long legs

black neckwith white “V”and broadwhite collar

pheasant-likehead and neck

barred back

spottedbreast

fingered blackwingtips

MALE

big whitewing patches

IN FLIGHT

GREAT BUSTARD 2similar to 2; seep.161

PHEASANT 2similarto 2; see p.153

longertail

muchbigger

lackswhite on wings

shorterlegs

MALE DISPLAYINGIn display, the male raises his head andneck feathers to show off the blackand white pattern on the neck.

163

WADERS

CALLED SHOREBIRDS IN North America,and waders in Europe, some live far from

any shore and several rarely wade.They are mostlylong-legged but vary from short-billed to verylong-billed, their beaks straight, curved down, orcurved upwards. Some are among the world’slongest-distance migrants. This large groupincludes the Oystercatcher, avocets, stilts, plovers,pratincoles, sandpipers, godwits, and curlews.

GROUPSPlovers are short-billed birds: this group includesbroad-winged lapwings and sharp-wingedplovers, some “ringed” with black and white headand chest patterns. Pratincoles are plover-like but

WADERS

RESTING TIMEWaders such as theseOystercatchers feed on exposedbeaches, but take an hour ortwo to rest every high tide.

Families Haematopodidae, Recurvirostridae, Burhinidae, Glareolidae, Charadriidae, Scolopacidae

JUVENILESMany young waders,such as this Black-tailed Godwit, havecolours that echo thebreeding plumage oftheir parents.

STUNNING FLOCKSHigh-tide roosts bring waders together in dense packs, whichmake a spectacular sight when they take flight.

especially agile in flight. Long-legged, Avocetsand stilts feed in shallow water. Small sandpiperscan be abundant, flying in large flocks. Somefeed on rocky shores, some on sand, others onmud or shallow water. Medium-sized sandpipershave longer legs and bills, are less gregarious, andhave loud calls and striking patterns in flight.Larger godwits have bright summer plumages,while curlews are much bigger with no cleardifferences according to age, sex, or season.

Length 40–45cm (16 –18in) Wingspan 80–85cm (32–34in) Weight 400–700g (14–25oz)

Social Large flocks Lifespan Up to 15 years Status Secure

Order Charadriiformes Family Haematopodidae Species Haematopus ostralegus

164

WADERS

The dazzlingly patterned Oystercatcher is anextraordinarily distinctive bird in Europe, no

other bird forming such tight-packed, oftenenormous, noisy flocks. Oystercatchers tend to “takeover” and dominate whole estuaries with theirclamorous presence. In some places, they have comeinto conflict with people for their supposed impact oncommercial cockle fisheries.As cockles have declinedon some estuaries, Oystercatchers have increasinglyturned to farmland to feed.VOICE Loud, strident klip or kleep, develops intopenetrating kleep-a-kleep, kleep-a-kleep; shrill chorusfrom large flocks.NESTING Shallow scrape in shingle or sand, oftenamongst rocks or grassy tussocks; 2 or 3 eggs; 1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Probes for large marine worms andmolluscs and prises shellfish from rocks and seaweed;also eats earthworms.

SIMILAR SPECIES

Oystercatcher

AVOCETsee p.165

BLACK-TAILED GODWITsimilar in flight; see p.191

red eye

white “V”on back

long, broadwhite wingbar

ADULT(SUMMER)

upturnedblack bill

slimmer

longerbill

longerlegs

FLIGHT: fast, direct, on rapid wingbeats; flies intostanding flocks, landing “on the run”.

bulky, strikingblack and whitebody

dark-tippedbill

ADULT (WINTER)

dark-tipped bill

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

white collar

vivid orange-red bill IMMATURE

LARGE, NOISY FLOCKSOystercatchers feed in huge groups, and make the area ring with theirear-splitting chorus; they roost in tight flocks.

OCCURRENCEBreeds on sandy, muddy, androcky beaches, grassy islands,riverside grassland or shingle, andgrassy fields along northern rivervalleys. Also found, at any time of year, on coasts. Rare migrantinland south of breeding areas.

short, palepink legs

ADULT(SUMMER)

IN FLIGHT

WADERS

165

Length 42–46cm (161⁄2 –18in) Wingspan 67–77cm (26–30in) Weight 250–400g (9–14oz)

Social Winter flocks Lifespan 10–15 years Status Localized

Order Charadriiformes Family Recurvirostridae Species Recurvirostra avosetta

If its special needs are met – essentially shallowslightly saline water and oozy mud, with drier

islands – the Avocet may nest in quite large, loose,widely scattered colonies, not tight-packed like gullsor terns. However, it does form tightly packed flocksin winter. Flocks jostle shoulder-to-shoulder whenfeeding in a shallow tidal flow.With protection andmanagement of habitats,Avocets have increased and spread in recent years.VOICE Loud, fluty, somewhat Bee-eater-like (seep.254) klute or kloop.NESTING Scrape on low islands or dry mud, bare or lined with grass and shell fragments; 3 or 4 eggs;1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Sweeps curved bill sideways through waterto locate tiny shrimps and marine worms.

OCCURRENCEMostly found in S Baltic and NorthSea coasts, Mediterranean area,and also SW Great Britain. Breedson shallow, saline coastal lagoonsand near muddy pools, at timeson bare ground around ponds. Inwinter, on muddy estuaries.

Avocet

FLIGHT: quick, rather stiff; fast wingbeats; often inirregular packs.

TIGHT, ELEGANT FLOCKSIn winter, Avocets form tight-packed, synchronized flocks, flying andfeeding together in elegant groups.

IN FLIGHT

SIMILAR SPECIES

BLACK-HEADED GULLwinter; equallywhite at longrange; see p.206

straightbill

slim, brightwhite body

curved blackband on eachside of back

JUVENILE

black cap

BLACK-WINGED STILTsee p.166

ADULT

ADULT

very fine,upcurved bill

leans forwardwhile feeding

long blue-grey legs

squared blackwingtips (largeron male)

brown tips tofeathers

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

short bill

short legs

ADULT

diagonal bar overinner wings

solidblackback

Length 33–36cm (13 –14in) Wingspan 70cm (28in) Weight 250–300g (9–11oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure

Order Charadriiformes Family Recurvirostridae Species Himantopus himantopus

WADERS

166

SIMILAR SPECIES OCCURRENCEIn Spain, Portugal, Mediterraneanregion, and W and N France; veryrare vagrant farther north.Frequents shallow reedy pools,flooded fields and rice paddies,salt pans, and coastal lagoons, lesscommonly on sheltered estuaries.

Black-winged Stilt

BLACK-HEADED GULLwinter; similar atlong range; see p.206

trailing,oftencrossed,legs

long white “V” onback from white tail

variable black orgrey markingson head

ADULT(SUMMER)

FLIGHT: strong, direct, quick, with long legs trailed(often crossed), pointed wings flicked in quite shallowbeats; glides in wind.

ADULT (WINTER)

AVOCETsee p.165

upturnedbill

blue-greylegs

grey backwhite back

black upperpartsglossed darkgreen

white neck

whiteunderparts

extremely long,dark pink legs

pointedwings

needle-like bill

pale edgesto featherson back

JUVENILE

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

IN FLIGHT

ADULT(WINTER)

In terms of leg length relative to size, the Black-winged Stilt represents the peak of development in the waders.The remarkably

long legs enable the bird to wade out into deep waters; however, itpicks its food from the water surface.This distinctive and elegantbird, one of Europe’s most beautiful species, generallyoccurs in the Mediterranean region, with anextension northwards in France; it is typicallyassociated with hot, open saltpans and coastal lagoonsshimmering in the heat. It has some obvioussimilarities to its relative, the Avocet, but is essentiallyunique in Europe.VOICE Noisy in summer, with strident, rasping kyikkyik kyik or kreeek kreeek; quiet in winter.NESTING Shallow hollow in mud or sand, often onsmall islands in shallow water, lined with some grass or leaves; 3 or 4 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Picks insects from wet mud, stems, andwater surface, either tilting well forward or wadingout into deeper water.

MIGRANT FLOCKSBefore spreading out to pair and nest, flocks of Black-winged Stilts roosttogether in the shallows.

white head

WADERS

167

Length 40–45cm (16 –18in) Wingspan 77–85cm (30–34in) Weight 370–450g (13–16oz)

Social Autumn flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Vulnerable

Order Charadriiformes Family Burhinidae Species Burhinus oedicnemus

Stone-curlew

FLIGHT: usually low, fast, strong, with steadywingbeats and long glides.

IN FLIGHT

SIMILAR SPECIES

PHEASANT 2;see p.153

longertail

shorter legs

curvedbill

light and dark bandson pale inner wings

OCCURRENCESummer visitor to S Great Britain,France, Spain, Portugal, andMediterranean area; breeds onheaths, shingle, cereal and arablefields with light, stony soil andsparse spring crops. Reducednumbers in SW Europe in winter.

JUVENILE

COURTING PAIRThe white patches on the wings and under the tail arerevealed in courtship displays and confrontations.

CURLEWsee p.193

pale bill-base

pale stripesabove andbelow eye

Once called the “goggle-eyeplover”, this is a semi-

nocturnal bird, often hard tolocate by day: it stands or sits still for long periods, and movesforward in stealthy runs. It is very vocalin summer, and eerie, wild sounds are created asbirds communicate over long distances.This bird does not copewell with modern development. Coastal populations, especially,have largely gone, and it is only liaison between conservationistsand sympathetic farmers that has helped it to survive in someregions; it struggles on in disturbed heathland and dunes elsewhere.VOICE Loud notes recall Curlew and Oystercatcher, but withwild, wailing quality at times;kur-li, klip, piping keeee,krr-leee, and variations.NESTING Shallow scrape on ground lined withshells, stones, and rabbitdroppings; 2 eggs; 1 or 2broods;April–August.FEEDING Tilts forwards,plover-like, to pick upbeetles, worms, snails,frogs, lizards, and mice.

broad paleband alongwings

pale faceand bill-base

long, paleyellow legs

paletail

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

ADULT

headoutstretched

long, dark-streaked, sandybrown body

ADULT

white spoton blackouter wings

CAMOUFLAGEDUnless it moves, a sitting Stone-curlew is extremelydifficult to see.

pale eye

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 24 –28cm (91⁄2 –11in) Wingspan 60–70cm (231⁄2 –28in) Weight 50–80g (13⁄4–27⁄8oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Endangered

Order Charadriiformes Family Glareolidae Species Glareola pratincola

WADERS

168

OCCURRENCEIn summer, in S Spain, Portugal,France, Italy, and Balkans, rarevagrant elsewhere. In extensiveareas of flat, dry mud and damppasture, bare ground, marshesand deltas drained for farmland,and salt pans.

Collared Pratincole

GREEN SANDPIPER similar in flightbut less floating; see p.186

BLACK-WINGED PRATINCOLEsee p.420

earth-brownupperparts

forked tail

black line througheye extendsaround pale bib

ADULT

RESTING BETWEEN MEALSThe Collared Pratincole typically sits or stands on the ground for longspells between bouts of feeding.

FLIGHT: elegant, swooping action, changing paceand direction, with erratic twists and turns.

IN FLIGHT

copper-redunderwing covertsoften look dark

whitetrailingedge dark

breast

pale belly

brown upperwings withblack outer half

long wings

shorttail

white belly

red onsmall bill

no blackoutline to bib

faint palespots

JUVENILE

whiterump

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

uniformupperwings

Alovely, specialized wader with an aerial feedingtechnique that has helped it to evolve a swallow-

like form, the Collared Pratincole is basically aMediterranean bird which occasionally strays farthernorth. It is a long, tapered bird, but when standinghunched up with its feathers fluffed out, it can lookdumpy, almost round except for its protrudingwingtips and tail. In the air, however, it has the skilland manoeuvrability of a Black Tern (see p.224).The Collared Pratincole often feeds in small parties.VOICE Sharp, far-carrying, tern-like kit, kitik,rhythmic kirri-tik-kit-ik.NESTING Shallow scrape in dry mud on ground;loose colonies; 2 or 3 eggs; 1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Catches insects in bill while flying.

ADULT

SIMILAR SPECIES

WADERS

169

Length 14–15cm (51⁄2 –6in) Wingspan 42–48cm (161⁄2 –19in) Weight 30–50g (11⁄16 –13⁄4 oz)

Social Winter flocks Lifespan 5–10 years Status Secure†

Order Charadriiformes Family Charadriidae Species Charadrius dubius

Little Ringed Plover

FLIGHT: quick, low, direct with angled, pointedwings; song-flight rolling, bat-like.

ADULT

stubbyblackbill

narrow blackbreast-band

white line betweenbrown crown and blackforehead band

sandy brownupperparts

dull pinklegs clean white underside

OCCURRENCEWidespread except in extremenorth. Breeds in wide variety ofnatural, semi-natural, and derelictplaces, from sandy and shinglyshores and gravel to flat, dry areasof waste ground, mining waste,and shingly riverbeds; scarce onsea coasts but occasional migranton coastal lagoons.

RINGED PLOVERwhite wingbars; see p.170

brighterlegs

brighterbill

longertail

white stripeover eye

COMMON SANDPIPERsee p.184

JUVENILE

plain wings

long, taperedwingtips

small, bandedhead

IN FLIGHT

bright yelloweye-ring

longerbill

RINGED PLOVER juvenile,similar to juvenile; see p.170

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

indistinctpale areaover eye

dull legs

brokenband

Small and neat, precise in its movementsas well as its appearance, this is a handsome

little wader of freshwater shorelines and a variety of dry, rough, openspaces in the “waste ground” category. It is often at the waterside inspring and autumn, but as likely to breed on a patch of bulldozedrubble or coalmining waste.As such, it tends to be irregular inoccurrence, breeding for a fewyears and then moving on.VOICE Short, abrupt, whistledpiw or p’ew; song rolling, harshcrree-crree-crree-crree in flight.NESTING Hollow in bareground, usually hard to spot;4 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Stands upright,then runs forwards and tilts topick insects and small aquaticinvertebrates from ground.

black bill

ADULT

SPRING DISPLAYNoisy males display on the ground with drooped wings, and alsoperform long, low song-flights over the territory.

Length 17–19cm (61⁄2 –71⁄2 in) Wingspan 48–57cm (19–221⁄2 in) Weight 55–75g (2–25⁄8oz)

Social Winter flocks Lifespan 5–10 years Status Secure

Order Charadriiformes Family Charadriidae Species Charadrius hiaticula

WADERS

170

OCCURRENCEBreeds on sand and shinglebeaches, near gravel pits inland.Found at any time of year mostlyon broad beaches, includingestuaries, of all kinds, but feweston rocky shores. Widespreadmigrant inland and on coasts.

Ringed Plover

pale sandy brownupperparts

clean whiteunderparts

black and whiteringed headand throat

ADULT(SUMMER) FLIGHT: strong, fast, direct; shallow beats of

angled wings; bat-like song-flight.

IN FLIGHT

white tailsides

darktail tip

bold whitewingbar

ADULT (WINTER)

white stripeover eye

dullbill

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

Along with the Dunlin, this species is one of the common“standards” by which other waders may be judged.There

are several other “ringed” plovers with similarly patterned headsbut none in Europe with such brightly coloured bill and legs.It is generally a coastal bird, although it does move inland,sometimes in places usually frequented by the Little RingedPlover. In spring and autumn especially, substantial numbers mayappear inland where conditions are right, sometimes pausing onmigration for several days. It forms tightly packed flocks at hightide, often mixed with other waders. Usually, a large, tight flockwill be more or less clearly separated, with each species bunchedtogether within it.VOICE Characteristic fluty whistle, a bright, mellow too-li;also sharp queep; repeatedtoo-wee-a too-wee-a in song-flight.NESTING Shallow scrapein sand or stones, linedwith pebbles and grassstems; 4 eggs; 2 or 3broods;April–August.FEEDING Picks smallinsects and worms from ground.

short, blackand orangebill

broad breast-band

weaker breast-band

orange legs

“BROKEN WING LOOK”If a predator threatens the nest or chicks, the parent ploverfeigns injury to lead it away.

JUVENILE

dull legs

dullheadwhite over eye

ADULT(SUMMER)

dullerbill

SIMILAR SPECIES

LITTLE RINGED PLOVERsee p.169plain wing

dullerlegs

incompletebreast-band

WADERS

171

Length 15–17cm (6 –61⁄2 in) Wingspan 50cm (20in) Weight 40–60g (17⁄16 –21⁄8oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 10 years Status Declining

Order Charadriiformes Family Charadriidae Species Charadrius alexandrinus

Long gone from Kentexcept as an occasional

visitor, the Kentish Plover is still quitewidespread just across the English Channel, but is commonestaround the Mediterranean. It prefers sandy places, such as theembankments and waste areas around salt pans andbehind beaches, even around building sites near theshore. Rare migrants farther north are generally foundwithin Ringed Plover flocks and their identificationrequires careful observation, especially when juvenilesare about in late summer.VOICE Short, sharp, whistled whip, whistled bew-ip;rolled trilling notes.NESTING Shallow hollow in sand, lined with pebblesor shell fragments; 3 or 4 eggs; 2 broods; March–July.FEEDING Takes small invertebrates such as flies andsandhoppers, from ground, tilting forward after shortrun in typical stop-start plover action.

OCCURRENCEFound mostly on sandy areas nearshores, also beside freshwaterlagoons and flooded areas ofwaste ground, on S North Sea andChannel coasts, W France, andMediterranean area. Migrants rareon estuaries or inland waters.

Kentish Plover

FLIGHT: quick and dashing, on swept-back,pointed wings; glides in to land.

FEMALE

long whitewingbar

swept-back,pointed wings

RINGED PLOVER juvenile;see p.170

SIMILAR SPECIES

LITTLE RINGED PLOVERjuvenile; see p.169

no wing-stripe

pale legs

palelegs

JUVENILE

short black bill

whiteforehead

black bar onforehead

dusky eyepatch

brown chestpatch

rufous-ginger cap(dull in winter)earth brown

upperparts

clean whiteunderparts

dark legs

black markingson sides of breast(browner inwinter)

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

MALE(SUMMER)

IN FLIGHT

MALE(SUMMER)

dark legs

dark legs

PALE BEACH PLOVERA spring male has almost entirely white underparts, with small chestmarks. Its short dashes on the beach give it a lively character.

Length 20 –22cm (8–9in) Wingspan 57–64cm (221⁄2 –25in) Weight 90–145g (31⁄4 –5oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 5–10 years Status Secure†

Order Charadriiformes Family Charadriidae Species Charadrius morinellus

WADERS

172

One of the few European birds with reversed sexual roles,and females larger and brighter than males, the Dotterel is

a mountain-top or tundra breeder that appears in small flocks at regular places in the lowlands, usually cereal fields,on migration. It is famously tame, almost recklessly soat times, and may be attracted to within a metre ortwo (3–7ft) by a whistled imitation of its call. Itsfuture range may well diminish with the increasingeffects of climate change.VOICE Soft pip pip or sweet wit-ee-wee; rather silentoutside breeding season.NESTING Shallow scrapedhollow on ground,usually under cover oflow vegetation; 3 eggs;1 brood; May–August.FEEDING Eats flies,beetles, earthworms,spiders, and similar smallterrestrial creatures,tilting forwards intypical plover fashion.

OCCURRENCEOccupies wild northern tundraand mountainous areas withsimilar habitat south to Pyrenees,often with abundance of stonesand scree. On migration, inlowland fields in traditional areas inland.

Dotterel pale “V” from overeyes to nape

FLIGHT: quick, agile, with fast, deep wingbeats.

plain wings

JUVENILE(AUTUMN)

black, buff, andapricot markings on upperparts

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

IN FLIGHT

black capdark stripethrough eye

broad white stripeover eye to nape

MALE(SUMMER)

dull plumage(paler inwinter)

black belly(white in winter)

thin black andbroad white bandsaround chest

face pattern lesssharp than female’s

brighter plumagethan male’s

duller undersidethan female’s

whitethroat

rich rust-redunderside withblackish belly

FEMALE (SUMMER)

BREEDING HABITATThe Dotterel breeds in high,rolling, or flat-toppedmountainous regions with lowcover, or in tundra.

GOLDEN PLOVERwinter; see p.174

no white“V” overeye

SIMILAR SPECIES

no breast-band

ADULT(SUMMER)

WADERS

173

Length 27–30cm (101⁄2 –12in) Wingspan 71–83cm (28–33in) Weight 200–250g (7–9oz)

Social Winter flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure†

Order Charadriiformes Family Charadriidae Species Pluvialis squatarola

OCCURRENCEBreeds on northern tundra. Mostlyfound on large muddy estuaries,but sometimes on sandy or rockyshores, from autumn to spring.Flocks may roost on adjacentpasture, or shallow coastallagoons. Rare bird inland.

Grey Plover

black underside

white bar onupperwings

whiterump

blackwingpits

ADULT(SUMMER)

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

silvery grey andblack spangledupperparts

This is primarily a coastal bird, scattered over mudflats when it isfeeding and gathering in rather static flocks at high tide, unlike

the large, mobile flocks of Golden Plovers. It usually mingles withgodwits, Curlews, and Redshanks. Most Grey Plovers are easy toidentify, but some are yellow and may be confused with GoldenPlovers. At long range,they can be mistaken forother medium-sizedwaders; close up theylook pale, but far out onthe mud they can lookremarkably dark inwinter plumage.VOICE High, plaintivetwee-oo-wee!; also loud,melancholy, fluted song.NESTING Scrape onground in shortvegetation, usually on dryrises; 4 eggs; 1 brood;May–July.FEEDING Pulls worms,molluscs, and crustaceansfrom mud, in winter; eatsmainly insects in summerin Arctic tundra.

longerbill

patchyplumage

IN FLIGHT

ADULT (LATESUMMERMOULTING)

mottledgrey back

ADULT(WINTER)

paleunderside

heavy bill

bold white bandfrom foreheadto side of chest

thickblackbill

black face

FLIGHT: quick, with deep wingbeats; sometimesquite active, twisting descent to roost.

SIMILAR SPECIES

KNOTwinter; see p.176

smaller

GOLDEN PLOVERsummer; see p.174

HIGH-TIDE ROOSTHigh tide forces dispersed feeding Grey Plovers to gather together inmore compact flocks.

ADULT(SUMMER)

ADULT(WINTER)

spangledyellow andblack above

Length 26–29cm (10 –111⁄2 in) Wingspan 67–76cm (26–30in) Weight 140–250g (5–9oz)

Social Winter flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure

Order Charadriiformes Family Charadriidae Species Pluvialis apricaria

WADERS

174

This is a medium-sized plover, beautifully patterned in summer and showing delicate and complex colouring

in winter. Golden Plovers often mix in fields with Lapwings,separating out in flight; they do not usually mix with other waders,which the Grey Plover does on the coast. Golden Plovers havetraditional migration and wintering areas that may be used fordecades, so long as the habitat is not damaged.VOICE Plaintive, whistledtleee, higher tlee, treeoleee,and variants; phee-oo,pheee-oo in song-flight.NESTING Shallow scrape,lined with scraps of lichenand heather, on ground inheather, grass, or bilberry,often in burned areas;4 eggs; 1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Takes variety ofinsects in summer, mostlyearthworms in winter,often stolen by gulls.

SIMILAR SPECIES

OCCURRENCEBreeds in N Europe, on highmoorland or northern tundra,both on limestone grassland andacid heath with patches of burntheather or bilberry. Widespread inwinter on low-lying arable fieldsand pastures, coastal salt marsh,sometimes on estuary mud.

Golden PloverADULT (SUMMER)

ADULT (SUMMER)

ADULT(WINTER)

yellow, white,and blackspangledupperparts

IN FLIGHT

whiteunderwings

whitewingbar

darkrump

paleyellowon breast

buff-yellow spotson brown-blackback

pale stripeover eye short bill

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

GREY PLOVERsummer, similar to adultsummer; see p.172

silvery greyabove

RESTING FLOCKWhen feeding, flocks spreadevenly over fields, tightening intopacks if alarmed or roosting.

SUBSPECIES

HIGH-FLYING FLOCKFlocks of Golden Plovers often flyhigh, stringing out into long linesor in irregular packs.

P. a. altifrons(N Europe)

white belly

small head

white alongsides ofblack belly

FLIGHT: fast, straight, often high.

ADULT(SUMMER)

ADULT (WINTER)

whitebelly

blackerbelow

whiteband

bolder blackface andbreast

Order Charadriiformes Family Charadriidae Species Vanellus vanellus

WADERS

175

Length 28–31cm (11–12in) Wingspan 70–76cm (28–30in) Weight 150–300g (5–11oz)

Social Winter flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure†

OCCURRENCEBreeds on wet moors, riversidepastures, upland fields, andfarmland (decreasing), almostthroughout Europe. In winter,moves south and west, feeds onarable fields, meadows, salt marshand muddy reservoir edges; inestuaries in hard weather.

LapwingMALE(SUMMER)

ROOSTING FLOCKFlocks rest in tight groups; otherwise, they tend to beloosely scattered.

black capextends intowispy crest

MALE(SUMMER)

whiteunderwings

FLYING FLOCKFlocks of Lapwings fly in lines, “V”s, or irregular masses, rising steadily asa group, often circling and returning.

crest shorter thanon male

short bill

reddishpatchunder tail

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

flat, dark greenback, glossedpurple andcopper

steepforehead

Afamiliar and much-loved part of the farmed countryside in Europe, the distinctive-looking Lapwing is sadly

declining in most areas as farming systems change. It breeds in loose colonies scattered over suitable fields or moors, butgathers into flocks for the rest of the year, often mixed withGolden Plovers and Black-headed Gulls (see p.206).VOICE Nasal, strained weet or ee-wit; wheezy variations on thistheme; passionate song in spring, whee-er-ee, a wheep-wheep!accompanied by loud throbbing from wings.NESTING Grass-lined shallow hollow on ground; 3 or 4 eggs;1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Often taps foot on ground to attract or reveal prey;tilts forwards to pick insects and spiders from ground, or pullearthworms from soil.

broad, roundedwings

IN FLIGHT

FEMALE(SUMMER)

mottled throat

green back withbuffish featheredges

FLIGHT: unique flappy flight with steady beats ofbroad, round wings.

shortcrest

shorter crest thanin summer

ADULT (WINTER)

buff featherfringes

JUVENILE (AUTUMN)

short, thin legs

Length 23 –27cm (9–101⁄2 in) Wingspan 47–54cm (181⁄2 –211⁄2 in) Weight 125–215g (4–8oz)

Social Large flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Localized

Order Charadriiformes Family Scolopacidae Species Calidris canutus

WADERS

176

Many waders flock together and some make densepacks when they roost at high tide, but few are as

social at all times as the Knot. It forms enormous flocks, sometimestotalling hundreds of thousands. Such flocks flying over estuaries,moving to new feeding areas, or perhaps disturbed from a roost, areamong the most dramatic of all bird spectacles.The rare solitaryKnot is likely to be one of the occasional migrants that turn up nearpools and reservoirs inland. In autumn, these may be juveniles andcan be exceptionally tame, probably never having seen a humanbefore in their short life. Knot flocks typically swarm over mudflatsin slow, steady progession, heads down, feeding avidly.VOICE Rather quiet; dull, short nut, occasionally bright, whistlednote; no obvious flight note.NESTING Shallow hollow on ground in cold tundra, usually nearwater; 3 or 4 eggs; 1 brood; May–July.FEEDING Takes insects and plant material in summer, and molluscsand marine worms in winter.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in Arctic tundra. Found inW Europe from late summer tolate spring; biggest numbers inwinter in dense flocks on largemuddy estuaries and in smallnumbers on wide variety ofshorelines.

Knotpale stripeover eye

SIMILAR SPECIES

GREY PLOVER winter,white rump;see p.173

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

FLIGHT: quick, strong; quite shallow wingbeats;flocks make coordinated movements.

IN FLIGHT

thin palewingbar

pale grey rumpand tail

whitish belly

short greylegs

pale greyback

larger

short,thick bill

DUNLIN winter;see p.178

browner slightlycurvedbill

smaller

shortish,straightblack bill

ROOSTINGKnots and Dunlins stand shoulder to shoulder as theywait for the tide to recede.

ADULT(WINTER)

lacy pattern ofdark and lightfeather edges

apricot-tingedunderparts

JUVENILE

pale copperyred head

ADULT (SUMMER)

spangled chestnut, black,and buff on back

pale copperyred underparts

ADULT(WINTER)

WADERS

177

Order Charadriiformes Family Scolopacidae Species Calidris alba

OCCURRENCEBreeds in northern tundra;otherwise, migrants in Europefrom late summer to late spring.Wintering flocks typically on broadsandy beaches, but also found onshorelines of all kinds, sometimesinland in May.

Sanderling

FEEDING ALONG WAVESSmall groups of Sanderlings dash in and out along the edge of the waveson a sandy beach.

DUNLIN winter, slowerin actions; see p.178

SIMILAR SPECIES

LITTLE STINTsummer, pale “V” on back; see p.181

brownerandduller

Length 20 –21cm (8–81⁄2 in) Wingspan 36–39cm (14–151⁄2 in) Weight 50–60g (13⁄4 –21⁄8oz)

Social Winter flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

ADULT(WINTER)

smaller

jet blacklegs

pale greyhead

black spanglingon grey back

JUVENILE (AUTUMN)

bright whiteunderparts

straightblack bill

FLIGHT: fast, low, often swirling round and backagain; groups well coordinated.

IN FLIGHT

longer bill

pale chestnut breastwith dark marbling,pure white below

head and back marbledbuff, pale chestnut,and black

The Sanderling stands out fromthe other birds belonging to the

sandpiper family in appearance and generalbehaviour. In winter, it is by far the whitest, and it isparticularly quick and nimble, darting along the wavesas they move in and out, to snatch up tiny items rolledup by the surf.At high tide, Sanderlings and Dunlinsoften mix, the Sanderlings making a paler splashagainst the Dunlins in the packed roosting flock.VOICE Sharp, hard, short plit or twik twik.NESTING Scrape on ground part-filled with willowleaves by chance; 4 eggs; 1 brood; May–July.FEEDING Snatches marine worms, crustaceans,molluscs, sandhoppers, and similar animal matter from beach.

buff onbreast

ADULT (SUMMER)

ADULT(WINTER)

light greyback

dark bendof wings

broad whitewingbar

WADERS

OCCURRENCEIn summer, breeds on wet moors,wet places on heaths, andnorthern isles, right up to thetundra, in far N and NW Europe.In all kinds of wet places fromfloods to wet fields but mostly on large estuaries.

Dunlin

SIMILAR SPECIES

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

Length 16 –20cm (61⁄2 –8in) Wingspan 35–40cm (14–16in) Weight 40–50g (17⁄16 –13⁄4oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Common

Order Charadriiformes Family Scolopacidae Species Calidris alpina

178

dull grey-streakedbreast

black andcream stripeson back

JUVENILE

whiteon belly

ADULT (WINTER)

thin whitewingbar

rich chestnutand blackback

dull grey-brownhead and back

short blacklegs

large, squarish,black belly patch

fine darkstreaks onwhitishbreast

IN FLIGHT

JUVENILE

black streaks onbuff underside

long, taperedblack bill, slightlycurved

paler back

FLIGHT: fast, dashing; flocks tight and wellcoordinated, often sweeping way out over sea andback again in spectacular manoeuvres.

Widespread and covering a variety of wetland habitats, theDunlin is the typical small wader of Europe, and is often used

as the yardstick to assess other species. In spring, the streaked adultslook rather sleek, while autumn juveniles have a certain brightnessof colour and complexity of pattern.The Dunlin also has a distinctive call that allows it to be identified easily.VOICE Thin, reedy, vibrant shrree or rasping treerrr;song-flight develops this into longer, trilled orpulsating “pea whistle”.NESTING Small, grass-lined, shallow scoop on groundor in grassy tussock; 4 eggs; 1 brood; May–July.FEEDING Plods rather lethargically, on mud or driershores, sometimes wading quite deeply, probing andpicking up worms, insects, and molluscs.REMARK Subspecies C. a. alpina (N Scandinavia) haslong, curved bill and bright chestnut back in summer;C. a. arctica (Greenland) has short bill and dull body;C. a. schinzii (S Scandinavia and UK) has dull body.

ADULT (SUMMER)

dark centre towhite-sidedrump

KNOTsee p.176

SANDERLINGsee p.177

greyer

larger

WINTER ROOSTThis group of Dunlins at high tide has been forced onto a small, exposedpiece of rocky shore; when the tide recedes, they will disperse.

WADERS

179

Length 18–23cm (7–9in) Wingspan 38–41cm (15–16in) Weight 45–90g (15⁄8 –31⁄4oz)

Social Small groups Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Localized

Order Charadriiformes Family Scolopacidae Species Calidris ferruginea

OCCURRENCEBreeds in high Arctic region.Mostly in shallow fresh water and on muddy edges of coastal or inland lagoons. Chiefly adults in SE Europe in spring and in W Europe in late summer;followed by autumn juveniles.

Curlew Sandpiper

SIMILAR SPECIES

KNOT summer;see p.176

shorter legs

larger andheavier

shorterlegs

streaks onflanks andbreast

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

SPRING GEMSCurlew Sandpiper migrants in spring, in coppery red breeding colour, aresuperbly colourful birds. They tend to wade more often and more deeplythan Dunlins.

whiterump

IN FLIGHT

broad whitewingbar

ADULT(SUMMER)

DUNLIN juvenile,similar to juvenile;see p.178

pale eye-ringand chin

long blacklegs

longwings

dark back witheven, pale buffscales

pale stripeover eye

long, slim, slightlydowncurved bill

pale peachybuff breast

JUVENILE(AUTUMN)

FLIGHT: quick and direct with occasional erratictwists and tumbles.

white belly

JUVENILE(AUTUMN)

Very much linked with the Little Stint in birdwatchers’minds, as they are often found together, the Curlew Sandpiper

tends to be scarcer in early spring in the Mediterranean and rathermore erratic in western Europe in autumn. It follows the same earlyadult, later juvenile migration pattern as the LittleStint. It is noticeable in agroup of Dunlins, being just a little more elegant andelongated in its proportions.VOICE Distinctive soft,trilling, rolled chirr-up.NESTING Simple shallowscrape on ground; 4 eggs;1 brood; May–July.FEEDING Typically exploitslonger legs and bill to wademore deeply and probe intosofter mud than Dunlin, insearch of small worms.

WHITE RUMPOnly this bird and some muchrarer sandpiper species havean unmarked white rump.

darkcap

no streaksbelow

JUVENILE(AUTUMN)

Length 13–15cm (5 –6in) Wingspan 34–37cm (131⁄2 –141⁄2 in) Weight 20–40g (11⁄16 –17⁄16oz)

Social Solitary/Small flocks Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure†

Order Charadriiformes Family Scolopacidae Species Calidris temminckii

WADERS

180

The stints are tinywaders, and Temminck’s

Stint is distinctive among thesmaller waders in having palelegs and no pale “V” on theback.The odd Temminck’s may be overlooked among groups of LittleStints that appear in spring around southernEuropean lakes. It does not actually flock with Little Stints, butmingles more incidentally: unlike its commoner relative, it feedsin overgrown, swampy places rather than on open shores. Smallgroups appear in northwest Europe in spring; in autumn,usually single juveniles are seen on migration, when theymay be exceptionally tame.They have a distinctivelacy pattern above each feather with thin brownand buff fringes.VOICE Quick, spluttering, dry trill, tirr-r-r tirr-r-r.NESTING Shallow, unlined hollow in vegetation;4 eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Picks and probes for tinyinvertebrates among short vegetationor on sticky, wet mud.

OCCURRENCERare breeder in N Scandinavia, butwidespread as migrant. Quitefrequent in E Europe, rare in NWEurope, often in twos or threes inlate spring or single juveniles inautumn, turning up beside freshwater on muddy or weedy shores.

Temminck’s Stint

SINGING MALEMales settle on stumps and trees,overlooking the breeding territory,after their high display flights withtrilling songs.

FLIGHT: fast, direct; often rises high and fast ifflushed.

ADULT(SPRING)

SIMILAR SPECIES

blacklegs

LITTLE STINTsee p.181

ADULT(SUMMER)

IN FLIGHT

JUVENILE(AUTUMN)

dull grey-brownupperparts

palelegs

dark blotcheson grey-brownupperparts

dark breast-bandwith paler centre

short, slimdark bill

white belly

whiteouter tailfeathers

long rearbody

dark spotsabove

pale “V”on back

COMMON SANDPIPERsee p.184

bobstail

larger

ADULT (WINTER)

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

pale legs

WADERS

181

Length 12–14cm (4 3⁄4 –51⁄2 in) Wingspan 34–37cm (131⁄2 –141⁄2 in) Weight 20–40g (11⁄16 –17⁄16oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure†

Order Charadriiformes Family Scolopacidae Species Calidris minuta

The smallest of thecommon waders, the

Little Stint is a shoreline birdaround the Mediterranean inspring, moving far to the north in summer. Inautumn, adults move south early, to be followed by alarger wave of juveniles in western Europe, a patternfollowed by several wader species. Little Stints areoften mixed up with larger numbers of Dunlins and,sometimes, Curlew Sandpipers.VOICE Hard, dry, sharp tip or trip, sometimes ti-ti-trip.NESTING Small, shallow scrape on ground, close towater; 4 eggs; 1 brood; May–July.FEEDING Scampers about at water’s edge, finding tinyanimal matter; does not often wade deeply.

OCCURRENCEBreeds on tundra. On migration,appears beside all kinds of muddypools and lagoons, less so on seacoast. Adults found mostly in SE Europe in spring; majority in W Europe being small parties of juveniles in autumn.

Little Stint

MIGRANT JUVENILEMost autumn migrants are clean, bright, well-marked juveniles. They areoften remarkably tame.

short black bill

black legs

bright whiteunderside

JUVENILE (AUTUMN)

IN FLIGHT

DUNLIN juvenile;see p.178

SIMILAR SPECIES

SANDERLINGsummer;see p.177

no “V” onback

larger

longerbill

larger

duller on flanksand belly

pale breastwith someflecks at sides

forkedwhitish lineover eye

strong cream“V” on back

ADULT (WINTER)

pale head withstreaked cap

black andcream mottlingon rich brownupperparts

brightrufousbody

cream lineson back

JUVENILE(AUTUMN)

dull greyupperparts

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

FLIGHT: fast, twisting; often going well out overwater and returning.

ADULT(SUMMER)

Length 20 –22cm (8–9in) Wingspan 40–44cm (16–171⁄2 in) Weight 60–75g (21⁄8 –25⁄8oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure†

Order Charadriiformes Family Scolopacidae Species Calidris maritima

182

WADERS

OCCURRENCEBreeds in Iceland and Scandinavia,on tundra and mountains. Wide-spread in winter, preferring rockyshores, usually with plentiful sea-weed, at times on bare rock andstony beaches, also piers, harbourwalls, and other artificial sites.

Purple Sandpiper

SIMILAR SPECIES

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

INCONSPICUOUSA dark wader on dark, weedyrocks, the Purple Sandpiper iseasily overlooked.

whitesides toblackrump

FLIGHT: low, fast, darting flights from rock to rock.

broad brownishstreaks on cap

scaly patternon wings

dull yellowlegs

whitish and rufousedges to feathers

rufous onhead

dark streakson breast

slightlycurved,dark bill

IN FLIGHT

ADULT(WINTER)

JUVENILE

Few waders are as tightly restricted to a particular habitat, or role, as the Purple Sandpiper, which is

essentially a bird of the very edge of the surf, searchingthrough wave-washed, seaweed-covered rocks for its food.Only rarely will one turn up inland. Unless it is with themore nervous Turnstones, it may well be absurdly tame.Like most waders, the Purple Sandpiper will not leave for its breeding grounds until mid-May and can return in July; hence it is present for most months of the year in western Europe, despite being a non-breeding visitor.VOICE Simple, low, liquid weet or weet-wit.NESTING Slight scrape on ground, on wide open tundra; 4 eggs; 1 brood; May–July.FEEDING Variety of insects, spiders, and otherinvertebrates, chiefly periwinkles and similar molluscs in winter.

more buff

darklegs

DUNLIN juvenile,similar to juvenile;see p.178

muchbrownerabove

PECTORAL SANDPIPERsee p.426

dark back withscaly whitefeather edges

drab grey-brown headand neck

dull yellow-based darkbill

pale billbase

white bellydark streakson flanks

orange-yellow legs

ADULT(WINTER)

ADULT(SUMMER)

thin whitewingbar

WADERS

183

Length 21–24cm (81⁄2 –91⁄2 in) Wingspan 44–49cm (171⁄2 –191⁄2 in) Weight 80–110g (27⁄8 –35⁄8oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure

Order Charadriiformes Family Scolopacidae Species Arenaria interpres

OCCURRENCEBreeds on rocky coasts aroundScandinavia. At other times, onsea coasts of all kinds, from openmud to rocks, but especially hardcoasts and gravelly tidelines.Occasional migrants turn upinland but soon move on.

Turnstone

FLIGHT: fast, low, flickering.

stout, taperedbill

white underside

short, vividorange legs

ADULT(SUMMER)

IN FLIGHT

DUNLIN winter;see p.178

SIMILAR SPECIES

finer bill

paler

white patch andstripe on wings

black, white, andbright chestnutupperparts

bold blackbreast-band

QUARRELSOME FEEDERSSmall groups of Turnstones bicker as theyfeed along the shore.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

irregular whitishmarbling on darkhead and neck

ADULT(WINTER)

dull brown-black breast

dark brown and blackupperparts (more buff feather edges on juvenile)

strongly patternedblack and white head

While most waders like soft ground, chiefly mud or sand, theTurnstone is equally at home on rocks, although sandy beaches

with a tangle of seaweed, shells, and small stones at the high-tide markare ideal for it. It makes a good living searching through such debris,which is very rich in small invertebrates and regularly refreshed byhigh tides.Turnstones are typicallynoisy, active, and often quite tame.VOICE Fast, hard, staccato calls,tukatukatuk, teuk, tchik.NESTING Scantily lined scrapeon ground close to shore inislands and on rocky coasts;4 eggs; 1 brood; May–July.FEEDING Stirs up and turns overweed, stones, shells, and beachdebris to find invertebrates.

ADULT(WINTER)

longerbill

small anddark

dull legs

PURPLE SANDPIPERsee p.182

TIGHT ROOSTHigh tide sees scores of Turnstones packed closetogether for an hour or two.

whiteback

WADERS

Length 19 –21cm (71⁄2 –81⁄2 in) Wingspan 32–35cm (121⁄2 –14in) Weight 40–60g (17⁄16 –21⁄8oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure

Order Charadriiformes Family Scolopacidae Species Actitis hypoleucos

184

Acommon wader, theCommon Sandpiper is

much more widespread than its northerncounterparts, the Green and Wood Sandpipers.A few may even be seen in winter, although the greatmajority go to Africa for the winter months.Typicallya freshwater bird, it may also sometimes be seen onrocky sea shores. It is usually found in small numbers,of rarely more than ten or so together, strung outalong a shore rather than in tight groups; they usuallyhold their heads low and swing their tails up anddown in a constant swaying bob.VOICE Loud, ringing, sharp tew-tew-tew or tyew-yu-yu;many summer calls include fast, trilling teu-i teu-i teu-i,chip, tidledi tidledi tidledi.NESTING Small, grass-lined hollow on ground, oftenon grassy banks; 4 eggs; 1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Skips and saunters along waterside,snatching insects and also some worms and molluscs.

OCCURRENCEBreeds on rocky streams and lakesides with shingle and grassybanks locally throughout Europe.On migration, in all kinds ofwaterside habitats, from reservoirsand streams to muddy estuariesand even rocky foreshores.

Common Sandpiper

long tail

mid-brownabove

pale-based, dark-tipped bill

dark tail withwhite sides

bold whitewingbar

greenish or dullochre legs

ADULT(SUMMER)

BATHINGAll waders bathe regularly, even in cold weather, to help keep theirplumage in tiptop condition.

FLIGHT: highly characteristic, low over water, withstiff, flickering beats of bowed wings.

IN FLIGHT

white crescent in frontof closed wing

greyish breast, palerin centre

JUVENILE(AUTUMN)

SIMILAR SPECIES

darkerwhitespotsabove

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

pale fleckingalong featheredges

GREEN SANDPIPERblacker underwings; see p.186

longerbill

shortertail

more streakedabove

longer legs

DUNLINsee p.178

ADULT(SUMMER)

stiff, bowedwings

dark, mottledback (plainerin winter)

Length 19 –21cm (71⁄2 –81⁄2 in) Wingspan 36–40cm (14–16in) Weight 50–90g (13⁄4 –31⁄4oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Declining

Order Charadriiformes Family Scolopacidae Species Tringa glareola

With a typicallyTringa sandpiper

form and bobbing action,the Wood Sandpiper is,however, a more elegant andlonger-legged bird than the GreenSandpiper. It is noticeably less thickset thanthe larger Redshank and Greenshank. It is basically afreshwater bird, not seen on open sea shores, oftenfound in weedy pools or paddling about on floatingvegetation. Many Wood Sandpipers pass througheastern and southern Europe in spring, when they arescarce migrants in western Europe. In autumn, they arestill relatively uncommon but more regular andpredictable in western Europe, especially in August.Ones and twos then appear on sheltered muddy shoresof reservoirs or on lagoons near the coast, feeding in arather nervous, jumpy manner, easily disturbed andready to fly off at some height.VOICE Distinctive quick, sharp chiff-iff-iff-iff.NESTING Small, leaf-lined scrape on ground,occasionally old nest in tree; 4 eggs; 1 brood; May–July.FEEDING Steps delicately over vegetation, picking up insects and small aquatic invertebrates.

OCCURRENCESummer visitor, breeding in N and NE Europe. Migrantswidespread in south and west,most on muddy pools, weedyfringes of shallow lagoons, saltpans, and often near coast, butnot on estuarine mud.

Wood Sandpipercream-spottedbrown back

small palespots on back

JUVENILE(AUTUMN)

SHALLOW WATER WADERThe Wood Sandpiper feeds beside muddy pools or on shallow floods,flying off quickly and noisily if disturbed.

FLIGHT: strong, quick, light, with flickingwingbeats; often rises high if disturbed.

JUVENILE(AUTUMN)

no white onupperwings

SIMILAR SPECIES

less mottled

larger anddarker

WADERS

185

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

straight, dark-tipped bill

streakedbreast

white underside

ADULT(SUMMER)

GREEN SANDPIPERblacker underwings; brightwhite rump; see p.186

REDSHANKsee p.187

thickerbill

chunkier anddarker

paleunderwings

red legs

pale stripeover eye

narrow barson tail

whiterump

IN FLIGHTlong, yellow-ochre legs

186

WADERS

Length 21–24cm (81⁄2 –91⁄2 in) Wingspan 41–46cm (16–18in) Weight 70–90g (21⁄2 –31⁄4oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure†

Order Charadriiformes Family Scolopacidae Species Tringa ochropus

Like other Tringa sandpipers, this bird is often seenin twos, threes, or fours; it does not gather close

together in tight flocks or in larger numbers. Oftenone or two fly up from a muddy pool and shootaround the sky, sometimes returning, sometimes movingquite far.They are often seen in or near coastalmarshes but not on open mudflats. Getting close toGreen Sandpipers, without a hide, is usually ratherdifficult as they tend to be very alert and quick to flyoff, looking black and white as they take to the air.VOICE Loud, full-throated, liquid, almost yodellingtllu-eet, weet-weet!NESTING Old nest of thrush or similar bird in treenear forest bog; 4 eggs; 1 brood; May–July.FEEDING Often up to belly in water, probing andpicking insects, crustaceans, and worms.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in N and NE Europe. Localin winter; widespread migrant.Mostly on small pools, streams,wet ditches, salt-marsh creeks,muddy edges of reservoirs, and in more overgrown areas thanother sandpipers.

Green Sandpiper

FLIGHT: flies fast, rising steeply when flushed, withquick, flicked beats of angled wings.

MUD WADERThis sandpiper usually wades on muddy shores, close to cover, oftenbobbing its tail; it is typically less active than the Common Sandpiper.

pale line infront of eye

white-speckled,dark grey-brownupperparts

dark cap

ADULT JUVENILE

blackishunderwings

COMMON SANDPIPERsee p.184

SIMILAR SPECIES

WOOD SANDPIPERsmaller whiterump; see p.185

browner

shorterlegs

browner

greenish legs

greyishbill withdark tip

streaked greyishbreast

bright whiteunderside

very darkupperwings

thick barson tail

diffuse buffspots above

IN FLIGHT

ADULT

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

big, squarewhiterump

WADERS

187

Length 27–29cm (101⁄2 –111⁄2 in) Wingspan 45–52cm (18–201⁄2 in) Weight 85–155g (3–5oz)

Social Winter flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Declining

Order Charadriiformes Family Scolopacidae Species Tringa totanus

OCCURRENCEBreeds on salt marshes, wetpastures, near freshwater pools,and on wet upland moors in N andE Europe. Otherwise, in wet places,on fresh water and salt coasts;mostly on estuaries but likely inalmost any small creek or marsh.

Redshank

FLIGHT: fast, direct, gliding to ground; raises wingsas it settles.

DENSE ROOSTSFlocks of Redshanks are pushed tightly together by the rising tide. Theytend to remain separate from other waders.

bright red legs

straight, red-based bill

dark brown headand upperparts pale eye-ring

no spotsbelow

plain brown above

whitish bellywith blackspots

ADULT (SUMMER)

ADULT (WINTER)

broad white bandon upperwings

SIMILAR SPECIES

BAR-TAILED GODWIT winter;see p.192

paler

longerbill

larger

shorterlegs

smaller

whiteunderwings

white rump

barred tail

Its noisy behaviour makes the widespread Redshankone of the most obvious shoreline birds. It roosts in

tight flocks at high tide, looking noticeably darkbrown compared with paler godwits and Knots. It isdeclining fast in areas where farmland is drained oragriculture intensified, and has also been affected bythe loss of salt-marsh habitats. Nevertheless, it remainsfrequent on many coasts.VOICE Loud, ringing calls,“bouncing” tyew-yu-yu,teu, teu-hu, sharp annoyed tewk, tewk; song tu-yoo tu-yoo tu-yoo.NESTING Simple, sparsely lined hollow on ground,often with grass intertwined above it, forming canopy;4 eggs; 1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Probes and picks from mud, taking insects,earthworms, marine worms, crustaceans, and molluscs.

ADULT

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

yellowishorangelegs

KNOT winter; see p.176

JUVENILE

IN FLIGHT lacy buff featheredges

Length 29–32cm (111⁄2 –121⁄2 in) Wingspan 48–52cm (19–201⁄2 in) Weight 135–250g (5–9oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure

Order Charadriiformes Family Scolopacidae Species Tringa erythropus

WADERS

188

OCCURRENCEBreeds in forest bogs and on open tundra in far N Europe. Atother times, in freshwater andbrackish lagoons, salt-marshcreeks, edges of lakes andreservoirs inland, with smallnumbers wintering in estuaries.

Spotted Redshank

SIMILAR SPECIES

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

FEEDINGSmall groups of Spotted Redshanks feed in creeks and pools, dartingafter prey and even upending like ducks.

Of the larger waders, the Spotted Redshank isone of the more dynamic and energetic in its

feeding actions: small groups are often found leaping,running, upending, and diving for tiny fish in shallowwater. Individual migrants are generally located bytheir highly distinctive flight calls.They are scarce in winter, and are mostly seen in late summer orautumn, as they are restricted to the far northern partsof Europe as breeding birds.VOICE Loud, sharp, clearly enunciated tchew-it!NESTING Hollow on open ground; 4 eggs; 1 brood;May–July.FEEDING Often in water, dashing after prey, notprobing; takes fish fry, worms, and molluscs.

FLIGHT: fast and direct; legs trail (occasionallytucked forwards).

white stripebetween eyeand bill

legs projectbeyond tail

whiteback

plain upperwingspale spotson back

mid-greyupperparts

dark legsblackishbelow

pale greyhead

white stripeabove eye black stripe

to eye

fine, long,red-basedblack bill

pale greybreast

bright whitebelow

vivid red legs

heavilybarred flanks

red legs

JUVENILE (AUTUMN)

dark brownishbody

IN FLIGHT

ADULT(SUMMER)

ADULT(WINTER)

REDSHANK similarto adult winter; see p.187

browner

shorterlegs

shorterbill

slightlyupturned

bill

dull greenlegs

GREENSHANKsee p.189

ADULT(WINTER)

WADERS

189

Length 30–35cm (12 –14in) Wingspan 53–60cm (21–231⁄2 in) Weight 140–270g (5–10oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure

Order Charadriiformes Family Scolopacidae Species Tringa nebularia

One of the most beautiful of waders, despite a lack of strong colour or pattern, the Greenshank is an

elegant, delicate-looking bird. It is, nevertheless,noticeably bigger than a Redshank, being part way toa godwit in size. It is easily located by its loud, ringingcalls that echo around estuaries and inland pools. Insummer, this is a bird of wild and remote places, shyand difficult to observe.VOICE Main call loud, ringing, even-pitch tew-tew-tew, without accelerating “bounce” or hystericalquality of Redshank.NESTING Scrape on ground, often near logs, stones,or posts, in grass or heather; 4 eggs; 1 brood; May–July.FEEDING Probes while wading in shallow water,often very active, running and chasing fish; eatsworms, insects, and crustaceans.

OCCURRENCEBreeds on moorland near northernpools in NW Europe. On migrationnear water, including reservoirswell inland, but not often onexposed mudflats of largerestuaries. Winters in moresheltered salt-marsh creeks.

Greenshank

FLIGHT: fast, strong, with regular wingbeats; lookslong and tapered.

ELEGANT STANCEIts long bill and long legs help to give the Greenshank a particularlydelicate, elegant appearance.

greyishupperparts

JUVENILE

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

clear whiteunderparts

ADULT(WINTER)

long, grey-green legs

smaller

veryfine bill

slimmer

MARSH SANDPIPERsee p.190

SIMILAR SPECIES

browner

dumpier shorterlegs

REDSHANKsee p.187

whitewedgeon back

plain upperwings

IN FLIGHT

pale, scaly edgeson upperparts

pale headand neck

slightlyupturnedbill blackish spots

above

streakedbreast

ADULT (SUMMER)

ADULT(WINTER)

Length 22 –25cm (9–10in) Wingspan 50cm (20in) Weight 80–90g (27⁄8 –31⁄4oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure†

Order Charadriiformes Family Scolopacidae Species Tringa stagnatilis

WADERS

190

OCCURRENCEBreeds in N and extreme E Europe,in forest clearings. Migratesthrough eastern Mediterranean,rare farther west in late spring orautumn. Mostly in freshwatermarshes and lagoons.

Marsh Sandpiper pale lineover eye

dark wings

very pale headand neck

PALE LOOKSA browner bird in summer, with black spots above, the Marsh Sandpiperususally looks pale and rather colourless.

FLIGHT: quick, direct with quite fast wingbeats;legs trail beyond tail.

IN FLIGHT

narrow, angledwing shape

grey-brown upperpartswith dark spots

whiteunderparts

greyish upperpartswith buff spots

SIMILAR SPECIES

WOOD SANDPIPERsee p.185

morespottedabove GREENSHANK

see p.189

larger thicker,upturnedbill

Its long legs and very fine, straight bill make this aparticularly delicate and elegant wader, almost a stilt

among the sandpipers. It is markedly smaller than a Redshank but needs to be carefully distinguished,when seen on its own, from a Greenshank, also arather refined-looking bird. It typically stalks daintilyaround the edge of freshwater muddy pools. MarshSandpipers are generally rare in western Europe,although they may be seen regularly in a few areas of southeast Europe.VOICE Quick, sharp kyew or high kyu kyu kyu.NESTING Scantily lined scrape in grassy bog andmarsh, or on open boggy clearing in northern forest;4 eggs; 1 brood; May–July.FEEDING Picks small insects and crustaceans frommud or water surface.

long,white “V”on back

JUVENILE(AUTUMN)

extremely longgreenish legs

straight, fine darkbill

streakedchestspotted

flanks

ADULT(SUMMER)

JUVENILE(AUTUMN)

shorterbill

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

WADERS

191

Length 36–44cm (14 –171⁄2 in) Wingspan 62–70cm (24–28in) Weight 280–500g (10–18oz)

Social Winter flocks Lifespan 10–15 years Status Vulnerable

Order Charadriiformes Family Scolopacidae Species Limosa limosa

OCCURRENCEBreeds in N and W Europe, in wetmeadowland and flooded pasture;otherwise, mostly coastal. Widelyspread except in far N Scandinaviabut everywhere localized, even inwinter, when most are on tradi-tional, muddy, narrow estuaries.

Black-tailed Godwit

FLIGHT: quick, direct flight with shallow, stiffwingbeats; head well outstretched, legs trail farbeyond tail.

coppery-redfrom head tobreast

ADULT(SUMMER)

IN FLIGHTblack barringon flanks

JUVENILE

rufous-scaledupperparts

remarkablylong legs

ADULT(WINTER)

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

black tail withbroad white band

This is one of Europe’s larger and more handsome waders,boldly patterned in flight (when it is unmistakable) and

characterized by especially long legs. It usually stands with its bodywell forward, bill probing almost at its toes.The Black-tailed Godwitbreeds in wet meadowland, where it is susceptible both to drainageand sudden spring floods. In winter, it resorts torelatively few estuaries, often rather narrow andenclosed with long, narrow areas of rich mud; theseare occupied year after year. It is generally much lesswidespread than the Bar-tailed Godwit but may gatherin hundreds in traditional wintering places. Springflocks before migration look stunning in red plumage.VOICE Noisy in spring with nasal weeka-weeka-weeka;quick vi-vi-vi in flight.NESTING Shallow scrapes on ground in richvegetation; 3 or 4 eggs; 1 brood; May–July.FEEDING Probes deeply, often in water up to its belly,for worms, molluscs, and seeds.

SIMILAR SPECIES

BAR-TAILED GODWITsee p.192

OYSTERCATCHERsimilar in flight;see p.164

plainwings

more pied

shorter legsabove joint

shorterbill

grey back

pale greyunderparts

bright rufous-buff plumage

long, straightpink bill withfine tip

ADULT (WINTER)

WINTER FLOCKSFrom autumn to late winter, Black-tailed Godwits are found in flocks inquite small, sheltered, muddy estuaries.

mostly whiteunderwings

broad whitewingbars

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 33–42cm (13 –161⁄2 in) Wingspan 61–68cm (24–27in) Weight 280–450g (10–16oz)

Social Winter flocks Lifespan 10–15 years Status Vulnerable

Order Charadriiformes Family Scolopacidae Species Limosa lapponica

WADERS

192

OCCURRENCEArctic breeder on tundra; inEurope, mostly in scattered flockson broad estuaries, but also seenin small numbers on smallerbeaches and rocky shores,lingering until May and returningfrom July onwards.

Bar-tailed Godwitplain upperwingswith darker tips

IN FLIGHT

While Black-tailed Godwits breed in Europe, Bar-tailed Godwits breed in the far northern tundra, but

they are otherwise much more widespread on shores of allkinds.They prefer extensive mudflats, groups scatteringover them to probe for food, and are driven at high tide tolarge, mixed roosts where they tend to keep a little separatefrom the Curlews, Redshanks, and other species close by.Flocks flying to roost may arrive quite high up and divedown with much acrobatic twisting and rolling.VOICE In flight, quick, yelping kirruk kirruk.NESTING Small scrape on ground on drier patch in coldtundra; 4 eggs; 1 brood; May–July.FEEDING Probes for large marine worms and molluscs.

FLIGHT: quick, agile; legs not trailing much beyondtail; often acrobatic.

straighterbill

longer legs

CURLEWsee p.193

downcurved bill

larger

deep copperyred underside(female paler)

ADULT(WINTER)

streakedbright buffabove

MALE(SUMMER)

warm orange-buffon neck

pinkishbill base

JUVENILE

IMMATURE(1ST WINTER)

shortishdark legs

pale buffbreast

long, fine-tipped, faintlyupcurved bill

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

barredtail

BLACK-TAILED GODWITbold wing patternin flight; see p.191

HIGH-TIDE FLURRYA rising tide pushes a group of godwits off a mud bank, to seek asafe roost on a nearby marsh.

streaked grey-brownand buff (adult lesschequered)

SIMILAR SPECIES

WADERS

193

Length 50–60cm (20 –231⁄2 in) Wingspan 80–100cm (32–39in) Weight 575–950g (21–34oz)

Social Winter flocks Lifespan 10–20 years Status Declining

Order Charadriiformes Family Scolopacidae Species Numenius arquata

Abreeding bird in much of Europe, the Curlew is also widespread and

common on shorelines of all kinds andaround many inland waters. It is easilyrecognized both by its shape and its voice;in spring, it has one of the most beautifulof all European bird songs. Curlews at longrange on mudflats or roosting on a sandspit tend to look large and in mostcircumstances rather dark, although closeviews, or bright sun, reveal a quite pale,sandy-brown colour.VOICE Typical calls loud, full whoy, haup,cur-li, hoarse, throaty cu-cu-cew, longer, slow,repeated cur-lew; song begins slowly,accelerates into ecstatic, rich, bubbling trill.NESTING Shallow hollow, lined with grass,on ground; 4 eggs; 1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Probes and picks up worms,insects, crabs, starfish, and molluscs.

OCCURRENCEBreeds widely in N and W Europe,on riverside meadows, bogs inheaths, wet moors, and northernshores and islands. Winters onestuaries, especially larger, muddyones, but also small creeks, saltmarshes, and wet grassland.

Curlew

FLIGHT: strong, direct, gull-like, quite slow beats;often in lines or “V”s.

MIXED ROOSTCurlews stand tallbeside godwits andother waders at high-tide roosts.

OPPORTUNISTCurlews are able to use their longbills to feed on wave-washedrocks, as well as on mud.

spottedflanks

streaked brownabove

long, evenlydowncurvedbill

IN FLIGHT

WHIMBRELsee p.194

BAR-TAILED GODWITimmature, winteradult; see p.192

head uniform orfaintly bandedalong crown

gull-likeshape

shortgreyishlegs

broad“V” onrump

dark-tippedupperwings withpale inner half

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

smaller anddarker

moreangledbill

upcurvedbill

whiterbelly

often looks darkat distance

Length 40–46cm (16 –18in) Wingspan 71–81cm (28–32in) Weight 270–450g (10–16oz)

Social Spring flocks Lifespan 10–15 years Status Secure†

Order Charadriiformes Family Scolopacidae Species Numenius phaeopus

WADERS

194

OCCURRENCEBreeds on open heaths and moorsin far N and NW Europe; onmigration, on many coasts. Fliesover almost any open landscapes,especially moving north in spring,but prefers undisturbed estuariesand rarely lingers inland.

Whimbrel

plain, darkupperwings

SIMILAR SPECIES

CURLEWsee p.193

straightbill

palerlongerbill

plainerhead

biggerandpaler

IN FLIGHT

long white“V” on back

MIGRANT WADERFor much of the summer, Whimbrels are on dry ground, but migrantsmay be seen wading at the edges of pools or along the sea shore.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

FLIGHT: fast, strong, quicker than Curlew;wingbeats quite quick and deep.

bentbill

whitebelly

streaked, Curlew-likepattern on body

darkbreast

two dark bandsalong crownwith narrowcentral line

Superficially like the closely related Curlew, which is a more familiar bird

all year round in Europe, the Whimbrel is amore northerly breeder and only a spring andautumn migrant elsewhere.This large wader wouldoften be overlooked were it not for its call, althoughin fact its compact, dark, chunky form is really quitedistinct from the lankier, paler Curlew. It is rathermore squat and a little larger than the straight-billedgodwits.As with most “streaky brown birds”, a closeview reveals an exquisite pattern of fine streaks, bars,and spots. In Europe, it is very much a ground orwaterside bird, but in winter in Africa it often perchesup on trees or even overhead cables.VOICE Song loud, rich, rippling trill; in flight, loud,even, fast pipipipipipipip on one pitch.NESTING Simple, shallow scrape on ground; 4 eggs;1 brood; May–July.FEEDING Takes insects, snails, earthworms, crabs, andmarine worms.

BAR-TAILED GODWITwinter; see p.192

quite shortgreyishlegs

barredtail

deep-chestedshape

WADERS

195

Length 33 –38cm (13–15 in) Wingspan 55–65cm (22–26in) Weight 250–420g (9–15oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Vulnerable

Order Charadriiformes Family Scolopacidae Species Scolopax rusticola

An extremely difficult bird to see because of

its cryptic coloration, theWoodcock can usually beobserved only at woodlandedges at dusk in spring orsummer while “roding”.This is amysterious territorial or courtship displayat just over treetop height, involving fast quiveringof bowed wings with regular grunts and whistles.At other times,it remains determinedly out of sight in thick vegetation on thewoodland floor, or feeding in wet ditches or bogs at night. Onlyrarely, usually in severe weather, is it seen on the ground. If disturbed,it gets up with a clatter and flies off quite low and fast, sometimesturning back in a wide arc.VOICE In display, diagnosticsharp, high whistle and deepthroaty grunt, tsi-wip grr grrr,tsi-wip grr grrr.NESTING Slight hollow indead leaves, under brambles,or other cover in woods; 4eggs; 1 brood; March–August.FEEDING Probes for worms,beetles, and seeds in rich leafmould, muddy ditches, andstreamsides.

OCCURRENCEWidespread except in Iceland andmost of Spain and Portugal; manymove west and south in winter.Breeds in woodland of all kindswith soft, damp earth, bogs, andditches nearby; frequents similarareas in winter in small numbers.

Woodcockbold blackbars on backof head

long,straight,thick-basedbill

evenlybarred paleunderside

SIMILAR SPECIES

GREAT SNIPEsee p.428

muchlongerbill

smaller

angularhead

dead-leaf patternon upperparts

broadwings

DIFFICULT TO SPOTA Woodcock on its nest, or resting on the ground, isexceedingly difficult to see even at very close range.

SNIPEsee p.196

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

striped, notbarred, head

stripedhead

FLIGHT: quite quick and direct; flies up with loudwing noise and dashes away in zigzag.

eyes set farback on head

EVENING FLIGHTIn summer, Woodcocks fly over regular circuitsabove woodland areas at dusk.

IN FLIGHTbillangleddown

Length 25–28cm (10 –11in) Wingspan 37–43cm (141⁄2 –17in) Weight 80–120g (27⁄8 –4oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 5–10 years Status Secure†

Order Charadriiformes Family Scolopacidae Species Gallinago gallinago

WADERS

196

OCCURRENCEPrefers wet marshes and boggyheaths at all times, breedingthrough NW and N Europe. Outsidebreeding season, in all kinds offreshwater marshes with shallowwater and soft mud, moving tocoasts in freezing conditions.

Snipe

SIMILAR SPECIES

JACK SNIPEreluctant to fly;see p.197

smaller

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

bigger

WOODCOCKsee p.195

barredhead

barred flanks

streakedbreast

dark brown backwith long, broadcream stripes

boldly striped headwith cream centre

extremelylong bill,angled down

FLIGHT: quick, rolling from side to side with flickedbeats of angled-back wings; sudden, fast escapeflight; settles with sudden flurry of wings.

The Snipe needs floods and oozy, watery mud, which allow itsextraordinarily long, thin bill to be inserted into the ground so

that it can detect and grasp worms; it cannot survive for very longwithout soft ground.With the increasing drying out or tidying up of the modern landscape, with water constrained intofirm channels, the Snipe and its remarkable springdisplays have disappeared from vast areas of its formerrange. It is still seen at the edge of marshes, oroccasionally flushed from almost underfoot amongstwet rushes.While displaying, it has a high, steeplyundulating flight and dives with its tail fanned out.VOICE Sharp, short, rasping scaap!; in spring, bright,rhythmic, musical chip-per, chip-per, chip-per from perch;also short, wavering, throbbing “bleat” from tailfeathers in switchback display flight.NESTING Grass-lined shallow scrape in densevegetation; 4 eggs; 1 or 2 broods;April–July.FEEDING Probes deeply in soft mud for worms.

inserts longbill into mudto find food

dark wingswith paletrailing edge

IN FLIGHTrufous-centredtail

shorterbill

white belly

RESTINGThis medium-sized wader may sit quietly for long spells beside a tussockof rushes or grass and is less active than most other waders.

WADERS

Length 17–19cm (61⁄2 –71⁄2 in) Wingspan 30–36cm (12–14in) Weight 35–70g (11⁄4 –21⁄2oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 5–10 years Status Vulnerable†

Order Charadriiformes Family Scolopacidae Species Lymnocryptes minimus

While Snipe are generally skulkingbut often feed in the open, Jack Snipe

almost never do, keeping to the depths of deepvegetation in very wet places.These handsome little birdsare generally seen as they fly up, practically only when theyare almost trodden on, and even then they go just a shortdistance before dropping down again. Close views on theground are mostly restricted to spells of very cold weatherwhen they are forced into unexpected places or stand outon ice.Wintering birds regularly appear at traditional placesyear after year, even in very small, marshy spots near poolsor at the upper edge of estuarine salt marshes. In favouredspots, groups of ten or twenty Jack Snipe may feed in looseflocks, flying up singly.VOICE Usually quiet; muffled “galloping” og-ogok og-ogoksound in display flight.NESTING Hollow in dry hummock of grass or moss inbog; 4 eggs; 1 brood; May–July.FEEDING Walks forward with bouncy action, probing forinsect larvae, worms, and seeds.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in northern bogs; moresoutherly in winter. Outside thebreeding season, in very wetgrass, rushy places with standingwater and mud, edges ofreedbeds, and upper edges ofweedy salt marshes, in deep cover.

Jack Snipebill shorterthanSnipe’s

IN FLIGHT

SNIPEcalls whenflushed;see p.196

SIMILAR SPECIES

longerbill

pale centralstripe oncrown

striped crownwith black centre

bill angleddown

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

WELL HIDDENThe Jack Snipe feeds in dense vegetation in wet places and isvery difficult to see on the ground.

shortgreenish legs

streakedflanks

striped, green-glossed back

looks very darkon upperside

FLIGHT: quite slow, almost flitting compared withSnipe’s; wings angled back.

DUNLINsee p.178

much plainer fromhead to back

shorttail

pale edgeof hind-wings

broad brightcream stripeson back

197

Order Charadriiformes Family Scolopacidae Species Phalaropus fulicarius

Length 20 –22cm (8–9in) Wingspan 37–40cm (141⁄2 –16in) Weight 50–75g (13⁄4 –25⁄8oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure†

Like other phalaropes, this species has “reversed roles”: females are brighter than males, and the

males incubate eggs and rear the chicks.A morenortherly breeding bird than other phalaropes, it is,however, the most common along European coasts inautumn, sometimes turning up inland after autumngales. Its frequent swimming is distinctive but inland itis often found on muddy shorelines like other waders.At sea, it is easily overlooked but sometimes gathers insmall, swimming groups which fly off low and fast ifdisturbed by a ship.VOICE High prip or whit.NESTING Small, grassy hollow in northern tundra;4 eggs; 1 brood; June–July.FEEDING Picks invertebrates from mud and surfaceof water, often while swimming.

WADERS

198

OCCURRENCERare breeder in Iceland. Otherwiselives at sea, sometimes off head-lands on migration in storms; afew may be blown onto all kindsof shores and inland pools bygales in autumn, but always rare,especially in breeding plumage.

Grey Phalarope

thick, dark-tipped yellowbill

orange-redunderside

FEMALE (SUMMER)

IN FLIGHT

FLIGHT: slightly fluttery, erratic, low flight overwaves with shallow wingbeats.

SIMILAR SPECIES

RED-NECKED PHALAROPEwinter, similar to adultwinter; see p.199

veryfine bill

palehead

MALE(SUMMER)

ADULT (WINTER)

pearly greyback

yellow-baseddark bill

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

SANDERLING winter,similar to adultwinter; see p.177

black eyepatch

black face

whitecheeks

whiteunderparts

SWIMMING JUVENILEThe Grey Phalarope swims on the open sea and may be brought closeinshore by autumn gales, but is usually able to cope with rough seas.

morestripedabove

FEMALE(SUMMER)

broad whitewingbar

WADERS

199

Length 17–19cm (61⁄2 –71⁄2 in) Wingspan 30–34cm (12–131⁄2 in) Weight 25–50g (7⁄8 –13⁄4oz)

Social Winter flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure†

Order Charadriiformes Family Scolopacidae Species Phalaropus lobatus

SIMILAR SPECIES OCCURRENCEBreeds on northern pools and wetmarshes in extreme N and NWEurope. Winters at sea. Raremigrants in spring and autumn,mostly juveniles, on coastallagoons; much less often storm-blown inland than Grey Phalarope.

Red-necked Phalarope

MARSHLAND NESTERIn summer, the shallows of reedy lakes or stony pools on northern islandsare the best places to look for the Red-necked Phalarope (male pictured).

bright red neck(less red on male)

white throat

IN FLIGHT

FEMALE (SUMMER)

JUVENILE

blackish wingswith strongwhite stripe

fineblackbill

stripedblackishback

black cap

all-blackbill

looks verydark

black mask

dark face

GREY PHALAROPEwinter, similar toadult winter; see p.198

thickerbill

long buff stripeson dark grey back

FLIGHT: fast, low, darting flight, with flutteringeffect, on broad-based wings.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

needle-fine bill

black eyepatch

ADULT(WINTER)

paler back

FEMALE(SUMMER)

grey above

Atiny, delicate wader, the Red-necked Phalarope spends much of its time at sea, swimming with foreparts held up, and tail

and wingtips upswept.This is a common breeder in the far northand winters in large numbers in the Middle East, but is a rare bird in most of Europe. In much of western Europe, it is an occasionalautumn migrant, usually in juvenile plumage, and is much lessfrequent inland than the Grey Phalarope. Careful observation isrequired to be certain of identification in non-breeding plumages.VOICE Sharp twik and quick, twittering notes.NESTING Small, round hollow in grass tussocks in wet marshes;4 eggs; 1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Feeds atwater’s edge on insects,or picks insects fromwater surface, oftenspinning like a top.

Order Charadriiformes Family Scolopacidae Species Philomachus pugnax

Length 20 –32cm (8–121⁄2 in) Wingspan 46–58cm (18–23in) Weight 70–230g (21⁄2 –8oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 10–15 years Status Secure†

WADERS

200

OCCURRENCEBreeds on wet meadowland;declining and local in NW Europe,more widespread in NE. At othertimes, on wet fields and marshes,muddy freshwater margins, mostcommonly autumn juveniles, somewinter on western estuaries.

Ruff

DISPLAYINGMale Ruffs display in groups to females, withmock battles, their unusual breeding plumagecreating a striking spectacle.

SIMILAR SPECIES

REDSHANK similarto adult winter;see p.187

Male Ruffs in spring look extraordinary, and the females in summerare boldly blotched; in winter, they retain little individuality.

Juveniles in autumn, which are most often seen in Europe, are muchmore consistent in appearance.They appear in mid-autumn on wet,muddy edges of lakes and reservoirs, looking quite sedate comparedwith smaller waders or even Redshanks, with a steady, plodding actionthat rarely gets close to a run.VOICE Very quiet; occasionally low, gruff wek.NESTING Grass-lined scrape, well hidden in deep vegetation at edge of marsh; 4 eggs; 1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Probes in soft mud for worms, insects, insect larvae, and seeds.

thin whitewingbar

whiteon sidesof darkrump

FLIGHT: rather slow, with shallow, soft beats ofrather long wings.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

MALE(WINTER)

IN FLIGHT

browner

less scalyback

WOOD SANDPIPER autumnjuvenile, similar to autumnjuvenile; see p.185

short,faintlycurvedbill

chequeredback

pale bellylegs maybe red

head oftenwhite

bright buff edgeson dark brownfeathers

MALE (SPRING)

broad featheryruff of varyingcoloration

curly tufts of variablecolours on crown

bright ochre-buff on headand breast

morespottedabove

white eye-stripe

long, pale yellow-ochre legs

male larger thanfemale

reddish legs

FEMALE(SUMMER)JUVENILE

(AUTUMN)

JUVENILE(AUTUMN)

boldlyblotchedback

smaller thanmale

201

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS/AUKS

Families Stercorariidae, Laridae, Sternidae

SKUAS, GULLS, AND TERNS

MOST OF THESE WATER birds live at sea butothers are freshwater species for part or

all of the year. They swim well and fly expertly:terns hover and dive, while larger gulls are ableto soar in upcurrents or a good breeze. Gulls walkeasily but skuas, and especially the short-leggedterns, are not nearly so agile on the ground. Alldefend their nests boldly, some terns and all theskuas quite likely to strike human intruders onthe head if they approach too closely.

SKUASPiratical seabirds, skuas kill their own prey butget most of their food by chasing other seabirdsand forcing them to drop or disgorge it. Somespecies have several plumage forms and theirimmatures are rather different from adults.

GULLSWhile the Kittiwake is a maritime gull,others breed inland or move inlandin winter to some extent,

Family Alcidae

AUKS

but many remain on the coast. They forage inflocks, and the larger species are fiercely predatory.Sexes are alike but immature plumages are quitedifferent from the adults: the larger species takefour years to gain adult colours.

TERNSMostly smaller than gulls, and longer-tailed,terns are long-distance migrants. Some haveblack caps in summer and these dive from theair for fish; the “marsh terns” aredarker in summer and dip topick up food from thesurface as they fly.

FISHERA Common Tern looks into the waterfor fish: it will dive headlong to graspone in its bill.

EXCLUSIVELY SEABIRDS,AUKS come to land only to breed on cliffledges or in burrows, in noisy colonies, and spend the winter at

sea. They swim and dive expertly, using their wings underwater, butin flight their small wings whirr rapidly to keepthem airborne. They are vulnerable topollution, often forming the bulk of thevictims of oil spills around Atlantic coasts.Some Puffin colonies have disappearedas tunnelling birds have eroded all theavailable soil; others have suffered fromdeclining fish stocks.

MASSIVE GULLThe Great Black-backed Gull is theworld’s biggest gull. Capable ofkilling rabbits and birds, it feedsmostly on dead fish and scraps.

PENGUIN-LIKEAuks look like northern equivalents ofthe southern hemisphere penguins.

Length 50 –58cm (20–23in) Wingspan 1.25–1.4m (4–41⁄2ft) Weight 1.2–2kg (23⁄4 –41⁄2 lb)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 10–20 years Status Secure

Order Charadriiformes Family Stercorariidae Species Stercorarius skua

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

202

OCCURRENCEBreeds from Scotland northwards,on islands and remote moors andhills. Widespread off W Europeancoasts and out at sea in spring andautumn; sometimes broughtcloser inland by gales and oftenpassing longer headlands in anyweather. Rare in winter.

Great Skua

streaked dark brownupperparts

ADULT

bold whitepatch onouter wings

pale brown tocream streaks onneck and mantle

uniformly darkunderparts (juvenilesoften blacker)

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

dark cap

long, broad wingstaper to point

ADULT

FLIGHT: low, direct, heavy, with slow wingbeats;chase fast, rather brief.

The largest, heaviest,boldest, and most

predatory skua, the Great Skua is literallyhair-raising near the nestas it zooms in at head-height at intruders. It hasincreased greatly in recentyears, to the detriment of someother seabird species. In most ofwestern Europe it is a migrant (to and from Africa) in spring and autumn, best seenfrom headlands in periods of strong onshorewinds. Usually it is less numerous than theArctic Skua in such circumstances. Itaccompanies gulls and Gannets in flocksaround trawlers, and at coastal freshwaterlakes in its breeding areas in the north.VOICE Barking uk-uk-uk, deep tuk-tuk;silent at sea.NESTING Simple hollow on ground onmoorland; 2 eggs; 1 brood, May–June.FEEDING Steals fish from other seabirds up to size of Gannet; kills many birds up to size of Kittiwake; eats much offal,carrion, and eggs.

IN FLIGHT

ARCTIC SKUAsee p.204

less whiteon wing

slimmer

FLASHING WING PATCHESGreat Skuas display on their breeding grounds,showing off their bold white wing patches.

thick blackishlegs

SIMILAR SPECIES

POMARINE SKUAsee p.203

longtail

smaller

lessuniformcoloration

HERRING GULL immature;see p.209

long tail

ADULTstout,hookeddark bill

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

203

Length 46 –51cm (18–20in) Wingspan 1.13–1.25m (33⁄4 –4ft) Weight 550–900g (20–32oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 10–15 years Status Secure†

Order Charadriiformes Family Stercorariidae Species Stercorarius pomarinus

OCCURRENCEBreeds in extreme NE Europe. Onpassage mostly found in North Seaand Atlantic. Occurs in variablenumbers: usually scarce; at timesconcentrated movements inspring; occasional larger, moreprolonged influxes in late autumnto North Sea; very few in winter.

Pomarine Skua

FLIGHT: direct flight steady, strong, straight;wingbeats smooth and powerful; piracy involves fast,active chase.

thick bill withpink-brown base

brownback

blunt,twistedtail

grey legs

white underside

IN FLIGHT

ADULT (SUMMER; PALE FORM)

GREAT SKUAsee p.202

SIMILAR SPECIES

bigger,broader-winged

black cap

brownbreast-band

broad barsunder tail

brownbody

HERRING GULLimmature; see p.209

paleupperwingswith dark tip

JUVENILE (AUTUMN;DARK FORM)

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

Pomarine Skuas breed in the far north and so are seldom seen inEurope in summer, but in spring small groups of adults pass by

southern and western headlands in a short, concentrated migration;in autumn, larger numbers can be seen around west European coastsover a period of many weeks.Thesemigrants, however, tend to be widelyscattered and often far offshore, andit usually needs a good onshorewind to bring some within easyrange of a birdwatcher ashore.VOICE Usually silent away frombreeding sites.NESTING Shallow scrape on openground in Arctic tundra; 2 eggs;1 brood; June.FEEDING Eats lemmings andseabirds in summer; otherwise fish,stolen from other birds, and offal.

AUTUMN MIGRANTTired migrants after gales may reston beaches and forage for foodlike gulls.

spoon-like tail

ADULT(PALE FORM)

whiteflash

ADULT(DARK FORM)

blunttail

ARCTIC SKUAsee p.204

smaller andslimmer

Length 37–44cm (141⁄2 –171⁄2 in) Wingspan 0.97–1.15m (31⁄4 –33⁄4ft) Weight 380–600g (13–21oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 10–15 years Status Secure†

Order Charadriiformes Family Stercorariidae Species Stercorarius parasiticus

204

SIMILAR SPECIES

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

Except for somelate-autumn

influxes of Pomarines,this is generally the mostcommon skua in Europe. Learning the variety in this species will help identification of the rarerskuas. On its breeding grounds, it is a magnificent,dynamic bird, with fast, swooping, high displayflights; it also attacks human intruders with greatcourage.At sea, it is a pirate, chasing other seabirdsin order to make them disgorge fish. Its swift,dogged, and acrobatic pursuit of terns and smallgulls, often in pairs, is always exciting to watch.VOICE In summer, loud, nasal, wailing ahh-yeow, eee-air, ka-wow etc; silent at sea.NESTING Hollow on ground in moss or heather; 2 eggs; 1 brood; May-June.FEEDING Robs terns and gulls of fish; also catches fish, small birds, and voles, andeats some berries and insects.

OCCURRENCEBreeds on northern moors andislands from Scotland north intoArctic. Spring and autumnmigrants appear off mostEuropean coasts, especially NorthSea and Atlantic; usually mostcommon skua in early autumn.Rare inland after storms.

Arctic Skua

blue-grey legs withblackish toes

ADULT (PALE FORM)

FLIGHT: direct flight easy, light, somewhat erratic;long, twisting, persistent close-range pursuit.

IN FLIGHT

small whitepatch onouter wings

white flash

sharp centralspike to tail(shorter onjuvenile)

COMMON GULL immature,similar to pale form;white rump; see p.207

ADULT(PALE FORM)

ADULT(DARK FORM)

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

POMARINE SKUAsee p.203

blunttail

moreupperwingcontrast

dark tail-band

dark tail-band

brown back

dark brown body(juvenile morerufous)

plain dark tail coverts(barred above andbelow on juvenile)

dark capbluish bill withblack tip

grey-brownor yellowishbreast-band

whitishunderside

ELEGANCE IN THE AIRThe long-winged, slender ArcticSkua, with its central tail spike, isone of the most beautifullyshaped seabirds in flight.

HERRING GULL immature,similar to dark form;white rump; see p.209

moreupperwingcontrast

ADULT (DARK FORM)

SIMILAR SPECIES

205

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

Length 35–41cm (14 –16in) Wingspan 1.05–1.12m (31⁄2 –33⁄4ft) Weight 250–450g (9–16oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure†

Order Charadriiformes Family Stercorariidae Species Stercorarius longicaudus

Long-tailed Skua

POMARINE SKUAbroader wings;see p.203

larger

paler belly

breast-band

OCCURRENCEBreeds in N and W Norway andextreme N Sweden. Migratesthrough North Sea, around WesternIsles of Scotland and off W Spainand Portugal in brief springmovement of adults in flocks andmore prolonged autumn passage.

ARCTIC SKUAsee p.204

JUVENILE(DARK FORM)

brownbody

grey-brown upperwingswith very thin pale flash

IN FLIGHT

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

broadpale barsunder tail

ADULT(SUMMER)

thicktail

narrow darkwings

thick-neckedshape

darktrailingedge

ADULT(SUMMER)

This is usually therarest of the smaller

skuas, with occasional largenumbers moving north in a fewdays in spring off western headlandsand small numbers over longer periods in autumn,especially in the North Sea. In its breeding areas in the farnorth, it is very bold and may even perch on people’s heads.It flies low and easily, rather tern-like, and rarely chases otherseabirds. Like some other birds that feed mostly on lemmingsin summer, its numbers (and hence its breeding success) varyfrom year to year according to the lemming population.Unlike the Arctic Skua, it does not have a dark form whenadult, but juveniles are very variable.VOICE Wailing gull-like squeal and high alarm notes insummer; silent at sea.NESTING Hollow on ground in tundra or on highmountains; 2 eggs; 1 brood; June.FEEDING Eats mostly lemmings, voles, and small birds insummer; at sea, feeds on offal and fish, mostly self-caught.

AGRESSIVE ADULTBreeding birds fly around intruders, calling loudly, their flexibletail spikes very obvious.

very long,whip-likecentral tailspike

grey-brownabove

black cap

white breast

dark belly

ADULT(SUMMER)

FLIGHT: direct flight light, erratic, often liftingbriefly before dropping to sea.

Order Charadriiformes Family Laridae Species Larus ridibundus

Length 34–37cm (131⁄2 –141⁄2 in) Wingspan 1–1.1m (31⁄4 –31⁄2ft) Weight 225–350g (8–13oz)

Social Large flocks Lifespan 10–15 years Status Secure

SIMILAR SPECIES

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

OCCURRENCEBreeds from coastal marshes toupland pools, widespread but local.Often numerous and widespreadat other times, from coasts to farm-land, reservoirs, refuse tips, andalong rivers through towns andcities; in summer, even high on hills.

Black-headed Gull

COMMON GULLsee p.207

MEDITERRANEAN GULLsummer; see p.208

blackwingtips withwhite spots

white front of outer wings

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

ADULT (SUMMER)

vivid redlegs

smallhead

thickerbill

black head

206

dark brownhood

white outer edgeof dark greyunderwings

black ontrailingedge deep

red bill

deep redlegs

IN FLIGHT

ADULT(WINTER)

Common and familiar, this is a small, agile, very white-lookinggull and is never truly black-headed: it is one of the “hooded”

gulls with a dark brown head when breeding but a pale head with a dark ear spot in other plumages. Its dark underwing gives aflickering effect in flight. It has always been a frequent bird inland,by no means confined to the sea or the coast. Numbers have increased somewhatwith extra reservoirs and flooded pits providing safe roosts and refuse tips offeringan abundance of food.VOICE Loud, squealing, laughing, and chattering calls, kwarrr, kee-arr, kwuk, kuk-kuk.NESTING Pile of stems on ground in vegetation, on marsh; 2 or 3 eggs; 1 brood;May–June.FEEDING Takes worms, seeds, fish, and insects, from ground and water; catchesinsects in flight.

JUVENILE

brown bandon wings

neck and backbecome grey

orange-buff legs

black-tippedbill

IMMATURE(1ST WINTER)

ADULT(WINTER)

bigger anddarker

white frontof wings

IMMATURE(1ST WINTER)

FLIGHT: light, buoyant, very agile; glides a lot;steady beats of pointed wings.

dark tail tip

very palegrey back

long, dark wingpoint

white head withdark ear spot

vivid redbill

brown on neckand back

dark rearedge

whitewingtips

pale wingtips

LITTLE GULL rounderwings; see p.213

smaller

SIMILAR SPECIES

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

207

Length 38–44cm (15 –171⁄2 in) Wingspan 1.05–1.25m (31⁄2 –4ft) Weight 300–500g (11–18oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Declining

Order Charadriiformes Family Laridae Species Larus canus

Rather like the Herring Gull in its general pattern, the Common Gull is not as common in many areas and even in winter, when it is more widespread,

it has a curiously local distribution. In England, for example, it is abundant on fieldsin some counties but quite scarce in others nearby. It becomes adult in three years,taking longer than the smaller gulls but a year or two less than the larger species.The plumage changes that occur with age and season are easily seen but, as withother gulls, male and female are alike.VOICE Loud, high, nasal, squealing kee-ee-ya, kee-ar-ar-ar-ar, short gagagaga.NESTING Pad of grass on ground or low stump; 2 or 3 eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Takes worms, insects, fish, and molluscs from ground or water.

OCCURRENCEWidespread but local, breeding oncoasts and moors in N and NWEurope. In winter, on farmland,especially grassy pastures, all kindsof coasts, reservoirs, some on tips,but generally more unevenlydistributed than Black-headed Gulland less universally common.

Common Gull

bigger

YELLOW-LEGGED GULLsee p.210

biggerandpaler

ADULT(WINTER)

ADULT(SUMMER)

IN FLIGHTIMMATURE(1ST WINTER)

IMMATURE(1ST WINTER)

IMMATURE (1ST SUMMER)

ADULT(WINTER)

large whitespot on blackwingtips

bold white crescentbetween grey backand black wingtips

buff-greybill withblack tip

mid-greyback

wings fademuch paler

green to yellow-green legs

grey-brownmarkingson head

mid-grey back

white spots onwingtips

white head

dark eye

no redon billlong, slim

shape

grey back

pink legs

yellowbill withred spot

brown wings, fadingto buff, with darkbrown tips

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

HERRING GULLsee p.209

pale buff-pink legs

FLIGHT: fluent, easy, relaxed; few glides; little or nosoaring.

dull yellow-green bill

green legs

black bandon whitetail

paler

BLACK-HEADEDGULL winter;white triangleon outer wings;see p.206

red spoton bill

Length 36–38cm (14 –15in) Wingspan 0.98–1.05m (31⁄4 –31⁄2ft) Weight 200–350g (7–13oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 10–15 years Status Secure

Order Charadriiformes Family Laridae Species Larus melanocephalus

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

208

SIMILAR SPECIES

OCCURRENCEBreeds on shallow lagoons andcoastal marshes, scattered andrare in W Europe, more commonin SE. In winter, on estuaries,beaches, lakes, harbours, and attimes at tips but rare far inland,mostly in E Europe, increasing inNW Europe, especially EnglishChannel region.

Mediterranean Gull

BLACK-HEADED GULLsummer, similar to adult summer;see p.206

ADULT(WINTER)

brown hoodblackwingtips

IMMATUREThe immature (1st winter) has adark mask, a pale grey panel onthe upperwing, and black wingtipsand tail tip. Common Gullimmatures are darker on the back.

FLIGHT: easy, graceful but quite stiff beats ofstraight wings; not much gliding or soaring.

darker greyback

IN FLIGHT

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

thinnerbill

white wingtips

white wingtipswith no black

whiteunderwings

Fifty years ago, this beautiful gull seemed to be dwindlingtowards eventual oblivion, but recently its numbers have staged

a remarkable recovery; it has spread, albeit patchily, to areas ofwestern Europe far beyond its previous range.Along the NorthSea and English Channel coasts, it has become a regular non-breeding visitor, and now nests in a number of Black-headed Gullcolonies. It is a tricky bird to find among large numbers of morecommon gulls in some plumages, but breeding plumage adults arehighly distinctive.VOICE Nasal, rising and falling eeu-err eeu-err.NESTING Grass-lined nest on sand, shingle, or inmarsh; 3 eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Forages for fish, aquatic invertebrates,worms, and offal on beaches, and in tips, fields, andsewage outflows.

ADULT(SUMMER)

IMMATURE (2ND WINTER)

mottled back

ADULT(WINTER)

red toblack legs

JUVENILE

white eyelids

thick, red toblack bill

black hood; whiteeyelidswhite

wingtips

dark patcharound eye

greyish aroundnape

long black wingtips

COMMON GULL immature,similar to immature; see p.207

black spotson whitewingtips

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

209

Length 55 –67cm (22–26in) Wingspan 1.3–1.6m (41⁄4 –51⁄4ft) Weight 750–1,250g (27–45oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 10–20 years Status Secure

Order Charadriiformes Family Laridae Species Larus argentatus

OCCURRENCEBreeds widely in NW Europe oncliffs, islands, and rooftops. Wide-spread in winter on beaches,reservoirs, often abundant atrefuse tips, frequent on adjacentfarmland, and likely to fly overalmost anywhere from time to time.

Herring Gull

ADULT(WINTER)

ADULT(SUMMER)

ADULT(SUMMER)

SIMILAR SPECIES

small billwith nored spot

darkergrey

smaller

greenishlegs

dark eye

YELLOW-LEGGED GULLsee p.210

pure whitehead

pale greyback

grey-brown-streakedhead pale pink

legs

brownblotchedbody

COMMON GULLsee p.207

SUBSPECIES

IMMATURE

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

white spotson blackwingtips

IN FLIGHT

LESSER BLACK-BACKED GULLimmature, similar toimmature; see p.211

no pale areaon upperwings

rich yellowlegs

yellow bill withred spot

less blackon wingtips

larger,darkergrey

L. a. argentatus(Scandinavia)winter

pale area behindbend of wing in flight

Often considered a nuisance intowns, where it breeds on rooftops

and begins calling very loudly, early onsummer mornings, the Herring Gull hasactually declined over much of Europe. It is mainlya bird of sea cliffs in summer, but roams over allkinds of shorelines and far inland, feeding on tipsand roosting on large reservoirs. Flocks returning toevening roosts in long lines or “V”s look dramatic.In winter, groups typically forage around outflowsfrom pipes and sewers, around small harbours, orout on the mudflats at low tide.VOICE Loud, squealing notes, yelps, barks, kyow,kee-yow-yow-yow, ga-ga-ga, kuk-kuk.NESTING Grass-lined nest on ground, cliff ledge,or building; 2 or 3 eggs; 1 brood; May.FEEDING Takes fish, molluscs, insects, offal, andscraps of all kinds from ground or water.

FLIGHT: steady, powerful, with continual easywingbeats; masterly soaring, gliding.

ADULT(WINTER)

IMMATUREIt takes about four years for the cleargrey back and whiter underside togradually appear.

Length 55 –65cm (22–26in) Wingspan 1.3–1.5m (41⁄4–5ft) Weight 750–1200g (27–43oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure†

Order Charadriiformes Family Laridae Species Larus (cachinnans) michahellis

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

210

Until recently, this was considered a race ofthe Herring Gull, and its exact status is still

controversial. It is essentially the Mediterraneanreplacement of the more northerly Herring Gull,with darker races on the Atlantic islands (Canaries,Azores, and Madeira) and different birds, perhaps of a differentspecies again, to the east. In Asia, the situation is even more complex.Mediterranean Yellow-legged Gulls are big, handsome birds, with anobvious close relationship to the typical seaside HerringGull of northwest Europe.They now breed side-by-side in a few places, without hybridizing.VOICE Deeper thanHerring Gull’s, more likeLesser Black-backed Gull’s.NESTING Pile of grass on ground, cliff ledge, orbuilding; 2 or 3 eggs;1 brood; May.FEEDING Takes aquaticinvertebrates, molluscs,fish, and offal, from wateror ground.

SIMILAR SPECIES

Yellow-legged Gull

HERRING GULLsee p.209

HERRING GULL immature,similar to immature; see p.209

ADULT

pink legs less crispmarkingson wingsand tail

IN FLIGHT

OCCURRENCEIn summer, breeds in S Europe,chiefly on rocky islands and off-shore stacks but often scavengesaround docks and towns. In latesummer/autumn, moves north;frequent in Low Countries and SE England, on tips and beaches.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

LESSER BLACK-BACKED GULLless sharply definedwingtips; see p.211

darkerback

BOLD PATTERNThe adult Yellow-legged Gull has a striking contrast between theextensive black wingtip and therest of the underwing.

vivid yellowbill with largered spot

sharply definedwingtips withextensive blackand white

white head

blackishbill

rust-brownbody

mid-greyback

pale to deepyellow legs

IMMATURE(1ST WINTER)

ADULT

long black wingtips,white spots wearoff in summer

SUBSPECIES

paler back

longer, paleryellow legs

L. cachinnans cachinnans(rare N Europe) winter

FLIGHT: strong, easy, elegant, with powerful,shallow wingbeats.

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

211

Length 52–67cm (201⁄2 –26in) Wingspan 1.28–1.48m (41⁄4 –43⁄4ft) Weight 650–1,000g (23–36oz)

Social Large flocks Lifespan 10–15 years Status Secure

Order Charadriiformes Family Laridae Species Larus fuscus

In summer, this is a remarkably handsome gull, immaculate in slate-grey and pure white with vivid yellow legs and bill. It has the same

basic pattern as other “white-headed” gulls, with black and whitewingtips.The black areas have extra pigment that strengthens them,while the white spots are weak and disappear as the feathers become old and worn.The Lesser Black-backed Gull used to be a summer visitor to west Europe, but hasestablished large wintering populations inland. Nevertheless, it remains a strongmigrant and can often be seen in spring and autumn,high overhead, flying over land.VOICE Deep, throaty, wailing calls, various barks, yelps,kyow, kyow-yow-yow, ga-ga-ga.NESTING Pile of grass on ground; 2 or 3 eggs;1 brood; May.FEEDING Takes fish, worms, molluscs, andedible refuse; feeds on seabirds in summer.REMARK Subspecies L. f. graellsii (NW Europe) is palestabove; L. f. fuscus (Scandinavia) is smaller, blacker, white-headed all year, long-winged, and more marine.

OCCURRENCEBreeds on cliffs, islands, moorland,and rooftops in N and NW Europe.In winter, at tips and reservoirs, onbeaches, and often on farmland;most migrate south to Africa butmany remain in W Europe. Partiesoften fly high over land in spring.

Lesser Black-backed Gull

HANDSOME ADULTIn spring, this is one of the mostimmaculate of European gulls,with a vivid bill and leg colours.

ADULT(SUMMER)

IN FLIGHT

ADULT(WINTER)

HERRING GULL immature, similarto immature; pale patch on wings; see p.209

SIMILAR SPECIES

paler back

yellowbill withred spot

black wingtips with onewhite primary spot

dark grey bandon underwings

back turnsdark grey

brightyellowlegs

long wingtips

whitehead

mottled, darkbrown body

black bill

ADULT(WINTER)

YELLOW-LEGGED GULLsharper black wingtips;see p.210

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

dull yellowlegs

densely streakedgrey-brown head

slaty greyback

IMMATURE(2ND YEAR)

IMMATURE(1ST YEAR)

L. f. intermedius(Netherlands)

SUBSPECIES

darker greyback

FLIGHT: majestic, gliding, soaring; direct flightpowerful with regular beats.

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 64–78cm (25 –31in) Wingspan 1.5–1.7m (5–51⁄2ft) Weight 1–2.1kg (21⁄4 –43⁄4 lb)

Social Flocks Lifespan 10–20 years Status Secure

Order Charadriiformes Family Laridae Species Larus marinus

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

212

This is the world’s largest gull,heavily built, big-billed, and fiercely

predatory.The size of the bill is a good guide to its identity even inimmature plumages. It is generally less abundant than the HerringGull, although it does form flocks of hundreds in areas where it iscommon, even in summer when such gatherings follow trawlers off northern Scotland. In winter, it usually forms only a smallproportion of the gull flocks on reservoirs inland but is widespreadon many coasts.VOICE Deep, barking notes, hoarse yowk, gruff ow-ow-ow.NESTING Shallow grass- or weed-lined scrape on cliff ledge orpinnacle; 3 eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Bold and predatory in summer, eating seabirds and voles;eats fish, crustaceans, offal, and rubbish from sea, beaches, and tips.

OCCURRENCEWidespread in NW Europe, onrocky coasts, breeding sparsely onrock pinnacles and offshore stacks,often in flocks around coastalpools. In winter, on beaches,harbours, tips, and reservoirs,increasingly inland in W Europe.

Great Black-backed Gull

LESSER BLACK-BACKED GULLsee p.211

ADULT (SUMMER)

smaller

less white onwingtips

IN FLIGHT

HERRING GULL immature,similar to immature;see p.209

browner andless boldlychequered

IMMATURE(1ST WINTER)

IMMATURE(2ND WINTER)

ADULT(SUMMER)

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

POWERFUL PRESENCEVery big and strongly contrasted in pattern, GreatBlack-backed Gulls always dominate other gulls.

pale greyish,whitish, orpink legs

large yellow billwith red spot

black bill

palehead

whitish head

chequered back

faint markingson white head

large white patchon outer wings

black back

ADULT(WINTER)

ADULT(WINTER)

whiteunderside

smallerbill

yellow legs

white head

broad wings

dark flightfeathers

FLIGHT: strong but heavy, with slow, deep,sweeping wingbeats.

SIMILAR SPECIES

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

213

Length 25–27cm (10 –101⁄2 in) Wingspan 70–77cm (28–30in) Weight 90–150g (31⁄4 –5oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 5–10 years Status Declining

Order Charadriiformes Family Laridae Species Larus minutus

OCCURRENCEMostly breeds in E Europe, on wetgrassy marshes and floods; atother times, on coastal lagoons(around coasts and over reservoirson migration). Winters west toIreland and frequent migrant on W. European coasts, but mostly scarce and somewhaterratic inland.

Little Gull

PALE UPPERWINGSAdults have no trace of black onthe upperside of the wings.

KITTIWAKE immature, similarto immature; see p.216

largergreyerback

thin blackcollar

larger

MEDITERRANEAN GULLwhite underwings; see p.208

Short-legged, small-billed, delicate and elegant, this gull is reminiscent of the marsh terns, feeding like a Black Tern over

open water. It tends to appear over lakes and reservoirs in smallgroups in spring and autumn, also like the terns,but immatures may linger for weeks in thesummer. It combines the typical “hooded” gullsequence of plumages with a strongly contrastedimmature pattern rather like that of the Kittiwake.In most of Europe, it is much less abundant thanother gulls, with which it often associates.VOICE Low, rapid tern-like calls, kek-kek-kek,akar akar akar.NESTING Grassy nest on ground or in densemarsh vegetation; 3 eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Mostly picks up insects, aquaticinvertebrates, and fish from surface of water indipping flight.

IN FLIGHT

ADULT(WINTER)

IMMATURE(1ST WINTER)

IMMATURE(2ND SUMMER)

ADULT(WINTER)

brown hood

BLACK-HEADED GULLwhite triangle onouter wings;see p.206

darkear-spot

brown on neck andback becomes greyin winter

blackish underwingswith white rim

blackish zigzagon upperwings

pale streaks onouter wings

paler underwingsthan adult

pale grey backpale wingtips

black onunderwingsmay bevisible

pale head, withdark markingsincreasing in spring

dark bill

pearly greyback

red legs

black headand bill

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

FLIGHT: light, buoyant, erratic; shallow, quick flicksof wings, frequent turns.

ADULT(SUMMER)

thickbill

no blackon top

Length 62–70cm (24 –28in) Wingspan 1.42–1.62m (43⁄4 –51⁄4ft) Weight 1–2kg (21⁄4 –41⁄2 lb)

Social Flocks Lifespan 10–20 years Status Secure

Order Charadriiformes Family Laridae Species Larus hyperboreus

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

214

OCCURRENCEBreeds locally in Iceland. Scarce in winter on beaches, aroundharbours, tips, and reservoirs inNW Europe, usually among flocksof more common gulls, and oftenin groups of gulls around trawlersfar out at sea.

Glaucous Gull

ELEGANT SUMMER PLUMAGEIn its immaculate grey and white summer plumage,the Glaucous Gull is a handsome bird.

ADULT(WINTER)

FLIGHT: majestic, often gliding and soaring; strong,deep wingbeats in rather sluggish direct flight.

ICELAND GULLsee p.215

SIMILAR SPECIES

slightlysmaller

smallerbill

browner

darkwingtips andtail-band

HERRING GULLimmature, similar toimmature; see p.209

IMMATURE(1ST WINTER,FADED)

ADULT(WINTER)

pale greyupperparts

pale pink legs

pure whitewingtips

buff wingtips

short whitewingtips

cloudy grey-brown fromhead to chest

red spoton largeyellow bill

pale pink billwith sharpblack tip

ivory-buffwingtips

pale tail

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

This is essentially a winter bird in Europe (although it does breedin Iceland and Spitsbergen), hanging on into early spring in

northwest Europe while the snow lingers farther north.This fiercelypredatory gull follows fishing fleets and is found around northernharbours, but also joins inland gull flocks, feeding on refuse tips androosting on reservoirs. Finding “white-winged” gulls (Glaucous and Iceland) in winter flocks is an interesting challenge:distinguishing between the two can be difficult.VOICE Much like Herring Gull, wailing and yapping notes.NESTING Pad of grass and stems on cliff ledges or ground; 2 or 3eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Takes fish, invertebrates, and all kinds of offal and rubbish;more predatory in summer.

IN FLIGHT

IMMATURE (1ST WINTER)

barred, mottled,oatmeal-brownplumage

underparts darkerthan back

mottled brownplumage

IMMATURE(1ST WINTER)

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

215

Length 52–60cm (201⁄2 –231⁄2 in) Wingspan 1.3–1.45m (41⁄4 –43⁄4ft) Weight 750–1000g (27–36oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure†

Order Charadriiformes Family Laridae Species Larus glaucoides

OCCURRENCEBreeds in Greenland. In winter,common in Iceland, much scarcerin Great Britain and Ireland, oftenfollowing fishing vessels and seenaround harbours; generally rare inmainland Europe. Usually in flocksof more common gulls at tips,reservoirs, and beaches.

Iceland Gull

IN FLIGHT

FLIGHT: steady, easy, heavy-bellied; wings ratherstraight-out, taper to point.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

ADULT(WINTER)

SIMILAR SPECIES

It is unusual to find two species so closely matched in plumagecolour and pattern as Iceland and Glaucous Gulls.The Iceland Gull

is nearly always the scarcer of the two, but appears inland as well asaround coastal harbours (and well out at sea) in ones and twos – visitorsfrom Arctic Greenland. It is a handsomebird, especially in summer plumage; likeGlaucous Gulls, the oatmeal-colouredimmatures with ivory wingtips arestriking.To separate the two species,details of shape and structure are moreimportant than plumage.VOICE Shrill squealing notes andbarking calls like Herring Gull.NESTING Small grassy nest on cliff ledgesor ground; 2 or 3 eggs; 1 brood; June.FEEDING Fish, molluscs, crustaceans,rubbish, and offal, from water, fields,and rubbish tips.

IMMATUREIn their first and second years,Iceland Gulls fade almost to whiteby summer, and are difficult toage with certainty.

IMMATURE(1ST WINTER)

IMMATURE(1ST WINTER)

wingtipsextend wellbeyond tail

short legs

barring on oatmeal-brown body

long wingspale greyback

blackish bill withdull pale base

round head

clouded buff-brown andgrey from headto breast

short, paleyellow billwith red spot

white wingtips

wingtipsfade tobuff-ivory

GLAUCOUS GULLsee p.214

GLAUCOUS GULLimmature, similarto immature; see p.214

larger

thickerbill

shorterwings

dark-tippedpink bill

ADULT(WINTER)

darker

HERRING GULLimmature, similar toimmature; see p.209

darkwingtips

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 38–40cm (15 –16in) Wingspan 0.95–1.1m (3–31⁄2ft) Weight 300–500g (11–18oz)

Social Large flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure

Order Charadriiformes Family Laridae Species Larus tridactyla

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

216

One of the most maritime of the gulls, theKittiwake mostly comes to land only to breed,

but some also visit freshwater pools near the coast todrink and bathe. Flocks of non-breeding immaturesmay loaf about on beaches or flat rocky platformsduring the summer and a few, in winter, stay aroundharbours. Most feed well out at sea and, in winter,lead a tough life, enduring the gales and rain of mid-ocean for months. In summer, they nest on sheer cliffs with the tiniest of ledges and make the coast ring to their distinctive calls.They areoften in large colonies close to Guillemots, Razorbills, and Puffins (see pp.226–9).VOICE Ringing, nasal, rhythmic kiti-a-wake! often repeated in summer, also high,thin mewing note.NESTING Nest of weed on tiny ledge on sheer cliff or seaside building; 2 or 3 eggs;1 brood, May-June.FEEDING Takes mostly fish from surface or in shallow dive; eats offal from trawlers.

OCCURRENCEBreeds on sheer northern andwestern coastal cliffs often inmixed seabird colonies.Widespread at sea in winter butscarcer on coasts; common offheadlands and rare but regularlyinland on migration.

Kittiwake

HERRING GULLsee p.209

COMMON GULLsee p.207

JUVENILE

white spotson wingtips

greenlegs

FLIGHT: easy, elegant; in wind, bounds in series ofsteep, arcing banks over waves on angled wings.

IN FLIGHT

black triangleon wingtips

pale outerwings

blackcollar

LITTLE GULLjuvenile, similarto immature; see p.213

muchsmaller

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

EYE-CATCHING CHICKThe sharp black collar and wingmarkings are obvious on juveniles.

ADULT

blue-greyback

black zigzagon wings

short blackish legs

white headand breast

dark eyepale green-yellow bill

much larger

whitespots onwingtips

pinklegs

ADULT(SUMMER)

ADULT (WINTER)

collar turnsgrey

all-blackwingtips

darkerback

black zigzagacrossupperwings

IMMATURE (1ST SUMMER)

IMMATURE(1ST WINTER)

grey back of head

dull and dingyby summer

dark ear-spot

SIMILAR SPECIES

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

217

Length 22 –24cm (9–91⁄2 in) Wingspan 48–55cm (19–22in) Weight 50–65g (13⁄4 –23⁄8oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Declining

Order Charadriiformes Family Sternidae Species Sterna albifrons

OCCURRENCEBreeds on narrow sand andshingle beaches, very locally southfrom Baltic, thriving only whereprotected; also inland in S Spainand Portugal and E Europe. Mostlycoastal migrant in spring andautumn, rare inland.

Little Ternblackish streakat wingtips

ARCTIC TERNsee p.221

much largerlongerblack bill

larger andgreyer

short,whiteforkedtail

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

Small, quick, nervous, and now rare, the Little Tern is a lively coastalbird; it is rare inland but seen along most coasts. Its pale colours

and small size are usually obvious at first glance, especially in flight.At its nesting colonies, it is noisy andaggressive to intruders but easily disturbed– most colonies are on popular beachesand now succeed only if speciallyprotected. Climate change, causing a risein the sea level, also threatens this bird,which often nests right at the edge ofthe sea and risks losing eggs and chicksto high tides.VOICE Sharp, high, rapid chattering kirri-kirri-kirri and kitititit.NESTING Shallow scoop on sand or shingle beach; 2 or 3 eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Plunges for fish after a brief, whirring hover, fast but light with quick“smack” into water, often near beach.

longertail

larger andgreyerlonger

wings

dark chevronson back

TINY TERNSLittle Terns are smaller and whiterthan Common Terns which do nothave white foreheads all year round.

white forehead

pure whiteunderside

JUVENILE

streaky crown

blackishbill

IN FLIGHT

SANDWICH TERNsee p.218

orange toyellow legs

pale greyback

whiteforehead

ADULT(SUMMER)

ADULT(SUMMER)

blacknape sharp

yellow billwith tinydark tip

black stripethrough eye

blackcap

COMMON TERNslower; see p.220

FLIGHT: quick, flickering wingbeats; hovers brieflywith very quick whirring beats.

ADULT(SUMMER)

blacklegs

red legs

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 36–41cm (14 –16in) Wingspan 95–105cm (37–43in) Weight 210–260g (7–9oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Declining

Order Charadriiformes Family Sternidae Species Sterna sandvicensis

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

218

OCCURRENCEWidespread but local breedingbird north to Baltic. Prefers sandycoasts, shallow coastal lagoons,and offshore islands. Rare migrantinland but quite widely seen on allkinds of coasts.

Sandwich Tern

GULL-BILLED TERNsee p.219

BLACK-HEADED GULLsee p.206

COMMON TERNsee p.220

smaller andgreyer

rounder cap

short redlegs

white foreheadafter July

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

ADULT(SUMMER)

bulkier

white forewing wedge

black cap, spikyat rear

whiteunderside

long, slim blackbill with paleyellowish tip

very pale silver-grey back

short whitetail withshallow fork

ADULT(SUMMER)

black legs

Alarge, active, noisy bird, the Sandwich Tern has a spikycrest, a long, sharp bill, and long, angular wings which are often

held away from the body and slightly drooped. It seems almost toswagger, much more so than the smaller Common and Arctic Terns.It is equally distinctive in flight, looking very white, which helps toemphasize its size.The Sandwich Ternplunges for fish from a good height,with a loud “smack” as it enters thewater. It is easily disturbed at the nestingcolony and prone to desert, even afterseveral good breeding seasons.VOICE Loud, harsh, rhythmic kerr-inkor kear-ik!NESTING Shallow scoop in sand orshingle; 1 or 2 eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Catches fish, especiallysandeels, in dive from air.

FLIGHT: strong, direct; wings long and angular, tailshort; regular shallow wingbeats.

very pale silver-grey wings

darkcornersto tail

indistinctbarringabove

dark streakson outerwings

JUVENILE

IN FLIGHT

ADULT (WINTER)

BUSY COLONYSandwich Tern colonies on sanddunes are large, containinghundreds of nests.

ADULT(WINTER)

thicker, shorter,all-black bill

SIMILAR SPECIES

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

219

Length 35–42cm (14 –161⁄2 in) Wingspan 76–86cm (30–34in) Weight 200–250g (7–9oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Endangered†

Order Charadriiformes Family Sternidae Species Sterna nilotica

One of the more localized terns of Europe,this is unlike the black-capped, pale grey

and white “sea terns” in structure and behaviourbut similar in general appearance. It is a bird offreshwater marshes and coastal lagoons although it doesmigrate over the sea. In winter, in Africa, Gull-billed Terns feed overthe open plains with huge numbers of animals; in Europe, they alsofeed over fields where livestock disturb insects, which they snatch inthe air like giant swallows.They require carefulseparation from Sandwich Terns outside theirusual range, but in reality are generally relativelyeasy to identify. Despite having a characteristicallygrey tail, they usually look very pale, especially in winter.VOICE Nasal, deep gur-wik, laughing notes andrattling call.NESTING Grass-lined small hollow on sand ormud near water; 3 eggs; 1 brood, May–June.FEEDING Takes most food while flying, dipping to snatch insects from ground or in air; eats somesmall birds, rodents, and frogs.

OCCURRENCEBreeds and feeds around lagoons,rice paddies, marshes, wet fields,and high grassland, mostly in Sand E Europe, very locally in NorthSea area. Generally only very raremigrant outside S Europe, usuallyon or near coast.

Gull-billed Tern

FLIGHT PATTERNIn flight, the Gull-billed Tern showslong, tapered wings with duskytrailing edges towards sharp tips.

white head withblack eye patch

ADULT(WINTER)

ADULT(SUMMER)

thin dark bandon outer wings

COMMON TERNsee p.220

red legs

redon bill

greyer

palegreytail

ADULT(SUMMER)

IN FLIGHT

round blackcap

pale greyback

pale grey bloomon wing featherswears off toreveal black

thick bill

stoutblackbill

whiteunderside

smaller anddarker

longer, slimmerbill with pale tip

spikier blackcap

SANDWICH TERNsee p.218

WHISKERED TERNwinter; see p.225

black legs

FLIGHT: direct flight easy, languid, slightly moregull-like than smaller terns.

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

Length 31–35cm (12 –14in) Wingspan 82–95cm (32–37in) Weight 90–150g (31⁄4 –5oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure

Order Charadriiformes Family Sternidae Species Sterna hirundo

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

220

The most likely tern to be seen inland over most of Europe, theCommon Tern is very much a bird of the coast in most of its

range. It is a typical black-capped, pale-bodied tern, rather grey, witha red bill and legs. It usually plunge-dives for prey, which it mayquickly swallow or carry off in its bill for either its mate or chicksback at the nest.The CommonTern often mixes with Arcticand Sandwich Terns.VOICE Grating, thin, fallingkreee-yair, sharp kik kik, ringingkeeer, rapid kirrikirrikirrik.NESTING Scrape in sand ordry earth on ground; 2–4 eggs;1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Plunges from air forfish and aquatic invertebrates;picks some insects and fishfrom water surface in flight.

OCCURRENCEWidespread, breeding inland in C and E Europe, mostly in coastsin W Europe, but also locally ongravel pits and shingly rivers.Migrant almost everywhere oncoasts; moderately commoninland on freshwater areas.

Common Tern

ARCTIC TERN no darkstreaks on more trans-parent outer wings in flight; see p.221

ADULT(SUMMER)

thick dark bandon underwings

translucentpatch onunderwings

darkeroutermostfeathers on wings

black-tipped,bright redbill

grey below

black cap

grey upperparts

red legs

JUVENILE

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

dark nape

long neck

long bill

pale baseto bill

dark shoulder

long legs

slight washed-gingerbarring on upperparts

FLIGHT: steady, relaxed, shallow, spring-likewingbeats; soars high above colony.

SIMILAR SPECIES

larger and whiter

black bill

black legs

ADULT(WINTER)

DIVING FOR FISHThe Common Tern is a classicplunge-diver, hovering beforediving headlong for fish.

SANDWICH TERNsee p.218

whiteforehead

dark streaks onouter wings

shorter bill

ADULT(SUMMER)

ROSEATE TERNno dusky band underwingtips in flight; see p.222

darkshoulder

IN FLIGHT

whiter below

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

221

Length 32–35cm (121⁄2 –14in) Wingspan 80–95cm (32–37in) Weight 80–110g (27⁄8 –4oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure

Order Charadriiformes Family Sternidae Species Sterna paradisaea

OCCURRENCEBreeds in far north, south to GreatBritain, mostly on offshore islands,also on sandy or gravelly beaches.Migrant around North Sea andAtlantic coasts, usually scarceinland, occasional flocks appearingbriefly in spring.

Arctic Tern

looks neckless,short-billed

COMMON TERNsee p.220

longerhead, neck,and bill

dusky bandunderwingtips whiter

blacker bill

thin darkline ontranslucentflightfeathers

very paleouter wings

thin line onouter edgeof wings

round black cap(with whiterforehead inwinter)

short red bill(blacker inwinter)

shortred legs

SIMILAR SPECIES

SILVER WINGSThe uniformly pale silver-greyupperwing of the adult shows wellhere as it feeds its chick.

FLIGHT: relaxed, very buoyant; shorter inner, longerouter wing than Common Tern, shorter head,neckless effect, longer tail.

Amore northerly bird and more strictly maritime than the Common Tern, the Arctic Tern forms the slightly more elegant

half of one of the really difficult species pairings in Europe. Good viewsare usually needed to separate it from the Common Tern.Arctic Ternsbreed as far north as any bird, and also winter as far south as almostany other: they are often credited with enjoying morehours of daylight than any other bird on earth.VOICE Grating, sharp kee-yaah,rising pee-pee-pee, kik, kreerr.NESTING Scrape in sand orshingle, or hollow in rock;2 eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Plunges for fish,often pausing at intervalsbefore final dive; takes someinsects from water surface.

IN FLIGHTgreyunderside

dark “V”s andcrescent markingson back

black bill

short legs

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

white tail withlong outerstreamers

ADULT (SUMMER)JUVENILE

grey back

dark wedgeon outerwings

ROSEATE TERNsee p.222

stockierandgreyer

WHISKERED TERNjuvenile, similar tojuvenile; see p.225

ADULT(SUMMER)

very pointed,taperedwingtips

ADULT

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 33–38cm (13 –15in) Wingspan 75–80cm (30–32in) Weight 95–130g (33⁄8 –5oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Endangered

Order Charadriiformes Family Sternidae Species Sterna dougallii

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

222

OCCURRENCEScattered very locally in GreatBritain, Ireland, and NW France,breeding in small numbers onvegetated islands. Scarce or raremigrant off headlands or at mouthof estuaries; extremely rare inland.

Roseate Tern

COMMON TERN dark bandon tip of underwings inflight; see p.220

ELEGANT DISPLAYRoseate Terns are at their mostgraceful when they are displayingduring their spring courtship.

long white tailstreamers

blackish streakson wingtips

With worldwide populations going down, this is a rare birdin Europe, having suffered prolonged declines, which are

as much to do with problems in West Africa where it spends thewinter as in Europe. It forms a similar trio with Common andArctic Terns but is rather easier to tell from them,with some features more reminiscent of the whiter,larger Sandwich Tern. Like the Arctic Tern, butunlike the Common Tern, it is unlikely to be seen in northwest Europe in full winter plumage.VOICE Harsh croaking note and musical, quick chu-vik, unlike other terns.NESTING Grassy nest often in tall vegetation orunder shelter of tussock; 1 or 2 eggs; 1 brood;May–June.FEEDING Plunges for fish, especially sandeels andsprats after fast, winnowing hover.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

ADULT(SPRING)

ADULT

ADULT(LATESUMMER)

FLIGHT: quite quick like large Little Tern; stockybody, shortish wings, and very long tail distinctive.

greyer

greyershorterlegs

longish red legs

very pale greyupperparts

black bill (redbase moreextensive inlate summer)

duskyforehead

black-brownbars on back

pale underwingswith no darktrailing edge

white underside,flushed pink

pale-tippedblack bill

SANDWICH TERNsee p.218

blackish legs

JUVENILE

smoothblack cap

ARCTIC TERNsee p.221

spiky crest

IN FLIGHT

SIMILAR SPECIES

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

223

Length 48 –55cm (19–22in) Wingspan 0.96–1.11m (3–33⁄4ft) Weight 200–250g (7–9oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Endangered†

Order Charadriiformes Family Sternidae Species Sterna caspia

The biggest of the terns, with a big, red bill, the Caspian Tern is

a splendid and handsome bird, but is scarcealmost everywhere.While its size is usually evident, itis so well-proportioned that the big bill and relativelybulky build, for a tern, may not immediately catchthe eye.Against other terns it looks enormous, butwhile standing with big gulls, it looks lower butlonger. In flight, the angular wings and large darkarea under the wingtips can even create a miniatureGannet-like effect at times. It typically flies steadilyover water, head angled down, looking for fish.VOICE Deep, explosive kree-ahk; very noisy atbreeding colony.NESTING Shallow scrape on ground in sand orshingle; 2 or 3 eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Plunges for fish; may fly long distancesfrom colony to feed.

OCCURRENCEMost breed in Baltic Sea on lowislands and coasts. Rare migrant inE Europe and Mediterranean, rarerstill in Atlantic and North Sea.Usually coastal, very rare on lakesand reservoirs inland.

Caspian Tern

ADULT (AUTUMN)

SANDWICH TERNsee p.218

COMMON TERNsee p.220slimmer

bill

STRIKING TERNIn summer, the black cap and vividred bill are eye-catching on thisgiant tern.

smaller

longertail

short redlegs

ADULT(SUMMER)

bold black cap withwhite flecks, slightlyragged at rear

long blacklegs

square headand thickneck

dark-edgedtail feathers cap streaked

with white

red billwith blackmarks near tip

ADULT(AUTUMN)

blackish underwingtips

grey upperparts

thinblack bill

smaller andslimmer

FLIGHT: strong, powerful, easy, with slow, steady,sweeping wingbeats.

JUVENILE

IN FLIGHT

dull bill

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

ROYAL TERNpaler under wingtipsin flight; see p.431

Length 22 –24cm (9–91⁄2 in) Wingspan 63–68cm (25–27in) Weight 50–75g (13⁄4 –25⁄8oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Declining

Order Charadriiformes Family Sternidae Species Chlidonias niger

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

224

SIMILAR SPECIESOCCURRENCEMostly breeds in E Europe.Widespread migrant throughEurope, especially common inautumn in W, over marshes,lagoons, salt pans, and reservoirs;local in W and S Europe insummer. Occasional big flocksinland, but erratic.

Black Tern

WHITE-WINGED BLACK TERNsummer, similar to adultsummer; dark under-wings; see p.433

sharpwings

ADULT(SUMMER)

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

Marsh terns (Chlidonias spp.) are small and delicate, dipping tothe surface of water to feed rather than plunging like the sea

terns (Sterna spp.). Of the three species, the Black Tern is the mostwidespread and the most uniformly dark-coloured in summer. In much of west Europe, migrating BlackTerns move through in large groups, unexpectedlyand quickly in spring, but small numbers are muchmore predictable over longer periods in autumn.Larger flocks in autumn may contain the rarer White-winged Black Tern, and so are always worthclose scrutiny.VOICE Short, low, squeaky calls, kik, kik-keek.NESTING Nest of stems and waterweed in marsh;3 eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Dips to take insects, small fish, crustaceans,and amphibians from water.

FLIGHT: light, buoyant, easy turns and dips towater; direct flight quite straight, rhythmic.

ADULT(SUMMER)

blackishlegs

blackishbill

dark smoky greyupperparts

blackhead

whiteundertail

pale underwings

ADULT (WINTER)

dark chestspot

whiteforehead

browner bodythan adult’sIN FLIGHT

darkforewings

JUVENILE

dark chest spot

WHISKERED TERN summer,similar to adult summer;see p.225

whitecheeks

redbill

bigger

darkunderwings

strikinglypied

LITTLE GULLsimilar in flight; see p.213

TYPICAL PERCHBlack Terns often settle on posts andbuoys in lakes and reservoirsbetween bouts of feeding.

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

225

Length 24 –28cm (93⁄4 –11in) Wingspan 57–63cm (221⁄2 –25in) Weight 70–80g (21⁄2 –27⁄8oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Declining

Order Charadriiformes Family Sternidae Species Chlidonias hybridus

OCCURRENCEScattered breeder and sparsemigrant through S and E Europe in summer, over marshy rivers,reedy marshlands, and lagoons.Only very rare migrant away from breeding range in spring and autumn.

Whiskered Tern

COMMON TERNsee p.220

SIMILAR SPECIES

deeper tailfork

whiter rumpand tail

FLIGHT: light, easy, slightly less agile than BlackTern, more direct.

WHITE-WINGEDBLACK TERNadult, juvenile; darker “saddle”on juvenile; see p.433

whiteforewingsof adult

WHITE FACEThe white cheeks and throat are an eye-catching feature on the summer adult.

IN FLIGHT

ADULT(WINTER)

JUVENILE

mid-greyrump andtail

greyrump

The biggest of the marsh terns, the WhiskeredTern is more easily confused with a Common or

Arctic Tern in autumn and winter, being particularlypale, but in summer, its plumage is unique. Its thickbill and rather broad wings give it a somewhatheavier, stronger look than the Black Tern. It is a familiar sight over south Europeanmarshes and coastal lagoons. Like the other terns, it winters in Africa. In northwestEurope, including Great Britain and Ireland, it is by far the rarest of the threedespite breeding relatively close by in France and Spain.VOICE Dry, rasping cherk.NESTING Semi-floating pile of vegetation; 3 eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Dips to take fish, insects, and crustaceans from water surface.

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

brownishscaly barson back

black faceof adult

BLACK TERNadult, juvenile;juvenile is darker;see p.224

white cheeksand throat

darkredbill

large blackcap

blackishbelly

ADULT(SUMMER)dark red

legs

mid-greyback

black earcoverts

pale greybackstreaked

rear crownand nape

darkbrownish legs

IMMATURE (1ST WINTER)

ADULT(WINTER)

palebody

dark bill

ADULT(SUMMER)

Length 17–19cm (61⁄2 –71⁄2 in) Wingspan 40–48cm (16–19in) Weight 140–170g (5–6oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure†

Order Charadriiformes Family Alcidae Species Alle alle

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

226

The smallest auk, and the most northerly, the Little Auk is rare inmost of Europe and best known as a late autumn visitor to the

North Sea. In some years, large numbers appear; in others it is scarce.In “good” years, autumn gales may sweep a few score well inland.Breeding colonies are often huge, with vast numbers of birds flyingaround overhead, often very high up beside towering cliffs. Fit, alertbirds swim with head raised and tail cocked, while tired or sick birds are hunched, with drooped wings.They arevulnerable to predators such as gulls and skuas, oreven crows, when they are exhausted and driveninland.The Little Auk opens its wings slightly as itdives for food, and returns to the surface like a cork,swimming buoyantly on the roughest seas, but tiredbirds on inland waters are often inactive.VOICE Shrill, twittering, or chattering notes andtrills; silent at sea.NESTING Burrow high above shore; 1 egg;1 brood; June.FEEDING Dives for fish, plankton, and crustaceans.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in Arctic on islands. Mostlyrare late autumn or winter visitorto NW Europe, sometimes brieflynumerous in North Sea afternortherly gales. Rare storm-blownbirds appear inland.

Little Aukshort, stumpyblack bill

white sides of neck curveup behind cheeks

black faceand cap

FLIGHT: fast, low; wings longish, slightly sweptback, wader-like but blur of fast, whirring beats.

IN FLIGHT

whitetrailingedge

white streakson shoulders

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

SIMILAR SPECIES

largerlarge,triangularbill

PUFFINsee p.227

SUMMER

black of back extends aspoint on to sides of chestWINTER

thickbill

RAZORBILLsee p.230

slenderwings

WINTER

STORM-BLOWN MIGRANTSIn late autumn, some Little Auks are driven close inshore by gales. Theymay be seen unexpectedly over rocky shores or wide, sandy beaches.

all-black headand breast

SIMILAR SPECIES

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

227

Length 26–29cm (10 –111⁄2 in) Wingspan 47–63cm (181⁄2 –25in) Weight 310–500g (11–18oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 10–20 years Status Vulnerable

Order Charadriiformes Family Alcidae Species Fratercula arctica

Puffins are more localized thanGuillemots, requiring more earth

in which to burrow or cavities inrocks in summer. In winter, they are farout in the Atlantic. Summer birds are oftenseen flying by from headlands in the northand west. However, winter ones, which lackthe distinctive bill ornamentation seen in thebreeding season, are generally rare closeinshore. Occasionally, Puffins are blown farinland during autumn gales, and turn up inunexpected places.VOICE At nest, loud, cooing growl, aaarr,karr-oo-arr.NESTING Occupies ready-made burrow,digs burrow into soft earth, or finds cavitybetween boulders; 1 egg; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Dives from water surface to catchfish and squid.

OCCURRENCEBreeds on coasts and islands fromIceland south to NW France, incliff cavities, scree, or on grassyslopes. Widespread migrantoffshore, but scarce in winterwhen most are far out in Atlantic.Very rare inland after storms.

Puffin

FLIGHT: fast, direct, low; wingbeats quick,whirring; may fly higher over sea or when circlingcolony in flocks.

black upperpartsand neck

deep, triangularbill, patternedblue-grey, orange,yellow, and red

disc-like,grey-whitesides of face

dark eye

ADULT(SUMMER)

LITTLE AUKfaster wingbeats inflight; see p.226

RAZORBILLsee p.230

whiteunderside

smaller, duller bill (losescolourful sheath)

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

smaller

smallbill larger and

heavier

thick blackbill

larger

dagger-shaped bill

GUILLEMOTsee p.229

IN FLIGHT

ADULT(SUMMER)

ADULT (WINTER)

plain blackwings

dusky grey face(as on juvenile)

ADULT(SUMMER)

grooves onbill increasewith age

vivid orangelegs

RUNNING THE GAUNTLETAdults bringing fish back to their chicks areoften harried by gulls.

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 30–32cm (12 –121⁄2 in) Wingspan 52–58cm (201⁄2 –23in) Weight 340–450g (12–16oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Declining

Order Charadriiformes Family Alcidae Species Cepphus grylle

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

228

Not nearly so social as otherauks, the Black Guillemot

prefers small islets and rockyheadlands around northern coastsand archipelagos where pairs swim aboutclose to the shore all year round.These expertswimmers and divers often penetrate far into deepinlets in quiet, calm waters. In summer, their unique plumage makesthem easily identifiable.They are distinctive in winter as well, whenthey retain the clean white wing patches, but have a mottled whiteback and a dusky cap and eye patch.The winter bird may beconfused with similar-looking species when encounteredunexpectedly but the pale head andpointed bill help to separate it fromducks and grebes.VOICE Shrill, high whistle extendsinto fast trill; quick, thin sip-sip-sipnotes occasionally heard.NESTING Crevice or cavity betweenboulders, or hole in harbour wall;1 egg; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Dives underwater to catchsmall fish and crustaceans.

OCCURRENCEBreeds on coasts in N Europe,usually around rocky islets withboulders and cavities in rocks.Usually resident, only rareelsewhere in winter. Strictlymarine, extremely rare inland.

Black Guillemot

AWKWARD ON LANDBlack Guillemots usually sithorizontally, less upright thanGuillemots, and are not as agile on land as Puffins.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

ADULT(SUMMER)

brightred legs

bold whitewing patch

small, sharp,dagger-likebill

dark aroundeye

neat blackhead

black bars on wing patch,otherwise same plumageas winter adult

oval patch oneach wing,above and below

smoky blackbody

IN FLIGHT

FLIGHT: low, quick, direct, with fast, whirringwingbeats.

thick bill

PUFFINsee p.227

blackwings

no white wingpatches

GUILLEMOT winter;see p.229

stumpy tail blackerabove

SLAVONIAN GREBEwinter; see p.62

JUVENILE

ADULT(SUMMER)

SIMILAR SPECIES

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

229

. Length 38–54cm (15 –211⁄2 in) Wingspan 64–73cm (25–29in) Weight 850–1,130g (30–40oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 10–20 years Status Secure

Order Charadriiformes Family Alcidae Species Uria aalge

Guillemots, along with Kittiwakes,

usually dominateseabird colonies whichdensely pack ledges of sea cliffsin summer. Guillemots swim offshore in large “rafts”under the cliffs. Off headlands, they are often seen flyingby, low and fast. In winter, however, they are seen inshoreonly during or after gales. In the south of their range,they are quite brown and easilydistinguished from Razorbills;northern birds are blacker andmore difficult to identify.VOICE At colony, loud,whirring, growling chorus, arrrr-rr-rr; juveniles make surprisinglyloud, musical whistle at sea.NESTING On bare ledge onsheer cliff; 1 egg; 1 brood;May–June.FEEDING Dives from surface tocatch fish deep underwater.

Guillemot

FLIGHT: low, fast, direct, little manoeuvrability;fast, almost whirring wingbeats; sweeps up to landon ledge.

IN FLIGHTADULT(SUMMER)

RAZORBILLsee p.230

LARGE COLONIESGuillemots crowd steepcoastal cliffs in the breedingseason; colonies are oftenmixed with Razorbills.

OCCURRENCEBreeds on rocky coasts of Iceland,Scandinavia, Great Britain, Ireland,NW France, Spain, and Portugal,chiefly on sheer cliffs, also on flat-topped stacks. Scarce inshore inwinter, even after gales.

LARGE FLOCKSLarge flocks of Guillemotsswim on the sea under thebreeding colonies.

black line througheye on white face( juvenile similar)

ADULT (WINTER)

ADULT (SUMMER)

sharp, dagger-like bill

dark cap

longneck

uprightposture

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

dark brown toblack above

swims lowshort,squaretail

dark rump withnarrowwhite sides

white trailingedge

white underparts,rounded againstblack throat

flatterhead

pointedtail

thicker,blunterbill

BRUNNICH’S GUILLEMOTsee p.433

thicker billwith whitestreak

MANXSHEARWATERsee p.67

smaller

longerwings

ADULT(SUMMER)

Length 37–39cm (141⁄2 –151⁄2 in) Wingspan 63–67cm (25–26in) Weight 590–730g (21–26oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 10–20 years Status Secure

Order Charadriiformes Family Alcidae Species Alca torda

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

230

SIMILAR SPECIESOCCURRENCEBreeds on rocky coasts fromIceland south to NW France,usually on cliffs with cavities orboulder scree. Widespread inwinter but scarce inshore. Veryrare inland even after gales.

Razorbill

BRUNNICH’S GUILLEMOTsee p.433

PUFFINsee p.227

ADULT(SUMMER)

FLIGHT: fast, low, direct with quick, almostwhirring wingbeats; swoops upwards to land on cliff.

IN FLIGHT

broadwhitesides todark rump

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJcolourful, triangular bill

GUILLEMOTsee p.229

smallerhead

stubby,triangular bill

white lineon bill

thick,flattenedbill

whiteunderside

horizontal whiteline in front of eye

white throatand breast

ADULT (WINTER)

black upperparts

Not usually so numerous as the Guillemot,the Razorbill is nevertheless a frequent

constituent of northwest European seabirdcolonies, often less conspicuous becauseof its preference for cavities rather thanopen ledges. In summer, Razorbillstend to come into sheltered bays andestuaries more than Guillemots.Theyare usually best separated by structure, theoften cocked, pointed tail being a usefulfeature compared with the short, square tailof a Guillemot; the head and bill shape arethe best clues at close range.VOICE Prolonged, tremulousgrowls and various gruntingsounds at colony, deep urrr.NESTING On sheltered ledgeor cavity between boulders;1 egg; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Dives, often verydeep, from surface to catchfish using its wingsunderwater.

pointedtail

black cap

STRONG FLIERSRazorbills fly strongly despite their small wings, with constantwingbeats unlike superficially similar shearwaters.

ADULT(SUMMER)

sharp,dagger-like bill

black head(juvenile hasdusky cheeks)

231

PIGEONS AND DOVES

THIS IS A RATHER ARTIFICIAL distinction in a large family found worldwide. In

Europe, some species commonly called “doves”(Stock Dove and Rock Dove) are more like the“pigeons”, being rather larger and heavier, andshorter-tailed, than the more delicate speciesthat are usually called doves.

They are all round-bodied, soft-plumagedbirds whose plumage seems to come away easilyin an “explosion” of feathers in any collision,perhaps helping them to escape predators.They have short, usually red, legs and smallbills with the nostrils in a fleshy bump at the base (the “cere”). Bill and leg colourscan be bright and obvious but are oflimited value in identification, whichmore often rests on differences in wingand tail patterns. There is little variationin appearance between sexes and seasons,and juveniles look much like their parents,generally being a little duller or markedwith paler feather edges.

Pigeons and doves drink by sucking waterup in a continuous draught, unlike other birdsthat have to raise their heads to tip water backinto their throats. They have loud, simplevocalizations with little obvious differentiationbetween calls and songs, which are goodidentification clues, but, with the exception ofthe Collared Dove, do not call in flight. Theirwings make loud clapping sounds, either indisplay or in a sudden take-off when disturbed,serving the purpose of alarm calls.

PIGEONS AND DOVES/CUCKOOS

Family Columbidae

Family Cuculidae

Nests are flimsy affairs and eggs are always pure,unmarked white. Shells may be found on theground where they are dropped, far from thenest, by the parent birds after hatching. Breedingseasons are long and nesting is timed to coincidewith a local abundance of food.

EUROPE HAS TWO SPECIES but there are manycuckoos elsewhere; they are brood parasites,

laying their eggs in the nests of other specieswhich then unwittingly rear their young. Hencecuckoos are not found in family groups.

Cuckoos have short, curved bills, small heads,rather long, broad tails, and wide-based, taperedwings that give a curious appearance in flight,beating below body level.

CUCKOOS

PARASITEA young Cuckoosoon outgrows itsparent, such as thisReed Warbler, whichwill feed it for days.

COLOURFULFar from being a dull, grey bird,a Woodpigeon seen close-up isa handsome bird.

SIMILAR SPECIES

Order Columbiformes Family Columbidae Species Columba livia

Length 31–35cm (12 –14in) Wingspan 63–70cm (25–28in) Weight 250–350g (9–13oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure

Ancestor of the domestic pigeon, the Rock Dove as a truly wild bird has long been “diluted” in most areas by domestic pigeons

reverting to the wild state: the “feral” or town pigeons. Only in partsof northwest Europe do “pure” Rock Doves with immaculateplumage patterns persist: in most areas, different plumage patternsand colours are found even in groupsliving entirely wild.The true Rock Doveis a bird of cliffs, inland or – moreparticularly in Europe – by the sea, fromwhich it moves to fields to feed each day.VOICE Deep, rolling, moaning coo, oo-ooh-oorr, oo-roo-coo.NESTING Loose, untidy, sparse nest onledge, in cavity; 2 eggs; 3 broods; all year.FEEDING Forages on fields and roughgrassland, picking up seeds, buds, berries,and small invertebrates.

PIGEONS AND DOVES

232

OCCURRENCEBreeds on coasts of Great Britainand Ireland all year round; also oncliffs in S Europe. Feral birdswidespread, from coastal cliffs tocity centres, often feeding onarable land.

Rock Dove

PEREGRINE similarin flight; see p.143

big whitepatch onback

two broad,long blackbars acrosswings

palegreyback

darkunderside

tiny whitespot on billglossed

purple andgreen neck

whiteunderwings

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

DASHING FLIGHTRock Dove flocks fly with dash andagility, their white underwingsflashing conspicuously.

FLIGHT: fast, swooping; direct flight striking, wingsswept back, quick, deep beats; swoops and glidesaround cliffs with wings in steep “V”.

tiny darkwingbars

STOCK DOVEsee p.233

WOODPIGEONwhite on wingsin flight;see p.234

longertail

longerwings

FERAL/ TOWN PIGEON

dark tail band

larger

rounder

CLIFF-EDGE BREEDERLedges and cavities form ideal sheltered nest sitesfor wild Rock Doves; this nesting bird has a “pure”plumage pattern with an unspotted back.

IN FLIGHT

larger whitespot

SIMILAR SPECIES

PIGEONS AND DOVES

233

Length 32–34cm (121⁄2 –131⁄2 in) Wingspan 63–69cm (25–27in) Weight 290–330g (11–12oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure

Order Columbiformes Family Columbidae Species Columba oenas

OCCURRENCEWidespread except in far N Europe: mostly summer visitor inE Europe, resident in W. In widevariety of places from lowlandfarms and parkland with many oldtrees to higher moors with cliffsand quarries.

Stock Dove

FLIGHT: fast, powerful; deep wingbeats; displayflight gliding on steeply raised wings, rocking fromside to side.

glossedgreen neck

two short darkbars on wings

small, neat, roundhead

ROCK DOVEsee p.232

dark bandon tail

bright pink-red legs

deep wine-pink breast

blue-greybody

grey underwings

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

WOODPIGEON juvenile;see p.234

SOCIAL BIRDEvening gatheringscan be large, butare often out-numbered byWoodpigeons inwoodland roosts.

GROUNDFEEDERSeeds are washedup at the edges offreshwater floods,and Stock Dovesoften gather toexploit such abun-dance of food.

FERAL/TOWN PIGEONmore pointed wings; oftenwhite underwings; see p.232

Ahandsome bird of farms and parkland, the Stock Dove also finds suitable nesting habitat in quarries and crags in remote upland

areas. It is slightly smaller than a Woodpigeon, rounder and blunter-winged than a “racing pigeon” or the town pigeon of city streets.It is easily overlooked, but its song is distinctive anddisplay flights frequently draw attention to it. Itregularly mixes with more numerous Woodpigeons,Jackdaws (see p.368), and Rooks (see p.369) whenfeeding in fields, and roosts with them in woodland.VOICE Deep, rhythmic, booming coo, repeated severaltimes with increased emphasis, ooo-woo ooo-woo.NESTING Tree hole, ledge, or cavity in building,quarry, or cliff; 2 eggs;2 or 3 broods; all year.FEEDING Forageswidely on groundlooking for seeds,grain, buds, shoots,roots, leaves, andberries; does not visit gardens.

larger

white onwings

longtail

longer neck

biggerwingbars

black wingtipsand trailingedge

pale midwings

IN FLIGHT

SIMILAR SPECIES

Order Columbiformes Family Columbidae Species Columba palumbus

Length 40–42cm (16 –161⁄2 in) Wingspan 75–80cm (30–32in) Weight 480–550g (17–20oz)

Social Large flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure

Alarge, handsome, boldlymarked pigeon, the

Woodpigeon is wild and shy incountry areas where it is regularlyshot, but visits gardens and becomes surprisingly tame intown parks where it is left undisturbed. It sometimes formshuge flocks, becoming a dramatic part of the country scene in winter. In summer, its dreamy, cooing song is one of thetypical sounds of woodland areas. Single birds in flight caneasily be mistaken for birds of prey,but any reasonable view shouldremove such confusion.VOICE Husky, muffled cooing, oft-repeated, coo-coo-cu, cu-coo, cook; loudwing clatter.NESTING Thin platform of twigs intree or bush; 2 eggs; 1 or 2 broods;April–September (often autumn).FEEDING Eats buds, leaves, berries,and fruit in trees; also takes foodfrom ground; feeds at bird-tableswhere undisturbed.

PIGEONS AND DOVES

234

OCCURRENCEWidespread except in Iceland andN Scandinavia; summer visitor onlyin N and E Europe. Breeds invariety of woodland and farmlandwith trees, town parks, and biggardens. In winter, flocks feed onopen ground but farmlandremains most important.

Woodpigeon

grey back

bold whitepatch on eachside of neck

deeppinkbreastJUVENILE

ADULT

smaller

smaller

bluergrey

IN FLIGHT

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

ROCK DOVEwhite rump;see p.232

COLLARED DOVEsee p.235

smaller

no whiteon neck

no whiteon wingsor neck

shorter tail

large whitepatch acrossmidwings

rumppaler thanback

FLIGHT: quick, direct, with even, strong, deepwingbeats; takes off with powerful clatter whensurprised; flies in large flocks.

duller, lessclean look

white on wings

dark bandon tail

dull redlegs

FORAGING ON GROUNDThe Woodpigeon often forages for food on the ground,sometimes in flocks. It takes seeds, grain, and shoots.

ADULT

longertail

STOCK DOVEsee p.233

SIMILAR SPECIES

PIGEONS AND DOVES

235

Length 31–33cm (12 –13in) Wingspan 47–55cm (181⁄2 –22in) Weight 150–220g (5–8oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure†

Order Columbiformes Family Columbidae Species Streptopelia decaocto

Aremarkable natural phenomena of the 20th century is the spreadof the Collared Dove from extreme southeast Europe to the

whole of the continent. It is now a common sight in farms andsuburbs in Europe, its rather monotonous triple coo a familar soundon summer mornings. It relies heavily on food provided incidentallyby people, and increasingly on food put outspecifically for smaller birds. Its displayflights are easily seen over any built-up areawith scattered trees in gardens or parks.VOICE Loud, frequently-repeated triplecoo, cu-cooo-cuk, or cooo-coo-coo; unusuallyfor a pigeon also a flight call, a nasal gwurrrr.NESTING Small platform of twigs andrubbish; 2 eggs; 2 or 3 broods, sometimesmore; all year.FEEDING Picks up grain, seeds, buds, andshoots from ground in parks, fields, paddocks,and gardens; often at bird-tables for seeds.

OCCURRENCEIn most of Europe except S Spain,Portugal, and N Scandinavia.Breeds in pines and warm woodedareas in S Europe. Widespread ingardens, parks, and around farmbuildings in W Europe aftermassive expansion of range.

Collared Dovethin black collaron back of neck

ADULTJUVENILE

IN FLIGHT

grey area onupperwings

dark tail withwhitish tip

TURTLE DOVEsee p.236chequeredback

shortertail

more upright when perched

thin whitetail rim

red legs

dark eyes

subtle pinkhead andbreast

no collar

pale, grey-brown body

FERAL/TOWN PIGEONsee p.232

KESTREL 2;see p.140

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

narrowwings

patchycolours

narrowtail

CONIFERS PREFERREDCollared Doves typically roost andnest in tall, dense coniferous trees,often in parks or gardens.

FLIGHT: quick, direct, often long, straight flight, orrising to glide down in wide arcs on flat wings; wingstypically angled back, bowed.

stockier

ADULT small head

dark wingtips

sandy buffbody

Order Columbiformes Family Columbidae Species Streptopelia turtur

Length 26–28cm (10 –11in) Wingspan 47–53cm (181⁄2 –21in) Weight 130–180g (4–6oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Declining

Unlike the Collared Dove, the Turtle Dove remainsa country bird, inhabiting well-wooded areas and

farmland with large hedges. Flocks form on stubblefields in late summer, eager for spilled grain.The TurtleDove is also seen along coasts in spring, migrating insmall groups as it returns north from Africa. It is inserious decline as agricultural intensification takes hold over most of Europe, and its purring song, whichused to be a frequent feature of high summer, is nowheard less often.VOICE Deep, purring, pleasant crooning rooorrrrrooorrrr.NESTING Small platform of thin twigs in hedge ortree; 2 eggs; 2 or 3 broods; May–July.FEEDING On ground, takes seeds and shoots of arable weeds.

PIGEONS AND DOVES

236

OCCURRENCESummer visitor to most of Europeexcept Iceland, Ireland, andScandinavia, declining in numbers.In wooded farmland, broadleavedwoods with sunny clearings, andthick, old hedgerows.

Turtle Dove

whitebelly

blue-greymidwings

barred black-and-white neck patch

pinkbreast

dark spotson brightbrown back

ADULT

blue-grey rump

pale greyhead

dull brownbody

less regularpattern

dull neckpatch

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

JUVENILE

blackishtail withwhite tip

FLIGHT: light, buoyant, springy, often rollingsideways; wings angled back, flicking downwardbeats; also glides on flat wings in display flight.

HEDGEROW SPECIALISTThe loss of tall, dense hedgerows has caused a widespread decline inTurtle Doves.

pale brownishhead and neck

COLLARED DOVEsee p.235

biggerpaler, moreuniform

longer,straighterwings

KESTREL 32similar in flight;see p.140

narrowtail

SIMILAR SPECIES

ADULT

bigger

IN FLIGHT

SIMILAR SPECIES

CUCKOOS

237

Length 32–34cm (121⁄2 –131⁄2 in) Wingspan 55–65cm (22–26in) Weight 105–130g (4–5oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure

Order Cuculiformes Family Cuculidae Species Cuculus canorus

Aquite large, long-winged, long-tailed grey bird, the Cuckoo in

spring is familiar to everyone by its call, but not its appearance.In late summer, it is the barred, brown young cuckoo that is more often seen, calling loudly to be fed by almostany bird that passes by: its call and huge, orangegape prove irresistible. Cuckoos typically perchlow down in or on the edge of trees, but areoften easier to see singing or calling fromtelephone wires; they also fly about from treeto tree, giving frequent short flight views.VOICE Familiar loud, bright cuc-coo,sometimes cuc-cuc-coo, much more staccatothan Collared Dove song, also rough, laughingwha-wha-wha; loud, rich, throaty bubble from female and loud, thin, hissing ssee-ssee-ssee from juvenile begging food.NESTING Lays eggs in other birds’ nests; 1–25 (usually 9) eggs per female, 1 pernest; May–June.FEEDING Drops to ground to pick up large, hairy caterpillars; also eats small insects.

OCCURRENCESummer visitor to all Europeexcept Iceland, migrating backsouth early in autumn. On bushymoorland and heaths, in woodsand well-wooded farmland,around reedbeds, and whereversmall birds nest.

Cuckoo

GIANT CHICKCuckoo chicks are often reared by small foster parents such asReed Warblers.

JUVENILE

KESTREL 2similar to juvenile;see p.140

longer outerwings inflight

thinnertail

rounder head

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

longwings

dark,white-spottedtail

ADULT

darkwingtips

IN FLIGHT

brown backwith dark bars

broad rufousand blackbars on tail

wedge-shaped tail

pale bandunder wings

mediumgrey headand chest

yellow eye

short, thick,curved billwith yellowbase

ADULT

grey barson whiteunderside

ADULT

JUVENILE

medium greyupperparts

pale spoton nape

SPARROWHAWK 3;similar in flight; see p.138

broader,blunter wings

thinnertail

broadtail

shorterwings

chunkier

STOCK DOVEsimilar in flight; see p.233

head held up

FLIGHT: low, direct, heavy-looking, with head heldup, wings below horizontal; quick, deep downwardbeats; often swoops up to perch.

squarerhead

OWLS/NIGHTJARS

238

FORWARD SWINGOwls can swing their whole body forward, to grip withtheir feet, whether while landing or striking prey.

Families Strigidae, Tytonidae

OWLS

OWLS ARE highlyspecialized birds with

exellent eyesight and hearing.They see well in low lightlevels, although not in completedarkness, and many can pinpointprey accurately by sound alone.Their ears are slightly asymmetricalin size, shape, or position. As an owltwists and bobs its head it is usingthis adaptation to get a “fix” on its prey. Owls often attract theattention of smaller birds (and alsosometimes Jays and Magpies) ifdiscovered by day, and mixed parties“mob” the roosting owl with loud calls,sometimes diving at its head.

BREEDING STRATEGIESSome owls have fixed territories and rear small broodseach year. Others are nomads, breeding wherever there isplentiful food. They lay many eggs but only in years with anadequate food supply do many chicks survive. The Tawnyand Tengmalm’s are typical woodland owls; Scops and LittleOwls live in more open surroundings. The Eagle Owl is amassive and powerful predator, as is the Snowy Owl of farnorthern tundras. The two “eared” owls are very alike inplumage pattern and overall shape, and both hunt over openground. The Short-eared Owl lives on heaths and marshesand hunts even in full daylight, while the Long-earedinhabits woods and thickets and hunts only after dark.

Family Caprimulgidae

SUMMER MIGRANTS to Europe, takingadvantage of an abundance of moths, the

nightjars spend the day motionless and emergeat dusk to feed. These remarkably agile, light-weight fliers have large wings and tail.Theirstrange songs help to identify them. Nightjarsoccupy open heathland or lightly woodedplaces with wide clearings, often flying aroundbush tops and trees to catch moths in flight.They may approach people at dusk, as ifcurious about intruders in their territory.

NIGHTJARS

SUDDEN POUNCEA Tengmalm’s Owl swoops ontoprey located by using its eyesand ears. Its softly fringed flightfeathers minimize wing noise.

CAMOUFLAGEA Nightjar at rest is usuallyexceptionally difficult to spot. It israre even to flush one by chance.

SIMILAR SPECIES

OWLS

239

Length 37–39cm (141⁄2 –151⁄2 in) Wingspan 94–104cm (37–41in) Weight 330–590g (12–21oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure

Order Strigiformes Family Strigidae Species Strix aluco

This is the owl that hoots after dark, but its vocalrepertoire is quite wide and a loud, yapping ke-wik is

heard more regularly through the year than the beautiful,wavering hoot. It is often seen merely as a large, big-headed silhouette, or a vague shape flying from a roadsidepole at night. Sometimes small birds mob it by day, givingaway its presence, or it can be found in trees or ivyabove splashes of white droppings. It can then bewatched quite closely with care and proves to be animpressive and extremely beautiful bird.VOICE Loud, excited yapping notes, variations onnasal ke-wick! or keeyip; long, musical, breathy,quavering hoot, hoo hoo-hoooo hoo-ho-ho.NESTING Hole in tree or building or in old sticknest of crow or Magpie; 2–5 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Drops down to take voles, mice, rats,frogs, beetles, and earthworms from ground; catchesmany small birds as they are roosting or incubatingeggs at night.

OCCURRENCEResident almost throughoutEurope except Iceland, Ireland,and N Scandinavia. In all kinds ofwoodland and wooded areas suchas farmland with tall hedges andtrees, and large gardens withconifers or evergreen broadleaves.

Tawny Owl large, roundhead

large black eye

short wingsand tail

ADULT

ADULT

pale spots andbars on wings

URAL OWLsee p.435

orangeeye

ear tufts

red-brown orgrey-brown body(downy juvenilepale grey)

pale, streakedunderside

brown back withdiagonal row ofwhite spots oneach side

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

FLIGHT: strong, quite swift, but heavy, undulating;deep, regular flappy wingbeats, short glides.

IN FLIGHT

obviousfacial disc

larger andgreyer

TENGMALM’S OWLsee p.241

yellow eye

smaller

whiter face

NIGHT HUNTERTawny Owls begin to call at duskbut only start to hunt when it isquite dark.

LONG-EARED OWLsee p.242

ADULT

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 59–73cm (23 –29in) Wingspan 1.38–1.7m (41⁄2 –51⁄2ft) Weight 1.5 –3kg (31⁄4 –61⁄2 lb)

Social Solitary Lifespan 10–20 years Status Vulnerable

Order Strigiformes Family Strigidae Species Bubo bubo

OWLS

240

Amassive bird and one of Europe’s most powerful predators,the Eagle Owl even kills other owls and birds of prey quite

frequently in order to claim exclusive use of territory. Mostly abird of cliffs and crags, it may be found relatively close to villagesand farms, although many prefer wilder places remote fromhuman habitation. It calls early in the year and is notat all easy to track down in summer: careful scrutinyof likely ledges, cavities, and trees on occupied cliffs isoften to no avail. Its huge eyes give it really exceptionalvision in poor light and hunting is almost entirely nocturnal.VOICE Song deep, booming hoot, oo-hu, carries 2–4km (1–21⁄2 miles);also loud barking alarm notes, kvek, kwa,or kwa-kwa-kwa.NESTING Unlined cavity in tree or deep,sheltered cliff ledge; 2 or 3 eggs; 1 brood;April–May.FEEDING Eats wide range of food from smallrodents to much bigger prey, including birdssuch as crows, pigeons, and thrushes, and smallmammals such as rats, hares, and squirrels.REMARK Subspecies B. b. ascalaphus (MiddleEast) is paler, buff below, and has yellower eyes.

OCCURRENCEWidespread in mainland Europebut everywhere sparse, mostly in forested mountain areas withgorges, cliffs, and deep ravineswith deep caves or large ledges,and on big, old trees. Not foundoutside usual breeding areas.

Eagle Owl

LONG-EARED OWLsee p.242

TAWNY OWLsee p.239

BUZZARDsee p.136

large, deeporange eye,circled withblack

black marblingand streakingon back

IN FLIGHT

dark brown wingswith pale patch

pale “V” onupper face

pale areaaround bill

dark eye

no ear tufts

smallersmaller andslimmer

no eartufts

muchsmaller

large ear tufts,usually angledin shallow “V”

boldlystreaked,paleunderside

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

FLIGHT: direct, heavy but strong; wings slightlyarched in frequent glides; head looks very big.

ELUSIVE OWLGood camouflage colours render immobileEagle Owls extremely difficult to spot.

SIMILAR SPECIES

OWLS

241

Length 22 –27cm (9–101⁄2 in) Wingspan 50–62cm (20–24in) Weight 150–200g (5–7oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure†

Order Strigiformes Family Strigidae Species Aegolius funureus

Asmall to medium-sized owl,Tengmalm’s Owl is a difficult bird tosee, preferring dense forests and being active only at night. It is best

located by looking for signs of owls (droppings and pellets) in the vicinityof likely nest holes (such as Black Woodpecker holes), or by listening forits calls, which are fortunately frequent and carryas much as 3km (2 miles) on calm nights.Thecombination of its call and the size and shape ofthe likely silhouette view, helps identification;Little or Scops Owls are not found in denseforested habitats and other species are mostlynoticeably larger.VOICE Hoarse, unmusical chiak; song 5–8whistles, rising and accelerating, pu-pu-po-po-po-po-po-po.NESTING Unlined tree cavity or old woodpeckerhole; 3–6 eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Watches and listens for voles from treeperch within canopy, rarely more exposed.

OCCURRENCEMostly breeds in NE Europe,sparsely and very locally in C European uplands, rare inPyrenees. Resident in dense forestwith small clearings, not movingmuch from breeding places at anytime of year.

Tengmalm’s Owl

FLIGHT: quick, short flights, direct, with bursts ofquick beats between short glides.

CURIOUS EXPRESSIONThe high brows give a permanentlyalert or alarmed expression to aTengmalm’s Owl.

large palefacial disc withblackish edge

ADULT

ADULT

band ofwhitish spotsbeside back

LITTLE OWLdifferent habitat;see p.244

TAWNY OWLsee p.239

PYGMY OWLsee p.435

stockier

flatterhead

high brow

pale undersidewith soft brownmottles

IN FLIGHT

deep chocolate brownupperparts (juvenile verydark brown all over)

blackeye

muchlarger

large head

bright yelloweyes

white spots andbars on closedwings

catches tiny miceand voles

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

smaller

smallerhead

ADULT

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 35–37cm (14 –141⁄2 in) Wingspan 84–95cm (33–37in) Weight 210–330g (7–12oz)

Social Roosts in small flocks Lifespan 10–15 years Status Secure

Order Strigiformes Family Strigidae Species Asio otus

OWLS

242

OCCURRENCEWidespread except in Iceland and N Scandinavia; summer onlyin NE Europe. Mostly breeds inconiferous woodland and shelterbelts near moors, heaths, andmarshes; roosts in thickets, old,tall hedgerows, belts of willowsnear marshes, and similar low,thick cover near open ground.

Long-eared Owl

SHORT-EARED OWLvery similar in flight; see p.243

EAGLE OWLsee p.240

TAWNY OWLsee p.239

mottledupperwings

yelloweye

whitetrailingedge

much larger

WINTER ROOSTA typical winter roost is in a thorn or willow thicket, or a pinetree, where several owls may beclose together.

FLIGHT: looks like Short-eared Owl but less oftenseen by day; slightly shorter-winged, less buoyant.

pale patch onouter wings

dark wristpatch

grey tips

black eye

rounder anddarker

closelystreakedunderside

dark surround to brightorange-red eye

long ear tufts,raised

Alarge, handsome bird,the Long-eared Owl

can be found in winterin communal roosts of ahandful to twenty or morebirds.These are often foundin tall pines, but also resort todense thickets of willow andhawthorn, where they can beextremely hard to see; they aresometimes given away by splashesof droppings and regurgitated pelletson the ground. Unless disturbed, they rarely movebefore it is almost dark: only occasionally may one befound hunting in better light, inviting confusion withthe Short-eared Owl.VOICE Song deep, moaning, short hoot, oo oo oo or uhuh; juvenile begs for food with high, sharp,“squeaky-hinge” eee-ip.NESTING Old nest of crow, squirrel drey, or underthick growth of bracken or brambles; 3–5 eggs;1 brood; March–June.FEEDING Hunts from perch or in flight, catchingsmall rodents and roosting birds.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

ear tufts, foldedback

IN FLIGHT

SIMILAR SPECIES

OWLS

243

Length 34–42cm (131⁄2 –161⁄2 in) Wingspan 90–105cm (35–41in) Weight 260–350g (9–13oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 10–15 years Status Vulnerable†

Order Strigiformes Family Strigidae Species Asio flammeus

OCCURRENCEWidespread through Europe,mostly in N but erratically in S,largely linked with variations inprey populations. In all kinds ofrough grassland, marshes, heaths,upland moors, and plantations;many temporary habitats occupiedopportunistically when largenumbers of voles present.

Short-eared Owl

complex buffmarbling onupperparts

large, round headwith tiny tuftsusually hidden

buff-whiteundersidewith finedark streaks

row of palespots alongsides of back

TAWNY OWLsee p.239

HEN HARRIER 2;see p.133orange-

red eye

greyhindwings

blackish ringaround large,cold yellow eye

dark wingtips

dark wristpatch

whitetrailingedge

orange-buffto yellowishouter wings

LONG-EARED OWLvery similar in flight;see p.242

blackeye

longertail

moreuniformabove

shorterwings

FLIGHT: low, wavering, quite quick, with slowbeats of stiff wings, quite high upstroke; floating,banking glides.

IN FLIGHT

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

One of the owls most likely to beseen by day, the Short-eared Owl

hunts like a harrier, flying low overopen ground, often in good light wellbefore dusk. Its numbers anddistribution reflect the fluctuatingnumbers of voles. It may appear for a year or two in suburban areas wherefields are neglected in advance ofdevelopment, but is more frequent oncoastal marshes and, in summer, overupland moors and young coniferplantations. It is easily confused withthe Long-eared Owl in flight but Long-eareds are more strictly nocturnal.VOICE Nasal bark, kee-aw, or hoarse, whip-like ke-ow; song deep, soft, quick boominghoot, boo-boo-boo-boo in display flight.NESTING Unlined scrape on ground; 4–8 eggs; 1 or 2 broods;April–July.FEEDING Hunts by flying slowly over ground or watching from perch; eats smallrodents and some birds.

whitish underwingswith narrow darkbar at angle

FLOATING HUNTERIts long wings and light weight make the Short-eared Owl remarkably buoyant when hunting.

whitebelly

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 21–23cm (81⁄2 –9in) Wingspan 50–56cm (20–22in) Weight 140–200g (5–7oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Declining

Order Strigiformes Family Strigidae Species Athene noctua

OWLS

244

Widespread in Europe,and long established after

introduction in Great Britain, theLittle Owl is small, chunky, flat-headed, and short-tailed. It canappear very round when perchedout in the open by day, but maystretch upwards to look moreelongated when alarmed. It hunts at dusk but sometimesperches quite openly in daylight, often attractingthe noisy attention of small birds. Its undulatingflight may briefly recall a woodpecker or largethrush. In much of Europe, it lives in ruins and oldbarns with tiled roofs, or on hillsides with bouldersand stones scattered over the slopes.VOICE Loud, musical, plaintive calls, rising keeeooo,sharper werro!, short kip kip kip.NESTING In long, narrow hole in tree, bank, orbuilding; 2–5 eggs; 1 brood; May–July.FEEDING Mostly takes small rodents and largeinsects from ground; also picks small birds andearthworms from ground.

OCCURRENCEWidespread resident throughEurope north to Great Britain andBaltic. In great variety of terrain,on open rocky slopes and islands,farmland and parkland with oldtrees and outbuildings, and evensemi-desert areas with tumbledrocks and cliffs.

Little Owl broadhead

large, pale yellow eye,circled with black

cream-buffspots on liver-brown back

dark crown withsmall white spots

SQUAT SILHOUETTEA rounded, short-tailed, thin-legged shape on a post or branchat dusk is likely to be a Little Owl.

IN FLIGHT

SCOPS OWLdifferenthabitat andbehaviour;see p.245

TAWNY OWLsee p.239

SHORT-EARED OWLsee p.243

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

shortish, roundwings, barred brownand cream

muchlarger

slim body;sharp eartufts

longwings

dark eye muchlarger

flattish whiteeyebrows

complexwavy streakson paleunderside

FLIGHT: distinctive bounding, undulating actionwith bursts of quick wingbeats between downwardswoops; sweeps upwards to perch.

SIMILAR SPECIES

OWLS

245

Length 19 –21cm (71⁄2 –81⁄2 in) Wingspan 47–54cm (181⁄2 –211⁄2 in) Weight 150g (5oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Declining†

Order Strigiformes Family Strigidae Species Otus scops

In Mediterranean villages and woodlands in summer, the dawn anddusk calling of the Scops Owl is commonplace.Tracking one down

by carefully approaching the sound is sometimes difficult but usuallyjust a matter of time; with patience it may be possible to see one reallywell if it perches close to a streetlight. Daytime views are much moredifficult to get: it is practically impossible to track one down to a visibleroost. Little Owls are often found in nearby areas, so identificationrequires some care: Little Owls are resident but in most areas Scops Owlsare found in summer; Scops Owls are more often seen on roofs and churchtowers in the middle of villages, while Little Owls tend to be on the edges ofvillages or around farm outbuildings and isolated barns; Little Owls look morerounded or squat, with a broad, flatter head, while a Scops Owl is more taperedtowards the wingtips and tail.They are only very rare vagrants (usually in spring)north of their regular breeding range.VOICE Distinctive at dusk: single, fluty, indrawn musical whistle, pew or tyuhrepeated unvaryingly every 2–3 seconds.NESTING Cavity in tree, wall, or building; 4 or 5 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Mostly drops down from perch to take large insects.

OCCURRENCEIn summer, found widely in S Europe and north to C France and Alps. In small towns, parks,and wooded areas, often aroundolder buildings and churchyards,but also in mixed woodland. Mostmigrate in winter, only somestaying in S Europe.

Scops Owl

narrow headwith flat top

greyish or rufous-brown body

IN FLIGHT

yellow eye,ringed black

complexpatterningseen only atclose range

dark streakson paleunderside

angular corners ofhead sometimesraised as ear tufts

barredwings

broad pale grey “V”between eyes

dark edging onfacial disc

LITTLE OWLsee p.244

TENGMALM’S OWLdifferent habitat; see p.241

TAWNY OWLsee p.239

flatter head

rounderhead

black eye

muchlarger

FLIGHT: short, quick flights, only faintly undulating,with bursts of fast wingbeats.

stockier

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 33–39cm (13 –151⁄2 in) Wingspan 85–93cm (34–37in) Weight 290–460g (10–16oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan 5–10 years Status Declining

Order Strigiformes Family Tytonidae Species Tyto alba

OWLS

246

OCCURRENCEWidespread but sparse in SE, C, and W Europe; absent fromIceland, Scandinavia, and NEEurope. Breeds and hunts in openareas, from farmland to marsheswith reedbeds and moors, andyoung plantations.

Barn Owl

SHORT-EARED OWLsee p.243

TAWNY OWLsee p.239

rounded, heart-shaped facial disc

black eyes

big head

pale buff upperside

whiteunderside

yelloweyes

dark wingpatches

FLIGHT: light, agile, spring-like action with quitequick, deep wingbeats; hovers and plunges head-firstinto long grass with wings pulled back.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

SNOWY OWLsee p.435

whiterabove

muchlarger

browner

streakedbelow

SUBSPECIES

T. a. guttata (C and EEurope)

deeporange-buffunderside

IN FLIGHT

grey and blackspots

thin dark barson outer wings

whiteunderwings

short tail

This medium-sized owl is sometimes about by day in winter and often hunts well before dark in summer if it has

a family to feed.At such times, it allows excellent views, frequentlyat roadsides where verges may provide almost the only remainingrough grassland over which it can hunt for voles. It also frequentsmarshy areas such as rough grassland beside reedbeds or alongembankments.There is little chance of misidentification, althoughother owls appearing“white” in car headlights atnight can be taken for it.VOICE Hissing, snoringcalls from nest, nasal hi-wit,rolling, shrill shriek andhigh squeal of alarm.NESTING Big hole in tree,stack of hay bales, orbuilding; 4–7 eggs;1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Hunts fromperch or in low flight;catches voles, mice, rats,and occasionally birds.

NIGHT HUNTERBarn Owls are usually nocturnalbut they may be seen beforesunset if they have young to feed.

SIMILAR SPECIES

NIGHTJARS

247

Length 26–28cm (10 –11in) Wingspan 54–60cm (211⁄2 –231⁄2 in) Weight 75–100g (25⁄8 –35⁄8oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Declining†

Order Caprimulgiformes Family Caprimulgidae Species Caprimulgus europaeus

OCCURRENCEVery local and erratic throughoutEurope except N Britain, Iceland,and N Scandinavia, on heaths and open ground with lowundergrowth or clearings inforested regions. Migrates toAfrica in winter.

Nightjar

long tail

FEMALE

IN FLIGHT

bright white spotsnear wingtips

rufouscollar

long, narrowwings

GRASSHOPPER WARBLERhigher song withsharper trill; see p.328

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

RED-NECKED NIGHTJARdifferent song;see p.436

elongatedbody and tail

barred, mottled,and spotted grey-brown body tiny bill

flat head

MALE

white markson cheek

FLIGHT: light, buoyant, erratic, floating and driftingor bounding with quick, deep wingbeats; sometimestwists and turns like dead leaf.One of Europe’s most charismatic small birds, the Nightjar sings

at dusk with a remarkable prolonged, purring trill. It hawksquite low over heathland and around clumps of trees orisolated bushes and quite frequently flies over to quiet, stillobservers to fly around them in the same way, seeking moths.It is difficult to find by day and sadly the full effect of itsbeautiful, cryptic plumage cannot often be appreciated.VOICE Deep, nasal, mechanical gooik; song fantasticprolonged churr, varying abruptly in pitch; a soft purr at longrange, harder, more wooden rattle close-up,prrrrrrrrooorrrrrrrprrrrrrrrooorrrrrrrrrr.NESTING Unlined scrape on ground; 2 eggs; 1 or 2 broods;May–July.FEEDING Catches insects, mainly moths, in flight, usingbroad wide-open gape, mostly at dusk and dawn.

whitecornersto tail

FEMALE

MALE

ADULT BY NESTThe “dead leaf” or bark-like camouflage makes a nestingNightjar exceptionally difficult to find.

SWIFTS

SWIFTS

248

NO BIRDS ARE MORE specialized than theswifts.They have tiny bills but large, broad

mouths, in which they catch flying insects.Theirtapered bodies and long, stiff, scythe-shapedwings are aerodynamically ideal for sustainedflight.They have a good turn of speed whendisplaying, but generally feed at a much slowerpace, gliding efficiently and turning dextrouslyto catch their small prey.

Their feet are minute, with all four toespointing forwards, just enough to cling to a rough surface but making it impossible forthem to perch on a wire or twig: indeed, theyare almost never seen settled, as they dive intothe cavities where they nest with no discernible pause.

Swifts have become extremely reliant onbuildings for nesting and few now nestin holes in cliffs or trees. However,modern buildings are useless toswifts, which concentrate onold housing and structuressuch as church towers. Theymust face an uncertain future.

Family Apodidae

JUVENILE MARKINGSYoung swifts look very like their parents, but can be told at very closerange by the fine whitish fringes to their feathers. Once they fly from thenest they may not settle again for three years.

Identification can be difficult, but good viewsreveal differences in shape and pattern betweenmost species. All are social birds, often flying infast-moving, closely packed groups during the

breeding season. They arrive late inspring and leave in late summer for

Africa. There, they feed in companywith several similar species ofAfrican-nesting swifts.

SCREAMING PARTYA group of Swifts dashes by atrooftop height, with a chorus of loud, piercing calls. Thisseems to have a strong socialsignificance within the birds of a breeding colony.

SIMILAR SPECIES

SWIFTS

249

Length 16–17cm (61⁄2 in) Wingspan 42–48cm (161⁄2 –19in) Weight 36–50g (11⁄4 –13⁄4oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure

Order Apodiformes Family Apodidae Species Apus apus

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

OCCURRENCEWidespread in summer except inIceland; arrives late and leavesearly. Feeds over any kind of openarea, including towns, villages,and some larger S European cities,but needs old civic buildings andhousing for nesting, usuallyexcluded from new developments.

PALLID SWIFTsee p.250

white belly

very differentshape

blue above

palebelow

slightlypaler

larger

largerwhitethroat

SWALLOWsee p.275

ALPINE SWIFTsee p.251

No other bird is more aerial than the Swift. Immature Swifts mayspend three years aloft before returning to breed: like seabirds,

they come to land only to breed. Swifts appear in Europe late inspring and depart for Africa early in autumn. Flocks fly very high orat rooftop level; they are never seen perching on wires or clinging to walls or roofs like martins or swallows.Their scythe-like wingsand loud, screaming calls makeidentification simple, but Pallid Swifts insouthern Europe complicate the matter.VOICE Loud, screeching, shrill screamsfrom flocks, shrreeee, sirrr.NESTING Feather-lined cavity inbuilding, more rarely in cliff; 2 or 3 eggs;1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Entirely aerial, taking flyinginsects in bill.

FLIGHT: often slow, direct with long glides betweenflurries of deep wingbeats, wings very rigid; also fasterdashing flights in groups with flickering wingbeats.

HIDDEN NESTERSwifts nest deep inside holes, mostly in older buildings,rarely now in cliffs.

all-dark bodybecomes brownerin late summer

deeply forkedtail

whitishchin

IN FLIGHT

JUVENILE

ADULT

ADULT

wings curved inscythe shape,sharply pointed

finewhitishfeatheredges

short headwith almostno bill

ADULT

looks all-blackagainst sky

SCREAMING PARTIESFeeding Swifts fly much more slowly than may bethought, but noisy, chasing groups are genuinely fast.

Swift

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 16–18cm (61⁄2 –7in) Wingspan 39–46cm (151⁄2 –18in) Weight 50g (13⁄4oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 10–15 years Status Secure†

Order Apodiformes Family Apodidae Species Apus pallidus

SWIFTS

250

Very like a common Swift, the Pallid Swift is perceptiblypaler and more mud- or clay-brown when seen well; it is

also broader-winged, shorter-tailed, and broader-headed.As itis so often seen flying against the sky, a good view may not beeasy to achieve, but if it flies low against a darker background,plumage differences should be visible. In many southernEuropean towns, both species are common, allowingopportunities both for comparison and confusion. Pallid Swiftshave sometimes been seen well north of their usual range verylate in the summer or autumn when swifts have normally longsince migrated to Africa, but this alone is not sufficient toidentify late swifts such as Pallid: very occasionally, a commonSwift will linger as well. Such isolated wanderers outside the normal range needcareful observation for positive identification.VOICE Scream like common Swift’s but usually falls in pitch, more disyllabic,lower in pitch, but hard to separate with certainty.NESTING Unlined cavity in roof space, old building, or wall; 2 or 3 eggs;1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Like Swift, takes food entirely in air, catching flying insects and driftingspiders in its mouth.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in S Europe, mostly nearcoasts; more inland in S Spain andItaly, in older areas of towns andvillages. Migrates to Africa inwinter, but only very rare vagrantnorth of breeding range. Feedsover all kinds of open countryside.

Pallid Swift

SWIFTsee p.249

SAND MARTINsee p.273

darker brownwingtips

whitishchin andthroat

more mottled than adultwith obvious palefeather edges

pale mud-brownunder wings (pale-edged feathers)

IN FLIGHT

wingtipsdarker thanmidwings

less whiteon throatblacker smaller and

chunkier

JUVENILE

ALPINE SWIFTsee p.251

whitebelow

larger

ADULT

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

ADULT

FLIGHT: fast, typical swift-type flight on stiff,scythe-like wings, with slightly slower wingbeats;longer glides than Swift on average.

pale brown diagonalband on upperwings

SIMILAR SPECIES

SWIFTS

251

Length 20 –23cm (8–9in) Wingspan 51–58cm (20–23in) Weight 75–100g (25⁄8 –35⁄8oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 10–15 years Status Secure†

Order Apodiformes Family Apodidae Species Apus melba

The Alpine Swift is a uniquely large and powerfulswift in Europe. It likes cliffs in mountainous areas

but is not always found at high altitude, breeding inmany lower, deeply incised ravines and in tall buildings intowns and old villages. It often mixeswith other swift species and CragMartins and is frequently seen in theair with choughs (see pp.366–7). It is not always easy to judge size, sosilhouette views are not necessarilyadequate to identify possible AlpineSwifts out of their usual range: thepossibility of partly white Swiftsshould also be borne in mind.VOICE Loud chorus of Greenfinch-like trills, rising and falling and changing in speed and pitch, tititititi-ti-ti-ti-ti-ti ti ti.NESTING Shallow cup of grass and stems in cavity in building or cliff; 2 or 3 eggs;1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Exclusively aerial, catching insects in air in open mouth.

OCCURRENCESummer visitor and breeder in S Europe north to Alps. Over allkinds of open country, especiallyhill towns, cliffs, and gorges, fromsea level to high hills, betweenApril and September. Rarely straysnorth in spring.

Alpine Swift

HOBBYsimilar shape; see p.142

STRONG FLIERIn silhouette, an Alpine Swift maymomentarily recall a Hobby.

SWIFTsee p.249

smaller andslimmer

white neckpatch

much smaller

CRAG MARTINless scythe-winged;see p.274

white underside

dark undertail

broad-basedwings with long,scythe-like tips

white belly

short, well-forked tail

IN FLIGHT

FLIGHT: strong, powerful, sweeping flight; easy,graceful beats of stiff, scythe-like wings.

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

dark brownbreast-band

wings swept backin fast glide

white chinand throat,difficult tosee

KINGFISHERS, BEE-EATERS,ROLLERS, AND HOOPOE

KINGFISHERS, BEE-EATERS, ROLLERS,AND HOOPOE

252

Families Alcedinidae, Meropidae, Coraciidae, Upupidae

FISHINGThe European Kingfisher plunge-dives into water to catch fish. Atransparent membrane protectsthe eye during the dive.

BOLDLY BARREDThe Hoopoe has broadblack and white bandsover its back and wings.

THESE SPECIES AND THE woodpeckers fallbetween the swifts and nightjars and the

Passerines (perching or song birds) and are oftentermed “near passerines”. They are groupedhere for convenience rather than for any moremeaningful relationship.

KINGFISHERSThe “original” kingfisher from which the familytakes its name, the European species is a fish-eater(others are dry land birds that catch insects). It isoften first detected by its piercing call or a splashas it dives for a fish.

BEE-EATERSTrue to their name, bee-eaters do eat bees andwasps, wiping away their stings against a perch,

but they also catch many other insects intheir acrobatic, swooping and gliding

flight. They breed socially, nestingin burrows in earth banks.

ROLLERSRather crow-like in character,Rollers are muchmore colourful,especially in mid-summer when palerfeather edges have wornaway to reveal the richcolours beneath.

HOOPOEStriking and boldly patterned in a photograph,the Hoopoe is often surprisingly inconspicuousas it shuffles on the ground in the dappled lightand shade beneath a hedge orin a sunny orchard. Onlywhen it flies does it suddenlycatch the eye.

JEWEL-LIKEThe Bee-eater is abeautifully patternedbird, its mixture ofcolours appealingrather than gaudy.

ALERTA Roller perches upright

on the edge of a tree, looking

for prey.

KINGFISHERS, BEE-EATERS, ROLLERS,AND HOOPOE

253

Length 16–17cm (61⁄2 in) Wingspan 24–26cm (91⁄2 –10in) Weight 35–40g (11⁄4 –17⁄16oz)

Social Pairs Lifespan 5–10 years Status Declining

Order Coraciiformes Family Alcedinidae Species Alcedo atthis

Most people seeing one for the first time think the Kingfisher is surprisingly small: about Starling-sized or a little less. It is also,

despite its bright colours, much more unobtrusive than may beexpected: in the dappled shade of flickering foliage above ripplingwater, it can be extremely hard to see. Often it is the sharp call thatgives it away, followed by a glimpse of a bright blue back flying offover water, but sometimes it allows really close, clear views. It isparticularly vulnerable to hard winterweather and populations consequentlyfluctuate greatly from year to year.Occasionally a Kingfisher will takeadvantage of a garden pond full ofgoldfish, but visits are usually brief asKingfishers are shy birds and quick tofly off if disturbed.VOICE Quite loud, sharp, high kit-cheeee or cheee; also high, fast trill inspring.NESTING Deep tubular tunnel, linedwith fish bones, in soft earth cliff overwater; 5–7 eggs; 2 broods; May–July.FEEDING Catches fish, small aquaticinvertebrates, and amphibians in divefrom perch or mid-air hover.

OCCURRENCEIn most of Europe, N to S Scotland, Baltic, and extreme S Scandinavia. Summer visitor onlyin north and east of range, fromwhich birds move southwest inwinter. Along rivers and canals, onmarshes, flooded pits, and coastalareas including salt-marsh creeks,especially in winter.

Kingfisher

FLIGHT: low, direct, fast; poor manoeuvrability;quick, almost whirring wingbeats.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

MALE

IN FLIGHT

DRAMATIC DIVERThe Kingfisher makes a dramatic dive usually from a lowperch, but sometimes also from a brief hover.

rusty orangeunderside

MALE

MALE

FEMALE

orange and whitecheek patch

vivid bluestreak

barred bluecap

black bill

electric blueupperside(slightly dulleron juvenile) black bill

with redbase

white chin

tiny red legs(blackish onjuvenile)

Length 27–29cm (101⁄2 –111⁄2 in) Wingspan 36–40cm (14–16in) Weight 50–70g (13⁄4 –21⁄2oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 5–10 years Status Declining

Order Coraciiformes Family Meropidae Species Merops apiaster

KINGFISHERS, BEE-EATERS, ROLLERS,AND HOOPOE

254

OCCURRENCEBreeds in S and E Europe, north to C France and Alps in summer.Rare migrant farther north in springor autumn. Usually in warm, oftensandy areas with orchards, bushyareas, open grassland, and lowearth cliffs.

Bee-eaterdark cap (greeneron juvenile)

long, pointedbill

centralspike to tail(short onjuvenile)

golden-yellowon shoulders

red-brown back(greener onjuvenile)

ADULT (AT NEST)

dark wingswith bronzepatch

SOCIAL BIRDSBee-eaters are foundin flocks all year roundand frequently perchalmost shoulder toshoulder.

FLIGHT: rises on stiff, fast-beating wings; stalls,circles, and glides down, or chases prey with furtherbeats of wings and flat-winged glides.

IN FLIGHTclear green-blueunderside

largeyellowthroat

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

translucent silver andcopper underwings

tail spike maybreak off

blackedge

ADULT

One of the more colourful of Europe’sbirds, the Bee-eater is unique also in

its shape, actions, and calls: these combineto make it easy to identify even withoutits colour.There are, however, severalsimilar species in Africa and the MiddleEast. Bee-eaters often perch on wires, andso are easy to see from moving vehiclesbeside roads; they also fly around calling,drawing attention to themselves, and breedin colonies.They do indeed eat bees and seemto be somewhat immune to bee and wasp stings,although they do wipe away the stings of their preybefore swallowing them.With care, Bee-eaters canbe watched closely around breeding colonies andtake little notice of people while feeding in elegant,swooping flight.VOICE Distinctive, far-carrying, deep, quiteliquid notes, prroop prroop.NESTING Burrows insandy banks or even flatter ground; 4–7 eggs;1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Catches insectsin flight, in prolonged, fastswoops and slow, glidingflights or sallies from perch.

SIMILAR SPECIES

STARLING32; similarbasic shape; see p.372

shorterwings

ADULT

ADULT

long tail

KINGFISHERS, BEE-EATERS, ROLLERS,AND HOOPOE

255

Length 30cm (12in) Wingspan 52–57cm (201⁄2 –221⁄2 in) Weight 120–190g (4–7oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Declining†

Order Coraciiformes Family Coraciidae Species Coracias garrulus

Afirst view of a Roller may be slightlydisappointing as a perched bird may

look dull, but once it takes flight, itreveals remarkably vivid colours, quiteunlike any other European bird. Especiallyin late spring, when the adult is at itsbest, it is a remarkably colourful bird,as the dull, pale feather edges ofwinter wear away. Rollers are mostcharacteristic of southeast Europe, lesscommon in southwest Europe, and rarevagrants north of the breeding range.They often perch on wires or telephonepoles, and so are usually quite easy todetect; they may also perch on the sidesof trees, tucked in the shade under thecanopy. In Africa, Rollers concentratemore around herds of animals or atfires, where insects are forced to fly and reveal themselves.They are veryrare in summer in Europe north of their usual range.VOICE Hard, crow-like rak, rak-aaak,or rack-ak-ak.NESTING Hole in tree, wall, orbuilding, or old crow nest in tree;4–7 eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Eats large insects and smallrodents, usually caught on ground afterflurried drop from perch.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in S Europe, north to BalticStates in E Europe; present fromMay to August. In variety of opencountryside with orchards, woods,bushes, and rough grassland,often perched on overhead wiresor tops of isolated bushes.

Rollerstout, pointedgrey bill

IMMATURE (WINTER)

ADULT(SUMMER)

FLIGHT: direct, straight, with regular shallow wing-beats, wings slightly angled; tumbling flight in display.

bright green-blueclosed wings

pale red-brownback

faintlystreakedchest

duller, palerbody thanadult’s

green-blueunderside

greenish bluehead

vivid turquoise oninner wings

squaredark tail

ADULT(SUMMER)

IN FLIGHT

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

dark purple-blueon outer wings

HOLE NESTERA big, rotten cavity in an old tree is a typical nest sitefor this bold, strong bird.

Length 26–28cm (10 –11in) Wingspan 44–48cm (171⁄2 –19in) Weight 60–75g (21⁄8–25⁄8oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan 5–10 years Status Secure

Order Coraciiformes Family Upupidae Species Upupa epops

KINGFISHERS, BEE-EATERS, ROLLERS,AND HOOPOE

256

SIMILAR SPECIES OCCURRENCEWidespread breeder and scarcemigrant outside breeding areasnorth to Baltic; seen in summeronly, except in S Spain, S Portugal,and Balearics. In open woodland,parks, gardens, old villages andfarmsteads, and orchards.

Hoopoe

JAYbold white rump; see p.364

GREAT SPOTTEDWOODPECKER 32;see p.260

simpler wingpattern

big whiteshoulder patch

BLUR OF WHITEAs it alights at the nest, the Hoopoe spreads its wingsin a blur of black and white.

FLIGHT: direct but slightly undulating, hesitant,erratic but not light and floating; quite quick, in-outflicks of wings.

broad white bandon outer wings

broad whiteband onblack tail

erect crest

small whiterump

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

short dark legs

black and whitebarred backand wings

slim, slightlycurved bill

pinkish to pink-beigehead and body(juvenile duller)

fan-shaped, black-tipped crest, laid flat

ADULT

Unobtrusive in the dappled shade of a tree in a sunnyMediterranean grove, the Hoopoe bursts to vivid life as it takes

flight, revealing a dazzling pattern of black and white.When itsettles, it may raise its unique fan-shaped crest, which may also befanned in flight. It calls from a rooftop or tree, with crest raised, butotherwise remains quiet and quite hard to spot. Its colours are quitesubdued, not vivid, but the pattern is remarkable and quite unlikeany other European bird: identification is simple.VOICE Soft, low, quite quick, hollow poop-poop-poop, often repeated;hoarse scheer.NESTING Hole in tree or wall; 5–8 eggs; 1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Walks on ground, probing and picking with bill, takinggrubs, insects, and worms.

ADULT

ADULT

IN FLIGHT

257

WOODPECKERS AND WRYNECK

MOST WOODPECKERS are tied to tree habitatsbut accept a wide variety of species, age,

and size of tree: the Great Spotted Woodpeckermay feed in willow thickets in winter, but needsbigger branches in which to nest. Others feedon the ground: the Green Woodpecker, an ant-eater, feeds on grassland much more than in trees. Others, however, are more exacting and require large amounts of dead wood, andstruggle to survive in modern forests withintensive management.

There are two main groups in Europe: thegreen woodpeckers and the pied, or spotted,woodpeckers. Green and Grey-headed Wood-peckers are large, rather plainly patterned, withloud, laughing calls. Spotted woodpeckers areboldly barred and spotted with black and whiteand have varying amounts of red. They haveshort, sharp calls but also frequently “drum”in spring, hammering their bills hard against a resonant branch in a short, rapid drum-roll.

WRYNECKThe Wryneck is brown, barred, and streaked,and unlike other woodpeckers in its posture (it does not so often use its tail as a prop),although its calls and general behaviour indicatea close relationship. An ant-eating specialist, itoften feeds on the ground. It is a migrant.

WOODPECKERS AND WRYNECK

NUT-FEEDERGreat Spotted Woodpeckers wedge largenuts and seeds into bark for easier feeding,hammering them open with their bills.

FADED GREENThe Green Woodpecker inworn, faded late-summerplumage, looks more brownthan green.

Family Picidae

CAMOUFLAGECryptic coloration makes the Wryneck difficult to see amongst branches,but it is a beautiful bird if seen well.

Length 40–46cm (16 –18in) Wingspan 67–73cm (26–29in) Weight 250–370g (9–13oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 10 years Status Secure

Order Piciformes Family Picidae Species Dryocopus martius

WOODPECKERS AND WRYNECK

258

Black Woodpecker

MALE

FLIGHT: direct, strong, not undulating; head up,wings beat mostly below body level; swoops up toperch with quick flurry.

dagger-like palebill with dark tip

OCCURRENCEBreeds widely from N Spain eastthrough France, north toScandinavia; absent from most ofItaly, UK, and Iceland. Associatedwith big trees in mature woods or clumps within patchy forest.Wanders more widely in winter.

SIMILAR SPECIES

GREEN WOODPECKER 32similar in silhouette; see p.259

grey napeJACKDAWsee p.368

blunt bill

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

Easily the largest of the woodpeckers,but not correspondingly any easier

to see, the Black Woodpecker is common in woodland areas with big, mature beech or pine trees. In winter, it wanders quite freelythrough big gardens and suburban parks.In much of Europe it is associated withmountainous areas, but it is common in the lowlandsof northwest Europe. It can usually be detected by its loud calls,or its bursts of “machine-gun” drumming, but is usually shy and not easy to approach.VOICE Loud, high, plaintive, long pyuuu; loud, rolling, far-carryingkrri-krri-krri-krri-krri; loud Green Woodpecker-like laugh, louder,more irregular. Long, loud drumming.NESTING Large ovalhole, 9 x 12cm (31⁄2 x5in) in diameter, in bigtree; 4–6 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Digs insectlarvae from tree branchesand trunks and fallentimber; eats ants onground.

smaller

tail used as propwhile perchingupright

IN FLIGHT

slimneck

rounded wingswith fingeredtips

red only on backof head

HEAVY FLIGHTAlthough large and heavy, the shape is typical thin-necked, square-winged woodpecker in flight.

whiteeye

glossy blackplumage

bold red cap

FEMALE

MALE

WOODPECKERS AND WRYNECK

259

Length 30–33cm (12 –13in) Wingspan 40–42cm (16–161⁄2 in) Weight 180–220g (6–8oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan 5–10 years Status Declining

Order Piciformes Family Picidae Species Picus viridis

Abig, pale, bright woodpecker, spending most of its time on the ground, the

Green Woodpecker is widespread andgenerally quite common around woodland anddry heaths. It is easily detected in spring by itsloud calls; its typical flight call is also far-carryingand distinctive. It excavates its own nest hole buthas a less powerful bill than the pied woodpeckers,feeding far less on insect larvae in timber or under bark, and it rarely drums. It is atypical woodpecker in flight, having a deeply undulating action and a final upwardswoop to a perch.VOICE Loud, shrill, bouncing keu-keu-keuk; song ringing, slightly descending,laughing kleu-kleu-kleu-keu-keu.NESTING Large hole in tree, 6.5cm (21⁄2in) in diameter; 5–7 eggs; 1 brood;May–July.FEEDING Eats ants and ant eggs and larvae, using long, sticky tongue to probe nests.

OCCURRENCEWidespread resident except inIceland, Ireland, and most of N Scandinavia. In or aroundbroadleaved and mixed woodlandand heath-like places with bushesand clumps of trees. Regularlyfeeds on large lawns and otheropen grassy areas with ants.

Green Woodpecker

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

SUBSPECIES

P. v. sharpei 3(Spain, Portugal)

blackaroundeye

black aroundwhitish eye

black moustachewith red centre

SIMILAR SPECIES

GREY-HEADEDWOODPECKER 32;see p.436

FLIGHT: deep undulations, but quick, with burstsof fast wingbeats between closed-winged glides.

vivid red cap

pale greencheek

MALE

all-blackmoustache

white spots on dull greenupperparts blackish spots and

streaks on faceand underside

darkerwings

lacks headpattern

greyerhead

barrel-shapedbody

greenishyellowrump

whitish-barred,dark wings

IN FLIGHT

grey crown andred forehead

greenishyellow rump

apple-greenupperside

JUVENILE

FEMALE

MALE

GOLDEN ORIOLE 2similar to 32; see p.361

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 22 –23cm (9in) Wingspan 34–39cm (131⁄2 –151⁄2 in) Weight 70–90g (21⁄2 –31⁄4oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan 5–10 years Status Secure

Order Piciformes Family Picidae Species Dendrocopos major

WOODPECKERS AND WRYNECK

260

The common woodpecker in most areas, theGreat Spotted announces itself in spring by a

loud drumming: a rapid, abrupt “drum roll” madeby hammering the bill against a resonant branch.It uses its stiff tail as a prop, so that it can grip a branch while resting upright against it. Its gripis secure enough to enable it to hang beneath a branch without the help of its tail for a time.Careful observation is required to be sure ofwoodpecker identification where severalwoodpecker species overlap.VOICE Loud, hard, explosive tchik!, less often fast,chattering rattle of alarm; loud, fast, very short drum.NESTING Digs hole, diameter 5–6cm (2–21⁄4in), intrunk or branch of tree; 4–7 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Finds insects and larvae beneath bark,digging them out with strong bill; also takes seeds andberries; visits gardens for nuts, seeds, cheese, and fat.

OCCURRENCEInhabits mature woods and evenscrub, locally visiting gardens, allover Europe except for Iceland,Ireland, and extreme N Scandinavia.Some migrants from N Europemove south and west in winter,turning up on open islands at times.

Great Spotted Woodpecker

bold blackand whiteupperparts

white shouldersred patch on backof head

bright buffunderside

large whiteshoulder patch

LESSER SPOTTEDWOODPECKER 32; see p.262

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

MIDDLE SPOTTEDWOODPECKER 32;see p.261

noshoulderpatch

MALE

JUVENILE

FEMALE

muchsmaller

palerunder tail

small bill

IN FLIGHT

FLIGHT: fast, springy bounds, deeply undulating,with short bursts of whirring wingbeats.

MALE

large red cap onmale (smaller onfemale)

roundhead

paler under tail

differentneck pattern

barred wings

no redon nape

SYRIAN WOODPECKER32; see p.437

NUT FEEDERThe woodpecker uses its stiff tailto help secure a good grip on abasket of peanuts.

large vividred patchunder tail

SIMILAR SPECIES

WOODPECKERS AND WRYNECK

261

Length 19 –22cm (71⁄2 –9in) Wingspan 35cm (14in) Weight 60–75g (21⁄8 –25⁄8oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan 5–10 years Status Secure

Order Piciformes Family Picidae Species Dendrocopos medius

ACentral European bird,the Middle Spotted

Woodpecker is indeed medium-sized among the pied woodpeckers.Much less accommodating thanother woodpeckers in its choice ofhabitat, it requires tall, old woodlandwith some old and dying trees andsome small clearings, with a selectionof decaying branches in which it cannest. In many regions with intensively managedwoodland and young plantations, it is unable tosurvive. It is relatively quiet and fond of stayinghigh in trees, so it is easy to overlook. It callsmore often in spring in preference to drumming.VOICE Song quite slow repetition of nasal kvek-kvek-kvek-kvek, infrequent weak kik, quick,rhythmic kuk-uk kuk-uk- kuk-uk; does not drum.NESTING Excavates hole in rotten branch, 4cm(11⁄2in) diameter; 4–7 eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Finds insects, larvae, and sap in highbranches, often in dead or dying wood.

OCCURRENCEBreeds locally in N Spain, France,and east to E Europe and Balkans.Mostly in older woodland withsome dead and decaying trees andusually not able to survive in over-managed woods and young oruniform plantations.

Middle Spotted Woodpecker

whiteshoulderpatch

flame-red cap onsmall white head

dullercap thanmale’s

weak,short bill

MALE

GREAT SPOTTED WOODPECKER 32;see p.260

unmarked whitecheeks

black neck patchextends ontoside of chest

finely streakedyellow-buffunderside

MALE

LESSER SPOTTEDWOODPECKER 32;see p.262

barredabove

slightly differenthead pattern

bolder redunder tail

SECRETIVE NESTERUntil the young begin to call, thiswoodpecker, like other wood-peckers, is quiet around the nest.

different headpattern

SYRIAN WOODPECKER 32; see p.437

lacks whiteshoulderpatch

IN FLIGHT

white barringon wings

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

FEMALE

FLIGHT: typical quick, bounding undulations withbursts of fast wingbeats.

pinkish under tail

biggerbill

WOODPECKERS AND WRYNECK

OCCURRENCEIn most of Europe except Iceland,Ireland, N UK, and much of Spainand Portugal. Widespread inwoodland, copses, orchards, andtall hedges with old or diseasedtrees. Resident, except for localmovements which take it intogardens and parks.

Lesser Spotted Woodpecker

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

Certainly the smallestof the woodpeckers,

this is also the leaststrikingly patterned, itsbarring somewhat blurredand diffuse. It is, however,clearly a pied woodpeckeralthough it spends much ofits time in the higher, moreslender branches of trees, unlike the others. It prefers limes, elms, and other treeswith very upright twigs, and uses its tail as a prop like most other woodpeckers,clinging more or less upright to its perch. Because of its size and generally quietdemeanour, it is easy to overlook, but in most areas is genuinely rather scarce.VOICE Sharp, weak tchik, nasal, peevish pee-pee-pee-pee-pee-pee especially in spring;weak drum.NESTING Hole in tree, 3cm (11⁄4in) in diameter; 4–6 eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Chips out insects and their larvae from beneath loose or rotten bark;also takes insects from thick, woody plant stems close to ground.

black cap

SIMILAR SPECIES

brown

JUVENILE

WRYNECKsimilar call;see p.263

Length 14–15cm (51⁄2 –6in) Wingspan 25–27cm (10–101⁄2 in) Weight 18–22g (5⁄8 –13⁄16oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan 5–10 years Status Secure

Order Piciformes Family Picidae Species Dendrocopos minor

262

IN FLIGHT

some redon crown(more onmale)

GREAT SPOTTEDWOODPECKER 32; see p.260

FEMALE buff-whiteunderside,finely streaked

black backwith broadwhite bars

black cheekpatch

bold whiteshoulderpatch

red undertail

MIDDLE SPOTTEDWOODPECKER 32;2has dull red cap; see p.261

whiteshoulderpatch

barredback

red cap

shorttail

3

broad, rounded wings

MALE

FLIGHT: quite weak and uncertain; bursts ofwingbeats between swoops with closed wings indeep, bouncy undulations.

MALE

WOODPECKERS AND WRYNECK

263

Length 16–17cm (61⁄2 in) Wingspan 25–27cm (10–101⁄2 in) Weight 30–45g (11⁄16 –15⁄8oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan 5–10 years Status Declining

Order Piciformes Family Picidae Species Jynx torquilla

Asomewhat aberrant woodpecker, the

Wryneck can appear morelike a big warbler or small,slim thrush at times, dependingon the circumstances. It movesabout on the ground, flits up into treesor bushes, or slips through foliage, but also clambers around on thickbranches and trunks of trees, although it usually perches acrossbranches rather than upright like the more common woodpeckers.At moderate range it is rather dull and inconspicuous, but closeviews reveal both an intricate pattern and clean, bright golden-buffcolours. Once located, the Wryneck may often bewatched really closely for long periods, especially onmigration. Occasionally it may then turn up inunexpected places such as parks and gardens.VOICE Quick, repeated, nasal notes, kwee-kee-kee-kee-kee-kee-kee, lower than Kestrel’s or Lesser SpottedWoodpecker’s.NESTING Existing hole in tree or wall; 7–10 eggs;1, occasionally 2, broods; May–June.FEEDING Often on ground, eating ants and antlarvae; various other insects, spiders, woodlice, andsome berries.

OCCURRENCEWidespread but scarce in summer,except in Iceland, Ireland, UK, and N Scandinavia. Breeds infarmed countryside with trees,copses, and more extensive pineor mixed forest; migrants oftennear coast. Scarce migrant in UK,chiefly in autumn.

Wryneck

CRYPTIC COLOURSThe mottled pattern of a Wryneckgives excellent camouflage againstthe bark of a tree and it can bevery difficult to spot.

BARRED WARBLER 32;see p.315

SIMILAR SPECIES

plainerupperparts

lacksbars onwings

grey-brown upperpartswith complexpatterning

long, darkeye-stripe

finely barred,bright buffthroat

short, slim,pointed bill

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

black-browncentral backstripe

plainerabove

IN FLIGHT

barredwings

broad,round-tipped tail

FLIGHT: usually short flights, slightly undulating,with flurries of quick beats.

pale greycrown

fine darkbars on palegrey tail

RED-BACKEDSHRIKE 2; perches moreopenly;see p.357

pale spotson wings

LARKS

264

ALMOST EXCLUSIVELY GROUND birds, exceptwhen singing, larks are quite stocky but

long-bodied birds, bulkier than pipits or wagtails,but less chunky than most finches. They havethick, triangular bills – between the insect-eatingbill of a pipit and the seed-eating bill of a finch,reflecting their varied diet. They fly strongly, withquite long, often rather angular wings.

Larks have faintly short legs but long toes andclaws, especially the claws on their hind toes,which seem to be an adaptation for walkingthrough grassy vegetation. They move easily on the ground in a quick walk or run, and feedon open ground: the Skylark, for example, willrarely feed in the shadow of a hedge, preferringto keep well out in the open where it has agood all-round view and from where it can flyin any direction.

Being birds of open spaces, larks have noperches from which to sing: they do sing fromthe ground or a post, but are at their best whensinging in a special high song-flight. The Skylarksings for minutes on end in a simple rising hover,while the Woodlark flies in wide circles as it sings.

Plumages of males and females, winter andsummer, are usually much alike, although somejuveniles are sufficiently different to look unusual.Some species are very difficult to identify: calls

STRONG FLIERSkylarks have large wings: these give them a slightly thrush-like look inflight but their more angular wings have a straighter rear edge.

Family Alaudidae

and songs are helpful but awkward plumagepoints such as underwing colour (on Crested andThekla Larks) can be hard to see and structuraldifferences (such as wingtip length on Short-toedand Lesser Short-toed Larks) can be frustratinglydifficult to be sure of.

UPSTANDING CRESTSeveral larks have a vestigialcrest, but two, the very similarCrested and Thekla larks, haveobvious, triangular crests thatcan be held erect. This CrestedLark shows the sharp point well.

LARKS

SIMILAR SPECIES

LARKS

265

Length 18–19cm (7–71⁄2 in) Wingspan 30–36cm (12–14in) Weight 33–45g (13⁄16 –15⁄8oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Vulnerable

Order Passeriformes Family Alaudidae Species Alauda arvensis

Widespread but declining inthe face of intensive

agriculture, the Skylark isthe classic lark of Europeanfarmland as well as heaths andupland grass or heather moors. It is arather large lark, between a sparrow anda thrush in size, and has a distinctive appearance in flight with its quiteangular, straight-edged wings and short tail. In hard weather, large flocksmay pass over by day heading for milder refuges, looking very likeflocks of Redwings (see p.308).When feeding, flockstend to move more loosely, looking uncoordinated incomparison with most finch and bunting flocks.VOICE Calls chirruping shrrup, trrup, higher seee;song from perch or in high, soaring flight, fast, rich,continuous outpouring, at distance sounding thinnerand high-pitched.NESTING Grassy cup on ground, in crop or grass;3–5 eggs; 2 or 3 broods;April–July.FEEDING Forages on ground in grass or on bareearth, eating seeds, shoots, grain, and insects.

OCCURRENCEWidespread except in Iceland,breeding on open moorland,heaths, cultivated areas inlowlands, especially cereals, andextensive pastures. In winter,widespread on arable land, withbirds from N and E Europe movingsouth and west in sizeable flocks.

Skylark

closely streaked,pale to warmtan-brown above

whitishover eye

dark stripeson back

pale-centredcheeks

buffbreast

white belly

longhindclaw

widewhitesides toblackishtail

CRESTED LARKsee p.266

SHORT-TOED LARKsee p.269

WOODLARKsee p.268

smallerplainer andpaler

no whiteon wings

blunt, brown andblack streaked crest

IN FLIGHT

paler onbreast

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

FLIGHT: variable, wings usually stiff, straight rearedge, angled front; erratic bursts of wingbeats andswooping glides with wings closed.

shorter tail

smaller

no whiteedge to wings

dark undertail

grey underwings

whitish band alongtrailing edge

neatlydefinedgorget

SONG-FLIGHTThe Skylark rises vertically in song-flight with constant flickering; it hasa rising hover and final steep plunge.

Length 17–19cm (61⁄2 –71⁄2 in) Wingspan 30–35cm (12–14in) Weight 30–35g (11⁄16 –11⁄4oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Declining†

Order Passeriformes Family Alaudidae Species Galerida cristata

LARKS

266

SIMILAR SPECIES

OCCURRENCEWidespread but patchilydistributed breeding bird north toDenmark and Baltic States; rarevagrant farther north. Typically incultivated areas or semi-naturalvegetation with few trees, some-times in semi-derelict places ordisturbed ground with light, sandysoils, and on airport grassland.

Crested Lark

SLIM AND ALERTA Crested Lark in mild alarm raisesits crest and stretches tall and slim;when relaxed, it will look rounder.

FLIGHT: floppy, heavy, bounding, with bursts ofslowish wingbeats and swooping glides; song-flighthigh, circling.

IN FLIGHT

Several larks have short, stubbycrests, which may be raised but still look

blunt: only the Crested and Thekla Larks have really obviouspointed crests in Europe.The two are difficult to tell apart, but it isthe Crested that is by far the more widespread and common, bothin range and habitat selection. It is typically,however, a bird of farmed land, often seen at the side of roads, flying up in front of passing traffic to reveal its broad, round wings andshort tail. It seldom perches on bushes, as theThekla Lark sometimes does.VOICE Rich, fluty, liquid call, tree-loo-ee orvee-vee-teu; song from perch or in high,circling flight similar in quality with fluty,melancholy notes.NESTING Small hollow on ground, in grass,lined with fine stems; 3–6 eggs; 2 or 3 broods;April–June.FEEDING Forages on ground, often on barepatches, for insects, seeds, and shoots.

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

blackish tail withgrey centre,orange sides

rust-orangepatch onunderwings

pale, dullrump

plain paleupperwings

sharp, pointedcrest, raised

streaked, palebrown back

whitishunderparts

blurred darkstreaks onbreast

crest laidflat

dark linebelow eye

curved bill

muchshortercrest

LESSER SHORT-TOED LARKsee p.437

white edge to wings

shorter crest

SKYLARKsee p.265

THEKLA LARKgreyer underwings;stronger streaks on breast;see p.267

LARKS

267

Length 15–17cm (6 –61⁄2 in) Wingspan 30–35cm (12–14in) Weight 30g (11⁄16oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Vulnerable

Order Passeriformes Family Alaudidae Species Galeridae theklae

Like the Crested Lark, the Thekla Lark has a quite obvious pointed crest, although somewhat blunter

and more fan-shaped than the Crested’s sharp spike.Theklas arefound less in cereal fields than Cresteds, although they do occupystony slopes with small corn fields separated by bushes and hedges.More usually, they occupy orchards and clearings in open woodland,or rough, open areas of stony grassland andbarren rocky slopes. Plumage and calldifferences from other larks (especially theCrested Lark) are very subtle, and itsidentification is often based on acombination of factors.VOICE Full-throated, musical call, tu-tewi,tew-tewi-loo, variable number of notes; songvaried, liquid, rich warble in flight, muchlike Crested Lark’s.NESTING Shallow hollow on ground, ingrass or other vegetation; 3–5 eggs;2 broods;April–June.FEEDING Picks shoots, seeds, and insectsfrom ground.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in Spain, Portugal, and verylocally in S France. In dry,cultivated areas with trees, rocky,grassy hillsides, and mountainslopes, either open and treeless, or bushy slopes with scatteredboulders and taller trees. Strictlyresident.

FLIGHT: series of quick flaps between short glides;high, soaring song-flight.

SIMILAR SPECIES

CAMOUFLAGEThekla and Crested Larks vary onlyslightly in colour, both oftenmatching the general colour ofthe local rocks and soil.

plain upperwings

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

IN FLIGHT

CRESTED LARKmore orangeunderwings;see p.266

SKYLARKwhite trailing edgeto wings; see p.265

WOODLARK blackishedge of wings;see p.268

smaller

longer bill

white tailsides

Thekla Lark fan-shapedcrest, raised

dark stripe below eye

closely streaked,grey-brown back

crest laidflat

white belly

rufousrump

greyunderwings

sharp,thick darkstreaks onwhitishbreast

palearoundeye

straightbill

blackish tail withpink-brown centreand rusty sides

Length 15cm (6in) Wingspan 27–30cm (101⁄2 –12in) Weight 24–36g (7⁄8 –15⁄16oz)

Social Winter flocks Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Vulnerable

Order Passeriformes Family Alaudidae Species Lullula arborea

LARKS

268

One of the smallest and prettiest of the larks, the Woodlark isprincipally a bird of open woodland, woodland clearings, sandy

heaths, and felled or replanted conifer plantations on sandy soils. In earlyspring, males sing from trees or in a wandering, circling song-flight, producing a highly distinctive song. In winter, small flockswander widely over cultivated ground and underthinly scattered trees.When feeding Woodlarksare approached, they may fly off at some distance,or crouch and rely on camouflage to avoiddetection, not flying up until the last moment.VOICE Call varies on three-syllable pattern,first low and quiet t’loo-i or ti-loooi; song rich,slow, fluty diminuendos, tlootlootloo, twee twee twee twee, dyoo dyoo dyoo dyoo, dlui dlui dlui, inhigh, circling flight.NESTING Hair- and grass-lined nest on groundnear bush; 3 or 4 eggs; 2 broods;April–June.FEEDING Picks up insects and small seeds fromground, often on bare, sandy patches. OCCURRENCE

Widespread up to S Great Britainand S Scandinavia; in summer,only in north and east of range,breeding in open woodland, onbushy heaths, and especially infelled woodland such as extensiveconifer plantations with areas ofbare, sandy ground and shortgrass. On fields in winter.

Woodlark

ADULT

ADULT

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

rich tan andblack streakson cap

long whitish stripeover eye to backof neck dark-

edged,rufouscheeks

dark streakson whitishchest

whitish belly

FLIGHT: distinctively floppy, on rounded wings, tailvery short, in series of deep undulations.

GROUND FEEDERThe Woodlark spends most of itstime feeding or standing on theground, or on low logs and stumps.

IN FLIGHT

very short tail,white atcorners

buff-black-buffwing patch

SIMILAR SPECIES

SKYLARKsee p.265

CRESTED LARKsee p.266

LINNET 2;see p.382

upstanding crest

longertail

larger paler andplainer

thickerbill

black-streaked, brightbuff-brown back(juvenile spotted paler)

black andwhite wingpatch

short crest

smaller andrustier

ADULT

SIMILAR SPECIES

LARKS

269

Length 14–16cm (51⁄2 –61⁄2 in) Wingspan 30cm (12in) Weight 25g (7⁄8oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Vulnerable

Order Passeriformes Family Alaudidae Species Calandrella brachydactyla

Asmall, pale, neat, common lark of southEurope, the Short-toed Lark has a

distinctive pattern, with the palest, least-markedunderparts of any of the regular European larks.Generally looking rather dull and unobtrusive, it isbest located by its calls or song. It likes open plainsand fields, usually in warm, dry regions, and appears as arare migrant outside the normal breeding range regularlyin very small numbers.As a migrant, it isoften found in coastal areas, particularlysandy fields and grasslands.VOICE Chirruping, sparrowy chrrit ortrilp, sometimes buzzy like Lesser Short-toed Lark’s; song of short, spitting,unmusical bursts or longer, more varied,fast warbling with calls intermixed.NESTING Shallow nest on ground ingrass, lined with finer material; 3–5 eggs;2 broods; May–July.FEEDING Searches ground for seedsand insects.

OCCURRENCEWidespread in Spain, Portugal,Italy, Balkans, and local in France,breeding in dry open places fromcultivated land or rough grasslandto semi-desert. Migrates to Africain winter. Some wander farthernorth as rare migrants in springand autumn.

Short-toed Lark dark, oftenrusty cap

whiteeye-ring

pale stripeover eye

pale brown upper-parts (juvenilemore spotted on back)

ADULT

ADULT

ADULT

LESSER SHORT-TOED LARKsee p.437

CORN BUNTINGsee p.403

SKYLARKwhite edge towings in flight;see p.265

muchbigger

biggerbill

poorly markedcheeks

FLIGHT: flitting, finch-like or sparrow-like flightwith bursts of wingbeats between closed-wingedglides; song-flight high, bouncing.

morestreakedbreast

longerwingtips

dull whitishunderside

dark panelbetweentwo palewingbars

dark patch atbase of neckdark tail with

pale centre andwhitish sides

IN FLIGHT

streakedbreast

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

SLENDER LARKThe Short-toed is a rather long and slim lark, with thelong wings and tail giving it a tapered shape.

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 17–20cm (61⁄2 –8in) Wingspan 35–40cm (14–16in) Weight 45–50g (15⁄8 –13⁄4oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Declining†

Order Passeriformes Family Alaudidae Species Melanocorypha calandra

LARKS

270

This large, hefty lark of Mediterraneanregions is characteristic of open plains:

either dry steppe grassland or cultivatedareas with vast expanses of corn. CalandraLarks may also congregate in marshy areas,especially in salty areas in depressions ornear the sea; non-breeding flocks sometimesnumber scores or hundreds. Like most larks,they sing in flight, drifting around highup with slow, stiff wingbeats. Resident insouthwest Europe, more migratory insoutheast Europe, Calandras are extremelyrare vagrants farther north outside theirbreeding range.VOICE Dry, sizzly or trilling schrreeup;song in high flight prolonged, rich, variedlike Skylark’s but slower.NESTING Grass cup on ground, invegetation; 4–7 eggs; 2 broods;April–June.FEEDING Searches ground for seeds,shoots, and insects.

OCCURRENCEResident in Spain, Portugal, SFrance, Italy, and locally in Balkans;extremely rare outside its usualbreeding range. In farmland andopen, dry, stony grassland in low-lands, sometimes in flocks in salinedepressions with shrubby growth.

Calandra Lark

SKYLARKsee p.265

streaked cap

large,triangular,pale bill withdark ridge

closelystreakedback

much smallerneck patch

VARIABLE PATCHThe black neck patch is obviouswhen the lark raises its head, butis hidden when it is hunched down.

FLIGHT: low, heavy, shallow but sometimes quickwingbeats; song-flight high, drifting, with unusuallyslow wingbeats.

large blackneck patch

dark cheeks,white-edgedbelow

boldly markedhead

SHORT-TOED LARKsee p.269

smallerand paler

plainer

CORN BUNTINGsee p.403

pale wings

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

no darkneck patch

blackishunderwingswith whiteedge

white underparts with fine streakson chest

dark upperwingswith broadwhite edge

IN FLIGHT

smaller

palerwings

SIMILAR SPECIES

LARKS

271

Length 14–17cm (51⁄2 –61⁄2 in) Wingspan 30–35cm (12–14in) Weight 35–45g (11⁄4 –15⁄8oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Alaudidae Species Eremophila alpestris

An odd distributionsees the Shorelark

as a breeding bird inupland Scandinavia andmountains of southeast Europeand North Africa; in between, principallyaround the North and Baltic Seas, it is a winter bird.As such, itprefers sandy shores and beaches with strandlines and quiet littlewet and marshy spots where the receding tide leaves little poolsand patches of shrubby vegetation. It may mix with SnowBuntings in such places. Before leaving in spring,groups of Shorelarks may develop full summer coloursas the dull feather edges of winter wear away, creatinga pattern quite unlike other European larks. Breedingbirds in the Balkans are greyer, less brown, on the backthan northern birds.VOICE Pipit-like, thin tseeeep or louder seep-seep;prolonged repetition of quiet warbling song fromperch or in flight.NESTING Hair-lined grass cup, on ground; 4 eggs;1 or 2 broods; May–July.FEEDING Creeps about unobtrusively on ground,taking seeds, insects, crustaceans, and tiny molluscs.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in mountainous areas ofScandinavia. In winter, quite scarceand local around Baltic and NorthSeas. Mostly coastal, on beachesand marshes especially just aroundhigh-tide mark, less often onnearby open arable land.

pale yellow faceand throat (juvenilelacks yellow)

mid-brownupperparts

ADULT(WINTER)

IN FLIGHT

ADULT(SUMMER)

SKYLARKsee p.265

plain wings

ROCK PIPITsee p.281

smaller andslimmer

streakedchest

plain headpattern

longerlegs

ADULT(WINTER)

Shorelark

broad blackupper chest-band

variable brownlower chest-band

white underparts

primrose-yellow face

FLIGHT: swift, swooping, undulating, withfrequent wing closures; often circles around low overground before landing.

tiny “horns”

black pattern onhead duller thanin summer

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

palecentreto dark tail

HANDSOME LARKInconspicuous as it feeds on the ground, the Shorelark is nevertheless an attractive bird close up.

MARTINS AND SWALLOWS

MARTINS AND SWALLOWS

COLLECTIVELY KNOWN AS “hirundines”,these are highly aerial birds, feeding almost

entirely by catching flying insects while on thewing. They have tiny bills but wide mouths.Their feet are very small, but strong enough togive a good grasp on a wire or twig: they perchfrequently, unlike swifts.

MARTINSMartins are stockier than most swallows and lack the very long outer tail feathers that are soprominent on their close relatives. They haverather broad-based wings that taper to a pointand deeply forked tails on a barrel-shaped body.House Martins make obvious mud-pellet nestson buildings while Sand Martins tunnel intosand cliffs in sizeable colonies.

SWALLOWSThe most elegant of the group, the swallows tendto feed lower down than the martins, and on

larger prey, with a more fluent, swooping flight.All have elongated outer tail feathers, which arelongest on the oldest and fittest males. Red-rumped Swallows make mud-pellet nests likeHouse Martins, but with an entrance “porch”,while Swallows nest inside small buildings in a more concealed position.

In late summer and autumn, flocks of swallowsand martins gather together, often using reed-beds as roosts, before migrating to Africa. HouseMartins seem to remain at great heights while in Africa and are little observed. Swallows fromEurope occupy different parts of southern Africaduring their stay there.

Family Hirundinidae

SUN-BATHINGHouse Martins take advantage of a rooftop in warm autumn sunlight.Their white rumps are fluffed out and obvious.

WIRE BIRDSAn important social trait ofswallows is their habit of gatheringon wires before migrating south.

272

MARTINS AND SWALLOWS

273

Length 12cm (43⁄4 in) Wingspan 26–29cm (10–111⁄2 in) Weight 13–14g (7⁄16 –1⁄2oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Declining

Order Passeriformes Family Hirundinidae Species Riparia riparia

The hirundines – swallows and martins – areall small, aerial birds but the Sand Martin

is the smallest, with the weakest, mostfluttering flight.This is belied by the factthat it is the earliest to arrive in Europeeach spring, often reaching the UK inearly March. Conditions at this time are still very taxingfor a bird that relies on flying insects for food. It is then thatSand Martins are restricted almost entirely to lakes and reservoirswhere early insects are most reliable.They soon concentrate on theirtraditional colonies, but are also quick to exploit new possibilities,even small roadside cuttings and sandquarries which may only be suitable fora year or two.Artificial embankmentsspecially made for them are successful.VOICE Low, dry, slightly rasping orchattering chrrrrp; song rambling,chattering, weak twitter.NESTING Bores long hole into earth or soft sandstone; 4 or 5 eggs; 2 broods;April–July.FEEDING Aerial; catches insects inflight, often over water; sometimes feedson bare ground.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in earth cliffs, sandy riverbanks, and gravel pits throughoutEurope except Iceland. Wide-spread in river valleys, typicallynear water, and most often overwater in early spring, but also in moorland areas with erodedearth cliffs.

Sand Martin

FLIGHT: weak, fluttery, with fast in-out wing flicks,wings angled well back; faster when flocks going toroost in reedbeds, or if predator nearby.

SIMILAR SPECIES

HOUSE MARTINwhite rump; see p.277

ALPINE SWIFTsee p.251

much larger

stiff wings

brownupperwings

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

all-brownupperparts

often perches on earthbank or at entrance to nest-hole

brownbreast-band

white underparts

brown wings(juvenile has palefeather edges onwings)

uprightposture whileperching ontwigs or wires

IN FLIGHTADULTADULT

ADULT

SWIFTsee p.249

all-dark

blue-blackback

stiff wings

COLONIESSand Martin colonies are easy to see in earth banksand sand quarries, but restricted to a few localities.

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 14–15cm (51⁄2 –6in) Wingspan 32cm (121⁄2 in) Weight 20–25g (11⁄16 – 7⁄8oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Hirundinidae Species Ptynoprogne rupestris

MARTINS AND SWALLOWS

274

OCCURRENCEAll year in S Europe, breeding inSpain, Portugal, Alps, Italy, andBalkans. Typically in mountainousareas or lowlands with gorges andbroad, stony riverbeds; also inolder parts of towns aroundMediterranean, using buildings as cliffs; often at great altitudearound peaks.

Crag Martin

SAND MARTINsee p.273

ALPINE SWIFTsee p.251

dull brown backand rump withgrey tinge

whitish collarbelow darkcheek

finelystreaked,brownishgrey chin

whiter below

much smaller

whiter below

IN FLIGHT

HOUSE MARTINwhite rump;see p.277

blackish wedgeon underwings

dusky rearunderbody

brown tailwith oblongwhite spotsnear tip very pale

brownishgreyunderside

Of the European martins, this is the largest

and the most uniform in colour, and thefinest flier. It soars and floats confidently near cliffs, usingthe upcurrents expertly, often sweeping backwards and forwardsacross the cliff face like the end of a pendulum, neatly tilting overand turning at the end of each traverse. It is often accompanied bysmaller, less accomplished House Martins during these flights.VOICE Short, high, metallic clicking notes, dry tshirr;fast, twittering song.NESTING Mud nest under overhang of cliff or buildingor in cave; 4 or 5 eggs; 1 or 2 broods;April–June.FEEDING Aerial, catching flying insects and driftingspiders in air.

TAIL SPOTSThe white spots on the tail of theCrag Martin are diagnostic butsometimes difficult to see.

MUD GATHERERClose views are often possible asCrag Martins almost ignore peopleas they gather at a puddle tocollect mud for their nests.

FLIGHT: smooth, elegant, to and fro across face ofcliff, around high peaks, or over water; agile, glidingwith few quick wingbeats, fast turns.

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

stiff wings

muchbigger

SIMILAR SPECIES

MARTINS AND SWALLOWS

275

Length 17–19cm (61⁄2 –71⁄2 in) Wingspan 32–35cm (121⁄2 –14in) Weight 16–25g (9⁄16 – 7⁄8oz)

Social Migrant flocks Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Declining

Order Passeriformes Family Hirundinidae Species Hirundo rustica

Apopular bird throughout Europe, the Swallow is a summer visitor. Of all the swallows and martins, it has the most relaxed,

easy, and flowing flight, often at the lowest level, while House Martinsfeed higher up, almost as high as the Swifts. It hunts around field edges,over village greens, cricket pitches, and open spaces, taking biggerinsect food than the aerial feeders of higher levels. It also reliesnowadays on access to buildings of some sort in which to nest.VOICE Calls distinctively liquid swit-swit-swit, nasal vit-vit-vit,tsee-tsee; song quick,chirruping, twitteringwarble with characteristictrills.NESTING Open-toppedcup of mud and straw, onbeam or ledge inoutbuilding, shed, or barn;4–6 eggs; 2 or 3 broods;April–August.FEEDING Flies low,swerving to catch flyinginsects in its mouth,mostly large flies.

OCCURRENCEIn summer, throughout Europeexcept Iceland. Often near water,especially in spring and autumn,feeding over grassy or cultivatedriver valleys, open space, or richfarmland with hedgerows; nests inand around farms and villages butnot often in suburbia.

Swallow

ADULT

IN FLIGHT

ADULT

palechin

much smaller

blackunder tail

dark cap dark rufous forehead

deep rust-red chin

broad blue-blackchest-band

very dark blueupperparts(juvenile duller)

long, slenderwings

whitish to deeppeach-buffunderparts

paleundertailcoverts

HOUSE MARTINwhite rump; see p.277

RED-RUMPED SWALLOWpale rump; see p.276

SWIFTnever onopen perch; see p.249

FLIGHT: wings swept back, broad-based, tapered,flicked in shallow backward wingbeats; fluent andgraceful with much swerving, rolling from side to side.

all-dark

thinwings Seen in the UK

J J A S DNOMAMFJ

AGILE FLIGHTSwallows dive from the nest todash out through an open door or window.

AUTUMN FLOCKSBefore migrating in autumn,Swallows and House Martinsgather in substantial, twitteringflocks on overhead wires.

deeply forked tailwith long outerstreamers (shorteron female)

ADULT

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 14–19cm (51⁄2 –71⁄2 in) Wingspan 30–35cm (12–14in) Weight 20g (11⁄16oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Hirundinidae Species Hirundo daurica

MARTINS AND SWALLOWS

276

Once picked out from a flock ofSwallows, the Red-rumped Swallow

stands out because of its shape and actions asmuch as its pattern. It looks stiffer, straighter-winged,and slightly less fluent and relaxed in flight, enough tomake it distinct to a practised eye. It is a bird of southEurope but appears with increasing frequency (if stillunpredictably) farther north in spring and lateautumn. In summer, it prefers areas with cliffs andgorges, inland or on the coast, nesting in caves orbeneath natural overhangs as much as on buildings.VOICE Quite distinct thin queek or tsek, sharper keeer;song lower, harsher than Swallow’s.NESTING Semi-spherical mud nest with entrancetube, under overhang, in cave or under eaves; 3–5 eggs;2 or 3 broods;April-June.FEEDING Takes insects in air, catching them in itsmouth like other members of its family.

OCCURRENCEBird of S Europe, especially Spain,Portugal, and Balkans; rare migrantfarther north in late spring orautumn. Often in mountain areaswith cliffs, also around coastalcliffs, gorges, and older towns and villages in summer.

Red-rumped Swallow

SWALLOWsee p.275

faintly streaked, palerufous-cream underside

palethroat

ADULT

ADULT

ADULT

dark blue back(duller onjuvenile)

rufous collar

thick tailstreamers

black under tail

blackish tailwithoutwhite spots

dull orange-buff rump

ADULT

larger whiterump

FLIGHT: quite stiff, wings held rather straight out;shallow flaps, long, circling, flat glides.

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

IN FLIGHT

blackishtail looksstuck-on

all-darkabove

dark throat

HOUSE MARTINsee p.277

RUFOUS COLLARThe rufous patch between the dark cap and back is easy to see on a perched bird, less so in flight.

rufous sides of headand nape patch

dark bluecap

SIMILAR SPECIES

MARTINS AND SWALLOWS

277

Length 12cm (43⁄4 in) Wingspan 26–29cm (10–111⁄2 in) Weight 15–21g (9⁄16 – 3⁄4oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Hirundinidae Species Delichon urbica

As its name suggests, this is thehirundine most closely associated

with buildings, although apart fromusing houses to nest in, it really has noneed for people at all. It is not a gardenbird, but an aerial one, feeding over thehousetops, coming down only to pick upmud with which to fashion its distinctivenest. In many parts of south Europe, itstill breeds in remote places, nesting oncliffs high in the mountains.VOICE Hard, quick, chirping prrit orchrrit, tchirrip; song twitteringimprovisation of similar notes.NESTING Enclosed mud nest withentrance at top, fixed under eaves oroverhang; 4 or 5 eggs; 2 or 3 broods;April–September.FEEDING Catches flying insects anddrifting spiders, high in air, in its mouth. OCCURRENCE

In summer, in all of Europe exceptIceland, typically abundant insouth over towns, villages, openareas, mountain gorges, reservoirs,and reed beds. In N and WEurope, typical breeding bird ofmodern suburbs as well as olderfarmsteads and villages, but nowrare on natural cliffs.

House Martin

blue-blackback

blue-blackcap

IN FLIGHT

dark forked tailwith nostreamers

SWALLOWsee p.275

SAND MARTINdark rump; see p.273

SWIFTdoes not perch;see p.249

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

ADULTS (AT NEST)

FLIGHT: stiff, circling, with flurries of flickedwingbeats and long glides; less fluent than Swallow.

white-featheredlegs

whitethroat

ADULT(COLLECTING MUD)

ADULT

whiteunderside

dark underwings

nest exposedon outsidewall

brownabove

brown-blackwings

white rump (darkeron juvenile)

AUTUMN FLOCKHouse Martin flocks gather on wires in autumn beforemigrating south to Africa.

larger

all-darkplumage

all-darkabove

PIPITS AND WAGTAILS

PIPITS AND WAGTAILS

278

Family Motacillidae

which breeds beside fast-flowing streams, is a regular bird on urban rooftops in winter.

Male and female plumages are often differentand winter plumages are duller than summerones; juveniles are also recognizably different.Some species are resident in Europe, othersmigrate to Africa for the winter.

GREY OR YELLOW?Although called the Grey Wagtail, this bird confuses many people with its yellow coloration.

WHILE SIMILAR TO LARKS, these aresmaller, slimmer birds with longer tails

and a more steeply undulating flight.They lackthe larks’ prolonged song-flights but the pipitshave more ritualized song-flight patterns andless varied songs.

PIPITSStreaky brown is the typical description of apipit: species can be hard to tell apart. Calls help,as does the time of year, habitat, and location.Similar species pairs may have different lifestyles,such as Meadow Pipits (moorland in summer,lowlands in winter) and Tree Pipits (woodlandedge in summer,Africa in winter). There is littleplumage variation between sexes and seasons.

WAGTAILSMore boldly patterned or more colourful thanpipits, the wagtails are often associated with wateror wet meadowland. Pied and White Wagtails,however, are more likely than almost any otherbird to be seen on tarmac or concrete inurban areas and even the Grey Wagtail,

LONG CLAWMeadow and Tree Pipits are closely similar,but the Meadow Pipit has a long hind claw, at least as long as the toe, as seen here: on a Tree Pipit it is shorter.

SIMILAR SPECIES

PIPITS AND WAGTAILS

279

Length 15–18cm (6 –7in) Wingspan 28–30cm (11–12in) Weight 35g (11⁄4oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Vulnerable

Order Passeriformes Family Motacillidae Species Anthus campestris

OCCURRENCEBreeds on bushy, stony slopes, in dry cultivated land with muchstony soil, in grassland, and indunes. Widespread in Europenorth to Baltic but most typical of warmer areas in S Europe. Rare migrants farther north likelynear coast.

Alarge, stout-bodied, long-tailed, and rather wagtail-like pipit, the Tawny Pipit is widespread in mainland Europe and a scarce but

annual visitor to the UK. It can easily be located by its spring song,although it is often difficult to see as it sings high in a clear sky. Itprefers dry, stony, or sandy areas, such as warm, rocky Mediterraneanslopes with scattered bushes and aromatic shrubs, or sand dunes bythe sea. Pipits are often difficult to identify, especially out of theirusual range, but a summer Tawny in atypical situation is usually quite easy topick out with confidence.VOICE Sparrow-like schilp, more grating,emphatic tsee-i, short chup; song in highundulating flight loud repetition of ringing,low-high double note tchu-veee tchu-veee.NESTING Grass-lined cup in shortvegetation on ground; 4 or 5 eggs;1 or 2 broods;April–June.FEEDING Catches and eats mostly insectson ground.

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

RICHARD’S PIPITsimilar to juvenile;explosive call; see p.438

larger

more heavilystreaked

palebetweeneye and bill

YELLOW WAGTAILjuvenile; see p.286

lessbuff

WATER PIPITdifferent call; see p.280

darkerdarklegs

quite long, spike-like, pale-based bill

faint markingson breast

pale cream-buffunderparts

ADULT

dark spots onwing coverts

pale sandy- or grey-brown back

Tawny Pipitsparselystreakedpale back

dark tailwith whitesides

streakedback

JUVENILE

ADULT

IN FLIGHT

dark stripebetween eyeand bill

plain sandyback

WORNADULT

slender, pinkishor yellowishbrown legs

DARK SPOTS AND STREAKSA row of dark spots and feather centres relieve anotherwise nearly uniform pale buff appearance.

long pale lineover eye

FLIGHT: fast, direct; undulating with bursts of quickwingbeats; flies off long distance, going quite high.

Length 17cm (61⁄2 in) Wingspan 23–28cm (9–11in) Weight 20–36g (11⁄16 –15⁄16oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Vulnerable

Order Passeriformes Family Motacillidae Species Anthus spinoletta

PIPITS AND WAGTAILS

280

SIMILAR SPECIESOCCURRENCEBreeds locally at high altitude in Pyrenees, Alps, Italy, andBalkans, most often on highpastures with scattered boulders.In winter, spreads widely across W and S Europe, in marshy areas,coastal marshes, and lagoons with muddy edges.

Water Pipit

ROCK PIPITsee p.281

FLIGHT: strong, with bursts of wingbeats; oftenflies off to considerable height and distance; drops to ground in long, fast dive.

duller less whitebelow

WHEATEAR 2;white rump; see p.300

SKYLARKsee p.265

SUMMER

greyish head

long white stripeover eye

littlemarkingon chinand throat

weaklystreaked, warmbrown back

pink-flushedwhitish underparts

dark to reddishbrown legs

dark tail withwhite edges

WINTER

dark brownback

streakedflanks

white stripes on brown head

whiteunderparts

two whitewingbars

white bib

dark brown toblackish legs

Unusual in Europe,Water Pipits breed in high mountain areas and move down in winter, which takes many of them north-

wards rather than south.These winter birds visit muddy edges ofreservoirs, muddy places around reedbeds, and salt-marsh pools,very unlike their summer territories – alpine pastures and boulder-strewn slopes around the snow line. Migrants are generally shy and not easy to watch closely; caremust be taken to separate them from migrantRock Pipits of Scandinavian origin.VOICE Call between squeaky Meadow Pipit andfuller Rock Pipit, quite strong, thin fist; song strongseries of trills in high song-flight like Rock Pipit’s.NESTING Grass-lined cup on ground among grass;4 or 5 eggs; 2 broods; May–July.FEEDING Takes small insects and otherinvertebrates from ground.

IN FLIGHT

SUMMER

two strong whitishbars on dark wings

streakedbreast

more buff

shorttail

SHY BIRDWater Pipits are large, wary birds, andare not very easy to spot and identify.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

PIPITS AND WAGTAILS

281

Length 16.5cm (61⁄2 in) Wingspan 23–28cm (9–11in) Weight 20–30g (11⁄16 –11⁄16oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Motacillidae Species Anthus petrosus

One of the smaller pipits, this is a

stocky, relativelyheavily built, and quitedark bird, with distinctive dark legs. Itis a coastal rather than a cliff bird, breedingin rocky places by the sea and feeding alongshorelines of all kinds. In summer, it is mostly seenaround cliffs and rocky islands, but in winter it movesout to open sand and shingle beaches and even the deeplyincised muddy creeks of big salt marshes. Its song-flight and songare very similar to those of the Meadow Pipit.VOICE Call rather full, more slurred thanMeadow, feest or pseeep, usually singly; songricher, stronger trill in similar song-flight.NESTING Hair-lined nest on ground, incavity in rocks; 4 or 5 eggs; 1 or 2 broods;April–July.FEEDING Forages on grass and rocksabove cliffs in summer, more often onweedy and stony beaches in winter; picksup insects, sandhoppers, small periwinkles,and similar creatures.

OCCURRENCEBreeds on all rocky coasts ofScandinavia, Shetlands, N and WGreat Britain, Ireland, and NWFrance. Winters widely on softercoasts and is common around salt-marsh creeks and muddy inlets, inS to W Spain, with Scandinavianbirds moving south.

Rock Pipit

WINTER

SUMMER

SIMILAR SPECIES

FLIGHT: fairly strong; bursts of wingbeats betweenglides.

WATER PIPIT summer;see p.280

MEADOW PIPITsee p.282

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

SUBSPECIES

L. a.littoralis (Scandinavia) spring

pale eye-ring

dull underside

weak pale stripeover eye

grey-brownstreaks onyellowish to dullwhite underside

diffusely streaked,dusky olive back

dark back

dark legs

long, strong,all-black bill

plainerbelow

palelegs

paler, morebuff

strongerwhitishwingbars

SUMMERgrey-edged,dark tail

IN FLIGHT

dark brown toblackish legs

greyerback

lessstreaked

IDENTICAL IN WINTERThe Scandinavian subspecies looks exactly like theRock Pipit in winter but turns up inland more often.

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 14.5cm (53⁄4 in) Wingspan 22–25cm (9–10in) Weight 16–25g (9⁄16 – 7⁄8oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Motacillidae Species Anthus pratensis

PIPITS AND WAGTAILS

282

Asmall, streaky brown bird, the Meadow

Pipit is worth looking atclosely for the subtletiesand beautiful patterns of itsplumage. It gives the impression ofconstant nervous energy and worry; its callsmay have a slightly hysterical quality.Winter flocksmake shorter calls, more like the “pip-it” of their name. In summer,Meadow Pipits prefer heaths and wide open moors, often quiteboggy places up on the hills.Their tinkling songs are characteristic of summer days in the open hills. In winter, many move to openfarmland.These common, widespread birds often fall prey to Merlinsand are parasitized by Cuckoos.VOICE Sharp, weak, squeaked pseeepor tsee, frenetic repetition in alarm;winter flocks have short, quiet pip,pi-pip calls, short tit; song long series of simple repeated notes and trills, inparachuting song-flight starting andending on ground.NESTING Nest lined with fine stemsin grass on ground; 4 or 5 eggs;2 broods; May–July.FEEDING Shuffles about on ground,picking up insects and other tinyinvertebrates; eats some seeds.

OCCURRENCEBreeds widely in NW, N, and E Europe; in winter, in W, SW, and S Europe. Nests on heaths,moorland, coasts, dunes, andbogs from sea level to high hills; in winter, mostly on lowlandfarmland and marshy places near coasts.

Meadow Pipit

ROCK PIPITsee p.281

RED-THROATED PIPITjuvenile; different call; see p.284

dark streak orpatch on sidesof neck

slim, weak,all-dark bill

pale stripeover eye

soft blackish streaks ongreyish, olive-, oryellowish brown back(darker on juvenile)

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

olive-buff or creamyunderside (yelloweron juvenile)

FLIGHT: quite slow, erratic bounds and slight undu-lations with bursts of wingbeats; flies up weakly, jerkily.

dark tailwith broadwhite sides

TREE PIPITsummer only;different call andsong; see p.283

ADULT

IN FLIGHT

evenly streakedchest and flanks ADULT

pale orange-brown legs

very longhind claw

DELICATE PATTERNA close view of this streaky brown bird reveals a beautiful,intricate pattern.

plainerflanks

larger anddarker

short hindclaw

more boldlystreaked

dark legs

SIMILAR SPECIES

PIPITS AND WAGTAILS

283

Length 15cm (6in) Wingspan 25–27cm (10–101⁄2 in) Weight 20–25g (11⁄16 – 7⁄8oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Motacillidae Species Anthus trivialis

OCCURRENCEBreeds in most of Europe except in Ireland and Iceland. Occurs fromspring to autumn only, usually inopen woodland, woodland glades,or around edges of plantations, onbushy heaths and moors withscattered trees; migrants in moreopen areas at coasts.

Tree Pipit strong palestripe over eye

pinkish-based bill

upperparts brownerin summer

ADULT (SPRING)

buff-yellowunderside

thin blackishstreaks onchest

plain, paleyellowishflanks

STRIKING SONGWhether from a tree or in flight,the Tree Pipit’s song is rich andmusical with Canary-like trills.

MEADOW PIPITsharper call; see p.282

ROCK PIPITsee p.281

SKYLARKsee p.265

ADULT (AUTUMN)

blackish tail withwhitesides

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

FLIGHT: quite strong, direct, slightly undulatingwith bursts of quick wingbeats; often flies up intotree; less hesitant than Meadow Pipit.

IN FLIGHT

dark spots acrosswings

neat black stripes onpale back (plumagesimilar to juvenile)

ADULT(SPRING)

One of the small, streaky pipits,the Tree Pipit is very like a

Meadow Pipit but is more confident-looking and sleeker, although thickset: smallpoints of character rather than plumage featuresseparate these little brown birds. It also has a superb song, richand musical, in a distinctive song-flight, so summer males are not so difficult to identify. For autumn migrants, a call-note may be necessary for positive identification.While they do often occur within sight of eachother,Tree and Meadow Pipits have differenthabitats,Tree Pipits occurring mostly on woodlandedges and Meadow Pipits on heaths or moorlands.VOICE Distinctive calls, including low, hissy buzz,teeess or teaze, thin, sharp tzit; loud, sweet song, withlong series of notes and fast trills ending in loud,slow sweee-sweee-sweee, from perch or in flight endingon tree or bush.NESTING Grassy cup on ground in thick grass;4–6 eggs; 1 or 2 broods;April–July.FEEDING Takes small insects from ground.

thin, palepink legswith shortclaws

bigger andheavier

crest

longerhind claw

dark legs

darker

Length 14–15cm (51⁄2 –6in) Wingspan 22–25cm (9–10in) Weight 16–25g (9⁄16 – 7⁄8oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Motacillidae Species Anthus cervinus

PIPITS AND WAGTAILS

284

SIMILAR SPECIES OCCURRENCEBreeds in extreme N Scandinaviaon tundra, mountains, and inwillow swamp. Widespreadmigrant in damp places in C and E Europe, but rare in W; likely onopen ground, swampy areas,coastal dunes, and islands.

MEADOW PIPITdifferent call;see p.282

duller

less streaked

TREE PIPITdifferent call; see p.283

plainerflanks

Red-throated PipitADULT(SUMMER)

short,white-edged tail

streakedrump

boldly streaked, dullwhitish underside

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

IMMATURE (1ST WINTER)

strong pale stripeover eye

streaked dark cap

finelystreakedcrown

In summer, this is a pipit of the far north; in spring it may be foundin damp, grassy places and around pools and salt pans in southeast

Europe. It is a regular but rare autumn migrant in westEurope.Although it is just another “streaky pipit”, itdoes have a call note that, once heard, is remarkablydistinctive, instantly revealing the presence of a callingbird flying over or flushed from the grass.VOICE Call distinctive: high, slightly explosive,penetrating, fading out psseeeeee, also harder chup;song rhythmic repetition of sharp, fine, ringing notesand buzzy trills.NESTING Grassy cup on ground in vegetation; 4 or 5eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Takes insects and other invertebrates fromground; eats some small seeds.

ADULT(SUMMER)

blackish brownand cream stripeson back

short-tailed,stocky shape

pinkish to brick-redface, throat, andupper breast

FLIGHT: stronger than Meadow Pipit, less hesitant,more direct like Tree Pipit.

yellowbase tobill

IN FLIGHT

ADULT (WINTER)

VARIABLE REDThis adult Red-throated Pipit is at the reddest-faced, least-streakedextreme of summer.

duller face thanin summereven, broad black

stripes on whiteunderparts

PIPITS AND WAGTAILS

285

Length 18cm (7in) Wingspan 25–30cm (10–12in) Weight 19–27g (11⁄16 – 7⁄8oz)

Social Winter flocks Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Motacillidae Species Motacilla alba

Widespread and familiar, the Pied (or White) Wagtail is frequentlyseen in and around towns, often feeding on areas of tarmac,

concrete, or stone slabs. It is also frequently seen on roofs, from whichit typically calls before moving off: its call is a usefulindicator of its presence. In summer, it can be foundanywhere from builder’s yards and woodsheds toremote quarries and natural cliffs and along stony riveror lake sides.Although creating few identificationproblems, its non-breeding plumages are quite complex.VOICE Calls loud, musical chrip, chuwee, chrruwee, andvariants, merging into harder, unmusical tissik or chiswit;song mixes similar calls and trills.NESTING Grassy cup in cavity in bank, cliff, orwoodpile, in outbuilding or under bridge; 5 or 6 eggs;2 or 3 broods;April–August.FEEDING Feeds very actively on ground, roofs, orwaterside mud or rocks, walking, running, leaping upor sideways, or flying in pursuit of flies; takes insects,molluscs, and some seeds.

OCCURRENCEBreeds throughout Europe; foundonly in summer in N and E Europebut widespread in winter. Veryvaried habitat, often near waterand in built-up areas, feeding oncar parks, pavements, and roof-tops, but not usually in gardens.

Pied Wagtail

MALE (SUMMER; PIED)

SIMILAR SPECIES

GREY WAGTAIL 32;yellow rump; see p.287

YELLOW WAGTAILjuvenile, similar tojuvenile; differentcall; see p.286

JUVENILE

MALE(SUMMER)

whitishface

white belly

sootyflanks

white streakson wings

black cap, chin, andthroat (white chinand throat outsidebreeding season)

greyer head andupperparts thanadult male’s

blackishrump

greyer backthan male’s

buffishbelow

black back

long, white-edgedblack tail

FEMALE(PIED)

IN FLIGHT

FLIGHT: quick, direct, with long undulating boundsand bursts of wingbeats.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

blackbreast

yellowunder tail

browner

COMMUNAL ROOSTPied Wagtails sometimes roost in hundreds in trees in towncentres or inside factories.

M. a. alba(mainland Europe)

SUBSPECIES

MALE

pale greyback

brownerwings withwhite bars

JUVENILE

greyercap

Length 17cm (61⁄2 in) Wingspan 23–27cm (9–101⁄2 in) Weight 16–22g (9⁄16 –13⁄16oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Motacillidae Species Motacilla flava

PIPITS AND WAGTAILS

286

OCCURRENCEWidespread in summer, breedingthroughout Europe except forIreland and Iceland. Often nearwater, in wet fields and pastureswith livestock. Migrant flocksoften on muddy reservoir edges or adjacent grass.

Yellow Wagtail

greyerback

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

SIMILAR SPECIES

longer tail

shorter,pale legs

PIED WAGTAIL juvenile, similar to juvenile; see p.285

longertail

FEEDINGThe Yellow Wagtail is usually foundaround livestock in damp fieldsand pastures: it eats insectsdislodged from the grass by thegrazing cattle and horses.

GREY WAGTAIL 32;see p.287

M. f. feldegg(SE Europe)

white sidesto black tail

long,spindlyblack legs

greenback

bright yellowunderparts

grey-greenback

pale lineover eye

green crown

FEMALE(SPRING)

Elegant and colourful, the Yellow Wagtail, particularly the summermale, is a highly distinctive bird. However, autumn birds,

especially juveniles, cause confusion with rarerspecies and also juvenile Pied Wagtails, which canappear strongly yellowish.The call always helps toidentify it. In summer, it lives around pools andreservoirs and damp, grassy fields where horsesand cattle disturb the insects it eats. In winter, it isfound near big mammal herds on African plains.VOICE Call distinctive, loud, full, flat, or risingtsli, or tsweep or tswi-eep; song repetition of brief,chirping phrases.NESTING Grassy cup in vegetation on ground;5 or 6 eggs; 2 broods; May–July.FEEDING Forages on ground, skipping and leapingafter flies in short flycatching sallies; eats insects andother invertebrates.

two white barson blackishwings

IN FLIGHT

FLIGHT: strong but undulating, with long,sweeping bounds; flurries of quick wingbeats.

JUVENILE (AUTUMN)

pale stripeover eye

white lineson wings

buffunderside

bright yellowstripe overeye

MALE(SPRING)

MALE(SPRING)

glossy blackcrown and cheeks

M. f. flava(C Europe)

long whitestripe overeye

blue-grey crownand cheeks

SUBSPECIES

PIPITS AND WAGTAILS

287

Length 18–19cm (7–71⁄2 in) Wingspan 25–27cm (10–101⁄2 in) Weight 15–23g (9⁄16 – 13⁄16oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Motacillidae Species Motacilla cinerea

The slimmest of the wagtails, this one also has thelongest tail. It can have much yellow in its plumage

and can be confused with the Yellow Wagtail; it mayalso be mistaken for the Pied Wagtail which ofteninhabits the same areas of clear, fast-flowing, rockystreams in summer and shallow pools in winter, andhas a similar call. In winter, the Grey Wagtail may feedon almost any puddle, even on a flat rooftop in a citycentre or at a garden pond.Visits to such places by thisshy bird are invariably short but revealed by its calls.VOICE Sharp, explosive, metallic tchik or zi, or zi-zi;song penetrating, metallic, sharp trills and warbles.NESTING Grassy cup in hole in bank, wall, tree roots,or under bridge; 4–6 eggs; 2 broods;April–August.FEEDING Catches flies and small invertebrates onground or in air; quite active, bouncy feeder.

OCCURRENCEWidespread breeder north to GreatBritain, Ireland, and S Scandinavia,along clean, often tree-lined riversor more open upland streams.Very widespread near water inwinter, briefly at puddles in townsand cities.

Grey Wagtail

black chin(pale inwinter)

yellowestunder tail

greenish rump

yellow underparts,whiter on sides(less yellow inwinter)

whitethroat

MALE(SUMMER)

MALE (SUMMER)

FEMALE(SUMMER)

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

SUBTLE BEAUTYEven a female or young Grey Wagtail has a lovely combination of smokygrey, buff, yellow, white, and black.

PIED WAGTAIL 32;see p.285

SIMILAR SPECIES

FLIGHT: fast, bounding, undulating, with flurries of wingbeats; very long tail obvious.

greenishyellowrump

long, broadwhite stripealong wings white stripe

over eye

very long, white-edged black tail

IN FLIGHT

mid-grey upperparts,from cap to back

JUVENILE

no yellowunder tail

grey above

yellowunderlong tail

brightest yellowunder tail

YELLOW WAGTAIL32 summer;see p.286

shortertail

black legs

brown-blackwings

buffishbelow

WRENS, DIPPERS,WAXWINGS, AND ACCENTORS

WRENS, DIPPERS,WAXWINGS,AND ACCENTORS

288

THIS GROUP – ANOTHER convenientgrouping rather than a collection of near

relatives – includes families that are widespreadin the northern hemisphere and one family(accentors) that is absent from the New World.

WRENSPrimarily an American family, with just onespecies in Europe, the wrens are small, brown,barred birds with loud voices and an “irritable”character. The Wren, whose scientific namemeans “cave dweller”, is likely to be found indark, damp, cobweb-filled places under hedgesand around sheds, searching for insects.

DIPPERSSuperficially wren-like but larger, the Dipperswims, wades, and walks underwater. It is alwaysat the water’s edge, even flying along a twistingwater course rather than across dry land.

Families Troglodytidae, Cinclidae, Bombycillidae, Prunellidae

WAXWINGSUpright, crested, short-legged, eye-catching birds,Waxwings are sociable and often very tame.Their numbers in western Europe vary greatlyfrom year to year.

ACCENTORSSmall, slim-billed, shuffling ground birds, accentorsare often overlooked. The Dunnock,however, is common in manyhabitats and a frequentgarden songster thatdeserves to be a morepopular favourite.

WINTER FLOCKWaxwings take a breather after drinking, before returning to gorgethemselves once more on a crop of berries.

ROCK HOPPERA Dipper standsbeside a rushingtorrent, into which it is likely to plunge.

ABUNDANTDunnocks are among north-west Europe's mostcommon birds, with a widechoice of habitat types.

VIBRANT SONGA Wren shakes with the effort asit pours out a remarkable song,part of the woodland chorus.

WRENS, DIPPERS,WAXWINGS,AND ACCENTORS

289

Length 9–10cm (31⁄2 –4in) Wingspan 13–17cm (5–61⁄2 in) Weight 8–13g (5⁄16 – 7⁄16oz)

Social Roosts in flocks Lifespan 2–5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Troglodytidae Species Troglodytes troglodytes

OCCURRENCEBreeds in practically all of Europeexcept far north; in N and E Europe only in summer. Livesanywhere from open clifftops andheaths to broadleaved andconiferous woodland, parks,gardens, and hedges.

Wren round head, withno neck

pale buffunderside

long pale stripeover eye

pale brownback

SIMILAR SPECIES

longertail

FLIGHT: low, fast, short, with bursts of quickwingbeats; dives quickly into cover.

DUNNOCKsee p.292

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

larger andspotted

dark barringon backand wings tiny, rounded,

cocked tail

IN FLIGHT

longertail

ROBIN juvenile, similarto adult; see p.295

DETERMINED SINGERWith tail raised and bill wide open,a singing Wren puts all its effortinto a loud, vibrant song.

T. t. zetlandicus(Shetland)

coarselybarredflanks

greyerbrown

softly barredflanks

largerandgreyer

SUBSPECIES

fine,longbill

One of Europe’s smallest birds, the big-voiced Wren uses a remarkable

variety of habitats. It is found from sealevel to high up in mountain areas, fromforest to almost open spaces; subspeciesexist in remote island groups. It spends most of the time low down, on or near the ground, often in deepthickets of bramble or bracken or in ornamental shrubberies. Cold winters cause dramatic declines but Wren populations can recover quite quickly.VOICE Dry, hard calls with irritable, rattlingquality, chit, chiti, tzerrr; song loud, full-throated,warbling outburst with characteristic low,hard trill and fast, ringing notes.NESTING Small, loose ball of leaves and grass,tucked in bank, under overhang; 5 or 6 eggs;2 broods;April–July.FEEDING Forages in dark, damp places under hedges, around buildings, shrubberies,in ditches, and in patches of dead bracken and similar low, thick cover; finds insects and spiders and feeds on scraps scattered under bushes.

strong palefeet

WRENS, DIPPERS,WAXWINGS,AND ACCENTORS

OCCURRENCELocal in upland areas, absent fromIceland, W France, and NE Europe,but breeding widely elsewhere insuitable habitat: clean, fresh rivers,in moorland areas or tree-linedvalleys, or deep in shady gorges. In winter, some move out to largerareas of water, rarely coasts.

Dipper

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

SUBSPECIES

C. c. cinclus (N Europe, N France)

all-darkbelly

blacker

CAMOUFLAGE PATTERNThe bright white chest surprisingly serves to render the Dipper lessconspicuous in the ripples and reflections of a stony river.

pale feather edges

Few birds are so strictly confinedto one habitat type as the Dipper.

In summer, it is essentially a bird of fast-flowing, but often tree-linedrivers in uplands. It remains there if itcan in winter, but hard weather may drive it lower down or even to the edges of large lakes and reservoirsor the sea coast. It is quite at home swimming and diving, or simplywalking into the water and disappearing underneath as it searches for food. Its springy, bouncing movements and call are also distinctive.VOICE Sharp, hard, abrupt, and penetrating dzit or djink; song loud, rich warbling mixed with explosive, grating notes.NESTING Ball-shaped nest of moss and grass in hole in bank, under overhangor bridge, and behind waterfall; 4–6 eggs; 2 broods;April–July.FEEDING Unique, walking into water, swimming and diving from surface,or wading into shallows, foraging for caddis-fly and other larvae, small fish,crustaceans, and molluscs.REMARK Subspecies C. c. hibernicus (Scotlandand Ireland) has narrow,darker chestnut belly band.

JUVENILE

IN FLIGHT

greyerbody

thicksetshape

ADULT

FLIGHT: low, fast, along stream line; fast bursts of wingbeats.

thick black legswith large feet

chestnut bandon belly

bold whitechest

stout darkbill

deep brownhead

Length 18cm (7in) Wingspan 25–30cm (10–12in) Weight 55–75g (2–25⁄8oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Cinclidae Species Cinclus cinclus

290

blackish fromback to tail

ADULT

SIMILAR SPECIES

WRENS, DIPPERS,WAXWINGS,AND ACCENTORS

291

Length 18cm (7in) Wingspan 32–35cm (121⁄2 –14in) Weight 45–70g (15⁄8 –21⁄2oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Bombycillidae Species Bombycilla garrulus

Anorthern breeding bird, the Waxwing visits western Europe in winter in very variable numbers.The best

years follow a summer with good breeding success and highpopulations, but a poor autumn berry crop will force the Waxwingsto move far to the south and west of their usual range in search offood.Although flocks in flight might superficially suggest Starlings,identification is very easy; the birds’ tameness helps as they feed inurban areas or gardens.VOICE Silvery, high, metallic trill on even pitch, trrreee or siirrrrr.NESTING Moss-lined nest of twigs in birch or conifer; 4–6 eggs;1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Eats insects insummer; in winter someinsects, often caught inflight, but mostly largeberries such as rowan, haw-thorn, and cotoneaster; alsoeats apples and other fruit.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in conifer forest in extremeNE Europe. In winter, frequent inN Scandinavia, irregular in S Scandinavia and E Europe.Numbers are erratic, sometimeslarge, in W Europe, big flockscoinciding with high populationand lack of food in N Europe.

Waxwing

RESTING FLOCKWaxwings feed greedily, stripping shrub of berries, and drink a greatdeal. Between bouts of feeding, flocks rest in undisturbed trees nearby.

white bars onblack wings

dull black tailwith broadyellow tip

long stripe of yellowor white along closedwingtips

large crest

pale pinkishbrown body

black linethrougheye

waxy red spotson wings

FEMALE

FLIGHT: direct, swooping or swerving, with long,shallow undulations, quick wingbeats; flocks keepformation like waders.

neatblack bib

IN FLIGHT

pale greylower backand rump

rusty redunder tail

MALE

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

yellow tipblurredbib

thinneryellowstripe

STARLING 32; similar in flight;see p.372

sharperbilldark

rump

ADULT

MALE

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 14cm (51⁄2 in) Wingspan 19–21cm (71⁄2 –81⁄2 in) Weight 19–24g (11⁄16 – 7⁄8oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Prunellidae Species Prunella modularis

WRENS, DIPPERS,WAXWINGS,AND ACCENTORS

292

OCCURRENCEBreeds throughout Europe exceptin Iceland. Present only in summerin N and E Europe; in some partsof S Europe in winter. Widespread,on heaths and moors with low,dense scrub and exposed coastalareas as well as in higher forest,bushy gardens, ornamentalflowerbeds, and parks.

Dunnock

ADULT

ROBIN juvenile; see p.295

JUVENILE

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

FLIGHT: short, flitting, whirring; wings round, tailquite long.

The generally quite dull and unobtrusivelooks of the Dunnock bely its unusual

mating habits: it forms one-male-two-female oreven one-female-two-male trios when breeding. Easilyoverlooked, it is widely distributed in a great variety ofplaces, like the Wren. Its sharp calls and fast, high-pitched butslightly “flat” song call attention to it. If disturbed, it generally flies atnear ground-level into the nearest thick bush, and is sometimes takenfor some rare, vagrant warbler.VOICE Loud, high, penetrating pseeep, thin, vibrant teeee; song quick,slightly flat, high-pitched, fast warble with little contrast or variation in pitch.NESTING Small grassy cup, linedwith hair and moss, in bush orhedge; 4 or 5 eggs; 2 or 3 broods;April–July.FEEDING Forages on ground,shuffling, crouched, often in oraround bushes, close to cover; picksup small insects and seeds; feeds on scraps beneath bird-tables andgrated cheese under shrubberies.

black and brownstreaks on back

greythroat

soft, warmbrown streakson flanks

mid-greybreast

brown cheeks

uneven, greyand brownstreaking below

paler

WRENsee p.289

barred

streakedbuffunderside

paler

MEADOW PIPITsee p.282

brown eyestreakedbrown cap

fine darkbill

black streaks onrich brown backand wings

IN FLIGHT

shorttail

more buffbelow

line of palespots acrosswings

SHUFFLING FEEDERDunnocks creep forward, flicking their tails, picking food fromthe ground, without the bouncy hop of House Sparrows.

orange-brownlegs

smaller

ADULT

Length 15–17cm (6 –61⁄2 in) Wingspan 22cm (9in) Weight 25g (7⁄8oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

WRENS, DIPPERS,WAXWINGS,AND ACCENTORS

293

short,roundedwings

SIMILAR SPECIES

DUNNOCKgreyer on breast;see p.292

Where it is moderatelycommon, the Alpine

Accentor can be found bysearching high mountain slopeswith mixed pastures and rock, or inalmost entirely rocky places at high altitude.In areas where it is more thinly spread, locatingit can be quite difficult. In winter, accentors move to lower levelsand turn up quite regularly at traditional sites outside the breedingrange, usually hilltops, but also centred on old buildings such as castlecomplexes on rocky outcrops.They can be quite tame in winter, butare often shy and elusive in summer in the mountains. In shape andbehaviour, they resemble large Dunnocks.VOICE Short, trilling or rolling calls, trru, tschirr, drrp; song erratic,uneven series of trills and squeaky notes, sometimes in flight.NESTING Grassy nest inrock crevice or underrocks; 3–5 eggs; 2 broods;May–August.FEEDING Forages onground, finding insects,spiders, and seeds.

CHARACTERISTIC MARKINGThis Alpine Accentor on rocky ground reveals the obvious dark wingpanel that is usually the most distinctive feature at a distance.

OCCURRENCEBreeds at high altitude mostly inPyrenees and Alps, and locally inItaly and Balkans, usually on wideopen slopes with short grass andplenty of boulders, or almostwholly rocky places. Sparse atlower altitude in winter, a fewmoving outside breeding range toMediterranean islands.

FLIGHT: quite strong, lark- or thrush-like withflurries of wingbeats, quick swoops.

IN FLIGHT

dark midwing panel,edged with white spots

Alpine AccentorOrder Passeriformes Family Prunellidae Species Prunella collaris

streaked,dull buffishor greyundersidedark tail

broad red-brownstreaks on flanks

dark band onclosed wings

dark streakson pale grey-brown back

grey head yellow-baseddark bill

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

lessreddishflanks

plainerwings

CHATS AND THRUSHES

CHATS AND THRUSHES

294

BIRDS IN THIS GROUP are characterized byrather short but strong bills, stout legs, quite

large heads, big eyes, and an all-round solid build.Some are common, others very rare; some areresident, others migrate.They occupy a widerange of habitats from gardens to forest, mountain,and moor, and include some of the finest ofEuropean bird songsters.

CHATSSmaller than the thrushes and less stoutly built,the chats are varied: most have different seasonalplumages, with male and female looking differentin summer and juveniles looking much likewinter adults.

The wheatears occupy open places from high,bleak moors to hot Mediterranean heaths. Thenightingales live in dense shrubbery in woods orbeside heaths. Stonechats are year-round residentson open heath, while Whinchats are summermigrants. The chats demonstrate thatthere is usually more than one way to exploit a habitat or food supply.

WINTER FEATHERSThe whitish edges on the feathers of thisRock Thrush will wear off by summer, togive a clear blue and orange appearance,quite unlike any other European species.

Family Turdidae

THRUSHESThe spotted thrushes look the same all year andmale and female are alike, while the Blackbirdand rock thrushes have sexual (and sometimesseasonal) differences in plumage. Superb singers,they make up the bulkof the spring dawnchorus in much ofnorthern Europe. Manyare migrants, althoughin some cases, such asthe Blackbird, winterimmigrants to westernEurope join others ofthe same species.

INTERMEDIATEThe Nightingale fits neatly betweenlarger thrushes and smaller chatsin size and shape.

SONG THRUSHSeveral of the thrushes are excellent songsters,none more so than the Song Thrush whoserepetitive phrases include many strong, clear,musical notes.

SIMILAR SPECIES

CHATS AND THRUSHES

295

Length 14cm (51⁄2 in) Wingspan 20–22cm (8–9in) Weight 16–22g (9⁄16 – 13⁄16oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan 3–5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Turdidae Species Erithacus rubecula

This is a typical forest or woodland-edge species in most of itsrange, adapted to follow foraging animals such as wild boar: it

picks up food from the earth overturned by the animals. In the UK,it follows gardeners turning the soil, and has become remarkablytame. In most of continental Europe, Robins are much shyer birds.Robins are easily identified (although juveniles haveno red at first) and have a distinctive song.VOICE Sharp, short, abrupt tik, series of quick tik-ik-ik-ik-ik, high, thin seeep; song rich, full, variedwarbling in long, musical series, some phrases likeGarden Warbler’s (see p.314); in autumn/winter moremellow, melancholy.NESTING Domed nest of leaves and grass in bank,dense bush or hedge, or thick ivy; 4–6 eggs; 2 broods;April–August.FEEDING Mostly on ground, hopping and flitting in search of spiders, insects, worms, berries, and seeds;comes to feeders and bird-tables for seed mixtures.

OCCURRENCEWidespread, but absent fromIceland; summer visitor in N and E Europe. In all kinds of forest,especially more open woodland,as well as on bushy heaths, ingardens with hedges andshrubberies, and in town parks.

Robin

IN A DIFFERENT LIGHTIn some lights, the white breastspot below the red bib may bevery obvious.

bluish greysides of neckand chest

ADULT (SPRING)

JUVENILE

FLIGHT: short, flitting darts into cover; longerflights weak, flitting, with bursts of wingbeats.

DUNNOCKsee p.292

NIGHTINGALEsee p.296

REDSTART 2; see p.298redder

on tail

much greyerbelow

redderon tail Seen in the UK

J J A S DNOMAMFJ

olive-buffunderside

spindlybrown legs

pale orange-red towashed-out orangeface and breast

big black eyesmall, finedark bill

mottledbrownbody

redblotchesappear

IN FLIGHT

ADULT (WINTER)

soft, warm- toolive-brownupperparts

orange-redbreast

ADULT

Length 16–17cm (61⁄2 in) Wingspan 23–26cm (9–10in) Weight 18–27g (5⁄8 –15⁄16oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Turdidae Species Luscinia megarhynchos

CHATS AND THRUSHES

296

With one ofthe finest songs

in Europe, the Nightingale iseasy to find when singing but otherwise difficult to locate andusually hard to see well. It skulks in thick vegetation, often close to the ground, although with a little patience a clear view cansometimes be obtained. In places, it sings much more openly, but is likely to drop out of sight immediately if approached too closely.Although quite plain in appearance, itsidentification is usually straightforward.VOICE Calls include low, mechanical, grating kerrr,loud, bright hweet; song brilliant but unstructured, veryvaried, some phrases extremely fast with suddenchange from high to low pitch; long, slow, plaintivenotes build to sudden throaty trill.NESTING Cup of grass and leaves in dense bushycover close to ground; 4 or 5 eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Forages in clear spaces under dense, darkcover, in ditches, and under thickets for worms, larvae,beetles, and berries.

SIMILAR SPECIES

OCCURRENCEIn Europe from April to August;common in S Europe, scarce inNW as far as England andGermany. Breeds in many kinds ofthickets that are dense to groundlevel, from bushy gullies andovergrown gardens to woodlandwith bushy (especially coppiced)undergrowth and clumps of densebushes on heaths.

Nightingale

GARDEN WARBLERsee p.314

ROBIN juvenile,similar to juvenile;see p.295

THRUSH NIGHTINGALEsee p.439

ADULT

mottledon chest smaller

smaller

duller

duller

FLIGHT: low, short, flitting, with wings and tailfanned briefly as it dives into cover.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

JUVENILEgrey on sideof neck

warmbrown back

tail oftenraised

brightrump

rufoustail

rufoustail

strongpinkish legs

pale ring aroundlarge dark eye

spottedabove

clean grey-buffunderside

MALE(SINGING)

IN FLIGHT

plain brownwings

POWERFUL SONGMales sing more consistently atdawn and dusk, and bursts ofsong are often intermittent by day.

ADULT

CHATS AND THRUSHES

297

Length 14cm (51⁄2 in) Wingspan 20–22cm (8–9in) Weight 15–23g (9⁄16 – 13⁄16oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Turdidae Species Luscinia svecica

This is chiefly a bird of wet places, such as thickets at the edge of reedbeds and

swampy ground within northern forests.In the UK, it is a scarce migrant, oftenin similar places and usually on thecoast, so it is frequently difficult towatch. Not being a regular garden bird it is often overlooked, despiteits unusual looks. It also sounds remarkable, its rich song includingexcellent mimicry. Its general form and actions recall the Robin.VOICE Sharp, hard tak, softer wheet,often with hard note as wheet-turrc;song powerful, bright, musical,accelerating into melodiousoutburst with much mimicry.NESTING Small grassy cup in lowbush; 5–7 eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Forages on ground closeto cover, picking up seeds, insects,and berries.REMARK Subspecies L. s. svecica(North Europe) has rufous central breastspot; L. s. magna (Eastern Europe) has no spot.

OCCURRENCEBreeds locally in France, LowCountries, Scandinavia, and NE and C Europe. Prefers wetthickets, moist woods, heaths, andbushes on tundra. On migration, a few appear west of usual range,in coastal thickets and reeds duringMarch to October.

Bluethroat

FLIGHT: low, quite quick, flitting, usually shortdistance into nearby cover.

MUSICAL SONGMales vigorously sing from concealedperches in dense waterside thicketsand low bushes.

MALE (SUMMER; RED-SPOTTED FORM)

SIMILAR SPECIES

NIGHTINGALEsee p.296

no stripeover eye

moreuniform tail

plainer headwithoutstripe

ROBINsee p.295

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

FEMALE

JUVENILE

red ontail

bluethroat

blue andrufousflecks

bold white stripeover eye

pale stripeover eye

rufouspatch oneach sideof tail

dark breast-band maybe spottedblue

SUBSPECIES

white centralbreast spot

L. s. cyanecula(S and C Europe)

IN FLIGHT

plainwings

MALE

dark brownupperparts

Length 14cm (51⁄2 in) Wingspan 20–24cm (8–91⁄2 in) Weight 12–20g (7⁄16 –11⁄16oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Vulnerable

Order Passeriformes Family Turdidae Species Phoenicurus phoenicurus

CHATS AND THRUSHES

298

Robin-like but slim and slender-tailed, the Redstart constantly flickers its tail up and down. Spring males are extremely

handsome birds, best located by following up their short, sweet song.A woodland bird, the Redstart prefers to nest in old woods with plenty of space beneath the canopy in which it can feed.As a migrant,it often appears in thickets and bushes, both inland (often in willowthickets beside lakes and reservoirs) andmore commonly along the coast.VOICE Clear, rising wheet or hueeee;huee-tic; sharp tac; song brief, bright,musical warble, often beginning withseveral low, rolling notes, finishing inweak trill.NESTING Grassy nest lined withfeathers and hair, in hole or nest box;5–7 eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING In foliage or drops to ground,finding insects, spiders, caterpillars, smallworms, and some berries. OCCURRENCE

Breeds in most of Europe (exceptIceland and Ireland), in openwoodland or old woods with littleundergrowth, some in scatteredtrees on rocky slopes. Present fromApril to October, moving to Africain winter. Migrants are often nearthe coast or in willow thicketsbeside reservoirs inland.

Redstart

NIGHTINGALEsee p.296

ROBINsee p.295

BLACK REDSTART 2similar to 2; lessred on rump; see p.299

larger

uniformtail

plain browntail

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

SIMILAR SPECIES

MALE (AUTUMN)

MALE(SPRING)

MALE(SPRING)

black faceand throat

slim body

rich orange-rufousunderside

whitish feathertips obscuringmost of dark face

bluish grey fromcrown to back

bold whiteforehead

slim blacklegs

rust-redrump

darkerabove

darkcentre onpale rust-red tail

IN FLIGHT

plainhead

greyer below

FLIGHT: quite quick and agile, flitting from tree totree; often drops briefly to ground.

rusty tail

FEMALE

AUTUMN PLUMAGEAutumn females and juveniles have pale wingbarsand a bright buffy appearance overall.

pale buff underside

CHATS AND THRUSHES

299

Length 14.5cm (53⁄4 in) Wingspan 23–26cm (9–10in) Weight 14–20g (1⁄2 –11⁄16oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Turdidae Species Phoenicurus ochruros

Abird of rocky slopes with scree and crags, or deep gorges, the Black Redstart also readily occupies towns

and villages with older buildings that offer holes in which to nestand rough or waste ground where it can feed. It may move intoindustrial sites and run-down areas of larger cities. In winter, a fewuse quarries and rocky coves along the coast, but most prefer roughground, from new building sites to derelictland with brick and concrete rubble.VOICE Call hard, rattling or creaky notes,short tsip, tucc-tucc, titititic; song hesitant warblewith strange stone-shaking trills and rattles,carries far in town or on cliff where elusive.NESTING Grassy nest in hole in building,on ledge, in cavity in cliff or fallen rocks;4–6 eggs; 2 broods; May–July.FEEDING Leaps and flies after insects, drops toground from high perch or boulder to pick upbeetles, grubs, worms, some berries, and seeds.

Black Redstart

IMMATURE (WINTER)

REDSTART 2similar to 32; see p.298

SIMILAR SPECIES

BLACK WHEATEAR 32;see p.302

DUNNOCKsee p.292

larger andblacker

streaked

no redon tail

blackerhuge whiterumpand vent

paler

more rufouson rump

pale greybody

pale eye-ring

rust-red aboveand on sidesof tail

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

MALE (SPRING)

OCCURRENCEBreeds in most of Europe exceptIceland, N Great Britain (very rarein S), and N Scandinavia, in townsand villages with old buildings,cities and derelict industrial areas,cliffs, gorges, mountain areas, andoften in old quarries along coast.In winter, often in quarries oralong rocky coast.

MALE

white panelon wings

sooty greyupperparts

dark rust-red tailwith darkercentre

IN FLIGHT

FLIGHT: quick, agile, darting through small spaces,dashing across roofs, with bursts of flicking wingbeats.

FEMALE

browner headthan male

grey cap

black below

sooty or mousygrey body

IMMATURE MALEMales often sing and sometimes breed whilestill in immature grey plumage.

Length 14.5–15.5cm (53⁄4 –6in) Wingspan 26–32cm (10–121⁄2 in) Weight 17–30g (5⁄8 –11⁄16oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Turdidae Species Oenanthe oenanthe

CHATS AND THRUSHES

300

An early arrival from Africa in spring, reaching Great Britain in early March, the Wheatear breeds in open areas with grassy

places on which it feeds adjacent to scree, stone walls, crags, or,more rarely, holes in sandy ground in which to nest. It is a frequentmigrant outside its breeding areas, turning up alongcoasts, on farmland, and on grass beside reservoirs.Verymuch a terrestrial bird, it usually avoids trees and bushes.It frequently flies ahead of people, not going far, andrevealing its distinctive white rump each time it moves.VOICE Hard chak-chak,bright wheet-chak-chak;song long, rambling, quickwarble with rolling,scratchy notes, often insong-flight.NESTING Grassy cup,in hole in ground, rabbitburrow, or under fallenrocks, in stone wall;5 or 6 eggs; 1 or 2broods;April–July.FEEDING Bouncy hops,short runs, on openground, picking upinsects and spiders;sometimes catches flies in flight or with suddenshort, fluttery leap.

OCCURRENCEBreeds almost throughout Europebut very local, where open grassyor heathy ground is mixed withscree, boulders, and cliffs, typicallyat rather high altitude or in hillyareas. Migrants encountered onfields, grassy areas, dunes, and golfcourses, from March to October.

Wheatear

MALE(SPRING)

FLIGHT: low, flitting, quite strong, undulating;sometimes swoops up to perch.

IN FLIGHT

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

pale grey fromcrown to back

white stripeabove eye

black patchthrough eye

rich buff or pale buffunderside,fades white

black legs

ROCK HOPPERThe Wheatear has strong legs andfeet, ideal for the rocky habitat inwhich it is often found.

small, diffuseeye patch

pale sandygrey back

FEMALE (SPRING)

white tailbase

bright buffbelow

pale feather edgeson wings

juvenile’s plumage similarto autumn adult’s

JUVENILEMALE(SPRING)

bold black“T” shapeon whitetail

blackishwings

brownerwings

FEMALE(SPRING)

O. o. leucorhoa(Greenland; WEurope in spring)

richercolours

larger

SUBSPECIES

SIMILAR SPECIES

BLACK-EAREDWHEATEAR 32;buff back;see p.301

morewhiteon tail

WHINCHAT 32;streaky brownrump; see p.303

smaller

Slimmer, lighter, and less solid than a Wheatear, the Black-eared Wheatearoccurs in two forms – black-throated and pale-throated – and requires

careful identification in plumages other than the spring male’s, which isbold and striking. It combines some of the actionsof the smaller chats with the typical behaviour ofground-feeding wheatears.This southern Europeanwheatear is common on warm, stony Mediterraneanslopes, readily perching on low bushes and tall stems.VOICE Wheezy tssch, hard tack; song fast, rattlingwarble, quite bright and explosive, sometimes with mimicry.NESTING Grassy cup in hole, under boulders or stones, or at base of bush; 4 or 5 eggs;1 or 2 broods;April–June.FEEDING Watches from bush top or stone, drops to ground, or chases after insects; eats some small seeds.REMARK Subspecies O. h. hispanica (SW Europe)has less black on face andthroat and yellower back;O. h. melanoleuca (S Italy,Balkans) has more blackon face, whiter back, andlonger wingtips. Bothhave black- and pale-throated forms.

CHATS AND THRUSHES

301

Length 13.5–15cm (51⁄4 –6in) Wingspan 25–30cm (10–12in) Weight 15–25g (9⁄16 – 7⁄8oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Vulnerable

Order Passeriformes Family Turdidae Species Oenanthe hispanica

OCCURRENCEVery locally in Spain, Portugal, and Mediterranean countries, in variety of open, often barrenplaces with scattered bushes,rocks, and high stony pastures,from March to October. Only rare vagrant farther north in springor autumn.

Black-eared Wheatear

FLIGHT: quick, light, direct, long tail allows goodmanoeuvrability; often swoops up to raised perch.

bold blackeye patch

blackishwings

brightpale buffunderside

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

SLENDER FORMThis is a slim, elegant wheatear,often perching on bushes, usingits tail to maintain its balance.

IMMATURE(AUTUMN)

MALE (SPRING;BLACK-THROATED)

MALE (SPRING;BLACK-THROATED)

IN FLIGHT

mostly whitetail with blackcentre andsides

white, buff,or orange-buff back

FEMALE

black sidesof tail

MALE (SPRING;PALE-THROATED)

buff-brownor yellow-orange body

whitishbelly

gingerbreast

SIMILAR SPECIES

white onlyon rump

STONECHAT 32; see p.304

broader black tailband

WHEATEAR 32;see p.300

smaller andmuch stockier

black faceand throat

Length 16–18cm (61⁄2 –7in) Wingspan 30–35cm (12–14in) Weight 25–35g (7⁄8 –11⁄4oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Endangered

Order Passeriformes Family Turdidae Species Oenanthe leucura

CHATS AND THRUSHES

302

One of the larger wheatears of the region, theBlack Wheatear is also more of a resident than

the others. It is declining in some northern parts ofits range. It prefers rocky or stony ground, and isoften on or around the base of sheer cliffs, beingsurprisingly inconspicuous in the strong light and shadeof scree slopes or boulders. If it flies,however, its very large and strikingwhite rump and tail becomeimmediately obvious.VOICE Bright, whistled pewp, hard tet-tet; song low, rich or lighter, harshtwittering, sometimes in song-flight.NESTING Grassy cup in hole in ground,rabbit burrow, under fallen rocks, or instone wall; 5 or 6 eggs;1 or 2 broods;April–July.FEEDING Forages on ground, moving upand down slopes in short flights; swoopsfrom perches on insects and spiders.

OCCURRENCEBreeds on slopes with rocks andscree from Pyrenees southwardsthrough Spain and Portugal.Resident there but does not moveoutside this restricted range. Oftenseen perched on cliffs, crags, andboulders or feeding on patches of short grass.

Black Wheatear

BLACKBIRD 32;see p.311

WHEATEAR 32;see p.300

BLACK-EAREDWHEATEAR 32;see p.301

MALE(SPRING)

FEMALE

stoutblackbill

strong blackishlegs

mostly whitetail

whitevent

black body

body duller andbrowner thanmale’s

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

paleroverall

FLIGHT: quite strong, often low; fast up and downslopes or across cliff faces.

SIMILAR SPECIES

blacktail

ADULT

black “T”-shapedmark onwhite tail

IN FLIGHT

wings look palerin flight

whitebelow

UPRIGHT STANCELike all wheatears and chats, the Black Wheatear hasa bold, upright posture on strong legs, and moveswith quick, leaping hops.

CHATS AND THRUSHES

303

Length 12.5cm (5in) Wingspan 21–24cm (81⁄2 –91⁄2 in) Weight 16–24g (9⁄16 – 7⁄8oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Turdidae Species Saxicola rubetra

OCCURRENCEPresent from April to September in open places with heather, grass,scattered taller stems, or youngtrees. Widespread but increasinglyscarce and localized; absent fromIceland. Migrants typically restnear coasts in open grassy ormarshy places.

Whinchat

FLIGHT: short, low, flitting, quite quick, usually onto isolated, slender upright stem or fence.

MALE(AUTUMN)

MALE(SPRING)

FEMALE (SPRING)

SIMILAR SPECIES

darkthroat

no pale stripeover eye

plain tailSTONECHAT 32;see p.304

SEDGE WARBLER 32similar to 2; see p.322

yellow-buffunderside

deep apricotbreast

almost blackcheeks,edged white

streakedcap andcheeks

black streakson pale straw-brown back

buff stripeover eye

buff stripeover eye

dark capbold pale stripeover eye

palethroat

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

IMMATURE (1ST WINTER)

WHEATEAR 32;see p.300

pale yellowishunderside

Declining in much of its range as its preferred habitats are altered,the Whinchat is a bird of grassland with tall, woody stems or

small bushes which give it an open perch quite close to the ground.Young conifer plantations serve it well for a fewyears but “rough”, uncultivated ground is oftennot tolerated in agricultural or suburban areasand so the Whinchat is squeezed out. It is asummer visitor to Europe, unlike the similar but resident Stonechat.VOICE Loud, short, tictic or tuc-tuc-tuc, wheet orwheet-tuk; song varied, at best Robin-like but withclicks, rattles, and grating notes mixed in.NESTING Grassy nest low in tussock, bush, orground; 5 or 6 eggs; 1 or 2 broods; May–July.FEEDING Watches from perch and drops toground to pick up insects and worms; also feedson some seeds and berries.

SPRING PERFECTIONA male in spring is a superblypatterned, crisply coloured bird.

whitetriangleon eachside of tail

IN FLIGHT

FEMALE(SPRING)

more white on tail

larger

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 12.5cm (5in) Wingspan 18–21cm (7–81⁄2 in) Weight 14–17g (1⁄2 – 5⁄8oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Declining†

Order Passeriformes Family Turdidae Species Saxicola torquata

CHATS AND THRUSHES

304

Small, chunky, and upright, the Stonechat often perches on thetops of bushes or on overhead wires in otherwise rather open

places. Heaths, upland moors, and stretches of grassland with gorsethickets above coastal cliffs are perfect for it; in winter, it may moveto the coast to escape hard weather, and inland breeding populationsmay temporarily disappear after bad winters. Migrant SiberianStonechats are more like pale Whinchats in some respects butresident Stonechats are usually easily identified.VOICE Hard, scolding tsak or tsak-tsak, sharp wheet,often wheet-tak-tak; song sometimes in flight, rapid,chattery warble with some chattering and gratingnotes, less musical than Whinchat’s.NESTING Grassy cup, lined with hair and feathers,often in dense grass with entrance tunnel; 5 or 6 eggs;2 broods; May–July.FEEDING Drops to ground to pick up insects,spiders, worms, and some seeds; catches some insectsin flight, returning to eat them on a perch.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in most of Europe exceptIceland, Scandinavia, and NEEurope; rather scarce inland in NW Europe. Likes open placeswith gorse, heather, and bushes,on heaths or above coastal cliffs,and dunes.

Stonechat

WHEATEAR 32;see p.300

WHINCHAT 32autumn;see p.303 long pale stripe

over eye

white ontail

REDSTART 32;see p.298

bigger

big white areaon tail andrump

longtail

slimmer

palerump

large whitewing patch

MALE(SUMMER)

IN FLIGHT

MALE (SUMMER)

blackish headand throat

paler throatand head

white patch onsides of neck

rust-redbreast

paler belly

black streaks on brownback (back duller in winter)

stocky shape

short blackishtail

slim blacklegs

JUVENILE

FEMALE

FLIGHT: low, quick, direct, whirring, ontoprominent perch.

pale throat

mottled chest

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

SUBSPECIES

S. t. maura(Siberia); clearrufous rump

white feather fringes

pale lineover eye

SIMILAR SPECIES

CHATS AND THRUSHES

305

Length 21–23cm (81⁄2 –9in) Wingspan 35–40cm (14–16in) Weight 60–80g (21⁄8 –27⁄8oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan 5–10 years Status Vulnerable†

Order Passeriformes Family Turdidae Species Monticola solitarius

Dark, but intensely blue in good lightand at close range, the Blue Rock Thrush

is mostly found around cliffs and deep mountaingorges; it also occurs around coastal villages and developments,perching freely on roofs and wires. In more remote places, it isoften best located by its loud song. Females are more problematical than males but equallydistinctive if seen well.The thrush-like silhouette,with a particularly long, thick, spike-like bill,is a useful feature.VOICE Deep, thrush-like chook, higher squeakynotes; song rich, musical warbling, melancholy,Blackbird-like, carrying far across gorges and cliffs.NESTING Grassy cup in hole in wall or cliff orunder rocks; 4 or 5 eggs; 1 or 2 broods;May–July.FEEDING Picks insects, spiders, worms, lizards,berries, and seeds from ground.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in Spain, Portugal, andMediterranean area, where mostly resident. In gorges, rockyareas with crags and boulders inmountains, and also aroundbuildings and quarries, often near coasts.

Blue Rock Thrush

ELUSIVE ON CLIFFSThe blue male is handsome whenseen well but is surprisinglydifficult to spot against rocks.

FEMALE

BLACKBIRD 32;2more uniform; see p.311

FLIGHT: swift, direct; flappy over long distance,recalling Blackbird.

blacker

stockier

dark andglossy

shortertail

long, thick,spike-likebill

dark bluebody, looksblackish atdistance

brownishwings

quite short,stout legs

rich, brightblue head

plain brownback

close darkbars on paleunderside

dark brown tailwith no traceof rufous

close, fine brown barson pale face

MALE

JUVENILE

IN FLIGHT

3

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

ROCK THRUSH juvenile,similar to juvenile, 2;see p.306

MALE

shorterrufoustail

SPOTLESS STARLING 32;see p.373

smaller andbrighter

Length 17–20cm (61⁄2 –8in) Wingspan 30–35cm (12–14in) Weight 50–70g (13⁄4 –21⁄2oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Declining†

Order Passeriformes Family Turdidae Species Monticola saxatilis

CHATS AND THRUSHES

306

Asmall thrush with a short tail and stocky body, the Rock Thrush is characteristic of high alpine

pastures, rocky slopes, and small upland fields withstone walls. It perches on boulders, poles, overheadwires, and other prominent places and so may berelatively easy to see. Its song-flight also catches theeye, although finding a small bird in a habitat that isgenerally so open and expansive can be difficult.Identifying it is usually simple enough: malesespecially are quite striking.VOICE Squeaky whit and hard chak; song fluty, soft,Blackbird-like rich, musical warble, descending, oftenin song-flight.NESTING Grassy cup in hole in wall or cavity amongrocks or scree; 4 or 5 eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Looks for food from high perch, droppingdown onto insects, small reptiles, and worms; also eatsberries and seeds.

SIMILAR SPECIES OCCURRENCEFound from March to Septemberin S Europe north to Alps andPyrenees, very rare outside thisrange. Breeds in high alpinemeadows and on grassy slopeswith boulders and crags; also oncliffs and in deep gorges.

Rock Thrush

WHEATEAR 32;see p.300

REDSTART 32;see p.298

FLIGHT: strong, direct, quick, with bursts ofwingbeats; fluttery song-flight.

slimmer andmuch smaller

MALE(SPRING)

stout,spikybill

powder-bluehead andneck

strong darklegs

white barswear off insummer

rich rust-orangeunderside(orange buff onfemale withnarrow dark bars)

smaller

IN FLIGHT

MALE

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

dark brownwingswhite on

back(dark onfemale)

pale barsabove

dark spots onrufous breast

pale spots wearoff in summer

rust-orange tailwith thindark centre

JUVENILE

SUMMER COLOURSFresh feathers have whitish tips, but by mid-summer, these wear off tocreate a more uniform appearance.

whiteon tail

CHATS AND THRUSHES

307

Length 23cm (9in) Wingspan 33–36cm (13–14in) Weight 70–90g (21⁄2 –31⁄4oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Turdidae Species Turdus philomelos

The classic spotted thrush, the Song Thrush is neatly patterned below, and is rather small,

markedly smaller than a Blackbird. It has a marvellouslyvibrant, varied, full-throated song that is instantly identifiable.A declining bird in many areas, it relies on some woodland or tree cover, or at least big, bushy hedges in farmland.It is equally at home in mixed or deciduouswoodland with some clearings and well-wooded gardens or town parks.VOICE Short, thin, high stip; loud alarm rattle;song loud, exuberant, shouted, each separatedphrase of 2–4 notes repeated 2–4 times, somemusical, some whistled, others harsh or rattled.NESTING Grassy cup lined with mud anddung, low in bush, hedge, or tree; 3–5 eggs;2 or 3 broods; March–July.FEEDING Hops and runs across open ground,stopping to detect and extract earthworms; eatsmany snails, slugs, other invertebrates, berries,and fruit; shy visitor to bird-tables, but eatsscattered scraps and apples.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in almost all of Europeexcept Iceland; in summer, only in N and E Europe, resident andwinter visitor in S and W. Inbroadleaved woodland, parkland,farmland with trees and hedges,gardens, parks with lawns, andshrubberies.

Song Thrush

FLIGHT: usually low into nearest cover; higher flighterratic, with swooping glides; bursts of wingbeats.

SINGING

MISTLE THRUSHsee p.309

SIMILAR SPECIES

BLACKBIRD 2;see p.311

stronglystripedhead

rounderspotsbelow

pale edgesto wingfeathers

bigger

smalleranddarker

bigger

darker

much lesssharply spotted

greyer

REDWINGsee p.308

streaksundercheeks

pale eye-ring

yellow-buffunderparts,browner on flanks,white on belly

“V”-shaped,brown-blackspots onunderside

pale pinkishlegs

plain dark toolive-brownupperparts

pale feathertips

plainwings

ELDERBERRY TREATAutumn berries provide welcomefood for the Song Thrush, inaddition to the usual diet ofworms and snails.

IN FLIGHT

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

warm orange-buffunderwings

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 21cm (81⁄2 in) Wingspan 33–35cm (13–14in) Weight 55–75g (2–25⁄8oz)

Social Winter flocks Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Turdidae Species Turdus iliacus

CHATS AND THRUSHES

308

Often heard callingduring its nocturnal

migrations, especially during clear,calm nights in October, the Redwingis a small, social thrush, easily identified byits well-marked head pattern. It moves about in flocks, often mixed with Fieldfares, and, inwinter, feeds in loose congregations in fields or incloser groups, feeding on berries in hedgerows. It isnot generally a garden bird but will come to largergardens for food during hard weather, to which it is particularly susceptible. Breeding pairs form small,scattered groups.VOICE Flight call, often at night, high, thin, simpleseeeeh, also chuk, chittuk; song variable, monotonousrepetition of short phrases and chuckling notes withrising or falling pattern.NESTING Cup of grass and twigs, in low bush orshrub; 4–6 eggs; 2 broods;April–July.FEEDING Often on ground, in winter in looseflocks advancing across field, finding worms, insects,and seeds; also in hedges, feeding on berries; in hardweather, visits gardens for apples and berries.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in N and E Europe; wintersin N and S Europe. Nests in birchwoods and conifer forest; inwinter, on bushy heaths, in farm-land with hedges and old pastures,in larger, undisturbed parks, and ingardens, especially in hard weather.

Redwing

SKYLARKsimilar winter flocksin flight; see p.265

SONG THRUSHshorter call; palerunderwings inflight; see p.307

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

FLIGHT: quite quick; in flocks sometimes high,slightly erratic, undulating a little, with in-out flicks of wings; disturbed flocks move to hedge or tree. silvery white

underside

darkcheeks

dark brownback

pale stripeover eye

long,narrow darkspots onbreast

dark cap

reddishunderwingcovertswhite spot

beside tail

IN FLIGHT

greyerunderwings

smaller

BERRY EATERSHedgerow berry crops are quickly exhausted by mixed flocks ofRedwings and Fieldfares descending on them.

plainer head

dull rust-redflanks

SIMILAR SPECIES

CHATS AND THRUSHES

309

Length 27cm (101⁄2 in) Wingspan 42–48cm (161⁄2 –19in) Weight 110–140g (4–5oz)

Social Winter flocks Lifespan 5–10 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Turdidae Species Turdus viscivorus

Alarge, bold, aggressive thrush, theMistle Thrush is by far the largest of the

“spotted” thrushes and also Europe’s biggest true songbird. It isusually found in pairs, but families join up in larger groups duringautumn when berries are abundant. In winter, single Mistle Thrushesoften defend berry-laden trees against other birds, maintaining a food supply through the colder months.WhileSong Thrushes often slip away at low level ifdisturbed, Mistle Thrushes tend to go up to a muchgreater height and fly off over greater distances.VOICE Loud, slurred, harsh, rattling chattertsairrrk-sairr-sairr-sairrk; song loud, wild, fluty, notvery varied, series of short, repetitive phrases.NESTING Big, loose cup of roots, leaves, twigs, andgrass, often quite exposed high on tree branch;3–5 eggs; 2 broods; March–June.FEEDING Bounding hops on ground, searching forworms, seeds, and invertebrates; eats many berries,sometimes coming to larger gardens for fruit.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in most of Europe exceptextreme N; summer visitor in N and E Europe. In parkland,farmland with tall trees, orchards,on edges of moorland near matureforest, woodland clearings, andlower scrub, often feeding onopen grassland and large lawns.

Mistle Thrush

ADULT

JUVENILE

SONG THRUSHsee p.307

BLACKBIRD 2;see p.311

morealigned“V”-spots

smaller anddarker

no boldspots

plainerabove

FIELDFAREsee p.310

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

FLIGHT: strong, direct, sometimes undulating withlong swoops between bursts of wingbeats; often highand far-ranging.

ADULT

smaller

greyhead

brownback

blacktail

slender neck

small, rounded head

whitish sideto tail

pale edgesto darkwingfeathers

bold darkeye inplain face

grey-brownback

bold black spotson pale creamybuff underside

whiteunderwings

very palehead

pale spotson back

palerump IN FLIGHT

PALE THRUSHAgainst the dark foliage of aconifer, this bird may look very pale.

ADULT

Length 25cm (10in) Wingspan 39–42cm (151⁄2 –161⁄2 in) Weight 80–130g (27⁄8 –5oz)

Social Winter flocks Lifespan 5–10 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Turdidae Species Turdus pilaris

CHATS AND THRUSHES

310

SIMILAR SPECIES

OCCURRENCEBreeds across N and E Europe inwooded regions. Widespread,social winter visitor through all ofW and S Europe, in wooded areas,bushy heaths, and farmland(especially old pastures andorchards) with hedges andscattered trees. Visits gardens insevere weather.

Fieldfare

BLACKBIRD 2; darkunderwings in flight;see p.311

MISTLE THRUSHsee p.309

KESTREL 3;see p.140

FLIGHT: quite strong, somewhat undulating, withbursts of wingbeat; irregular glides, quite slow anderratic; often in flocks.

paletail

more uniform

muchlarger

paler back

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

dark brown back(juvenile hasbrown spots onwing coverts)

blue-grey headwith black mask

black andyellow bill

ADULT(SUMMER)

ADULT(WINTER)

mostly whiteunderwings

palegreyrump

IN FLIGHT

Alarge, striking, and handsome thrush, the Fieldfare has adistinctive call and a unique combination of colours.The

white underwing is a useful feature for identification, as is the tendency to move around in flocks and tonest colonially. Flocks in flight keep more orless together but drift along in irregular linesand shapeless packs, less coordinated than,for example, some of the smaller finches.VOICE Distinctive loud, soft or harder,chuckling chak-chak-chak or tsak-tsak-tsak,low, nasal Lapwing-like weeip; song ratherpoor, unmusical mixture of squeaks, warbles,and whistles.NESTING Cup of grass and twigs, in bush ortree, often in loose colonies; 5 or 6 eggs;1 or 2 broods; May–June.FEEDING Mostly eats worms and insects onground; also takes apples, berries, and otherfruit from trees, hedges, and bushes.

NOMADIC FLOCKSFieldfares flock in winter, movingabout and feeding together. Theyoften mix with Redwings andinteract with thrushes such asBlackbirds and Mistle Thrushes.

black-spotted,pale to deeporange-buffbreast

black spots onwhite flanks

whiterflanks

greyrump

blacktail

ADULT

Length 24 –25cm (91⁄2 –10in) Wingspan 34–38cm (131⁄2 –15in) Weight 80–110g (27⁄8 –4oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Turdidae Species Turdus merula

CHATS AND THRUSHES

311

One of Europe’s most familiar birds, the Blackbird is also a common example of a species with very obvious male and

female differences. Black adult males are unique while females arealways darker than other thrushes, although with a variable tendencyto be spotted on the underparts.They range from remote mountainforests to gardens and parks, and are among the most regular gardenbirds and bird-table visitors in many areas. Blackbirds create most ofthe spring dawn chorus in suburban and woodland areas.VOICE Low, soft chook, frequent loud, sharp pink pink pink; alarm rattle fast,hysterical outburst of sharp rattling notes, high, thin, slightly rough srreee; songsuperb, musical, full-throated, mellow warbling with many variations, phrases often ending in weak, scratchy sounds.NESTING Grass and mud cup, lined with grass, in shrub, bush, low in tree orhedge; 3–5 eggs; 2–4 broods; March–August.FEEDING Finds worms, insects, and invertebrates of all kinds on ground, oftennoisily exploring leaf litter; feeds on fruit and berries in bushes; often visits bird-tables, and eats scattered apples and bread.

OCCURRENCEBreeds over almost whole ofEurope but rare in Iceland. Inwoods, gardens, parks, andfarmland with tall hedges all year,in some areas garden lawn andshrubbery specialist, but essentiallybird of woodland with rotting leaflitter on ground.

Blackbird

MALE

SIMILAR SPECIES

RING OUZEL 32; see p.312

shorttail

paler legs

more clearlyspottedbelow

stockier

palerwings

whitebreast-band

paler

STARLING 32; see p.372

SONG THRUSHsimilar to 2; see p.307

large, all-black body

yelloweye-ring

brightorange-yellow bill

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

dark streakson throat

JUVENILE

gingerybrown body

pale streakson back

IN FLIGHT

FEMALE

variablymottled ordark-spottedunderside

IMMATURE MALE(1ST WINTER)

dull blackbody

brownwings dark

bill

MALE

wingtips subtlypaler, especiallyfrom below

raises tail

FLIGHT: usually quite low, quick, swooping intocover; more undulating over longer range with flurriesof wingbeats; raises tail on landing.

dark brownbody

Length 23 –24cm (9–91⁄2 in) Wingspan 38–42cm (15–161⁄2 in) Weight 95 –130g (33⁄8 –5oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan 5–10 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Turdidae Species Turdus torquatus

CHATS AND THRUSHES

312

SIMILAR SPECIES OCCURRENCEBreeds locally through Europe,except in Iceland and NE, mostlyon high ground, on open moorswith rocky places, gullies, exposedtors, and eroded peat bogs.Migrants in early spring and lateautumn seen on hills and coasts.

Ring Ouzel

DIPPERsee p.290

BLUE ROCK THRUSH 2similar to 23;see p.305

blacker

pale belowwith dark bars

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

BLACKBIRD 3similar to 32;see p.311

MALE

FLIGHT: fast, direct; often over long distance,recalling Mistle Thrush but lower; frequently flies offover ridge out of sight.

brown-blackback

black head

whitebreast-band

In summer, RingOuzels are found in

wild, open country withloose rocks, boulders, crags,or drystone walls, more rarelyin deeply eroded peat bogs or onsteep, bracken-covered slopes.Theyappear early in spring and occasionally turnup, while migrating, on hills inland or on coasts;in autumn, they are more often found by the sea, particularlyon dunes overgrown with berry bushes.They tend to be rather shyand wild, quick to fly off out of sight.They are usually seen withhead up, tail cocked, and wings drooped, or a head and bill mayjust be visible above a skyline rock. Ring Ouzels aredeclining in areas subject to increased humandisturbance on summer weekends.VOICE Loud, hard, rhythmic tak-tak-tak; variouschattering and chuckling calls; song loud, wild, simplerepetition of short phrases with musical, fluty quality.NESTING Big, loose cup of grass, twigs, soil, andleaves, in steep bank, rock cavity, or fallen stone wall;5 or 6 eggs; 2 broods;April–June.FEEDING Feeds on insects, worms, seeds, and berries;eats berries in bushes on migration.

pale wings

MALE

FEMALE

IN FLIGHT

dull, palebreast-band

duller thanmale

small head

slendershape

SUBSPECIES

sooty blackunderside

paler wings

long blacktail

white “scales”

pale wingpanel

T. t. alpestris(S Europe)

white breast

313

WARBLERS AND ALLIES/FLYCATCHERS

Family Sylviidae

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

DIMORPHISMA few species, such as the Blackcap (male pictured), havedifferent male and female plumages.

THERE ARE TWO GROUPS OF flycatchers: one includesbasically brown ones (Spotted, Red-breasted), the

other, birds in which the summer male is black andwhite (the “pied” group). They are short-billed, upright,long-winged, short-tailed birds. Male and female SpottedFlycatchers are alike, but in the others summer males arevery different from female and winter plumages.

All are migrants, the Spotted Flycatcher being one of the last to arrive in spring. They mainly catch flies on the wing, although the pied group also drop to theground; Spotted Flycatchers characteristically fly out and return to the same perch.

FLYCATCHERS

Family Muscicapidae

PERSISTENTSINGERSMale warblers sing alot, especially if theyare unable to find amate, when they singfor weeks on end.

MOSTLY SMALLER THAN the thrushes andchats, most warblers fall into several neat

groups, best recognized by their generic names.Locustella warblers have grasshopper- or cricket-

like songs; they are hard to see and identify, andhave narrow heads, wings with curved outeredges, and long undertail coverts beneath arounded tail.

Acrocephalus warblers are mostly reedbed birds,with spiky bills, flattish heads, rather long tails,and strong feet that give a grip on uprightstems. Their songs are rich and hurried, oftenwith repetitive patterns; calls are churring.

Hippolais warblers are green or pale brown, withspike-like bills. Wing length is a vital clue totheir identity. They have short undertail covertsand square tails, and hurried, rambling songs.

Sylvia warblers are small, lively, perky birds with

short bills, often peaked heads, and slim,sometimes cocked tails; some have brightlycoloured eye-rings. Their calls are short and hard(“tak”) but their songs are often beautifully rich.

Phylloscopus warblers are mostlygreen and yellowish;they are delicate,slipping easily throughfoliage, have sweet“hooeet” calls, anddistinctive songs.

BRIGHTCHARACTERAlthough dull inplumage, theSpotted Flycatcher’sbright eyes andalertness make it adistinctive bird.

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 14 cm (51⁄2 in) Wingspan 20–24cm (8–91⁄2 in) Weight 16–23g (9⁄16 – 7⁄8oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Sylviidae Species Sylvia borin

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

314

This small, short-billed,round-faced warbler is

obscurely marked but subtlyattractive and has a wonderful song.It is generally solitary but twos and threesmay gather with other warblers to feed on berriesin late summer, putting on fat to fuel the long autumnmigration. It appears in gardens and thickets, often near the coast orbeside lakes and reservoirs, in autumn, pausing while on migration inareas where it does not nest.The Garden Warbler’s movements are a little slower and heavier than a WillowWarbler or a Chiffchaff.VOICE Call thick, soft tchak, low chek-chek,churrr; song brilliant outpouring of fast,rather even but varied warbling, very rich,throaty, musical, usually withoutacceleration and emphasis of Blackcap’s.NESTING Shallow, skimpy cup of grassand moss in bush; 4 or 5 eggs; 1 brood;May–July.FEEDING Takes insects and spiders fromfoliage, slipping through with ease; eatsmany berries and seeds, in autumn, comingto honeysuckle and elder in gardens.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in most of Europe, butabsent from Iceland and most ofIreland. Present from April toSeptember in open woodland, tallthickets, shrubs, and trees, andwooded parks, often alongsideBlackcaps with little obvioushabitat difference.

Garden Warbler

BLACKCAP 2;see p.316

REED WARBLERsee p.324

SPOTTED FLYCATCHERsits upright on openperches; see p.339

short,thickbill

roundhead

largedark eye

grey legs

thin paleeye-ring

pale buff-brownupperparts

juvenile has sharppale featheredges

pale grey patchon sides of neck

reddishcap

morecontrastingcoloration

LACK OF PATTERNThe soft grey neck patch showswell here, but there is very littlepattern on a Garden Warbler.

FLIGHT: slightly hesitant; heavy, short flightsthrough trees.

brighterlongerbill

streakedwings silvery

chest

pale buffunderside

ADULT

IN FLIGHT

dull andrather pale

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

SIMILAR SPECIES

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

315

Length 15–17cm (6 –61⁄2 in) Wingspan 15–20cm (6–8in) Weight 12–15g (7⁄16 – 9⁄16oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Sylviidae Species Sylvia nisoria

One of the larger warblers of Europe, the Barred Warbler is almostWryneck-like at times, heavily barred beneath and pale-eyed,

with a rather severe expression. In autumn, when it is most likely tobe seen on migration in northwest Europe, most are pale, almostunbarred juveniles, but they still have a heavy,clumsy, rather aggressive character, and may crashabout in low bushes.They are typically skulkingbirds, not easy to watch, but eventually emergeon the bush tops if conditions are calm and dry.VOICE Loud, dry, hard rattle, trrr-r-r-r-rt; songlong, bright, musical warble, like high-pitchedGarden Warbler’s.NESTING Substantial nest in thorny bush orscrub; 4 or 5 eggs; 1 brood; May–July.FEEDING Takes insects and spiders from foliage;tugs at berries.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in E Europe west to N Italy,in bushy places and woodlandclearings; present from April toOctober. Rare migrant, chiefly inautumn, in NW Europe, on coasts,usually in thickets on dunes or lowcoastal hills.

Barred Warbler

AUTUMN MIGRANTThe autumn bird is pale and stockywith dark eyes and pale wingbars.

mid-grey above

dark aroundbright yelloweye

incompletelybarredunderside

white undersidewith close greybars

FEMALE

IMMATURE(1ST WINTER)

WRYNECKsee p.263

GARDEN WARBLERsee p.314

BLACKCAP 2similar to juvenile;see p.316

rounder head

plainerbrowner

dull whitishunderside

dull eye

whitewingbars

long,square tailwith whitecorners

FLIGHT: low, heavy, long-winged, tail flaunted orspread; high, fluttery song-flight.

dark bandalongback

shorter tail

smaller andplainer

MALE

MALE(SUMMER)

IN FLIGHT

JUVENILE(AUTUMN)

dark eye

grey-brownabove

whitewingbars

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

thick, strongpale-based bill

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

Length 13cm (5in) Wingspan 20–23cm (8–9in) Weight 14–20g (1⁄2 – 11⁄16oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Sylviidae Species Sylvia atricapilla

316

One of the more common Sylvia warblers, mostly found in thick undergrowth or bushy woodland, the Blackcap has a brilliant

song and typically hard, unmusical calls.A few stay in northwestEurope for the winter, and many more in south Europe, especially in orchards, vineyards, and olive groves. Blackcaps may visit gardens in autumn to feed onhoneysuckle or other berries, and again in winterwhen some rely on food put out on bird-tables.Like other Sylvia warblers, they are not particularlysocial, but several may feed close together in a treesuch as an elder with an abundance of berries.VOICE Distinct short, hard tak; song brilliant,usually short but sometimes prolonged, fast, variedwarbling with bright, clear notes, often acceleratingand growing in volume soon after start.NESTING Small cup of grass and stems in bush;4 or 5 eggs; 2 broods;April–July.FEEDING Takes insects from foliage; also feeds onmany soft, fleshy berries, especially elder.

SIMILAR SPECIESOCCURRENCEBreeds in most of Europe exceptIceland and N Scandinavia. Insummer in N Europe; increasing in UK in winter, more in Spain,Portugal, Italy, and Balkans. Inwoods, parks, and large bushygardens, with plenty of thickundergrowth.

MARSH TITsimilar to 32; see p.347

GARDEN WARBLERsimilar to 32;see p.314

SARDINIAN WARBLER 32;see p.318

stockier

blackchin

rounderhead

big blackhood ofmale

long tailSeen in the UK

J J A S DNOMAMFJ

plainer and browner

larger blackcap

RICH SONGA male’s fast warbling is usuallydistinct from a Garden Warbler’slonger song, but the Blackcap canimitate its close relative.

Blackcap

MALE

grey-brown back

brownerthan male

stocky build fora warbler

plain greyish wingsand tail

pale greyunderside

grey faceand throat

brown cap

FEMALE

FLIGHT: short, quite heavy, flitting, with flurries ofquick, flicking wingbeats.

small, narrowblack cap

IN FLIGHT

MALE

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

317

Length 13cm (5in) Wingspan 17–19cm (61⁄2 –71⁄2 in) Weight 10–16g (3⁄8 – 9⁄16oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Sylviidae Species Sylvia curruca

Small, neat, compact, dark-legged, and dark-masked, the Lesser Whitethroat is

a secretive warbler of woodland edges and thick, old hedgerows. It is easily located by itssong, but often moves to sing again a few metresaway before it is seen. In autumn, it can be easy to find on shrubs and trees with berries,sometimes with other warblers but not formingproperly coordinated flocks.Young birds at thistime are particularly bright and smart.VOICE Sharp, short, metallic tak, very thin chi;song begins with low, quiet, muffled warble,becoming short, loud, wooden rattlechikachikachikachikachikachikachika.NESTING Cup of twigs or grass, lined with hairand roots, in shrub; 4–6 eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Picks insects from foliage; eats manyberries in late summer.

OCCURRENCESummer visitor and breeding birdfrom April to October in most ofEurope west to mid-France andUK; not in Italy, Spain, Portugal, N Scandinavia, and Iceland. Inquite tall, dense thickets often atwoodland edge, or as part of tall,dense hedges.

Lesser Whitethroat

FLIGHT: quick, short, flitting flights with undulatingaction; fast, whirring wingbeats.

FEMALE

SIMILAR SPECIES

SUBALPINE WARBLER32; see p.320

BLACKCAP 32;see p.316

red eye-ring

greythroat

darkcap

pinkerbelow

pale legs

rusty wings

MALE

WHITETHROAT 3similar to 32;see p.319

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

WOODEN RATTLEThe male sits upright as he sings,usually moving to a new perchbefore the next loud rattled phrase.

dull grey-brownback

dark patchon cheeks

olive-grey toblue-grey cap

dark greylegs

grey-brownwings

whitechin

whitishunderside,washed palepink

clear whitethroat

pale greyhead

broken whiteeye-ring

dark smudgethrough eye

JUVENILE

MALE

plain brownwings

whitesides todark tail

IN FLIGHT

One of the Mediterranean warblers, very rare north of its usual range, characteristic of

stony places with low, scattered bushes and scrub,the Sardinian Warbler is long-tailed and dark-capped.Typical views may be little more than aglimpse of a small bird with a long tail disappearinginto a bush, perhaps not to be seen again. Insome places, it frequents taller trees in gardensand orchards.This warbler has a distinctive rapid,rattling call that gives away its presence atfrequent intervals, however, and patience isusually rewarded by a better view. It is often seenin pairs or small family groups, but does notform larger flocks.VOICE Loud, hard, short call and frequent fast,hard rattle, krr-rr-rr-rr-rr-rr-rr-rr-rr-rr-t; song fast,unmusical, rattling chatter with calls interspersed.NESTING Small, neat cup in low bush; 3–5 eggs;2 broods;April–July.FEEDING Takes small insects and spiders, mostlylow in vegetation or on ground beneath.

SIMILAR SPECIES

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

OCCURRENCEResident in most of Spain, Portugal,S France, Mediterranean region,and very rare farther north. In bushyareas, sometimes in open woodlandwith scrub, more often thicketsaround buildings, thorny growthover stone walls, and similar areas.

Sardinian Warbler

FEMALE

MALE

Length 13–14cm (5 –51⁄2 in) Wingspan 15–18cm (6–7in) Weight 10–14g (3⁄8 –1⁄2oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Sylviidae Species Sylvia melanocephala

318

long dark tailwith white sides white edges

to tail

big whitethroat

browner, palerthan male

whitishunderside

deep black capextends onto cheeks

RUPPELL’SWARBLER 3similar to 3;see p.442

blackthroat

stockier

SUBALPINE WARBLER 3similar to 3; see p.320

reddish breastbluerback

smaller blackcap on male

greythroat

BRIGHT EYE-RINGEven on the browner femaleSardinian Warbler, the red eye-ringis a distinct feature.

pale greyback

short, roundwings

grey head

orange-redeye-ring

BLACKCAP 32;see p.316

IN FLIGHT

MALE

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

FLIGHT: short, bouncy, flitting flights betweenclumps of cover.

red eye-ring

whitethroat

longtail

SIMILAR SPECIES

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

319

Length 14cm (51⁄2 in) Wingspan 19–23cm (71⁄2 –9in) Weight 12–18g (7⁄16 – 5⁄8oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Sylviidae Species Sylvia communis

Typically a bird of open spaces with low bushes and scrub, theWhitethroat likes overgrown tracksides, railway embankments,

hedgerows and fence-lines with brambles, or thorny thickets aroundheaths. It sings often, sometimes from a low perch, sometimes from a high wire, but frequently in short, jerky, bouncy song-flights. It isoften quite secretive, keeping low down in thick vegetation, butgives itself away by its irritable calls and eventually succumbs to itsinsatiable curiosity and appears out in the open.VOICE Harsh, grating tcharr, scolding, softer churr, sweet,musical wheet-a-wheet-a-whit; song often in flutterysong-flight, quick, chattery, rambling warblewith dry, scratchy quality.NESTING Small, neat cup of grass and stemslow in thorny shrub; 4 or 5 eggs; 2 broods;April–July.FEEDING Picks insects from foliage; takeslots of berries and some seeds in late summerand autumn, sometimes visiting gardens.

OCCURRENCEBreeds almost throughout Europeexcept for Iceland and much ofScandinavia. In bushy, dry, andheathy places with low, thornyscrub, dense herbs such as nettles,hedges, and thickets; seen fromApril to October.

Whitethroat

LIVELY SINGERThe male sings with much morevigour than melody, from a bushtop or overhead wire.

FEMALE

MALE

pink-buffbelow

FLIGHT: low, bouncy or jerky, flitting, undulating,with flicked, untidy tail.

longdark tail,edgedwhite

dull brownback

whitish eye-ring

bright chestnutpanel on wings

pale orange-brown legs

pale bluishgrey head

clear whitethroat

pale underside,washed pinkacross chest

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

brownhead

LESSER WHITETHROAT 32;see p.317

darklegs

MALE

JUVENILE(AUTUMN)

IN FLIGHT

male ispinkerbelow

SUBALPINE WARBLER 32;see p.320

greyer

DARTFORD WARBLER 32;see p.321

longer tail

darker

bright wingswith blackishfeathercentres

duller andgreyer

male is redderbelow

Length 12–13cm (43⁄4 –5in) Wingspan 13–18cm (5–7in) Weight 9–12g (11⁄32 – 7⁄16oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Sylviidae Species Sylvia cantillans

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

320

Several Sylvia warblers of Europe occupy the southern regions, mostly around the

Mediterranean; the Subalpine Warbler is typical, inhabiting warm,sun-bathed slopes and fields with rough, tangled hedges and thicketsof aromatic shrubs and spiny bushes. It dives out of sight into thespikiest of these and can be frustratingly elusive attimes, although it often appears on top and launchesinto a brief, bouncy song-flight in full view. Femalesare paler than adult males, which are easy to identify.Females and immatures, which are even paler, aremore difficult, especially if they turn up as vagrantsfarther north in autumn.VOICE Call sharp, ticking or clicking tet, sometimesquickly repeated; song high-pitched, Linnet-like,musical warbling, fast, with quick variation in pitch.NESTING Small, neat cup nest in low vegetation;3 or 4 eggs; 2 broods;April–June.FEEDING Forages in low scrub and herbs, or higherin leafy trees, searching for insects and spiders.

SIMILAR SPECIESOCCURRENCEBreeds on bushy slopes, in low,tangled hedges and thornythickets, and in open, evergreenoak woods in Spain, Portugal, andMediterranean Europe, from Aprilto September. Migrants at timesappear farther north in low, denseundergrowth near coasts.

Subalpine Warbler

DARTFORD WARBLER32; see p.321

SARDINIAN WARBLER 32;see p.318

MALE

darkermoreuniform

slimmer tail

dark headof male

longer tail

greyer larger

WHITE“MOUSTACHE”

Males, and sometimes females,have an obvious white stripe fromthe bill to the side of the throat.

FLIGHT: short flights weak, quick, undulating, withbursts of wingbeats.

FEMALE

pale blue-grey fromhead to back

bold white stripeunder grey cheeks

red eye-ring

paler belly

yellowishlegs

pinkish redfrom chinto breast

long, slimgrey tail

whitish cheekstripe

pale pinkthroat

white ringaround redeye-ring

whitishunderside

IN FLIGHT

MALE

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

whiteedgeto tail

short,roundwings

rufous onwings

WHITETHROAT 32;see p.319

Length 12–13cm (43⁄4 –5in) Wingspan 13–18cm (5–7in) Weight 9–12g (11⁄32 – 7⁄16oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Vulnerable

Order Passeriformes Family Sylviidae Species Sylvia undata

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

321

OCCURRENCEBreeds very locally in suitablehabitat in S Britain, NW, W, and SFrance, Spain, Portugal, Italy, andon many Mediterranean islands.Found on heaths with heather andgorse and some small bushes, andon warm bushy slopes with fewtrees but plenty of aromatic andthorny shrubs, all year round.

Dartford Warbler

IN FLIGHT

SIMILAR SPECIES

SUBALPINE WARBLER32; see p.320

SARDINIAN WARBLER 32;see p.318

greyerabove

whitethroat

greyer

dark capof male

shortertail

grey

MARMORA’S WARBLER32; very local; see p.443

short, spiky, yellow-based bill

red eye andeye-ring

pale spots on darkrust-brown throat

long, slender,dark tail

long,“bouncy”tail

short,roundedwings

paler undersidethan male’s

duller than male(juvenile greyer)

FEMALE

MALE

dark red-brownunderside

brownishgrey back

BRIGHTMALEOnly a goodview reveals therich colours ofthe male.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

MALE

FLIGHT: quick, undulating with tail flirting; burstsof wingbeats over short distances.

Aresident in Europe, the Dartford Warbler is subject to fluctuations in numbers and range according to the

severity of winter weather. It prefers warm, flat heaths and slopeswith short herbaceous and shrubby growth, including thick heatherand clumps of gorse, where it often skulks and is hard tosee. It may flick from one bush to another butdisappears from sight frustratingly quickly. Inwarm, still weather, however, it will come to thetop and reveal its distinctive colours and shape.VOICE Very distinctive buzzy call, low chrrrror djarrr; song quick, rattling warble withsome brighter notes, quite low pitch, littlevariety, sometimes given in flight.NESTING Grassy cup lined with finerstems, low down in gorse or heather;3–5 eggs; 2 or 3 broods;April–July.FEEDING Finds insects and manyspiders in low vegetation.

Length 13cm (5in) Wingspan 17–21cm (61⁄2 –81⁄2 in) Weight 10–13g (3⁄8 –7⁄16oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Sylviidae Species Acrocephalus schoenobaenus

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

322

This is one of the Acrocephaluswarblers, birds of wetlands, especially

reedbeds, that fall into two groups,streaked and unstreaked.A small, well-marked, active bird with a loud, fast,varied song, the Sedge Warbler is quitecommon and widespread but restrictedlargely to waterside or boggy habitats. It is notexclusively a reedbed warbler, preferring morevariety, such as various sedges, nettles, willow,hawthorn scrub, willowherb, and umbellifersintermixed, so sometimes it may be found inhedges beside wet ditches or even drier placeswith thick, vertical stem growth. It appears as a migrant mostly in similar habitats.VOICE Call dry, rasping tchrrrr, sharper tek; songloud, fast, varied, excitable mix of whistles,warbles, clicks, and trills with much mimicry.NESTING Deep nest of grass mixed with moss,cobwebs, and plant down; 5 or 6 eggs; 1 or 2broods;April–July.FEEDING Forages in reeds, sedges, nettles, andbushes, for small insects, spiders, and some seeds. OCCURRENCE

Widespread as breeder except inIceland. In reeds, from narrowditches to extensive reedbeds, and associated wetland vegetationsuch as sedges and reedmace;more rarely in nettles, willowherb,and other rank growth, often with thorn bushes, from April to October.

Sedge Warblerwide silver-whitestripe over eyeblackish and

cream streakson cap

ADULT

VIGOROUS SONGSTERA singing bird frequently climbs tothe top of a bush or reed stem.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

unstreaked,tawny-buff rump

soft greyishstreaks ontawny back

buff acrosschest (finelystreaked onjuvenile) and flanks

whitishunderside

IN FLIGHT

SIMILAR SPECIES

MOUSTACHED WARBLERresident; see p.323

REED WARBLERsee p.324

AQUATIC WARBLERsee p.443no stripe

over eye

plainback

pale centralcrown stripe

bolderstripes

blackercrown

shorterwingtips

FLIGHT: short, flitting flights, quite jerky; tailsometimes fanned.

ADULT

dark line frombill through eye

ADULT

SIMILAR SPECIES

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

323

Length 12–13cm (43⁄4 –5in) Wingspan 17–21cm (61⁄2 –81⁄2 in) Weight 10–15g (3⁄8 – 9⁄16 oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Sylviidae Species Acrocephalus melanopogon

Astreaked Acrocephalus warbler, the Moustached Warbler is unusual in that it is a resident in its

restricted range in Europe. It is only a very rarevagrant outside its usual range. It is quite distinctivewhen seen with the Sedge Warbler, its most similarrelative, but care is required when identifying potentialout-of-range vagrants. Its song is a useful clue in theusual breeding areas. It often tilts over and cocks itstail which the Sedge Warbler does not. Its shorterwingtip is sometimes discernible in a close view,helping to confirm identification.VOICE Call like Sedge Warbler’s but more throaty, trekor clicking trk-tk-tk-tk; song fast and varied, withfrequent Nightingale-like rising whistles.NESTING Deep grassy nest lined with plant down, inreeds; 5 or 6 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Eats insects and other small invertebrates,from mud and dense wetland vegetation.

OCCURRENCEVery local in S Europe, breeding in S and E Spain, S France,Balearics, Italy, and Balkans. Inreedbeds and dense watersidesedge or rushes. Resident and very rarely noted outside itsbreeding range.

Moustached Warbler

STRIKING HEAD PATTERNA wedge of white over the eye and a silky white chin are obviousfeatures of the Moustached Warbler in a good view.

IN FLIGHT

SEDGE WARBLERsee p.322

WHINCHAT 32;different habitatand posture; see p.303

paler

longerwingtips

palerbreast

differentshape

bold white wedge-shaped stripe over eye

orange-tawnyflanks

dark streaked,rust-brown back

white belly

black line frombill througheye

slight blackmoustache

white chinand throat

faintly streaked,blackish cap

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

FLIGHT: short, low, flitting flights across reeds.

soft dark streakson roundedtail

short wingtipprojection

Length 13–15cm (5–6in) Wingspan 18–21cm (7–81⁄2 in) Weight 11–15g (3⁄8 – 9⁄16oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Sylviidae Species Acrocephalus scirpaceus

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

324

Basically a reedbed bird, the Reed Warbler may sometimesbreed away from reeds, in drier spots or in willows growing over

shallow water, for example. Its plain colours make it very like someother, rarer, warblers, but unlike the common Sedge Warbler. Itsrepetitive song is also distinctive as a rule, although subject to somevariation. On migration, Reed Warblers may be found inunexpected places, such as thickets and hedgerows, posingidentification problems with less closelyrelated species such as Melodious Warblers.VOICE Call simple, low churr or chk;song rhythmic, repetitive, low, withoccasional high, musical variations, trriktrrik trrik, chrr chrr chrr chrr, chewe chewe trrrttrrrt trrrt tiri tiri.NESTING Deep nest of grass, reedheads,and moss, woven around several uprightstems in reedbed; 3–5 eggs; 2 broods;May–July.FEEDING Forages for insects and spiderson mud and in thick, wet vegetation andfoliage of willows; also eats some seeds.

SIMILAR SPECIESOCCURRENCEWidespread as breeding bird andsummer visitor north to GreatBritain and S Scandinavia. Inreedbeds, especially extensive, wet ones, but also in reedy ditchesand willows beside lakes andrivers. Migrants on coasts betweenApril and October.

SEDGE WARBLERsee p.322

SAVI’S WARBLERsee p.329

pale stripeover eye

flatter head

shorterwings

mottled undertail coverts

slightlycolderbrownabove

MARSH WARBLERdifferent song;see p.325

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

GRASPING REEDSThe Reed Warbler is adept atgrasping vertical stems andshuffling through dense reedbeds.

Reed Warbler

ADULT

FLIGHT: short, low, jerky flitting flights betweenreeds or willows, tail low, sometimes spread as it tiltsover and dives into cover.

plain, pale brownupperparts(redder brown on juvenile)

thin paleeye-ring

whitethroat

long, slimsharp bill

ADULT

dark brown orgreyish legs

bright buffunderside

long tail withpale undertailcoverts

slightlyrounded tail

long wing feathers,fringes pale butdiffuse

IN FLIGHT

tawny rump

rump a littlebrighterthan back

ADULT

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

325

Length 13–15cm (5–6in) Wingspan 18–21cm (7–81⁄2 in) Weight 11–15g (3⁄8 – 9⁄16oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Sylviidae Species Acrocephalus palustris

An unstreaked Acrocephalus warbler, the Marsh Warbler is a bird of wet riversides and boggy places with an abundance of rich,

thick vegetation; it is not usually a reedbed species. Migrants occurrarely, near the coast, and require patience and close observation forpositive identification. Unless the full song is heard, this is a trickyspecies. Its habitat is always restricted and often rather temporary innature, so it remains a rare and somewhat erratic breeding bird – oneof the last of the summer migrants to arrive in summer.VOICE Call short, hard chek or chk;song full of remarkable mimicry (of African as well as Europeanbirds), fluent, fast, with twangy, nasal,whistling notes, trills and slower,lower intervals or pauses.NESTING Quite shallow cup ofgrass, suspended from tall stems inthick vegetation by “basket handles”;4 or 5 eggs; 1 brood; June–July.FEEDING Forages in and underthick plant cover for insects andspiders; also takes some berries. OCCURRENCE

Local summer bird, from extremeSE England (where it is rare) acrossC, SE, and E Europe, and extremeS Scandinavia. Prefers thickwetland vegetation, with orwithout a mixture of reeds amongsedges, willowherb, nettles, andumbellifers. Rare migrant on coastsand islands from May to September.

Marsh Warbler

FLIGHT: low, short, flitting flights with whirringwingbeats; jerky, bounding action.

ADULT

ADULT

long dark wingfeathers, withsharp pale edges

REED WARBLERsee p.324

SIMILAR SPECIES

SEDGE WARBERsee p.322

SAVI’S WARBLERsee p.329

obviousstripeover eye

mottledundertailcoverts

slightlywarmerbrown

pale bill withdark ridge

pale olive-brownupperparts (warmerbrown on juvenile)

rump faintlywarmer brown long

wingtips

thin whitisheye-ring

yellowish whiteunderside

pale legs

IN FLIGHT

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

unmarked back(with greyish washin spring)

squarish,dark grey-brown tail

ADULT

SUPERB SONGSTERMarsh Warblers usually sing from bushes, nettles, andother tall, rank vegetation.

Length 16 –20cm (61⁄2 –8in) Wingspan 25–26cm (10in) Weight 30–40g (11⁄16 –17⁄16oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Sylviidae Species Acrocephalus arundinaceus

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

326

Indeed a massive reed warbler, this large, almost thrush-sized warbler typically inhabits reedbeds, but can be found in remarkably

small wet spots near rivers or even along ditches and irrigation channels, withjust small strips or patches of reed and tall grass. It appears regularly, in verysmall numbers, north of its usual range, individuals sometimes remaining for aweek or two, singing strongly.The song is immediately distinctive: loud andraucous, with a hesitant, frog-like quality.VOICE Call rolling, harsh krrrrr or shorter tshak; song remarkably loud, hesitantor full-flowing but repetitive, separate phrases alternately croaking, whistling,warbling, grik grik grik, jeek jeek chik grrr grrr grrr girik girik girik.NESTING Large, deep nest slung in vertical reed stems above water; 3–6 eggs;1 or 2 broods; May–August.FEEDING Takes insects and varied invertebrates from foliage and reeds, crashingthrough stems in search of food.

SIMILAR SPECIES OCCURRENCEBreeds in mainland Europe northto S Scandinavia; local summervisitor. In reedbeds and reedyditches or strips of reed besiderivers or floods. Present from Mayto August, when migrants some-times appear north of usual range.

Great Reed Warbler

REED WARBLERsee p.324

FLIGHT: low, dashing, thrush-like darts betweenreed clumps.

BOLD SONGSTERFrom the top of giant reeds, Giant ReedWarblers create a loud and unmistakablechorus of raucous song.

whitethroat

broad, slightlyrounded, darkbrown tail

big, thick,dark-tippedbill

plain warmbrown above

dark eye-stripe

pale buff stripefrom bill toabove eye

muchsmaller

SONG THRUSHsee p.307

clearspotsbelow

IN FLIGHT

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

pale rufous-buffunderside

long wingtips

long,broadtail

brightrump

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

327

Length 10–11cm (4 –41⁄2 in) Wingspan 12–15cm (43⁄4 –6in) Weight 10g (3⁄8oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Sylviidae Species Cisticola juncidis

Small and insignificant, the Fan-tailed Warbler or Zitting Cisticola is the one European

representative of a widespread African and southAsian genus of small, confusingly similar warblers.It is usually revealed by its song, a repetition of asingle, sharp, penetrating note given with each boundof a deeply undulating song-flight.Visually, it looksunlike any other European bird despite its basicsmall, streaky impression, but that itself may make itpuzzling if it is silent and skulking in low vegetation.Females may have two or more broods, paired withdifferent males.VOICE Loud chip call; song usually in deeplyundulating song-flight, single short, sharp, penetratingnote with each bound, zeet...zeet...zeet...zeet.NESTING Deep, flexible, pear- or flask-shaped nestof grass, feathers, and cobwebs in tall grass; 4–6 eggs;2 or 3 broods;April–June.FEEDING Takes insects, spiders, and seeds fromrough grass.

OCCURRENCELocal breeder aroundMediterranean, in Spain, Portugal,and on Atlantic coast of France. In usual range all year but subjectto reductions in range in hardwinters. In grassy places, marshes,dunes, and sometimes cereal fieldswith grassy edges.

Fan-tailed Warbler

FLIGHT: typically low, fast, whirring, rather weak;song-flight higher, bounding but slow.

SIMILAR SPECIES

SEDGE WARBLERsee p.322

bigger

DEAD GRASS PATTERNThe pale and dark streaks on theback camouflage this warbler inbrown grass and reed stems.

dark brown and buffstripes on head

cream andblack stripeson back

very short,round wings

unmarked,pale buffunderside

thin pinklegs

GRASSHOPPER WARBLERsee p.328

bigger andlonger

long, slimtail

WINCHAT 32;perches moreopenly; see p.302

bolder stripeover eye

bold stripeover eye

bigger

IN FLIGHT

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

small,roundtail

short, narrow, oftenfanned, tail with blackand white spots below

Length 12.5cm (5in) Wingspan 15–19cm (6–71⁄2 in) Weight 11–15g (3⁄8 – 9⁄16oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Sylviidae Species Locustella naevia

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

328

Warblers are split into several different families: this is the mostcommon of the Locustella warblers, which are small, streaked,

round-tailed, and highly skulking birds, usually hard to see.Theyhave long, trilled, chirping, or rattling songs often likened tothe sound of some insects such as crickets; these areusually heard most often at dusk or on warm, still, sultrysummer days.These warblers are not to be expected intall bushes or trees, or openly flittingabout in hedgerows.VOICE Loud call, piercing psit; songremarkable, prolonged, unvaryingmechanical “reel”, fast, hard ticking atclose range on one high, sharp note,waxes and wanes as head is turned:sirrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr.NESTING Small nest of grass and leavesin dense, low vegetation; 5 or 6 eggs;2 broods; May–July.FEEDING Forages in very low, thickvegetation, creeping mouse-like on ornear ground, finding mostly smallinsects and spiders.

SIMILAR SPECIESOCCURRENCEWidespread from Ireland, east to Finland and Russia, south to C France, N Spain, and Alps insummer. In marshy areas withgrass, low thickets, heathy places,and grassy meadows with thornybushes where grass grows upthrough thickets.

Grasshopper Warbler

REED WARBLERsee p.324

finely streaked crownand cheeks

HIGH-PITCHED SONGMany people are unable to hearsuch high-pitched sounds as theGrasshopper Warbler’s song.

IN FLIGHT

Seen in the UKJ F M N DJ J A S

spotted or streaked,pale olive-brownback and rump

long, broadrounded tail

SEDGE WARBLERsee p.322

DUNNOCKsee p.292

plain backand tail

moreobviousstripe overeye

FLIGHT: low, brief, flitting flights; raises slightlyfanned tail as it dives out of sight.

bigger andstouter

greyer

scarcely marked,whitish or buffunderside

OMA

blunt wings

roundedtail

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

329

Length 14–15cm (51⁄2 –6in) Wingspan 15–20cm (6–8in) Weight 12–15g (7⁄16 – 9⁄16oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Sylviidae Species Locustella luscinioides

An exception to the Locustella rule, being plain rather than streaked, Savi’s Warbler is more like the

plain-backed Reed and Marsh Warblers. It is also, like the Reed Warbler, a bird of dense reedbeds, much less adaptable to various grassy habitats than the morewidespread Grasshopper Warbler. It is easily detected by its song (although manymay not realize that it is a bird singing at all), especially around dawn and dusk,and patience may reveal its small, dark form, singing from a reed stem. Savi’sWarbler is usually rather scarce even in its breeding areas and is rarely seen as amigrant outside its breeding range. It needs to be separated with care from thesimilarly coloured reed warbler group but the family characteristics, including the round-edged wings, long, thick undertail coverts and rounded tail help inidentification, if the bird is seen closely. Savi’s Warblers spend the winter in Africa.VOICE Short, sharp, metallic call; song like Grasshopper Warbler but moreslurred, less ticking, faster, lower buzz, zurrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr.NESTING Large, untidy, loose nest of grass in reeds or sedges; 4 eggs; 2 broods;April–June.FEEDING Forages for insects and spiders in dense vegetation.

OCCURRENCEVery local; breeding rangescattered across Europe fromSpain and Portugal to extreme SE England and east into Asia.Appears from April to Septemberin extensive wet reedbeds.Veryrare migrant away from thishabitat on coast.

Savi’s Warbler

brown-buffunderside withpaler belly

curved outer edge to closed wings

pale throat

long, flat headslopes into long,slender bill

IN FLIGHT

SIMILAR SPECIES

GRASSHOPPER WARBLERsee p.328

Seen in the UKJ F M O N DJ J A S

REED WARBLERdifferent song; see p.324

shorter

straight-edged wings

FLIGHT: short, flitting flight between reed clumps.

plain brownabove

subtly streakedback and crown

darker

shorter-tailed

MA

long, thick brownundertail coverts

long tail, roundedat tip

CETTI’S WARBLERsee p.330

dark undertail

round wings

roundedtail

Length 14cm (51⁄2 in) Wingspan 15–19cm (6–71⁄2 in) Weight 12–18g (7⁄16 – 5⁄8oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Sylviidae Species Cettia cetti

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

330

Small, dark, and hard to see, Cetti’s Warbleris easy to detect because of its frequent, loud,

abrupt outbursts of song.The same basic phrase isrepeated every few minutes but the bird often moveson as soon as it sings, so the next outburst usuallycomes from a long way up the ditch, riverside, or marsh,always one step ahead.A resident, ithas spread north, subject to thevagaries of winter weather, hardweather causing occasional widespreadsetbacks for several years.VOICE Explosive, metallic chich or plit;song highly distinctive, sudden loudoutburst of full-throated, shoutednotes: chee! chewee!chewechewechwewewe!NESTING Deep cup of grass andleaves in dense vegetation; 3–5 eggs;1 or 2 broods;April–June.FEEDING Forages in dense cover, onor near ground, for insects, spiders,snails, and some seeds.

SIMILAR SPECIES

OCCURRENCEBreeds in S Europe inMediterranean area, Spain,Portugal, France, north to LowCountries, and sparsely in S GreatBritain where hard weather causesperiodic reductions. In dampareas, beside rivers, ditches,reedbeds, wet thickets, and often,but by no means always, nearextensive marshes.

Cetti’s Warbler

FLIGHT: short, fast dashes between thickets; burstsof quick wingbeats; tail fanned.

IN FLIGHT

KEEPING LOWThis warbler is usually seen lowdown in dense thickets: it rarelymoves high into a bush or tree.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

short,sharp bill

grey face

pale greyunderside

slightly peakedhead

narrowpale stripeover eye

dark reddish brownupperparts

short, round,rusty brownwings

roundtail

broad darkred-browntail

rusty brownunder tailwith pale bars

redder tail

NIGHTINGALEsee p.296

plainerface

bolder stripeover eye

paler,moretawny

SEDGE WARBLERsee p.322

longerbillREED WARBER

see p.324

longertail

paler

larger

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

331

Length 13.5cm (5–6in) Wingspan 20–24cm (8–91⁄2 in) Weight 10–14g (3⁄8–1⁄2oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Sylviidae Species Hippolais icterina

One of the handful of Hippolais warblers,

the Icterine Warbler is large,square-tailed, and broad-billed.The broad bill is not always obvious,but even in a side view, does lookstrong, long, and straight, almost spike-like,emphasized by its pale colour. Hippolaiswarblers are best identified by distribution andstructure, especially the proportions of thevarious elements of wing, tail, and undertailcoverts, which help to separate them fromeach other and from confusingly similarAcrocephalus species.VOICE Call melodious ti-ti-looi or di-deroi,hard tik; song loud, fast, prolonged, variedwarbling with many imitations, short, shrill,nasal notes and dideroi call intermixed.NESTING Deep cup nest suspended fromforked branch in tree; 4 or 5 eggs; 1 brood;May–August.FEEDING Takes insects from foliage; pullsberries from twigs with tug of bill. OCCURRENCE

Widespread as summer visitor andbreeding bird from E Franceeastwards and northwards exceptin N Scandinavia. In open mixed,deciduous, or coniferous woodlandbetween April and September.Spring and especially autumnmigrants on NW European coastsincluding E Great Britain.

Icterine Warbler

JUVENILE

MELODIOUS WARBLERsee p.332

SIMILAR SPECIES

REED WARBLERsee p.324smaller head

and bill

browner; nogreen or yellow

rounderhead

shorterwings withpale panel

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

GENERIC CHARACTERHippolais warblers are heavy, withplain faces and dagger-like bills.

pale yellowbetween billand eye

long, spike-likebill (orange-pinkbill with darkridge on adult)

long, square tail whitish underside (pale

lemon-yellow fromchin to tail on adult)

dull grey legs

panel of palefeather edgeson wings

pale grey-greenupperparts

large head

IN FLIGHT

ADULT

dark eye-stripe

smaller

notchedtail

WILLOW WARBERsee p.333

FLIGHT: quite strong, direct, long-winged,swerving into cover.

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

Areplacement of the more easterly Icterine Warbler in southwest Europe, the Melodious Warbler is

confusingly similar. Both appear on west Europeancoasts as migrants and require care for reliableseparation, especially in autumn when juvenileplumages further confuse the issue.The Melodious andIcterine Warblers are basically green andyellow birds while other Hippolais warblersare duller, more pale brown and buff. TheMelodious has a plainer wing with a shorterwingtip (primary feather) projection whenperched than the Icterine.VOICE Short clicks and sparrow-likechattering; song fast, rambling, not veryaccomplished warble, including rattling notesand shrill whistles but generally not muchcontrast in tone.NESTING Deep cup in small branches of treeor large bush; 4 or 5 eggs; 1 brood; May–July.FEEDING Takes insects from foliage; pullsberries from twigs in autumn.

SIMILAR SPECIESOCCURRENCEBreeds in S and W Europe, France,Spain, Portugal, and Italy. Presentfrom April to October, in lightwoodland, scrub, hedges, andorchards, with spring (and lessoften autumn) migrants on W European coasts including S Great Britain.

Melodious Warbler

SPRING SONGThe Melodious Warbler’s song is adisappointment for a bird with thisname: it is a quick, ratheruninspired, rambling warble.

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

Length 12–13cm (43⁄4 –5in) Wingspan 18–20cm (7–8in) Weight 11–14g (3⁄8 –1⁄2oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Sylviidae Species Hippolais polyglotta

332

trace ofpaler panelon wings

rather long,round wings

thick, spikypale bill

JUVENILE

FLIGHT: rather weak, fluttering flight, usually overshort distances.

grey-greenupperparts

big dark eyein pale face

IN FLIGHT

ADULT

dull brownlegs

yellowthroat andbreast

pale yellowbetween eyeand bill (nodark line)

ICTERINE WARBLERsee p.331

longer wingswith moreobvious panel

shorter billno traceof yellow

GARDEN WARBLERsee p.314

dark eye-stripe

WILLOW WARBLERsee p.333

ADULT

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

333

Length 11cm (41⁄4 in) Wingspan 17–22cm (61⁄2 –9in) Weight 6–10g (7⁄32 – 3⁄8oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Sylviidae Species Phylloscopus trochilus

OCCURRENCEBreeds everywhere north frommid-France and C Europe exceptfor Iceland. Present from April toOctober; common migrant in S Europe. Prefers light woodland,scrub, and bushes of all kinds,especially birch and willow, butnot often gardens.

Willow Warbler

SIMILAR SPECIES

SIGN OF SPRINGA Willow Warbler’s beautiful, fluidcadence is a sure sign of spring: in April, dozens may appearovernight and start singing.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

short, thinbill

narrowpale stripeover eye

thin darkeye-stripe

grey-green to olive-brown upperparts

buff-white to paleyellowunderside

strong yellowstripe over eye

brighter,greener back

plain,roundwings

long wingpoint

muchyellowerunderside

pale yellowishbrown legs

ADULT

The Phylloscopuswarblers are small, slim

birds of trees and bushes, able to slipquietly through foliage without thebounce and erratic agility of the small tits orthe heavier progress of the larger Sylvia warblers.European breeding species are basically pale green andyellowish.The Willow Warbler is generally mostcommon and most widespread, and more conservativein its choice of habitat than most. In spring, it has a fine,simple, and beautifully evocative song. Like otherwarblers, it is more or less solitary except when feedingyoung, or when a handful coincidentally feedin the same tree while on migration.WillowWarblers are more grey-brown above and dullwhite below, less green and yellow, in the farnorth and northeast of Europe.VOICE Sweet, simple, double call hoo-eet; songlovely, cascading, trilling warble, rising, fullnotes then falling thinner and fading awaywith slight flourish.NESTING Small, domed nest of grass on ornear ground in thick cover; 6 or 7 eggs;1 brood;April–May.FEEDING Picks insects and spiders from foliage, slipping gently and easily throughleaves; catches some flies in air.

IN FLIGHT JUVENILE

ADULT

CHIFFCHAFFsee p.336

spindlyblackish legs

short wings

thin eye-ring

rounderhead

WOOD WARBLERsee p.334

white onbelly

yellowon chest

cleanergreen

plainer head

whiterbelow

BONELLI’S WARBLERsee p.335

FLIGHT: quick, light, bouncy flitting action overshort distances.

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 13cm (5in) Wingspan 19–24cm (71⁄2 –91⁄2 in) Weight 7–12g (1⁄4 – 7⁄16oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Sylviidae Species Phylloscopus sibilatrix

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

334

One of the larger Phylloscopus warblers, the Wood Warbler is alsothe brightest, with areas of pure lemon yellow and clear green. It is

restricted to high woodland with open space beneath the trees and far lessgenerally distributed than the Willow Warbler or the Chiffchaff. It is also curiouslyrare away from its nesting woods, not usually seen near the coast during migration.It is best located by its characteristicsong in early summer, becomingelusive later.VOICE Call sweet, loud sweet; twosong types: less frequent plaintive, low,sweet sioo sioo sioo, more often quick,sharp, ticking accelerating into fast,silvery, vibrant trill, ti-ti-ti-ti-ti-tik-ik-ik-ikirrrrrrrrrrrrrrr.NESTING Domed grassy nest in deadleaves on ground; 6 or 7 eggs; 1 brood;May–June.FEEDING Moves through foliageeasily, gently, and unobtrusively, pickinginsects and spiders.

OCCURRENCELocal summer visitor breeding in UK, France, and east acrossEurope except N Scandinavia. In old woods with open spacebeneath canopy and leaf litter on ground, from April to August.Rare outside breeding areas.

Wood Warbler

CHIFFCHAFFsee p.336

thick dark linethrough eye

pale sulphur-yellowchin and upperbreast

silky whiteunderside

bright, cleargreen upperside

ECSTATIC SONGThe fast, metallic trill seems totake over the whole body of asinging Wood Warbler as itvibrates to its own song.

long wingtips(often droopedbeside tail)

long wings

WILLOW WARBLERsee p.333

BONELLI’S WARBLERsee p.335

dullerabove

lessyellowbelow

plainer head

greyer

smaller andduller

shortwings

long, wide yellowstripe over eye

FLIGHT: often flies direct, slightly hesitant, frombranch to branch under canopy.

IN FLIGHT

brownish wingswith pale yellowishfeather edges

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

335

Length 11–12cm (41⁄4 –43⁄4 in) Wingspan 19–23cm (71⁄2 –9in) Weight 7–11g (1⁄4 – 3⁄8oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Sylviidae Species Phylloscopus bonelli

Asouthern equivalent of the Wood Warbler,Bonelli’s Warbler is much less bright. It has an

obviously similar but simpler, slightly bubbling song,often given from the top of a clump of dense oaks on a valley side slope, or from adense conifer. In either case, Bonelli’sWarbler can be hard to spot. Patienceis usually rewarded but views areoften brief as the bird is constantlymoving, threading its way quietlythrough the foliage.VOICE Call bright, finch-like hoo-eetor chew-eee; song loose, dribbling,bubbly trill on one note, less metallicthan Cirl Bunting’s, less ticking thanWood Warbler’s, s’r’r’r’r’r’rrrrrrrrrrrrrr.NESTING Domed grassy nest onground, under tussock or in cavity inbank; 5 or 6 eggs; 1 brood; May–July.FEEDING Picks insects from foliage.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in Spain, Portugal, S France,Italy, and Balkans between Apriland August. In deciduous andconiferous woodland, in clumps ofoak on bushy slopes and quitesmall bushy pines; very raremigrant outside this range.

Bonelli’s Warbler

pale grey-brown legs

silky whiteunderside

faint pale lineover eye

round, palegreyish head

solid,spike-like bill

IN FLIGHT

SIMILAR SPECIES

CHIFFCHAFFsee p.336

WOOD WARBLERsee p.334

FLIGHT: short, direct, flitting flights like othersimilar small warblers.

dark tail with yellow-green featheredges

pale greenishgrey back

stripe overeye

WILLOW WARBLERsee p.333

stripe overeye

SUBSPECIES

P. b. orientalis(Middle East);call a hardchipp

brighter

striped head

yellow below

duller below

smallershort wings

yellowishrump

green wings withpale greenishyellow coverts

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

SUBTLE FEATURESBonelli’s Warbler lacks striking features: it takes a fewminutes of patient watching to identify it.

greyerabove

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 10–11cm (4 –41⁄4 in) Wingspan 15–21cm (6–81⁄2 in) Weight 6–9g (7⁄32 –11⁄32oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Sylviidae Species Phylloscopus collybita

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

336

While the Willow Warbler ismore common in many areas, the

Chiffchaff is the small greenish warbler thatis often the benchmark against which others arejudged. It appears commonly in bushy areas by the coast, or close to lakes and reservoirs, duringmigration, especially quite late in the autumn(when it may sing quite frequently). Sometimes a migrant will appear for a day or so, singing, in a large garden, but in summer it is a bird of tallertrees in well-wooded parks or woodland.Distinguishing a Chiffchaff from a WillowWarbler can be a real problem but it is worthpersisting and learning their different characters.A frequent downward bob of the tail is a goodclue to a Chiffchaff.VOICE Call slurred, almost single syllable, sweethweet; song easy, loud, bright, even-pacedrepetition of simple notes, chip-chap-chip-chap-chap-chup-chap-chap-chip.NESTING Domed grass nest very low in bush orherbs; 5 or 6 eggs; 1 or 2 broods;April–July.FEEDING Takes insects and spiders from foliage,slipping easily through without jerky leaps of tits.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in most of Europe exceptfor Iceland; many winter in S Europe, fewer in W Europe. In woods, wooded parks, largegardens, and lower thicketsespecially on migration (willowsnear water especially in March).

Chiffchaffroundhead

PERSISTENT SINGEREarly arrivals sing almost constantlybefore the leaves are on the trees.Chiffchaffs sing again onmigration in autumn.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

SUBSPECIES

FLIGHT: short, low, slow, weak, undulating action.

larger andbrighter

WOOD WARBLERlonger wings; see p.308

curved pale wing-bar

greyer

P. c. tristis(Siberia, very rare vagrant in W Europe)

IN FLIGHT

olive-tingedgreen body

pale greenish toyellowish buffunderside

flatterhead

WILLOW WARBLERdisyllabic call;longer wings;see p.307

paler

pale legs

thin bill

ADULT

stripedhead

ADULT

short, roundwings

thin pale stripe over eye(longer, sharper, yelloweron juvenile)

dark eye-stripe

white crescentunder eye

shortwingtips

tail bobbeddown

thin blackish legs

ADULT

SIMILAR SPECIES

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

337

Length 8.5 –9cm (31⁄4 –31⁄2 in) Wingspan 13–15.5cm (5–6in) Weight 5–7g (3⁄16 –1⁄4oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Sylviidae Species Regulus regulus

Europe’s smallest bird, theGoldcrest may sometimes

be watched almost at arm’slength as it feeds in lower branchesof trees. It isn’t so much bold or tame as simply oblivious to the presence ofpeople: it generally ignores humans.TheGoldcrest’s succession of high-pitched, needle-thin but emphatic calls is a feature of manyconiferous forests.The song is equally thin but remarkablypenetrating, even audible from a fast-passing car. In winter,Goldcrests forage in a variety of places, including hedges, lowthickets, and even clumps of gorse or brambles.VOICE Call high, thin, sibilant butemphasized see-see-seee; song high,fast, rhythmic phrase withterminal flourish, complex at closerange, at distance seedli-ee seedli-eeseedli-ee seedli-ee seedli-i-didl-eeoo.NESTING Tiny cup of cobwebs,moss, and lichens, slung beneathbranch; 7 or 8 eggs; 2 broods;April–July.FEEDING Picks tiny insects,spiders, and insect eggs fromfoliage, often hovering briefly.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in most of Europe exceptIceland, extreme N Scandinavia,and much of MediterraneanEurope. Present all year round inmixed and coniferous woodland,parks, and large wooded gardens;coastal migrants can be in verylow scrub.

Goldcrestdull to brightolive-greenplumage

black stripe with yellowcentre on crown (plaingrey-green on juvenile)

ADULT

WILLOW WARBLERsee p.307

CHIFFCHAFFsee p.310

plain head

whitisharound eye

broad white“V”-shapedbar on wings

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

white stripeover eye

plainwings

larger

plain wings

FIRECRESTsee p.312

brighter

IN FLIGHT

ADULTADULT

blackishwings

neckless shape

FLIGHT: quick, flitting; weak-looking whirr.

buff togreenishunderside

PIERCING SONGThe high-pitched song of the Goldcrest penetrates the noiseof wind in the trees, and even land traffic noise.

Length 9cm (31⁄2 in) Wingspan 13–16cm (5–61⁄2 in) Weight 5–7g (3⁄16 – 1⁄4oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Sylviidae Species Regulus ignicapillus

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

338

SIMILAR SPECIESOCCURRENCEBreeds in extreme S UK, south to Spain and east to Baltic Statesand Balkans. Found all year inconiferous, broadleaved, andmixed woodland, shrubberies,parks, evergreen scrub, and bushy slopes with many hollies,yews, or similar bushes.

Firecrest

GOLDCREST 32;see p.337

PALLAS’S WARBLER yellowrump in flight; see p.447

CHIFFCHAFFsee p.336

broad black capwith orange centralstripe (plain crownon juvenile)

ADULTADULT

long yellow stripeover eye

FLIGHT: short, quick, weak flitting action, usuallyover very short distances.

bronze-yellowsides of neck

white tips toinner flightfeathers

bright greenabove

whitish below

bold white stripeor wedge overeye (duller onjuvenile)

SPRUCE NESTERFirecrests usually nest in conifers;they are typically difficult to seeclearly amidst the foliage.

Less widespread than the Goldcrest, but in parts of Europe themore likely of the two to be seen, the Firecrest has an obviously

close relationship with the slightly duller, plainer species. It hasslightly firmer calls and a much less rhythmic, dynamic song, a usefuldistinction if a bird is seen as a silhouetteagainst the sky at the top of a tall conifer(as so often happens).When it comeslower and allows a close view, it isrevealed as one of the brightest ofEuropean birds.VOICE High zeet; song sharp, quick,accelerating zi zi zi zezezeeeee.NESTING Moss and lichen cup beneathbranch, usually in conifer; 7–11 eggs;2 broods;April–July.FEEDING Takes tiny insects and spidersfrom foliage, slipping through leaveswith ease and often hovering briefly.

no whiteover eye plain wings

plainerface

“V” shapedwhite wingbar

IN FLIGHT

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

pale barsacross darkwings

ADULT

FLYCATCHERS

339

Length 14cm (51⁄2 in) Wingspan 23–25cm (9–10in) Weight 14–19g (1⁄2 – 11⁄16oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan 3–5 years Status Declining

Order Passeriformes Family Muscicapidae Species Muscicapa striata

Many birds take the occasional fly in mid-air but flycatchers specialize in it: not in continuous

flight, like swallows, but flying out from a perch andback again.This gives the Spotted Flycatcher a sharp-eyed, constantly alert appearance that is very appealing even if itsplumage lacks strong colours or pattern.This slim, upright, short-legged bird is a late spring arrival from Africa, spreading out intoplaces with “edge” habitats, such as woodland clearings,allotments, parks, churchyards, and tennis courts, when openspace meets cover for nesting and somewhere to perch.VOICE Short, slightly metallic or scratchy, unmusical tzic or tzee,tzee-tsuk tsuk; song of similar quality, short, scratchy, weak warble.NESTING Cup of grass, leaves, moss, and feathers in creeper, oldnest, cavity in wall, or open-fronted nest box; 3–5 eggs; 1 or 2broods; June–August.FEEDING Mostly catches insects in air, after flight from perch(from near ground level to treetop height); usually returns tosame perch.

OCCURRENCEBreeds almost throughout Europeexcept in Iceland, present fromMay to September and often alate arrival in spring. In openwoodland, parkland, gardens with bushes and trees, and similar places.

Spotted Flycatcher

JUVENILE

SIMILAR SPECIES

PIED FLYCATCHER 2;see p.340

white stripeon wings

shortertail

plainerwing

lessupright

silvery whiteunderside

soft, palegrey-brownstreaks onbreast

quitethickbill

soft brown head,subtly streakedon crown

bold darkeye

plain grey-brown back

ADULT

FLIGHT: strong, quick, agile; swooping over longdistances with bursts of wingbeats; catches flies withrapid twists, returning quickly to perch.

pale featheredges onwings

IN FLIGHT

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

cream spotson back

spottedcrown

long, narrowwings

shortblack legs

GARDEN WARBLERsee p.314

long wingtips

ADULT

plaintail

OPEN PERCHA perch with a view of insects that catch the light as theycross sunlit clearings lets this flycatcher find a good meal.

long, plainbrown tailhelddownwards

Length 13cm (5in) Wingspan 21–24cm (81⁄2 –91⁄2 in) Weight 12–15g (7⁄16 –9⁄16oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan 3–5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Muscicapidae Species Ficedula hypoleuca

FLYCATCHERS

340

Neither a garden bird nor as universally distributed as theSpotted Flycatcher, the Pied Flycatcher is a forest species,

preferring space under the canopy in which it can feed, flyingout for flies or dropping to the ground. Such places often haveRedstarts (see p.298),Wood Warblers (see p.334), and PiedFlycatchers as a characteristic trio of small birds in summer.All become elusive after nesting, Pied Flycatchersalmost “disappearing” for a time, although they arefrequent migrants in coastal areas later in autumn.VOICE Sharp whit or whit-tic, wheet; song brief, simple,musical phrase with notes clearly separated, slightlyhesitant, ending with trill, see, see, see sit, see-sit sitip-seweee.NESTING Cup of leaves and moss, in tree hole, oldwoodpecker hole or, by preference, nest box; 5–9 eggs;1 brood;April–May.FEEDING Catches flies in air and picks insects fromfoliage and from ground; also eats seeds and berries.REMARK Subspecies F. h. iberiae (Spain) has pale rump,bigger forehead spot, bigger wingbar and primary patch.

SIMILAR SPECIES OCCURRENCEBreeds in UK and across most of mainland Europe. Seen fromApril to August in broadleavedwoodland with clear spacebeneath canopy, often wherethere are Wood Warblers. Migrantsoften on coasts in autumn.

Pied Flycatcher

COLLARED FLYCATCHER 2similar to 32; palerrump; see p.447

SPOTTED FLYCATCHERsimilar to 2; see p.339

SEMI-COLLAREDFLYCATCHER 3similarto 3; paler rump; see p.447

JUVENILE

thin buffstreaks onwings; nowhite

white collar

more whiteon wings

small upperwingbar

NEST BOXA male feeds his chicks in a boxspecially provided: numbers areincreased by nest box schemes insuitable woods.

FLIGHT: strong, quite bounding; often drops toground, catches flies in air but usually goes on todifferent perch.

blackerwings

dull brownback

white wingpatch

IN FLIGHT

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

blackish wingswith bold whitepatch

FEMALE

whitesidesto tail

MALE(SUMMER)

whiteunderparts

MALE (SUMMER)

white wingpatch

short dark legs

black and white plumage(in autumn, like female butretains forehead spots)

one or two spotson forehead

dull brown andbuffish white body

bold dark eye

black tailwith whitesides

DENSE COLONIESGannet colonies, usually along cliffledges and steep slopes, along cliffledges and steep slopes.

341

TITS AND ALLIES

Families Paridae, Aegithalidae, Timaliidae, Remizidae

TITS AND ALLIES

IN THIS GROUP, there are the “true” tits, in thegenus Parus, together with several “imposters”:

the Bearded Tit (really a parrotbill), the Long-tailed Tit, and the Penduline Tit.All are more orless social, the Penduline Tit least so; most arewoodland birds, but Bearded and Penduline Titslive in or around reedbeds.

The true tits are rather small or very small birds(the Coal Tit is one of Europe’s tiniest species),either green, blue, yellow, and white or mixturesof dull grey-brown, buff, white, and black.Several species come to garden feeders and arefamiliar favourites (especially the Blue and GreatTits, but even Crested Tits visit feeders wherethey are common).

These are primarilywoodland species,timing their breedingto the suddenappearance of vastquantities of caterpillarson tree foliage(something that climatechange is throwing outof synchronization,causing severe problemsin places). Gardenbreeders do less well,but survive the winterbetter with artificialfeeding. In winter,mixed groups of titsforage through woods, hedgerows, and gardens,typically mostly Blue and Great Tits with Coal,Marsh, and Willow Tits in ones and twos aroundthe fringe.They take advantage of greater

numbers, being better able to find food andalso to spot approaching predators since

many pairs of eyes are better than one.

POPULAR BIRDFor many, the Blue Tit isthe most typical, andfavourite, garden visitor.

SUSPENDED NESTThe nest of a Penduline Tit is amasterpiece of construction hungfrom a slender, swaying twig.

UNIQUE CRESTOther tits in the world havecrests, but the headgear of theCrested Tit is unlike that of anyother woodland bird in Europe.

Length 14cm (35in) Wingspan 22–25cm (9–10in) Weight 16–21g (9⁄16 – 3⁄4oz)

Social Loose flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Paridae Species Parus major

TITS AND ALLIES

342

Abig, colourful, bold, and aggressive tit, theGreat Tit is well known almost everywhere

and is one of the most familiar of garden birds; it is also common in woodlandand on bushy hillsides. It feeds more on the ground than the smaller tits,lacking their extreme lightness and agility, but is still an acrobatic bird, movingmore energetically and erratically than the woodland warblers. In spring, ithas a simple but remarkably fine and appealing song.VOICE Extremely varied, often confusing; calls include ringing chink or pink,piping tui tui tui, nasal churrr; song variation on repeated two-syllable phrase, sharp,metallic, strident, musical, or grating, with varying emphasis, tea-cher tea-cher tea-cheror seetoo seetoo seetoo.NESTING Cup of moss, leaves, and grass in natural hole, woodpecker hole,or nest box; 5–11 eggs; 1 brood;April–May.FEEDING Eats insects, seeds, berries, and nuts, especially tree seeds in autumnand winter, many from ground; commonly visits bird-tables and feeders.

SIMILAR SPECIESOCCURRENCEBreeds and all-year round residentalmost throughout Europe exceptin Iceland. All-year in wide varietyof mixed woodland, parks, andgardens; in S Europe, also onwarm, scrubby hillsides.

Great Tit

COAL TITsee p.343

BLUE TIT 32;white ring aroundnape; see p.344

MALE

smaller

palebluecap

white on nape

no yellowor green

FLIGHT: strong, undulating, with abrupt bursts ofwhirring wingbeats.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

JUVENILE

grey tail withwhite sides

white cheekpatch

greenback

yellower cheeks

dull greenishblack head

shiny blackhead

MALE

IN FLIGHT

blue-greywings

pale wingbar

FEMALE

MALE

thick blackstripe downunderside

bright yellowunderparts

narrower blackstripe downunderside

TITS AND ALLIES

343

Length 11.5cm (41⁄2 in) Wingspan 17–21cm (61⁄2 –81⁄2 in) Weight 8–10g (5⁄16 – 3⁄8oz)

Social Loose flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Paridae Species Parus ater

One of Europe’s smallest birds, the Coal Tit is everywhere associated with conifers, even isolated

pines within a wood of deciduous trees. It is also a gardenbird in many places. In autumn and winter, it regularly joins othertits in large, shapeless, roaming flocks that wander through woodsand gardens in search of food.Woods often seem birdless until such a flock comes by, when suddenly there is too much to see at once.Coal Tits typically exploit their minute weight by searching thethinnest twigs.VOICE Call high, sweet, sad tseu or tsoooo, thintseee, bright psueet; song bright, quick, repetitive,high wi-choo wi-choo wi-choo or sweetu sweetu sweetu.NESTING Hair-lined small cup of moss and leavesin hole in stump, tree, wall, or ground, or in small-holed nest box; 7–11 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Finds tiny insects, spiders, and their eggsin foliage; eats many seeds and nuts; visits feedersfrequently, often dashing off with food to eatnearby; hides much food in tufts of pine needles.REMARK Subspecies P. a. ledouci (N Africa) hasyellow cheeks and underside.

OCCURRENCEBreeds through all of Europeexcept Iceland and extreme N Scandinavia. Lives all year round in mixed but mainly coniferouswoodland, wooded parks, andgardens close to conifer woods.

Coal Tit

FLIGHT: weak, flitting, with whirring wingbeats,with sudden “stop” on perch.

ADULT

SIMILAR SPECIES

WILLOW TITsee p.346

MARSH TITsee p.347

no wingbar

no whitenape patch

no whitenape patch

no wingbar

strong greenand yellow

muchbigger

whitecheeks

bigblackbib

bright buffunderside

white napepatch

greyish back

blackhead

ADULT

TINY BUT FEARLESSCoal Tits take very little notice ofpeople and may forage throughshrubberies almost within arm’slength if one keeps still and quiet.

IN FLIGHT

JUVENILE

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

dark wings withtwo white bars

GREAT TIT 32;see p.342

yellowercheeks

whitenape

Length 11.5cm (41⁄2 in) Wingspan 17–20cm (61⁄2 –8in) Weight 9–12g (11⁄32 – 7⁄16oz)

Social Loose flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Paridae Species Parus caeruleus

TITS AND ALLIES

344

Common, noisy, colourful, and tame, the Blue Tit is a favouritegarden bird, coming to feeders of all kinds. It also nests in boxes

in larger gardens, but is generally not very successful there as broodsof young require prodigious numbers of caterpillars to thrive.Only large woodland areas provide sufficient supplies.Even there, in recent years, Blue Tits have hadreduced breeding success as the chicks hatchwhen food supplies have declined, caterpillarshaving appeared earlier due to climate change.VOICE Thin, quick, tsee-tsee-tsee, harder tsee-see-sit, scolding churrrrr; song trilled, slurred tsee-tsee-tsee-tsisisisisisi.NESTING Small, mossy cup, lined with hair andfeathers, in hole in tree or wall or nest box; 7–16eggs; 1 brood;April–May.FEEDING Takes many seeds, nuts, insects, andspiders; visits garden feeders and bird-tables frequently in large numbers.

SIMILAR SPECIES OCCURRENCEPresent almost throughout Europeexcept in N Scandinavia andIceland, all year. In woods of allkinds, parks, gardens, and bushyplaces. In winter, quite often inreedbeds and even wanderingaround edges of salt marshes.

Blue Tit

COAL TITsee p.343

GOLDCREST 32;see p.337

GREAT TIT 32;see p.342

JUVENILE

MALE

smaller

bigger no blueor yellow

FLIGHT: fast, undulating over long distance; burstsof whirring wingbeats; sudden stop on perch.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

narrowblack chin

white bars onblue wings

greenish cap

dull yellowunderside

blue tail (brightestin spring male)

dark linethrough eye

AT NUT BASKETThe Blue Tit uses its quick actionsand surefootedness to dash in to a peanut basket and hang, oftenupside down, to reach its food.

IN FLIGHT

MALE

bright blue cap,surrounded bywhite

FEMALE

pale yellowunderside withthin, darkcentral streak

slightly lessblue thanmale

white cheeks

no whiteon cheeks

no blue

bold whitecheeks onblack head

TITS AND ALLIES

345

Length 11.5cm (41⁄2 in) Wingspan 17–20cm (61⁄2 –8in) Weight 10–13g (3⁄8 – 7⁄16oz)

Social Loose flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Paridae Species Parus cristatus

There are titmice with crests elsewhere in the world but this oneis unique in Europe and thus easy to identify even in silhouette.

It is a pine forest specialist, in the UK restricted to northern Scotlandand more numerous in ancient pine forest than in newer plantations.It seems to require some variation, with clearings and forest edge, aswell as dead or dying tree stumps in which it can nest. It is easilylocated by its distinctive stuttering call.Like other titmice, the Crested Tit isalmost oblivious to the presence ofpeople and can be watched feedingfrom very close range.VOICE Quick, low, rather soft trill or stutter, b’d-rrrr-rup, also usual thin,high tit zit or zee.NESTING Soft cup in hole indecaying tree stump; 5–7 eggs;1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Eats small insects andspiders; in winter, takes seeds, manyfrom stores made in spring; visitsfeeders in wooded gardens.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in N Scotland and most ofmainland Europe except extremeN Scandinavia, Italy, and most of Balkans. Present all year roundmostly in conifer forest, and locally in deciduous woods inmainland Europe.

Crested Tit

IN FLIGHT

COAL TITsee p.343

SIMILAR SPECIES

WILLOW TITsee p.346

MARSH TITsee p.347

no crest no crest

wingbars

black cap withoutcrest

white facewith blackedge tocheek

blackbib

pointed crest,mottled black-and white

warm brownback

PINE SPECIALISTAlthough found in mixed woods inEurope, most Crested Tits preferold pine forest, with dead trees andstumps to excavate a nest-hole in.

FLIGHT: weak, flitting, quite quick, with bursts orflurries of wingbeats.

buffunderside

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

brownwings

browntail

plainwings

Length 11.5cm (41⁄2 in) Wingspan 17–18cm (61⁄2 –7in) Weight 9–11g (11⁄32 – 3⁄8oz)

Social Loose flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Paridae Species Parus montanus

TITS AND ALLIES

346

Much like a Marsh Tit, the Willow Tit is more often found in places with few

mature trees but plenty of lower bushes, suchas old hedgerows and extensive willow carr overpeat bogs. It is, however, also found in woods andthe two often overlap. It often visits gardens but,like the Coal Tit, tends to take a morsel of food andfly away with it to eat elsewhere, so its visits are short.The Willow Tit appears big-headed and bull-necked,and uses its distinctive low, harsh, buzzy calls frequently,helping to separate it from the Marsh Tit. It requirespatience and experience to learn how to separate thetwo on sight.VOICE Thin zi zi combined with distinctive deep, nasal,buzzing airr airr airr or charr charr charr; song rarely varied warble, more commonlyfull, piping tyoo tyoo tyoo.NESTING Excavates own hole in rotten stump; 6–9 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Agile and acrobatic but generally quite sluggish, taking insects, seeds, andberries; comes to feeders in gardens for nuts and sunflower seeds.

SIMILAR SPECIES OCCURRENCEBreeds in N and E Europe, west toUK and E France, and south to C Italy and Balkans, present yearround. Occupies coniferous andbirch forest, mixed woods, thickets and hedgerows, andoften visits gardens.

Willow Tit

COAL TITsee p.343

MARSH TITdifferent call;see p.347

BLACKCAP 32;see p.316

PEANUT RAIDERThe Willow Tit is quite a frequentvisitor to hanging feeders ingardens. The characteristic palewing panel is visible in this picture.

paler andgreyer white

wingbars

smaller cap

no darkchin

FLIGHT: low, quick, whirred wingbeats like othersmall tits.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

no palecheeks

black chin

rich orange-buffflanks

dull grey-buffunderside

pale panelon wings

dull brownback

big, dullblack cap

pale cheeksextendingwell back

small, rounded,plain brown wings

IN FLIGHT

appears big-headed andbull-necked

TITS AND ALLIES

347

Length 11.5cm (41⁄2 in) Wingspan 18–19cm (7–71⁄2 in) Weight 10–12g (3⁄8 – 7⁄16oz)

Social Loose flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Paridae Species Parus palustris

Marsh and Willow Tits are remarkably alike and

present a real identificationchallenge even toexperienced birdwatchers:their calls are helpful. It is essential to know the most frequently used ones to tell the two apart: a distinct pit-chew call is the best clue to a Marsh Tit, quite unlike any call used by the Willow. Bothbirds visit gardens but much less persistently than the Blue Tits andGreat Tits. Marsh Tits like the vicinity of mature deciduous trees,especially beeches and oaks, although they often forage at a low level among thick undergrowth.They join mixedwinter tit flocks, but usually only one or two hangaround at the edges. Like most tits, Marsh Tits useexisting holes in which to nest, while Willow Titsexcavate their own.VOICE Loud calls, often titi-zee-zee-zee, tchair, mostdistinctive a unique loud, bright, pit-chew!; songinfrequent, quick, rippling schip-schip-schip-schip.NESTING Grass and moss cup in existing hole intree or wall, not often in nest box; 6–8 eggs;1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Mostly feeds on insects and spiders insummer; takes seeds, berries, and nits in autumnand winter, often from ground.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in S UK, S Scandinavia, andeast across middle Europe, southto Italy and Balkans. In deciduouswoodland and parkland with talltrees, sometimes visiting gardensto use feeders especially in winter.

Marsh Tit

NEAT APPEARANCEA glossy cap and uniform wingsgive the Marsh Tit a neat look, andare good identification clues todistinguish it from the Willow Tit.

SIMILAR SPECIES

WILLOW TITsee p.346

BLACKCAP 32;see p.316

no darkchin

paler wingpanel

whitewingbars

COAL TITsee p.343

small blackchin

pale grey-buffunderside

pale cheeks;slim neck

big, shiny blackcap extending toback of neck

neat, plaingrey-brownupperparts

no pale panelon wings

small, rounded grey-brown wings

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

IN FLIGHT

much smaller cap

FLIGHT: low, weak, flitting, with bursts ofwingbeats, similar to close relatives.

slim plaintail

Length 14cm (51⁄2 in) Wingspan 16–19cm (61⁄2 –71⁄2 in) Weight 7–9g (1⁄4 – 11⁄32oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Aegithalidae Species Aegithalos caudatus

TITS AND ALLIES

348

Unique in its round-bodied, long-tailed

shape and tiny size, theLong-tailed Tit is usually encountered in groups. In summer, familyparties move noisily through bush tops or undergrowth; in wintersometimes much larger parties tend to string out as they feed, oftencrossing a gap between trees in a thin, erratic stream.Their high callsresemble those of other tits and Goldcrests (see p.337), but have aparticularly shapeless, needle-like character, intermixed with low,abrupt notes that are immediately distinctive.VOICE High, thin, colourless seeeseee seee without emphasis or fullerquality of Goldcrest; short, abrupt,low trrp, longer zerrrp or tsirrup!NESTING Unique rounded anddomed nest with side entrance intosoft, springy, elastic ball of lichen,moss, cobweb, and feathers, in low,thorny bush; 8–12 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Groups move about, often in single file,picking tiny spiders and insects from twigs and foliage;eat a few seeds; increasingly visit feeders in gardens.

OCCURRENCEBreeding bird in all of Europeexcept Iceland, present all year.Occupies mixed or deciduouswoods with bushy undergrowth,scrub, and tall old hedgerows;increasingly visits gardens.

Long-tailed Tit

FLIGHT: weak, quick; whirring wingbeats; often ingroups, single file, flitting from bush to bush, tailbouncing along behind.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

black band backfrom eye dull white

head mixed dull blackand pink back

dull whiteunderside

tinybill

black andwhite plumage(lacks pink)

long, slim black tailwith white sides

tiny, ball-and-stick shape

IN FLIGHT

LONG AND SLIMA Long-tailed Tit looks quite slender in summer; it is in cold winterconditions that it looks like a round ball with a tail attached.

AMAZING NESTThe Long-tailed Tit’s globularor bottle-shaped nest, coatedwith lichen, is a remarkablestructure. It expands as thechicks grow.

JUVENILE

ADULT

ADULT

TITS AND ALLIES

349

Length 12.5cm (5in) Wingspan 16–18cm (61⁄2 –7in) Weight 12–18g (7⁄16 – 5⁄8oz)

Social Loose flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Timaliidae Species Panurus biarmicus

OCCURRENCEExtremely local, breeding inreedbeds in E UK, N and S France,Low Countries, Baltic area, E Spain, S Portugal, Italy, and SE Europe. Resident in winter,occasionally spilling into otherwetland habitats.

Bearded Tit

REED WARBLERsee p.324

SIMILAR SPECIES

LONG-TAILED TITsee p.348

entirelydifferentcolour

plainer

shortertail

FEMALE

JUVENILE

black sidesof tail

black back

pale brownhead

streakedwings

IN FLIGHT

MALE

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

MALE

whitish eye ofmale (black infemale)

big black“moustache”

pale tawnyunderside

bright blue-grey head

yellow eye

tawny-brown,cream, andblack back

FLIGHT: low, fast, over reeds; whirring, trailinglong tail.

More closely related to the babblers and parrotbills of Asia than the tits, the Bearded Tit is

one of Europe’s most restricted birds in terms of habitat.It is entirely dependent on extensive reedbeds, although it will briefly occupy reedmace or tall, wet grass inwinter when population pressure forces some to leavereedbeds to look for new sites. It can be hard to see,especially on windy days, but since it calls frequently it can usually be located quite easily. If nothing else,a glimpse of a tawny, long-tailed shape flitting across a gap in the reeds is usually forthcoming.VOICE Variations on loud, metallic,“pinging” psching,pink, or ping, sometimes in loud, ringing chorus, oftensporadic; quiet at times.NESTING Deep cup of leaves, stems, and reed flowerheads in reed litter under standing reeds in water;5–7 eggs; 2 or 3 broods;April–August.FEEDING Takes caterpillars from reed stems and reedseeds from flower heads and leaf litter or mud below.

long tawny-brown tail

rufoustail

roundwings

longtail

REEDBED INHABITANTPatience and calm weather are needed for a view like this of a BeardedTit in its reedbed habitat, but they are sometimes surprisingly tame.

Length 10–11cm (4 –41⁄4 in) Wingspan 20cm (8in) Weight 8–10g (5⁄16 – 3⁄8oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 3–5 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Remizidae Species Remiz pendulinus

TITS AND ALLIES

350

OCCURRENCEIn summer, widespread north toBaltic; in winter, in Mediterraneanarea, rare in UK. Breeds in andaround wetlands with tall trees,especially willows and poplars,and in reeds or reedmace; inwinter, mostly in reedbeds.

Penduline Tit

MALE

IN FLIGHT

red-brownback

sharp, narrow,triangular bill

buffishunderside

deep red-brownband acrosswings

pale greyhead

narrower blackmask broad

blackmask

FLIGHT: quick, erratic, bounding undulations withbursts of wingbeats.

MALE

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

FEMALE

JUVENILE

BOTTLE NESTThe remarkable flask-shaped nestof the Penduline Tit has a shortentrance tube high up on one side.

Asmall, neat, well-patterned bird, thePenduline Tit can be hard to spot (even

though easily heard) in tall riverside treetops;in winter, it is often in lower bushes in andaround reedbeds and may be easier to find. Itis usually close to water, although sometimesseveral fields away in lines of trees along littlemore than a ditch or beside a damp meadow.It is common in southeast Europe, butspreading in the west, with increasingappearances in the UK.VOICE Distinctive high, far-carrying, purewhistle, psieeee, longer than similar ReedBunting note (see p.395); song simple mix of trills and calls.NESTING Remarkablehanging nest of plantdown and cobwebs withtubular entrance high onside, dangling from slimtwig; 6–8 eggs; 1 brood;May–June.FEEDING Eats smallinsects and reed seeds, inacrobatic tit-like manner.

SIMILAR SPECIES

RED-BACKED SHRIKE 3;more sedate; see p.357

much bigger

LINNET 32; in open places; see p.382

larger

uniform, plain,pale brownback

plain headgraduallydevelopsblack

plain darktail

black legs

351

NUTHATCHES,WALLCREEPERS,AND TREECREEPERS

NUTHATCHES,WALLCREEPERS,AND TREECREEPERS

Families Sittidae, Tichodromadidae, Certhiidae

FLOATING FLIGHTWallcreepers in flight,despite their small size, areabsolutely spectacular. Ata distance the white spotsare more evident than thedeep red on the wings.

THESE ARE ALL BIRDS that find their foodwhile creeping and climbing over hard

surfaces: tree bark, walls, or rocks. There are twospecies pairs and one totally unique species.

NUTHATCHESNuthatches are agile, using the strength of theirlegs and toes to grip, and able to cling underneathbranches or overhang, and as easily able to movehead-down as right-way up. The Nuthatch is awoodland bird but also feeds on the ground; theRock Nuthatch is a bird of rocks, walls, and ruins.

WALLCREEPERSNothing else evensuggests a Wallcreeper:it is a stunning bird ofmountain cliffs andgorges, sometimescoming to quarries,bridges, and largebuildings lower downin winter. It is elusive,hard to spot againstgrey rock, but

STRONG GRIPNuthatches can more or less clingto a branch at any angle, head-down or head-up.

occasionally gives breathtaking views at closerange, which is always a memorable encounter.Wallcreepers creep in a rather crouched stance,bobbing as if mounted on springs, with frequentoutward flicks of their wingtips.

TREECREEPERSTreecreepers literally creep on trees: they can hangbeneath a branch, but use the tail as a support, sonever descend head-first. Identification is difficult,unless a bird is definitely outside the range ofone or other, or it is singing. Treecreeper andShort-toed Treecreeper songs are usuallydistinctive, but the latter may sometimes singconfusingly like the former. Close examination,preferably of photographs, is necessary to identifya stray outside its normal range. Treecreepersjoin roving bands of tits in winter, when woodsseem empty until, suddenly, trees are “full ofbirds” for a few minutes, before they move on.

Length 12.5cm (5in) Wingspan 16–18cm (61⁄2 –7in) Weight 12–18g (7⁄16 – 5⁄8oz)

Social Loose flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Sittidae Species Sitta europaea

NUTHATCHES,WALLCREEPER,AND TREECREEPERS

352

Almost all the Nuthatch’s life is spent clinging to thebranches of tall trees, although it does forage on rocks,

walls, and old buildings and quite often visits the ground.It also comes to bird feeders in gardens near woods. But it is principally as expert, agile climbers that Nuthatches haveevolved, equally at home coming head-down as climbing head-up or perched across a branch.They use the strength of their feetand sharpness of their claws exclusively, not using their tails asprops as do woodpeckers and treecreepers.VOICE Various loud, full, liquid whistles, pew pew pew pew, chweechwee and fast ringing trills, loud chwit.NESTING Uses old woodpecker hole or nest box, lined with bark and leaves,typically plastering mud around entrance; 6–9 eggs; 1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Eats variety of seeds,berries, nuts, acorns, andbeech-mast, often carriedto be wedged in bark foreasier manipulation; visitspeanut baskets.

SIMILAR SPECIES OCCURRENCEBreeds in most of Europe, exceptIceland, N UK, N Scandinavia, and S Spain. Occupies mixed anddeciduous woodland, parkland,and large gardens with bigold trees all year round, rarelymoving far.

Nuthatch

ROCK NUTHATCHdifferent habitat;see p.449

GROUND FORAGERNuthatches frequently drop to the ground to seek fallen nuts and berries,hopping jerkily over the leaf litter.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

dagger-likegrey bill

pale buffbelow;rustyflanks

palerbelow

black stripethrough eye

blue-greyback andcap

large feet

plaintail

IN FLIGHT

broad wings

shorttail

acrobaticpose

dark base andwhite cornersof tail

FLIGHT: bounding, slightly undulating; fastwingbeats.

NUTHATCHES,WALLCREEPER,AND TREECREEPERS

353

Length 15–17cm (6 –61⁄2 in) Wingspan 30–35cm (12–14in) Weight 25g (7⁄8oz)

Social Family groups Lifespan 3–5 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Tichodromadidae Species Tichodroma muraria

Aunique and stunning small bird of mountains and gorges,the Wallcreeper is often high up around the snow line

in summer, but comes low down or visits large, old buildingsin winter. It is elusive, partly through being so small in suchvast landscapes, but once located may be quite tame and approachable,giving remarkable views. It is tied to a life on rock faces, cliff ledges,and damp, shady places under overhangs: as much dependent on rocksas the Treecreeper is on trees.VOICE Long, rising and falling series of thin, whistled notes.NESTING Untidy nest in hole in cliff or deep in crevice betweentumbled rocks; 4 eggs;1 brood; May–July.FEEDING Searches rocks, especially wet spots and earthy ledges,and also buildings for insects and spiders, probing with its bill andfluttering constantly.

Wallcreeper

FLIGHT: hesitant, fluttery, but quite strong, undu-lating over long distances; remarkable bounding whenfeeding; moves butterfly-like over short distances.

OCCURRENCEMostly rare and local; breeds inPyrenees, Alps, and Balkans,typically up close to snow line.Little more widespread in S Europein winter, coming to lower altitudes.On rocks, cliff faces, in gorges andquarries, but only rarely movingfar from breeding range.

long, slim,downcurvedbill

black face andthroat (white inwinter)

rows of whitespots on outerwings

mid-grey headand body

large white spotson wings

MALE(SUMMER)

MALE (SUMMER)

IN FLIGHT

EXCELLENT CAMOUFLAGEThe red of the Wallcreeper’s wing is not very obvious at long range: itoften looks dark grey and is easily lost against a rocky background.

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

blackish wingswith brightred patches

FEMALE(SUMMER)

small black bib(lost in winter)

short tail

NUTHATCHES,WALLCREEPER,AND TREECREEPERS

354

Length 12.5cm (5in) Wingspan 18–21cm (7–81⁄2 in) Weight 8–12g (5⁄16 – 7⁄16oz)

Social Mixed flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Certhiidae Species Certhia familiaris

354

Even more closely associated with thebark of trees than the Nuthatch, the

Treecreeper can cling beneath a branch,hanging freely by its toes, but usuallysits upright, propped up on its tail.It sometimes forages on the twigs of smaller bushes, more rarely onstone walls.Typically,Treecreeperswork their way upwards on treetrunks and larger branches, oftenspiralling, before flying down tothe next to begin the upward search for food oncemore.They are often on the edges of mixed titflocks in autumn and winter.VOICE Call thin, long, high seee and more vibrantsrreee; song frequent, high, musical, like thin WillowWarbler’s in pattern, falling trill with final flourish.NESTING Untidy nest behind loose bark or ivystem, sometimes in nest box; 5 or 6 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Takes insects,spiders, and other tinyitems from bark, probingwith bill as it shuffles up or around trunks andbranches; also forages onwalls, and occasionally rocks.REMARK Subspecies C. f. familiaris (Scandinavia)is whiter over eye and verywhite below.

OCCURRENCEBreeding bird and year-roundresident in Great Britain and Ireland,local in France, N Spain and eastacross Europe. In mixed, deciduous,or coniferous woods, parks, alongtall hedges, and sometimes inwell-wooded gardens.

Treecreeperwhitishwingbar

notchedbrowntail

silky whiteunderside

large butslender feet

rounded black patch onwings; pale bar lackssaw-toothed edge ofShort-toed’s

pale feathershafts on tail

cream andblackish mottlingon brown back

whitish stripeover eye

fine, curvedbill

FLIGHT: weak, low, undulating; typically from highin one tree to base of next.

dullerunderside

SHORT-TOEDTREECREEPERdifferent call and song;see p.355

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

IN FLIGHT

SIMILAR SPECIES

STRONG GRIPTreecreepers use their sharp claws and strong toes to grip tightly onrough bark, the tail adding stability and balance.

NUTHATCHES,WALLCREEPER,AND TREECREEPERS

355

Length 12.5cm (5in) Wingspan 18–21cm (7–81⁄2 in) Weight 8–12g (5⁄16 – 7⁄16oz)

Social Mixed flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Certhidae Species Certhia brachydactyla

Few species pairs are as difficult as the two treecreepers: the Short-toed is best told

by its calls and song. Even held in the hand,the two can be near impossible to separate onplumage and measurements alone.The Short-toed has more obvious white tips to the wingtipfeathers and a slightly different pattern across theclosed wing. In general, the Short-toed is a touchduller, a little browner underneath, with a morecontrasted white throat; sometimes it may look alittle rounder, with its tail angled in more steeply tothe bark, but such impressions are of little real value.It is equally dependent on trees, but does clamber on rocks at times.VOICE Call quite strong, short, clear tsoit, sometimes longer sreet; song stereotyped,with discrete notes (not flowing like Treecreeper’s), stit-stit-steet, stit-it-steroi-tit.NESTING Cup of grass and feathers in crevice,like Treecreeper; 5 or 6eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING LikeTreecreeper, creeps aboutbranches and tree trunks,probing and picking (butnot chipping away bark)for insects and eggs;sometimes forages on rocks.

OCCURRENCEBreeds locally in Spain, Italy,France, Low Countries, Italy, andBalkans. Typically in lowland, oftendeciduous woods, but also in pineforest in hills. Present all year, rarevagrant outside its breeding range.

Short-toed Treecreeperlong, slender, slightlydowncurved bill

slightly drababove

saw-tooth patternacross wings

clean whitethroat

looks slim andweak in flight

whitish wingbar

FLIGHT: quite direct but weak, undulating, withbursts of quick wingbeats.

BARK SPECIALISTThe Short-toed Treecreeper spendsits whole life clambering on treebark searching for food.

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

IN FLIGHT

SIMILAR SPECIES

TREECREEPERdifferent call andsong; see p.354

plain tail

whiterbelow

SHRIKES/ORIOLES

356

Family Oriolidae

ORIOLES

SEVERAL SPECIES look vividlycoloured in books; some may

disppoint a little in real life. The maleGolden Oriole, however, is always a wonderfulsight if seen well, a vivid buttercup yellow andblack. Strangely, it is remarkably elusive.

The song is loud and obvious, always an easyclue to the presence of an oriole, but seeing it is still difficult most of the time. Orioles live indense foliage, typically in poplars or oak wood-land, and even their bright colours are hard tospot in the dappled light and shade of a wind-swept leafy canopy.

Male and female usually differ but old femalesbecome almost as bright as males. In winter,orioles migrate to Africa, where they come intocontact with several other similar species. InEurope, nothing else is similar except for a poorlyseen Green Woodpecker in flight, which recallsthe female oriole, and no other bird is remotelyso yellow and black as the adult male.

SHRIKES

THRUSH-LIKE IN SHAPE and general form,shrikes have stout, sharp, hooked bills and

strong feet, and they are every bit as predatory asthe small falcons. They drop to the ground ontoprey, from a perch, or catch insects and birds inflight: a shrike will pursue and catch a bird almostas big as itself.

Shrikes are migratory, the Great Grey Shrikemoving to western Europe in winter, others goingto Africa. Most species are suited to warmer partsof southern and eastern Europe, where there areabundant large insects. Intensive farming in manyareas has reduced their numbers and the Red-backed Shrike has only recently been lost as abreeding bird in parts of its original range.

Some species have obvious sexual differences inplumage, others are more or less the same.Identification is likely to pose problems only withmigrant juveniles in autumn. Then precise detailsof bill, head, wing, and tail patterns are necessary toconfirm more general impressions of size and shape.

Family Laniidae

ELONGATED SHAPEA Golden Oriole is ratherthrush-like in form but longer-bodied and longer-winged,and with much shorter legs.

IMMACULATE MALEThis Lesser Grey Shrike is inperfect spring plumage, thepink breast at its strongestand the black of the wingsyet to fade browner.

SHRIKES

357

Length 16–18cm (61⁄2 –7in) Wingspan 24–27cm (91⁄2 –101⁄2 in) Weight 25–30g (7⁄8 –11⁄16oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan 3–5 years Status Declining†

Order Passeriformes Family Laniidae Species Lanius collurio

Sadly diminished in much of its range, and gone from the UK as abreeding bird, the Red-backed Shrike is still moderately common

in places where traditional farming leaves plenty of hedges, bushes,and rough grassland with an abundance oflarge insects. It perches prominently, lookingfor prey, which it catches in a sudden flurryon the ground. Large items are brought backup to a perch, sometimes to be impaled on a thorn for easy manipulation or for storage.VOICE Harsh hek, harder chek; song low,rambling, some bright warbling and mimicry.NESTING Untidy nest of grass, moss,feathers, and refuse in bush; 5 or 6 eggs;1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Watches from perch, and drops to ground to catch beetles and other largeinsects; catches some insects in flight; alsofeeds on small lizards and small rodents.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in mainland Europe, exceptin N Scandinavia and S Spain; nowrare migrant in UK (where it wasbreeding species earlier). Infarmland with hedges, thornbushes, and bushy slopes, fromApril to October, when somemigrants linger near coasts.

Red-backed Shrike

FLIGHT: jerky, bounding; bursts of wingbeats, tailsometimes waved.

FEMALE

MALE

SIMILAR SPECIES

HIDDEN FEMALEWhile males often perch on bushtops, the females, which aredrabber, tend to be inconspicuouswhen breeding, perching lowdown on hedges or bushes.

slight scalybarring ongreyish buffunderside shell-pink

underside

black mask

greyrump

pale powder-blue head

warmbrownback

dark patchbehind eye

rufous-brownback

black tail withwhite sides

MALE

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

FEMALE

IN FLIGHT

LINNET 32;more social;see p.382

tiny

plainerrufoustail

NIGHTINGALEsimilar to 2; see p.296

PENDULINE TIT 32;acrobatic in foliage; see p.350

tiny

rufoustail

Length 17–19cm (61⁄2 –71⁄2 in) Wingspan 25–30cm (10–12in) Weight 25–35g (7⁄8 –11⁄4oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan 3–5 years Status Vulnerable

Order Passeriformes Family Laniidae Species Lanius senator

SHRIKES

358

Like other shrikes,Woodchat Shrikes canbe remarkably obvious, perched on

overhead wires, trees, or bush tops, orfrustratingly difficult to find as they skulkin thick cover.They are strikingly patterned and easy to identify.In parts of southern Europe, they are common and many can beseen, for example, on a long journey by road.They feed on insectsand small birds, watching for these from a perch andchasing or diving on them from above.VOICE Short, chattering, hard notes in alarm; songloud, quick, varied jumble of squeaks and warblers.NESTING Untidy nest of grass and stems in low bush;5 or 6 eggs; 1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Takes big insects from ground or in air, afterwatching from open perch; also catches small birds,rodents, and lizards.

SIMILAR SPECIES OCCURRENCEBreeding bird in Spain, Italy, S France, east to Balkans, andlocally in C Europe. Seen fromApril to October, in bushy areas,open countryside, orchards,overgrown old gardens, and othergenerally bushy places.

Woodchat Shrike

MAGPIEsee p.363

black tail withwhite at base

white below

MALE

BOLD PERCHA feeding Woodchat Shrike keepsa keen eye out for large insectsand other potential prey. It maychase and capture smaller birds.

much larger

IN FLIGHT

rufous cap

pale areaaround eye

white “V”on back

bold whiteshoulder patch

whiterump

grey-brownupperparts

pale underside,barred grey

white scapularswith thin darkcrescents

MALE

JUVENILE

FLIGHT: strong, quick, low, undulating; swoops upto perch.

FEMALE

RED-BACKED SHRIKEjuvenile, similar to juvenile;see p.357

� warmer coloration� browner scapulars

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

black andwhite back

SHRIKES

359

Length 22 –26cm (9–10in) Wingspan 30cm (12in) Weight 30–40g (11⁄16 –17⁄16oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan 3–5 years Status Declining

Order Passeriformes Family Laniidae Species Lanius excubitor

OCCURRENCEBreeds widely but very locally, inScandinavia, across N Europe toFrance, Spain, and Portugal; N European birds winter west toUK, south to N Italy. Breeds inbirch woods, wooded bogs; in dry,hotter, scrubby areas in S Europe;in winter, on bushy, heathy, orboggy ground.

LESSER GREY SHRIKE 32; see p.360

SIMILAR SPECIES

MAGPIEsee p.363

shortertail

longerwings

larger bill

blackforehead

much larger

no grey

cold grey upperparts(scaly barring onback and flanks on juvenile)

broad black bandthrough eye

dull white underside(very faint barringon juvenile

black tail withwhite sides

bold white baron black wings

ADULT

IN FLIGHT

FLIGHT: bounding, undulating; flurries ofwingbeats between glides; upward swoop to perch.

SUBSPECIES

L. e. meridionalis(Spain, Portugal, S France)

greyerorpinkerbelow

darkerabove

FEMALE

slightly dullerthan male

slight barringon flanks

MALE

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

This is the largest European shrike, boldly patterned in clean grey, white, and black. It can be

easy to find or surprisingly elusive. Like other shrikes, itis fond of prominent perches and can be seen at a greatdistance as a white dot on a bush top. It balances byswaying its tail and leaning forward, sometimeslurching at an odd angle, before diving to the groundin a flurry of white-barred wings to catch its prey.VOICE Dry trill and various short, hard notes; songshort, simple, squeaky notes.NESTING Untidy grassy nest in thick bush; 5–7 eggs;1 brood; May–July.FEEDING Watches from perch, swoops onto smallrodents, small birds, big insects, and lizards.REMARK Subspecies L. e. algeriensis (N Africa) isdarker above and grey below; L. e. pallidirostris (Asia,vagrant in W Europe) has pale bill, mask only behindeye, and more white on wings.

RED-BACKEDSHRIKE 32;see p.357

brown back

Great Grey Shrike

BALANCING ACTThe long tail acts as a balance fora Great Grey Shrike perched on athin branch.

Length 19 –21cm (71⁄2 –81⁄2 in) Wingspan 30cm (12in) Weight 30g (11⁄16oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan 3–5 years Status Declining†

Order Passeriformes Family Laniidae Species Lanius minor

SHRIKES

360

SIMILAR SPECIES OCCURRENCEBreeds in extreme S France, Italy,and more widely in Balkans and E Europe. Seen from March toSeptember, chiefly in open placeswith scattered trees, bushes,orchards, and avenues, and inwoodland edges.

Lesser Grey Shrike

GREAT GREY SHRIKEsee p.359

WOODCHAT SHRIKEjuvenile, similarto juvenile; see p.358

larger

slimmer bill

browner

more scaly

paleforehead

shorterwings

longertail

mediumgrey back

IN FLIGHT

ADULT

white patchon blackwings

SPRING MALEThe male Lesser Grey Shrike looks handsome with his bold maskand pink underside.

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

black mask extendsover forehead (lessso on female)

grey, black, andwhite above

thick blackbill

The Lesser GreyShrike, like several

other black, white, andgrey species, is a striking, neat-looking, handsome bird.Usually quite obvious, it behaves like other shrikes inperching on open perches much of the time (but, like them, can be frustratingly elusive on occasions). It frequentlyflies out to chase prey, or drops to the ground with a flurryof white-barred wings. It is the southeastern counterpart ofthe Great Grey Shrike, preferring warm, dry summer climatesand migrating to Africa in winter. In parts of easternEurope, migrants follow long lines of trees beside roads inareas that are otherwise open, treeless croplands. Shrikes havestrong claws to catch and hold prey and use their hookedbills to kill and tear up small birds and voles. Food may beimpaled on thorns to make it easier to deal with.VOICE Short, hard tchek tchek; brief, bright, screaming noteserves as song often given in hovering flight.NESTING Untidy structure of grass and twigs high in bushor tree; 5–7 eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Watches from high perch such as overhead wireand drops onto lizards, beetles, and small birds.

FLIGHT: flies low, quite strong but undulating, withdeep wingbeats; upward swoop to perch.

pinkunderside

scaly greyback

narrow blackmask

scaly greycrown

JUVENILE

wingtips extenddown to tail

MALE

ORIOLES

361

Length 22 –25cm (9–10in) Wingspan 35cm (14in) Weight 55g (2oz)

Social Solitary Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Oriolidae Species Oriolus oriolus

Despite its bright colour and loud, unique song, the Golden Oriole mostly remains hidden in dense foliage. Occasional brief glimpses

may be followed by a longer view as it flies to the next belt ofwoodland, looking like a large, fast-flying yellow thrush. Females lookmore like Green Woodpeckers in flight but lack theyellow rump; they look quite different when perched.Orioles prefer leafy belts of oak, chestnut, andespecially poplars.VOICE Hoarse, strained, Jay-like or cat-like meeaik,fast gigigi; song far-carrying, loud, short phrase, veryfull-throated and fluty with yodelling quality, such as wee-dl-eyo, wee-weo-we-weedl, or weeeoo.NESTING Shallow nest of grass and strips of bark,slung beneath horizontal fork in branch, high in tree;3 or 4 eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Takes caterpillars and other invertebratesfrom foliage within dense tree canopy; also feeds onberries in late summer and autumn.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in extreme E England, morecommonly in Europe north to S Finland. From April to September,in open or dense woodland,poplar plantations, riverside forest,wooded parks, and similar placeswith airy, leafy trees.

Golden Oriolevivid yellowand intenseblack plumage

MALE

GREEN WOODPECKER 32similar in flight but more undulating;see p.259

SIMILAR SPECIES

MISTLE THRUSHsimilar in flight; flies high; see p.309

greenerback

longertail

brightpink-redbill

long, slimbody

MALE

FEMALE

IN FLIGHT

no blackmask

greener plumagethan male’s

boldyellowrump

quite pointedwingtips

blackwings

paleyellowrear flanks

FLIGHT: thrush-like, direct, slightly undulating,swift from tree to tree.

FEMALE

spottedwings

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

STUNNING COLOURSOne of Europe’s most striking birds, good views of an adult male reveal abird of brilliant yellow and intense black.

CROWS/STARLINGS

362

Family Sturnidae

TWO SPECIES ARE MOSTLY dark, shiny,quarrelsome birds; the third is paler when

juvenile and pink and black when adult.All the starlings are rather squat, sharp-

billed, short-tailed birds that walk and run ina quick, shuffling fashion and fly quickly,often in dense flocks. Starlings also gather toroost in woods, reedbeds, and on structuressuch as piers and bridges, in gigantic flocks,although numbers have recently declineddramatically in many areas.

STARLINGS

CROWS

THERE IS CONSIDERABLE VARIATION in the crow family within Europe. The Jay

is colourful and strongly-patterned. Like mostcrows, it is heavily persecuted and very shy, butwhere unmolested it becomes much bolder. TheSiberian Jay has quite different colours: it is a bird of far northern forests.

Magpies are striking, long-tailed, pied birds.They are generally disliked because of theirliking for small birds’ eggs and chicks. They are,nevertheless, fascinating and handsome.

The Alpine Chough is a high-altitude species,coming lower in winter, and often mixing withthe Chough, itself a social bird where common.Choughs are also found on coastal cliffs in north-west Europe.

The world’s largest crow is the Raven. The all-black Carrion Crow is widely spreadbut replaced in parts of Europeby the grey-and-blackHooded Crow.

Family Corvidae

RAUCOUS CALLSThe loud, rough, cawing callsof Rooks fit in well with a ruralsetting, above the treetops ofa country churchyard or park.

HIGHLY SOCIALStarlings are much more ready to rubshoulders than most birds.

MAGPIEA highly social bird, theMagpie has increased insuburban areas, whereornamental shrubberiesand parks provide idealhabitat. It is immediatelydistinctive.

CROWS

363

Length 44–46cm (171⁄2 –18in) Wingspan 52–60cm (201⁄2 –231⁄2 in) Weight 200–250g (7–9oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 10–15 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Corvidae Species Pica pica

Almost everywhere, the Magpie is a striking, black and white,sociable bird that can hardly fail to catch the eye. It also builds

big nests that are very obvious in winter, once the leaves fall: theseare domed fortresses, for protection against other crows. Magpies areusually seen in pairs but often form small groups and occasionally fillwhole trees with flocks of 20–40 at a time, when gathering to roost.There is no other similar-looking bird in Europe.VOICE Hard, chattering, mechanical rattle, tcha-tcha-tcha-tcha-tcha or chak-ak-ak-ak-ak; some squeaky,musical notes.NESTING Big, domed nest of sticks with solid mudinner core, lined with roots and scraps; 5–8 eggs;1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Mostly takes insects, grain, and scraps in a wide range of habitats, from fields to car parks androadsides; eats eggs and chicks in summer.

OCCURRENCEBreeding bird in all of Europeexcept for Iceland, and seen allyear. In farmland with hedges, at edges of woodland, in townsand parks; increasing recently in suburbs, often visiting gardenswith hedges and shrubs.

SWOOPING FLIGHTMagpies look laboured in long-distance flight, but are agile enough in tightspaces and quick to dive from a high perch to snatch up a scrap of food.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

Magpie

FLIGHT: straight, mostly direct, laboured; flutteringor rowing action, sometimes swooping down orswerving.

ADULT

JUVENILE

big white shoulderpatch

black wings, glossedgreen-blue

black from headto back

black breast

white belly

plumagepattern likeadult’s

tail shorterthan adult’sat first

long blackish tail,glossed purpleand green

EYE-CATCHINGLong tails and pied plumage makeMagpies handsome birds.

white wingtipswith black lines

IN FLIGHT

ADULT

Length 34–35cm (131⁄2 –14in) Wingspan 52–58cm (201⁄2 –23in) Weight 140–190g (5–7oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Corvidae Species Garrulus glandarius

CROWS

364

OCCURRENCEBreeds in almost all of Europe,except in N Scotland, Iceland, and N Scandinavia. In parks withextensive lawns and variouswoodland, especially with oak; alsovisits large gardens. N Europeanbirds move southwest in winter.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

blue panelon wings

blacktail

Awoodland bird that also ventures into parks and large gardens,the Jay is usually shy and not easy to watch for long periods:

a harsh call may be the only clue to its presence. It may becomemuch tamer, however, when it is left undisturbed inparks, and can be watched feeding on the groundunder trees, or perhaps collecting acorns, which itdoes with great industry every autumn. It can carryseveral in a pouch under the throat, plus one in thebill, and buries hundreds each year for consumption in the winter and spring. It has an exaggerated,bouncy action while hopping on the ground. Jayssometimes deliberately place ants on their feathers, abehaviour called anting.The purpose of this is unclearbut it probably helps to rid them of parasites.VOICE Nasal, mewing pee-oo, short barking call; maincall loud, tearing-cloth sound, harsh skairk!NESTING Bulky nest ofsticks, low down in thickbush; 4 or 5 eggs;1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Eats anythingfrom caterpillars to smallrodents: chiefly insects insummer with someeggs and small chicksand acorns (collected and stored) in winter.

short, thickdark bill

“anting”posture

thick blackmoustache

white patch onblackish wings

pale, pinkishgrey body

largewhiterump

Jay

IN FLIGHT

ACORN COLLECTORThe Jay collects acorns every autumn, buries them, and usually digs themout to eat late in the winter or spring, when other food is scarce.

SIMILAR SPECIES

HOOPOEsee p.256

long, curvedbill

barredwings

FLIGHT: slow, laboured, rowing action of broadwings; often quite high over woodland in autumnwhen collecting acorns.

striped crown

CROWS

365

Length 32–35cm (121⁄2 –14in) Wingspan 49–53cm (191⁄2 –21in) Weight 120–170g (4–6oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Corvidae Species Nucifraga caryocatactes

This pale-spotted, crow-like bird often perchesconspicuously on top of tall conifers; it is

unmistakable in a good view. Generally easy to find in its restricted range, the Nutcrackersometimes appears far outside this usual breedingdistribution. It is subject to occasional populationbooms which, if they combine with a local food shortage,trigger large-scale movements, or irruptions, as birds are forced to flyfar and wide in an effort to survive. Many do not survive these longjourneys and the population quickly subsides.These invaders arenearly all of the slender-billed eastern race from Russia,although a few northern thick-billed birds areinvolved.These birds, far from their usual home,are often surprisingly tame.VOICE Occasional long, drawn out, hard rattle inspring and summer; otherwise silent.NESTING Nest of twigs lined with grass and moss,near trunk of tree, usually spruce; 3 or 4 eggs; 1 brood;May–July.FEEDING Eats some large insects but mainly seeds ofhazel, pine, and spruce, constantly collected and storedin summer and re-found with great accuracy (evenunder snow) in winter.

Nutcracker

FLIGHT: rather Jay-like on broad wings but short-tailed, strong, direct, with upward swoop to treetopperch; drops steeply from perch.

ADULT

SIMILAR SPECIES OCCURRENCEBreeds in S Scandinavia, east fromBaltic and in mountain areas of C and E Europe. In forests withspruce, hazel, and pine. Residentexcept when seed crops fail: birdsthen move south and west to findfood, rarely in mass emigrations.

thick, dagger-like bill

thickset body

unspotted, brownishblack wings (spottedon juvenile)

whiteunder tail

bold white spotsall over darkbrown body

dark brown cap(streaked onjuvenile)

IN FLIGHTwhite-tippedblack tail

dark blue-black wings

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

SUBSPECIES

N. c. macrothyncus(NE Europe, Asia);more white on tail; slimmer bill

muchsmaller

STARLING winter;see p.372

ADULT

UNIQUE BIRDThe Nutcracker is unique-looking, but novice birdwatchers may at timesmistake Starlings and young Mistle Thrushes for the rarer, larger bird.

Length 37–41cm (141⁄2 –16in) Wingspan 68–80cm (27–32in) Weight 280–360g (10–13oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 5–10 years Status Vulnerable

Order Passeriformes Family Corvidae Species Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax

CROWS

366

SIMILAR SPECIES OCCURRENCEBreeds very locally on coasts ofIreland, W Britain, N and W France,and uplands of Spain, Portugal, SFrance, Italy, and Balkans. Frequentsgorges, crags, high altitude pasturesand coastal cliffs, quarries, andgrassland; on beaches in winter.

Chough

ROOKsee p.369

ALPINE CHOUGHrounder wings;see p.367

CARRION CROWsee p.370

ADULT

FLIGHT: exuberant, bouncy, aerobatic; soars welland often; deeply undulating at times; dives intocaves or to cliff ledge with wings angled back.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

red legs

thick, black billthick,darkbill

squaretail

slightly curved,tapered, brightred bill orange-red

bill, paler thanadult’s

glossy blackbody

larger

whitishface

larger

roundertail

yellowbill

Superficially like a Jackdaw(see p.368), the Chough is blacker,

glossier, and altogether more showy. It is also more acrobatic in the air. It is usually found in small groups; whereChoughs are common, much bigger flocks form,often mixed withAlpine Choughs.These big flocks may roam widely over mountainpastures or through green valleys belowwhen peaks are in snow. In northwestEurope, Choughs are more coastal andalways scarcer than in the mountains.VOICE Loud calls distinctive, withexplosive, ringing, piercing quality,pee-yaa or chia, some shorter chuk andkwarr sounds.NESTING Nest of sticks lined with wooland hair, in sea cave and cavity in cliff orold ruin; 3–5 eggs; 1 brood; May–July.FEEDING Eats ants from old pastures,insects dug up from beneath soil, andlichen on rocks, prised up with bill.

IN FLIGHT

long, square, fingeredwings (greyer flightfeathers below)

JUVENILE

ADULT

AGILE BIRDThe aerobatic Chough makes long, steep, rapiddescents and fast, upward swoops, in pairs or smallflocks in concert.

CROWS

367

Length 36–39cm (14 –151⁄2 in) Wingspan 65–74cm (26–29in) Weight 250–350g (9–13oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 5–10 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Corvidae Species Pyrrhocorax graculus

Atrue high altitude specialist,the Alpine Chough nevertheless

occasionally descends to valley fields,sometimes with Choughs; it is found insome rugged coastal areas as well, especially inwinter. Its calls while it is circling about mountainpeaks are distinctive.The Alpine Chough’s wings are less rectangular and less straight-edged than the Chough’s: the two choughs can be distinguished by their shape at distances which make fine details,such as bill colour,impossible to see.VOICE Strange, ripplingor sizzling zirrrr or hissychirrish, penetrating zeee-up.NESTING Bulky nest ofstems in cliff cavity; 3–5eggs; 1 brood; May–July.FEEDING Forages ongrassland; eats insects,other invertebrates,berries, seeds, and scrapsfrom around ski lifts.

OCCURRENCEBreeding bird and resident all yearin Pyrenees, Alps, Italy, andBalkans. From coasts in winter tohighest peaks, on cliffs and alpinepasture. Often found around skiresorts and lifts.

Alpine Chough

FLIGHT: superb, elegant, light flight, soaring andcircling on spread wings, often in swirling flocks;frequent aerobatics.

SIMILAR SPECIES

ROOKsee p.369

CHOUGHsquarer wings;see p.366

FORAGINGThe Alpine Chough typically forages on alpinegrassland, often in large, active flocks.

short, paleyellow billlong, fingered, slightly

rounded wings

two-tonedunderwing

glossy blackbody

neater, smoothershape thanChough

red legs

larger

thickerblack bill

redbill

squarer tail

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

IN FLIGHT

CIRCLING FLOCKSThis bird is often seen in swirling flocks, circling andcrossing against a backdrop of mountain peaks.

rounded tipto long tail

Length 33–34cm (13 –131⁄2 in) Wingspan 67–74cm (26–29in) Weight 220–270g (8–10oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 5–10 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Corvidae Species Corvus monedula

CROWS

368

SIMILAR SPECIES OCCURRENCEBreeds in most of Europe exceptIceland and N Scandinavia. In NE Europe only in summer, butresident elsewhere. In towns, parks,woods, farmland with scatteredwoodland, and gardens aroundold houses with open chimneys.

Jackdaw

ROOKsee p.369

CHOUGH different call;squarer wings, two-tone below; see p.366

FLIGHT: straight, easy, fluent with constant floppywing action, looser, slower than pigeon’s; agile,aerobatic in wind, soaring well, usually in parties.

longer,red bill

jet blackcap

whitish eye

short,thickbill

grey-blackbody

paler grey napeand cheeks

longer bill;whitishface

dark greyunderwings

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

IN FLIGHT

Asmall crow, the Jackdawis an expert flier, and flocks

frequently soar and glide overwoods or around cliffs and quarries.They combine aerobatics with muchcalling, which makes them easy toidentify, but they can be overlooked whenfeeding in mixed flocks on fields with Rooks.Even in flight, in the flurry of a large flock, theirpresence may not be immediately obvious althoughthe size difference is marked. Jackdaws are oftenquite tame and frequently perch on buildings, largeand small. Small parties often fly off, high andstraight, with sudden bursts of speed.VOICE Noisy; many calls based on short, sharp,yapping sound, kyak or tjak!, with slightly squeaky,bright quality, some longer calls like chee-ar.NESTING Pile of sticks lined with animal dung,mud, roots, moss, and hair, in hole in tree or building,or old chimney; 4–6 eggs; 1 brood;April–July.FEEDING Forages on ground, taking earthworms,seeds, and scraps; also takes caterpillars from foliage,and berries.

WOODLAND CROWJackdaws like cliffs and old buildings but are equally at home in treetopsin mature woodland.

CROWS

369

Length 44–46cm (171⁄2 –18in) Wingspan 81–99cm (32–39in) Weight 460–520g (17–19oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 5–10 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Corvidae Species Corvus frugilegus

Where common, the Rook is one of the familiarbirds of farmland and village, part of the traditional

rural scene. It is a big crow, and a very social one, often mixed with Jackdaws, Stock Doves (see p.233) and Black-headed Gulls (see p.206). It nests in colonies in treetops, its big,stick nests always easy to see except at the height ofsummer when foliage conceals them. Occasionally,a pair or two will nest in more isolated situations,inviting confusion with Carrion Crows; the twospecies can sometimes be quite difficult to tell apart.VOICE Loud, raucous, relaxed cawing, caaar, grah-gra-gra, variety of higher, strangled or metallic notesespecially around colony.NESTING Big nest of sticks in tree, lined with grass,moss, and leaves; 3–6 eggs; 1 brood; March–June.FEEDING Eats worms, beetle larvae, seeds, grain,and roots from ground, especially ploughed fields orstubble, usually in flocks; also forages along roadsidesfor insects and large road casualties.

OCCURRENCEAbsent from Iceland, Scandinavia,and Mediterranean area, butresident across W and C Europeand summer visitor to NE Europe.Typically in farmland withscattered trees, parks, largegardens, and villages withspinneys of tall trees.

Rook

SIMILAR SPECIES

RAVEN angled wings, wedge-shaped tail in flight; see p.371

JACKDAWsee p.368

CARRION CROWsee p.370

AT COLONYTypically, scores of Rook nests maybe seen close together near topsof trees in a visually obvious colony.

smaller andgreyer

thickerbill

wings morepointed thanCarrion Crow’s

roundedtail

flattercrown

black face

tighterplumage Seen in the UK

J J A S DNOMAMFJ

narrow,roundedtail

IN FLIGHT

face darkat first

thinbill

bare white skinaround bill base

bill tapersto point

glossy blackbody

peakedcrown

ADULT

JUVENILE

loose, raggedthigh feathers

FLIGHT: direct, steady, evenly flapping; aerobaticaround colony, twisting and diving; often soars.

ADULT

Length 44–51cm (171⁄2 –20in) Wingspan 93–104cm (37–41in) Weight 540–600g (19–21oz)

Social Occasional flocks Lifespan 5–10 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Corvidae Species Corvus corone

CROWS

370

SIMILAR SPECIES OCCURRENCEBreeds in Great Britain and east toDenmark and C Europe; Hoodedbreeds in Ireland, Scotland, Isle ofMan, and N and E Europe; wintervisitor to North Sea coasts. In allkinds of open areas from uplandmoors to farmland and suburbs.

Carrion Crow

squaretail

FLIGHT: direct, steady wingbeats with few glides;soars occasionally.

JACKDAWsee p.368

smallerbill andhead

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

IN FLIGHT

squarewingtips

SUBSPECIES

glossy blackbody

heavy palebody

tight bodyfeathering

thick,archedbill

broad, flat-toppedhead

This is an unusual bird, having two distinctforms that sometimes interbreed along

their borders but retain separate identities.They should probably be treated as two species.The grey-bodied form is usuallyknown as the Hooded Crow. It used to be a common winter visitor to some areassuch as eastern England, where it is now scarce, but it remains frequent in the LowCountries in winter.The black Carrion Crow is easily taken for a Raven or aRook and requires care in identification where these also occur. Carrion Crowsare typically more solitary but may feed and roost in flocks of scores orhundreds at times.VOICE Loud, harsh, grating caw, krra krrakrra, metallic konk, korr, and variants.NESTING Big stick nest, shallower thanRook’s, in tree or bush; 4 or 6 eggs;1 brood; March–July.FEEDING On ground, takes all kinds ofinvertebrates, eggs, grain, and variousscraps; often in pairs, sometimes bigflocks on fields spread with manure.

C. c. cornix(HOODED CROW)

loosefeathering

whiterface

ROOKsee p.369

longertail

RAVENlonger wings in flight;see p.371

smaller andgreyer

thickerbill

JAUNTY AIRA bold, upright stance and confident, long-stridingwalk are characteristic of the Carrion Crow.

greybody

C. c. cornix(N and E Europe)

CROWS

371

Length 54–67cm (211⁄2 –26in) Wingspan 1.2–1.5m (4–5ft) Weight 0.8–1.5kg (13⁄4 –21⁄4lb)

Social Pairs/Small flocks Lifespan 10–15 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Corvidae Species Corvus corax

OCCURRENCEIn most of Europe except lowlandBritain, France, Low Countries,and east to Denmark; year-roundresident in large forests, mountainregions, open moorland, and hillswith crags and isolated trees.

Raven

CARRION CROWdifferent call; see p.370

SIMILAR SPECIES

ROOKsee p.369

slimmerbillsquarer

tailsmaller

IN FLIGHT

FLIGHT: bold, strong, acrobatic, wings often angled;unique roll onto back and back again; soars easily.

wedge or diamond-shaped tail

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

long, angular,fingeredwings

protrudinghead

The world’s largest crow,the Raven is a heavier,

longer-winged, and longer-tailed bird than the CarrionCrow. Its heavier, longer bill is evident at close range.At long range,it is best identified by its shape, manner of flight, calls, and often thesituation that it is in. Ravens are often found over the wildest andcraggiest country, even over high, barren peaks, althoughthey also frequent softer, wooded or farmed land whereCarrion Crows are equally likely. Where they areunmolested they may be seen flying over coastal towns,and rarely they even nest on tall buildings.VOICE Important clue: loud, abrupt, echoing crronk crronkcrronk or prruk prruk, metallic tonk; various clicking,rattling or quiet musical notes, sometimes in ramblingsubsong audible at close range.NESTING Huge nest of thick sticks, wool, grass, andheather, used for many years, under overhang on cliff, orin tall tree; 4–6 eggs; 1 brood; February–May.FEEDING Eats almost anything; catches small mammalsand birds, eats meat from dead sheep and road-killedrabbits; forages for scraps on shore or at refuse tips; eatsinvertebrates and grain.

all-black plumage

loose throatfeathers canbe expandedas beard

long tail

very thick, long,arched bill

large head

smaller

thinbill

LARGE HEADThe feathers of the crown, chin, and throat can be raised toexaggerate the size of a Raven’s head.

STARLINGS

372

Length 21cm (81⁄2 in) Wingspan 37–42cm (141⁄2 –161⁄2 in) Weight 75 –90g (25⁄8 –31⁄4oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Sturnidae Species Sturnus vulgaris

OCCURRENCEBreeds in all Europe except Spain,Portugal, and S Italy, where it is a winter visitor; only summer in N and E Europe. Breeds in woods,gardens, and towns; in winter, inforest, city centres, and industrialsites, on bridges and piers.

Starling

short, squaretail

FLIGHT: direct, fast, short glides and rapid flickedwingbeats; often in dense flocks, rising and falling.

MALE(SPRING)

Generally abundant, Starlings form dense, noisy flocks: no othersmall bird, apart from shoreline waders, creates such vast flocks

that look like clouds of smoke at a distance. However, with wide-spread declines, flocks have been much reduced.They arefound in many habitats, urban, suburban, and rural, manymoving west within Europe in winter. In spring, Starlingssing loudly, with characteristic wing-waving actions.VOICE Loud, slightly grating cheer, musical, twangy,whistled tswee-oo, variety of clicks, gurgles, squawkingnotes; song fast mixture of gurgles, rattles, trills, andwhistles, some mimicry.NESTING Loose, bulky nest of grass and stems, linedwith roots, moss, wool, and feathers, in tree hole, cavityin building or wall, or large nest box; 4–7 eggs; 1 or 2broods;April–July.FEEDING In small to large flocks, finding invertebrates,seeds, and berries on ground; catches flying ants.

body feathers tippedwhitish or buff

silvery white facewith darker mask

plain brownbody

ADULT

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

JUVENILE

IN FLIGHT

SPOTLESS STARLING32; see p.373

long, strong,red-brown legs

blue-based,sharp yellowbill (pink-basedon female)

glossy black bodywith green andpurple sheen

unmarkedin summer

large, scaly spotsaround tail

dark bill

ADULT(WINTER)

IMMATURE (MOULTING; AUTUMN)

WINTER FLOCKStarling flocks in flight are marvellous examples of skilful coordinationand close control.

longer bodyplumes

unspotted

BLACKBIRD 32;see p.311

SIMILAR SPECIES

longertail

dull head lastto gain adultcolours

wing feathersedged brightorange-buff

The Iberian equivalent of the Starling, this species has an obviousresemblance and close relationship with the more widespread

species: in winter especially, they can be difficult to separate.In summer, however, as groups line the roofs of ancient buildings in Spain, or fly down to feed in the fields, they seem tolook and sound a little different, with a subtle characterof their own. In winter, Starlings join them acrossSpain and increasingly they stay to breed south of thePyrenees, increasing the identification challenge.VOICE Starling-like squawling and quarrelling notes;song has loud, musical, long-drawn py-eeeew andparrot-like sounds.NESTING Bulky, untidy nest in roof spaces and cavitiesin walls; 4–7 eggs; 1 brood;April–June.FEEDING Forages onground for all kinds ofinvertebrates and seeds.

Order Passeriformes Family Sturnidae Species Sturnus unicolor

STARLINGS

373

Length 21cm (81⁄2 in) Wingspan 37–42cm (141⁄2 –161⁄2 in) Weight 75 –90g (25⁄8 –31⁄4oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan Up to 5 years Status Secure

OCCURRENCEBreeds in Spain, Portugal, andextreme S France, Corsica, Sicily,and Sardinia. All year round intowns and villages, feeding onadjacent farmland; in winter, maymix with common Starlings.

Spotless Starling

HABITATThe Spotless Starling is found in similar habitats as the Starling but ismore often associated with old buildings and tiled roofs.

pale spots undertail in summer

ADULT

plain brownback andwings

SIMILAR SPECIES

STARLING 32; larger spotsoverall in winter; see p.372

SUBTLE SHEENUnless seen closely, this bird lookssolidly black. It has a more purplishsheen overall than a Starling.

IN FLIGHT

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

MALE(SUMMER)

FLIGHT: like Starling but tends to look slightlybulkier, broader-winged, slightly slower.

scattered, smalldark spots onunderside

purple-black bodywith dull oilysheen (duller in winter)

long, loose, pointedplumes around neckand breast

blue-basedyellow bill(pink-based on female)

red-pink legs

red-brown tingeon wingtips, seenagainst light

gradually developsadult colours

JUVENILE (MOULTING)

JUVENILE

SPARROWS

SPARROWS

374

RELATED MORE CLOSELY to the Africanweavers than to the similar finches,

sparrows are adaptable and widespread birds, theHouse Sparrow being closely associated withpeople wherever they are.

Male and female plumages are markedlydifferent in House and Spanish Sparrows, butidentical in the Tree Sparrow (both looking morelike a House Sparrow male). Rock Sparrows, inanother genus altogether, are quite different, buthave no obvious variations in their plumage.

All sparrows are social. Spanish Sparrows areespecially gregarious where they are common.

FEEDING FLOCKSparrows burst from a stubble field with a loud roar of wings. They feed in tight-packed flocks, often mixed with Greenfinches and Linnets, which also pack closelytogether in many situations, while other finches and buntings form loose groups.

Family Passeridae

FEATHER LININGA House Sparrow is about to add

a feather to its nest under anold tile in a roof.

House Sparrows used to gather in hundreds tofeed on grain and weed seeds in winter stubbles,but have declined in most places in recent years.Breeding birds may be in loose colonies, using avariety of sites including the base of White Storknests, thickets, and dense creepers on walls, butHouse Sparrows mostly occupy holes or cavitiesof some sort in roofs and under eaves. Renovationof wooden eaves with plastic cladding has oftenbeen blamed for local declines. Even inside asmall cavity, the nest is a mass of grass and otherstems, feathers, and scraps, with an overall roundedeffect that recalls the weavers, but lacking the

neatness and precision of constructionthat characterizes their nests. Both Houseand Tree Sparrows are suffering awidespread decline in western Europe.

VIGOROUS BATHINGSparrows bathe regularly, inwater as well as in dust, helpingto keep their plumage in goodcondition and free of parasites.

SPARROWS

375

Length 14cm (51⁄2 in) Wingspan 20–22cm (8–9in) Weight 19–25g (11⁄16 – 7⁄8oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 2–5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Passeridae Species Passer domesticus

Recent declines have seen numbers in gardens and town

parks reduce and farmland flocks disappear but House Sparrowsremain almost as widespread as ever.They are familiar in towns andgardens and even in farmland concentrate around buildings. Malesare easily recognized, although they look quite like Tree and SpanishSparrows. Females lack the bold patterns and can be taken for somefinches, but in reality are equally distinct. House Sparrows aretypically social and noisy birds.VOICE Basic lively, simple chirrup, chilp; loudchattering chorus from flocks; series of chirpsforms simple song.NESTING Untidy nest of grass and feathers, inroof space, cavity in wall, in House Martin nest(see p.277), tree cavity, or more openly increepers and around wires; 3–7 eggs; 1–4 broods;April–August.FEEDING Usually on ground, taking seeds, buds,roots, berries, and many insects for young;catches some insects clumsily in flight; visits bird-tables for nuts, seed mixtures, and kitchen scraps.

House Sparrow

FLIGHT: fast, whirring, with bursts of rapidwingbeats; often in noisy flocks.

FEMALE

IMMATURE (AUTUMN)

MALE (SUMMER)

SIMILAR SPECIES

SPANISH SPARROW 3similar to 3; see p.376

OCCURRENCEResident almost throughoutEurope, but only very local inIceland. Thrives in villages, aroundfarms, and in all kinds of habitatsclose to human habitation, but hasdeclined recently on farmland, intowns, and in suburban gardens.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

SUBSPECIES

P. d. italiae(Italy)

black bib (bigger inspring)

pale stripebehind eye

plainbrowntail

unmarked greyunderside(grey-buff on female)

grey cap withred-brown sides

red-brownback

yellow-browncap

dullerbig whitecheeks

streakedbelow

browncrown

whitecheeks

whitewingbars

palegreyishrump

WINTER MALEIn winter, the red-brown bandbehind the eye and dark bib arepartly obscured by pale feather tips.

MALE

whitishwingbar

CHAFFINCH 2similar to 2;see p.380

plainplumage

thick blackbill

IN FLIGHT

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 14–16cm (51⁄2 –61⁄2 in) Wingspan 20–22cm (8–9in) Weight 20–25g (11⁄16 – 7⁄8oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 2–5 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Passeridae Species Passer hispaniolensis

SPARROWS

376

Much like the House Sparrow but, in summer, more brightlyand strikingly patterned, the Spanish Sparrow is essentially a

southeast European bird, and not actually common in Spain.WhereHouse Sparrows are sparse it may take over that species’ role intowns, but in many areas, it is a bird of farmland and damp placeswith willow thickets. It is highly social, sometimesfound in large flocks and breeding in colonies. InItaly, the sparrows seem to be a constant form ofhybrid between Spanish and House Sparrows.VOICE Slightly higher and more metallic thanHouse Sparrow’s; loud chirruping, fast chorus fromflock or colony.NESTING Bulky nest of grass, in thicket, or in baseof stick nest of stork or heron, often in tall willowsor other wetland thicket, in colony; 3–7 eggs; 1 or 2broods;April–July.FEEDING Eats seeds and berries, mostly fromground; feeds insects to chicks.

OCCURRENCELocal breeding bird in Spain,Sardinia, and Sicily, more frequent(but in summer only) in Balkans. Infarmland, villages, and wet placeswith willow thickets and tall trees.

Spanish Sparrowbroken whiteline over eye

large whitecheek patch

cream streakson black back

MALE(WINTER)

MALE (SUMMER)

DIFFICULT TESTThis female is clearly streaked, butmost female Spanish Sparrows arevery difficult to distinguish fromfemale House Sparrows.

FLIGHT: quick, low, whirring, like House Sparrow,with occasional momentary closures of wings.

close black streakson underside

ITALIAN SPARROW(P. d. italiae); see p.375

black cheekspot

HOUSE SPARROW 32;see p.375

grey crownon male less white

over eyenostreakingbelow

red-browncap

black bibobscured bypale edges

thick bill

sometimes hassoft grey streakingbelow

FEMALE

MALE(SUMMER)

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

IN FLIGHT

chestnut wingswith white bar

faint streakingbelow

TREE SPARROWsee p.377

SIMILAR SPECIES

SPARROWS

377

Length 14cm (51⁄2 in) Wingspan 20–22cm (8–9in) Weight 19–25g (11⁄16 – 7⁄8oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 2–5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Passeridae Species Passer montanus

The history of the Tree Sparrow has seen widespread declines andincreases through Europe. By the end of the 20th century it was,

in many areas, in the depths of a severe decline, and is now absent from large regions where it was quiterecently common. Unlike House and SpanishSparrows, male and female Tree Sparrows look alike.It is sometimes a suburban bird but is most suited to woodland with scattered clearings and farmlandwith mature trees.VOICE Loud chirruping and cheeping calls likeHouse Sparrow; a disyllabic tsu-wit; hard, short tek tek in flight.NESTING Rounded or domed nest of straw andgrass, in hole in tree or building, or in nest box;4–6 eggs; 2 or 3 broods;April–July.FEEDING Mostly picks seeds from ground; also eatssome insects, buds, and scraps around farms; visits bird-tables and feeders for seeds and nuts.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in most of Europe but verylocal in UK, and absent fromIceland and N Scandinavia. Bird of farmland with scattered trees,parks, woodland, and woodlandedge, but also town bird in muchof S and E Europe.

Tree Sparrow

IN FLIGHT

ADULT

HOUSE SPARROW 3;see p.375

SPANISH SPARROW 32;see p.376

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

greyercheeks grey

crown

streakedbelow

whitecheeks

square black patchon white cheeks (lessdistinct on juvenile)

white collar

black and brownstreaks on back

blackmaskand bib

unmarked grey-buff underside

plain brown tail,often cocked

rich brown cap(duller onjuvenile)

FLIGHT: quick, direct, undulating, with occasionalmomentary closures of wings.

buffishrump

two pale wingbars(buff on juvenile)

FLUFFIER IN WINTERThe Tree Sparrow keeps warm by fluffing its flank feathers over its wings;details such as its wingbars are then obscured.

Length 15–17cm (6 –61⁄2 in) Wingspan 21–23cm (81⁄2 –9in) Weight 20–28g (11⁄16–1oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 2–5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Passeridae Species Petronia petronia

SPARROWS

378

Rock Sparrows need broken ground with cavities in whichto nest.This requirement may be met by cliffs and gorges

in mountains, lower slopes with scattered rocks, farmed land withearth cliffs, road cuttings, old buildings, or hollow poles whichprovide nesting places.The birds are best located by following uptheir distinctive nasal calls but can be elusive as they remainperched on rocky ledges, inconspicuouswith their dull, pale colours and lack ofany strong pattern.VOICE Distinctive twangy, nasal, oft-repeated note, tyeoo, tee-vit, or peoo.NESTING Domed nest of grass andfeathers in cavity in old building,hollow post, and earth bank, or in crag,often loosely colonial; 5 or 6 eggs; 2 or3 broods; May–July.FEEDING Finds seeds and invertebrateson ground, in grass, or among stonesand boulders on open ground.

SIMILAR SPECIESOCCURRENCEBreeds in Spain, Portugal, S France,S Italy, and Balkans; typically indry, stony, or sandy areas withcliffs or road cuttings; in rockyplaces, gorges, and mountainousregions, present all year.

Rock Sparrow

CORN BUNTINGsee p.403

HOUSE SPARROW 2;see p.375

CIRL BUNTING 2;see p.399

big pale bill

whitishunderside withlong, even,grey stripes

bold cream andblackish stripeson head

brown tail, tippedwith whitish spots

dull brownbody withdark streaks

plainerhead

larger

plaintail

no tailspots

plainbelow

sharperface

DRINKING POOLA small pool in a dry region isusually a good place to sit in waitfor Rock Sparrows and other birdsthat come to drink.

FLIGHT: low, quick, whirring, undulating over adistance; tail often fanned.

IN FLIGHT

thin whitewingbars

palecrown

tail edgedwhite

palespotson tail

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

sandy buffstreaks onback

palewingbar

379

THERE ARE TWO MAIN groups of finches, theFringilla species (Chaffinch and Brambling)

and the Cardueline finches. The Chaffinch and Brambling are clearly closely related, theirdifferent colours arranged in very similar patterns;they have the same basic shape and behaviour,and frequently mingle in winter.

The others, however, are a very diverse group.Their shapes and behaviour are stronglydetermined by their food. The crossbills haveremarkable beaks with crossed, hooked tips,specially adapted to extracting seeds from conifer

cones. The Hawfinchhas a massive bill forcracking open toughseeds and stones, suchas olive and cherry,while the Bullfinchhas a softer, roundedbill for manipulatingbuds and soft fruits.The Greenfinch has a big bill, used fordealing with strongseeds and for tearingopen tough fruits such

FINCHES

Family Fringillidae

SOCIAL FEEDERSGoldfinches feed on seeds that tend to be abundant in small areas, socan afford to gather in large flocks.

THIRSTY WORKCrossbills eat an abundance of dry seeds andmust frequently pause to drink from a puddlebefore flying off to another conifer.

as hips, while the Goldfinch and Siskin havedelicate, pointed bills for extracting seeds fromfruiting plants such as thistles and teazels andfrom cones of trees such as larch and alder.

Some species, such as the redpolls, are acrobaticand light enough to feed while perching onplants, while others are much less agile and feedwhile standing on the ground by pulling seed-heads down with their bills.

Most finches are gregarious but flock behaviourvaries: Chaffinches form loose aggregations, whileTwites, Redpolls, and Siskins dash about in flightin tight, coordinated parties.

WEED-EATERSTwites feed on weed seeds andunusually feed seeds, not insects,to their young chicks.

FINCHES

Length 14.5cm (53⁄4 in) Wingspan 25–28cm (10–11in) Weight 19–23g (11⁄16 –13⁄16oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 2–5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Fringillidae Species Fringilla coelebs

FINCHES

380

SIMILAR SPECIES OCCURRENCESummer visitor in N and E Europe;all year in W and S (absent fromIceland); breeds in woods(extensive pine forest or coniferplantations to deciduous stands),parks, and gardens. Under beeches,in fields, and gardens in winter.

HOUSE SPARROW 2similar to 2; see p.375

BRAMBLING 2winter,similar to 2; white rump; see p.381

BULLFINCH 3similar to 3summer;white rump; see p.390

SINGING MALEThe cheerful, rattling, and far-carrying song of the Chaffinch isan early sign of spring.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

thick blackbill andblack cap

orangeupperwingbar

no whiteon tail

Chaffinch

FEMALE

MALE (WINTER)

FLIGHT: direct, quite quick, undulating; bursts ofwingbeats between glides with wings closed.

IN FLIGHT

brownish pinkcheeks and throat

dark tailwith broadwhite sides

two whitewingbars

greenishrump

dark patch infront of eye

blue-greyhead andbill

head withochre-brownsmudges

greyish olive fromhead to back

duller plumagethan male’sbut similarwhite bars

pale greyishunderside

brownback

white patch

dark wingswith yellowishfeather edges

pink underside,whiter on bellyand under tail

MALE(SUMMER)

One of Europe’s most abundant birds, the Chaffinch

forms an obvious species pair with the Brambling.The two oftenfeed together outside the breeding season; their general shape,pattern, and behaviour are very similar. Chaffinches breed in separateterritories, proclaimed by males singing loudly from prominentperches, but they are social birds at other times.They are often verytame, coming for food in car parks and picnic sitesand frequently visiting gardens.VOICE Flight call short, single, soft chup, frequentloud pink! in spring, loud hweet, jilip; song bright,cheery, rattled phrase with a flourish, chi-chip-chip,chirichirchiri cheeip-tcheweeoo.NESTING Neat, perfectly camouflaged cup of grass,leaves, moss, cobweb, and lichen, against trunk oftree or bush; 4 or 5 eggs; 1 brood;April–May.FEEDING Eats insects in summer, mostlycaterpillars from foliage; otherwise takes seeds,shoots, and berries; visits bird-tables for seedmixtures, especially sunflower seeds.

MALE(SUMMER)

FINCHES

381

Length 14.5cm (53⁄4 in) Wingspan 25–28cm (10–11in) Weight 19–23g (11⁄16 –13⁄16oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 2–5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Fringillidae Species Fringilla montifringilla

Generally less common and not nearly so ubiquitous as the Chaffinch, the Brambling can

nevertheless gather in gigantic flocks in winter,especially in central Europe. In the west, theirnumbers fluctuate from year to year with the foodsupply, especially tree seeds such as beech-mast. Springmales can often be seen in fine summer plumage intheir winter quarters before they migrate.VOICE Flight call slightly harder than Chaffinch,single tchek, distinctive nasal tsweek; song includes deep,nasal, buzzing dzeeee note like Greenfinch.NESTING Cup of lichen, bark, roots, and stems, linedwith hair and feathers; 5–7 eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Eats insects in summer, seeds at other times;often on ground feeding on beech-mast.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in Scandinavia and NE Europe, in northern forest. In winter, throughout Europe, infarmland, parks, especially areaswith beech, birch, and spruce, attimes in gigantic concentrationswhere tree seeds are abundant.

Brambling

MALE (SUMMER)

SIMILAR SPECIES

HOUSE SPARROW 2similar to 2; see p.375

CHAFFINCH 2similarto 2winter;dark rump; see p.380

broad orange-buff upperwingbar

oval whitecentre onrump

whitish or bufflower wingbar

blackhead

blackback

whiterwingbars

no whiteon rump

MALE(WINTER)

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

VERY LARGE FLOCKSBramblings may form huge flocks in winter. Millions have been noted incentral Europe but scores or hundreds are more usual in most areas.

FEMALE(WINTER)

dark sides to pale panelon back of head

orange-buff shoulder

pale orange breast(pale feather edgeswear off in summer)

whiterbelly

MALE(WINTER)

bright yellow-orange breastand shoulder

clean white belly

pale chinand throat

dark spotson flanks

“scaly” head

yellowbill

IN FLIGHT

FLIGHT: quite quick and direct; undulating overlong distance.

darkback

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 12.5–14cm (5 –51⁄2 in) Wingspan 21–25cm (81⁄2–10in) Weight 15–20g (9⁄16 –11⁄16oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Fringillidae Species Carduelis cannabina

FINCHES

382

Asmall, lively, sociable finch, the Linnet breeds in small coloniesand feeds in flocks all year round. Flocks move together, tightly

coordinated, unlike the looser aggregations formed by Chaffinches.They are ground feeders, while Redpolls and Siskins are mostly treefeeders and Goldfinches feed on tall herbs; at times most finches canbe found together in mixed flocks. Linnets prefer waste ground withplentiful seeding plants and bushes, or hedgerows, in which to nest.VOICE Light, twittering, chattering flight call tidit tidititit, nasaltseeoo; song musical, quite rich, varied warbling with chatteringintermixed, often chorus from flocks.NESTING Neat little nest of stems and roots, lined with hair;4–6 eggs; 2 or 3 broods;April–July.FEEDING Often feeds in groups all year, on seeds, taken fromground; young fed on insects; rarely comes to gardens.

OCCURRENCEFound locally on heaths, roughgrassland, commons, farmland,and upland meadows, in most of Europe except N Scandinaviaand Iceland. Present only insummer in N and E Europe, butresident elsewhere.

Linnetpale greyhead

plain pale orange-brown back

SWIRLING FLOCKLinnets fly in tight, lively, bouncy flocks, with well-coordinated movements.

IN FLIGHT

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

dark tail withwhite sidestreaks

FLIGHT: light, dancing, jerky undulations; flurries ofwingbeats; sudden drop to ground to feed.

whitish streakson dark wings

pink-redchest

pale red forehead, deeper in spring

TWITE 32; see p.383

REDPOLL 32;see p.384

less pink-redon chest

browner head

shortblacklegs

FEMALE

MALE(WINTER)

MALE(SUMMER)

pale cheekspot

palecheekspot

streaked brownbody tawny-buff

chest

white belly

MALE(SUMMER)

buffthroat

pale wingbarstreakedtawnybody

triangulargrey bill

streaked tawny-brown body

SIMILAR SPECIES

FINCHES

383

Length 12.5–14cm (5 –51⁄2 in) Wingspan 21–25cm (81⁄2 –10in) Weight 15–20g (9⁄16 –11⁄16oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Fringillidae Species Carduelis flavirostris

Unusual in that it feeds its young on seeds,the Twite needs plentiful flowers and herbs

going to seed all year round.The loss of manyflowery meadows has caused widespread declinesand contractions in its range.Twites resemble Linnetsbut share characteristics with the Redpoll.They are,however, ground feeders, not treetop feeders likeRedpolls. Like other smaller finches, they move intight, coordinated flocks, rising from the ground, andcircling and dropping again as one.VOICE Flight call little harder than Linnet’s, main callnasal, twanging, rising twa-eeet; song quick withbuzzing notes and trills intermixed.NESTING Deep cup of twigs, grass, and moss, linedwith hair, in bush or bank; 4–6 eggs; 1 or 2 broods;May–June.FEEDING Eats seeds; unlike most finches, also feedsyoung on seeds.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in N Great Britain andScandinavia, in weedy fields, atedges of moorland, and aroundupland farms. Winters aroundNorth Sea and Baltic coasts,mostly on salt marshes alongcoasts but declining. Scarce inland.

ATTRACTED TO WATERTwites use shallow pools for drinking and bathing, and are often easierto see then than when they are feeding in tall weeds.

unmarkedtawny-buff faceand throat

FEMALE

buff undersidewith blackstreaks

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

LINNET 32;see p.382

plainer back

black chin

Twite

FLIGHT: bounding, fast, energetic with deepundulations; dives rapidly into cover.

MALE(SUMMER)dark

pinkrump

lacks pinkon rump

blackishstreaks ontan-brownback

IN FLIGHT

grey bill

MALE (WINTER)

palechin

yellow bill

MALE(SUMMER)

narrow pale barand long whitishstreaks on wings

REDPOLL 32;see p.384

Length 11–14.5cm (41⁄4 –53⁄4 in) Wingspan 20–25cm (8–10in) Weight 10–14g (3⁄8 –1⁄2oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Fringillidae Species Carduelis flammea

FINCHES

384

Typically a treetop bird, the Redpoll can also be found with Linnets in weedy fields, or feeding on the ground under birches where vast

amounts of seeds have fallen. Most often, however, Redpoll groups feed,frequently with Siskins, in trees and move between treetops in noisy, well-coordinated flocks, circling together and often returning to the same treeafter being disturbed.They may effectively “disappear” instantly on settling,becoming quiet and unobtrusive as they feed.VOICE Flight call particularly hard, staccato chattering, metallicchuchuchuchuchuchuch, loudtwangy tsooeee; song in flightcombines chatter with fast,thin, reeling trill, trreeeeee.NESTING Cup of twigs and grasses, lined with hairor wool, in bush or tree;4–6 eggs; 1 or 2 broods;May–July.FEEDING Mostly feeds intrees, on seeds, such as birch,alder, and larch, but also onor near ground in weedyfields and under birch trees.

SIMILAR SPECIES OCCURRENCEBreeds with fluctuating numbersand range in Iceland, Ireland, Alps,Great Britain, Low Countries, andNE through Scandinavia. In winterto S France and Italy. In birchwoods, larch, and bushy heaths;on ground under birch in spring.

Redpoll

small, slim, streakedbrown body

FEMALE

dark redforehead

smallblackchin

pale todeep pinkon breast

no pinkon breast

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

IN FLIGHT

buff bar acrosswings

streakedback

MALE (SUMMER)

SUBSPECIES

buffish to whitishunderside withlong dark streaks

FLIGHT: bouncy, bounding, with deep undulations;often in tight flocks.

paler

whiter bandover eye

C. f. flammea(Scandinavia); whiter wingbar

darktail

ARCTIC REDPOLLwhite rump; see p.451

whiteundertailcoverts

TWITE 32; see p.383

white streakson wingsand tail

palethroat

whiteon wingand tail

palethroat

LINNET 32; see p.382

tinybill

red forehead

FEEDING FLOCKThe outer twigs of seeding birch trees can be decorated with Redpollshanging upside down and perched at all angles, reaching theirpreferred food.

FINCHES

385

Length 12.5–13cm (5in) Wingspan 21–25cm (81⁄2 –10in) Weight 14–17g (1⁄2 – 5⁄8oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Fringillidae Species Carduelis carduelis

Although it is widespread in Europe,even in cool, damp climates, the

Goldfinch seems most at home in thehot, sunny summer of the Mediterranean.Its bouncy, lively actions and flashingcolours go well with the bright, dryconditions and surroundings of brightlyflowering plants on the seeds of which it feeds.It is, however, also found farther north in farmland with scatteredwoods and plenty of rough, open ground. Such places tend to be labelled “waste” and are all to often tidied up and stripped of the seed-bearing herbs and shrubs on which somany finches depend.VOICE Calls are highly distinctive variations on usual finch theme: chattering, skipping flight call,skip-i-lip or tililip with liquid, lilting quality, roughtschair; song musical and varied, mixture of callnotes and liquid trills.NESTING Neat nest of roots, grass, and cobwebs,in tree or shrub; 5 or 6 eggs; 2 broods; May–July.FEEDING Feeds on soft, half-ripe seeds on low-growing to medium-height plants, less often onground; also eats tree seeds from alder and birch.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in most of Europe exceptIceland and N Scandinavia; only in summer in NE Europe, residentelsewhere, common in S. Likesweedy places with tall, seed-bearing flowers such as thistles,teasels; also alders and larch.

Goldfinch

FLIGHT: particularly light and skipping, dancing,bouncy action with flurried beats of long wings.

bold black, white,and red patterningon head

tawny back

yellow on closedwings

ADULT

JUVENILE

IN FLIGHT

squarish tawny-chestnut patchon each side ofbreast

SIMILAR SPECIES

sharp pale bill

grey head

duller wingsthan adult’s

broad bufftip to tail

pale underside

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

black tail withwhitespots at tip

broad yellow panelon black wings

lessobviousyellow

muchgreener

SISKIN 32; see p.387

GREENFINCH32; see p.386

ADULT

plain face

smalleryellowpatch on wings

FLASHING WINGSA flock of Goldfinches in flight becomes a blur of yellow stripes; these,plus the bouncy, undulating action, make identification simple.

Length 15cm (6in) Wingspan 25–27cm (10–101⁄2 in) Weight 25–32g (7⁄8 –11⁄8oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Fringillidae Species Carduelis chloris

FINCHES

386

This large, stocky, thick-billed finch breeds in loose groups intall trees, old hedges, overgrown gardens, and orchards, and

is a frequent garden visitor in winter, either to feeders or to shrubswith berries.Where common, Greenfinches gather into largefeeding flocks, flying up together in a rush, more like Linnets andsparrows than Chaffinches.Adults are easily identified, but dullerjuveniles can be more troublesome at times.VOICE Flight call fast, light, tinnychatter, tit-it-it-it-it, loud, nasaltzoo-eee, hard jup-jup-jup; finesong series of staccato trillsof varying pace andquality, some metallic andthin, others full, musical,with droning, buzzy dzweeeintermixed; often in flight chup-chup-chup, chip-ipipip chr’r’r’r’r’r’r, tit-it-it-it-it chup-up.NESTING Bulky nest of grass and twigs, lined with finer stems, hair, and feathers,in thick bushes or trees; 4–6 eggs; 1 or 2 broods;April–July.FEEDING Eats seeds, from trees to short plants, many taken from ground; also feedson berries and nuts; visits bird-tables and feeders.

SIMILAR SPECIES OCCURRENCEIn all of Europe except Iceland, butin summer only in extreme north.Does best in open deciduouswoods, parks, big gardens ofcountry houses, bushy areas,orchards, or around farmsteadswith tall, dense hedges.

Greenfinch

SERIN 32;2streaked;yellow rump;see p.389

SISKIN 32;see p.387

CITRIL FINCH 32;2 has grey breast; see p.388

JUVENILE

MALE(SUMMER)

MALE

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

yellow sidesto tail

yellow stripe

grey head yellowwingbars

darktail

grey wings, yellowalong edges offlight feathers

dark patch between bill and eye

stoutpalebill

yellowforeheadof male

duller thanmale

browner thanadult

black and yellowwingbars

subtle streakson back andalong flanks

apple-greenplumage

GARDEN VISITORThe Greenfinch often visits bird-tables and feeders for sunflowerseeds, seed mixes, and peanuts.

FEMALEMALE (WINTER)

IN FLIGHT

3

FLIGHT: fast, bounding, undulating, with bursts ofquick wingbeats between closed-winged swoops;display flight slower, with stiff, wavy wingbeats.

FINCHES

387

Length 12cm (43⁄4 in) Wingspan 20–23cm (8–9in) Weight 12–18g (7⁄16 – 5⁄8oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Fringillidae Species Carduelis spinus

Siskin

SIMILAR SPECIES OCCURRENCEBreeds locally in N and E Europe,Alps, Pyrenees, UK, and Ireland, in forest of spruce and pine. Inwinter, more widespread andfound especially in stands of larch,spruce, and alders along rivers;visits gardens for peanuts.

SERIN 32;yellow rump;see p.389

REDPOLL 2similar to 2;see p.384

GREENFINCH 32;see p.386

blackchin

lime-greento yellowishbreast

lessstreaked

broad yellowbar on blackwingsyellow

rump

dark streaks ongreen back

whitish belly

muchlarger

browner, withno yellow

yellowforeheadof male

NUT BASKET FEEDERSiskins come to gardens inspring, when natural suppliesof seed are low; they like thereddish peanuts especially.

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

yellow patchon each sideof black tail

IN FLIGHT

MALE

JUVENILE

black cap

paler andgreyer headthan male’s

black streakson whiteunderside

FEMALE

Atree-seed feeder, the Siskin is particularly associated with conifers,but also feeds in birch and alder trees in winter. It visits gardens

to eat peanuts and sunflower seeds, but is not usually aground-feeder. In winter, it associates in flocks, whichshare a bounding, tight-packed sociability with theRedpoll. Males sometimes separate out from theflocks in spring to sing from treetops.Whenfeeding, these tiny finches are acrobatic, almosttit-like in their actions.VOICE Flight calls loud, whistled, clear, withslightly squeaky or metallic quality, tsy-zee or tsu-ee;feeding birds give low, hoarse buzz or purr; song mixes callsand fast trills with hard twittering notes, from tree or in flight.NESTING Tiny nest of twigs and stems, lined with plant down and hair, highin tree; 4 or 5 eggs; 1 or 2 broods; May–July.FEEDING Eats seeds of pine, larch, and various other trees.

MALE

looks like greyer,washed-outfemale

FLIGHT: dashing, darting, undulating; often intight-packed, coordinated flocks.

Length 11–12cm (41⁄4 –43⁄4 in) Wingspan 18–20cm (7–8in) Weight 12–15g (7⁄16 – 9⁄16oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Fringillidae Species Serinus citrinella

FINCHES

388

Asmall, neat finch, with a combination of soft grey, pale lemon-yellow, and apple-green on its body and boldly

barred wings, the Citril Finch is a bird of high altitude forest-edge habitats. It feeds on the ground or in trees in clearings oraround grassy Alpine meadows within easy reach of spruce trees.It is usually found in small groups orfamily parties, looking puzzlingly likesubtly marked Siskins or small, dullGreenfinches at first.VOICE Various quick flight calls, short tekor te-te-te; song quick, varied, ramblingwarble with wheezy notes and buzzy trills.NESTING Nest of grass and lichens, linedwith plant down, high in tree; 4 or 5 eggs;1 or 2 broods; May–July.FEEDING Feeds on seeds, both from treesand on ground beneath.

SIMILAR SPECIESOCCURRENCEBird of mountain forests andadjoining high level pastures, and spruce woods at tree line, inN Spain, S France, Alps, Corsica,and Sardinia, rarely moving farfrom breeding areas.

Citril Finch

SERIN 32;yellower rump;see p.389

SISKIN 32;yellower rump;see p.387

pale grey sidesof neck andchest

yellow-greenbreast

duller plumagethan male’s

dull greenback

pale,greenishyellowface

grey cap andhindneck

MALE(SUMMER)

MOUNTAIN SPECIALISTCitril Finches can be spotted highup, close to the tree line aroundrocky Alpine pastures.

FLIGHT: light, fast flight with bouncy undulations.

yellowtail sides

smaller bill black cap on male

unstreakedflanks

yellowwingbars

IN FLIGHT

MALE

paleyellow-greenrump

MALE(WINTER)

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

FEMALE

GREENFINCH 32;see p.386

bigger

yellow streakon wingedges

thinbill

dark tail

black andyellowcrossbarson wings

FINCHES

389

Length 11–12cm (41⁄4 –43⁄4 in) Wingspan 18–20cm (7–8in) Weight 12–15g (7⁄16 – 9⁄16oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Fringillidae Species Serinus serinus

Atiny, bouncy, colourful finch with sharp,spluttering calls, the Serin is characteristic

of many Mediterranean areas. Males sing fromthe tops of spindly conifers, or in a fast,fluttery song-flight.Although superficially likeother green and yellow finches, the Serin isgenerally easily identified in its usual range.However, various possible escaped cage birdshave to be ruled out when identifying apotential out-of-range vagrant, including dull,streaky young Canaries.VOICE Silvery, rapid trill, zirr-r-r-r-r-r; risingtuweee; song very quick, sharp, jingling orbreaking glass quality, trills and twitters, oftenin stiff-winged song-flight.NESTING Tiny, hair-lined cup of grass andmoss in tree or bush; 4 eggs; 2 or 3 broods;May–July.FEEDING Eats tiny seeds, mostly from groundor on low-growing plants.

OCCURRENCEResident in Spain, Portugal, S andW France, and Mediterraneanarea; summer visitor north toBaltic; only rare vagrant outsidethis range in W Europe. In villages,orchards, vineyards, olive groves,town parks, gardens, woodedareas, and along roadsides.

Serin

FLIGHT: light, buoyant, deeply undulating; song-flight slower, on stiff, outstretched wings.

SIZZLING SONGMales drop their wings to showoff their yellow rumps as they singtheir fast, high-pitched song.

dark crescentaround cheeks

bright yellowforehead

MALE

streaked greenback

SISKIN 32;see p.387

SIMILAR SPECIES

CITRIL FINCH 32;dull rump; see p.388

forkedtail

feathers oftenfluffed up inwinter, forwarmth

CANARYescapee; see p.466

� longer bill � less streaked

MALE

yellow sidesof tail

longer, broaderwingbars

dullwingbars

longerbill

paler yellowon face thanmale

less yellowbelow thanmale

IN FLIGHT

MALE

yellowrump

two short, narrowpale wingbars

FEMALE

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

palewingbars

stubbybill

black-streakedflanks

Length 15cm (6in) Wingspan 22–26cm (9–10in) Weight 21–27g (3⁄4 –15⁄16oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Fringillidae Species Pyrrhula pyrrhula

FINCHES

390

SIMILAR SPECIES OCCURRENCEBreeds in most of Europe exceptIceland, most of Spain, Portugal,and S Balkans; visits S Spain andGreece in winter. In woodland,farmland with hedges, thickets,parks, gardens with thick shrub-beries and similar dense, low cover.

Bullfinch

CHAFFINCH 32;see p.380

JAYsimilar in flight; see p.364

FEMALE

MALE

MALE

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

vivid red-pinkunderside

thick,stubbybill

short darklegs

grey-white bandon dark wings

brightwhiterump

distinct hood formedby black cap, bill, and chin

dull brownishback

beige-greyunderside

no darkcap

same plumageas female’s

palecap

no whiterump

double whitewingbar

much larger

duller pink breastof male

pale greyback

black tail white undertailJUVENILE

IN FLIGHT

Apest in some areas, but seriously declining inmany, the Bullfinch is a quiet, inconspicuous

bird despite its bold plumage. It uses its round bill tofeed on soft buds, flowers, and shoots rather than hardseeds, usually feeding in pairs or family groups. Ifdisturbed, it moves out of sight through a thicket orhedge. Its whistled calls are then highly distinctive. Itdoes not visit bird-tables or feeders, although it maycome to gardens in spring to raid flowering fruit trees.VOICE Call low, soft, clear whistles, slightlydescending, peuuw, deu, or phiu; song infrequent,creaky pea-whistle quality, with calls intermixed.NESTING Cup of twigs, lined with moss and grass,in bush or tree; 4 or 5 eggs; 2 broods;April–June.FEEDING Eats soft buds, seeds, berries, shoots, andsome invertebrates, from low bushes and shrubs,occasionally on ground.

FLIGHT: quite slow, but direct, slightly undulatingover a distance.

MALE CALLINGUsually inconspicuous, despite its bright colours, the Bullfinch’s piping,whistled call is the best clue to its presence in a shrubbery or hedgerow.

FINCHES

391

Length 18cm (7in) Wingspan 29–33cm (111⁄2 –13in) Weight 48–62g (111⁄16 –21⁄4oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 2–5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Fringillidae Species Coccothraustes coccothraustes

In much of Europe, this is one of the mostelusive finches, but in southern Europe it can be remarkably

approachable, even in suburban trees and orchards or clumps ofcherries or olives. It is not, even then, very obvious, but can belocated by its quiet, clicking calls.Where the Hawfinch is moretypically shy, it may provide little more than a glimpse as it flies up through trees and away over the canopy.It may sometimes be seen perched high ontreetops, its size and stocky build then unlikeother finches except for the Crossbill.VOICE Call Robin-like, short, sharp, metallictik or tzik, thin tzree, tikitik; weak, unmusical,scratchy song.NESTING Nest of twigs, roots, and moss, linedwith rootlets, in old tree; 4 or 5 eggs; 1 brood;April–May.FEEDING Mostly takes large tree seeds, berries,cherries, and other fruit stones from trees; alsopicks hornbeam, sycamore, beech, and otherseeds from ground in late winter.

OCCURRENCEWidespread but very localized,breeding in deciduous woodland,parks, large gardens, orchards,and olive groves. In winter, insimilar places with plentiful treeseeds. Absent from Iceland,Ireland, and N Scandinavia.

Hawfinch

FLIGHT: strong, fast, direct, swooping with undu-lations and bursts of powerful, whirring wingbeats.

SEED CRUSHERThe big bill of the Hawfinch dealseasily and neatly with small seedsand can cope with tough stonesof cherries and olives.

MALE(WINTER)

BULLFINCH 32;large white rump;see p.390

CHAFFINCH 32;see p.380

JUVENILE

greynape

smaller bill

broad buff-whitewingbar

wing greyerthan male

scaly back

bars beneath

pale tawnybrown cap

largehead

large yellow-brownbill (blue and blackin summer)

small blackbib

bright to dulltawny brownbody

doublewingbar

slimtail

SIMILAR SPECIES

smallbill

differentcolour

MALE(SUMMER)

IN FLIGHT

CROSSBILL similar shapeon high perch;see p.392

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

FEMALE

broad, clear whitetip to short tail

SIMILAR SPECIES

Length 16 cm (61⁄2in) Wingspan 27–30cm (101⁄2 –12in) Weight 34–38g (13⁄16 –16⁄16oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 2–5 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Fringillidae Species Loxia curvirostra

FINCHES

392

Several species of crossbills occur in Europe, with the three plain-

winged ones – the common, Parrot,and Scottish Crossbills (see p.452) – beingthe most difficult to separate.The common Crossbill feeds onspruce seeds but also survives quite well in areas where larch or pinepredominate (trees favoured by the smaller Two-barred and largerScottish or Parrot Crossbills). It is subject to periodic irruptionswhen large numbers travel far and wide in search of food: almost any clump of pines may then host Crossbills for a time.They feedquietly but may burst out of a treetop with loud flight calls.VOICE Loud, abrupt calls, similar to young Greenfinch but louder,more staccato, jup-jup-jup or chip-chip-chip;quiet conversational notes while feeding;song mixes buzzy notes, calls, and brightwarbles and trills.NESTING Small nest of twigs, moss, andbark, lined with hair or wool; 3 or 4 eggs;1 brood; January–March.FEEDING Eats seeds of spruce, larch,pine, and other conifers, using crossed billto prise them from cones on twigs; alsoeats some berries, buds, and insects.

OCCURRENCEScattered over most of Europeexcept in Iceland, but erratic, notpresent in most years in manyareas. Core areas in extensivewoods of spruce, larch, and pine,with variety of more or less distinctlocal populations.

Crossbill

HAWFINCH 32;see p.391

TWO-BARRED CROSSBILL 32;see p.451

dark wings, rarely withnarrow pale bars

THIRSTY FINCHCrossbills eat dry seeds and needeasy access to pools for frequentbouts of drinking.

FLIGHT: strong, direct, bursting from treetops insudden noisy flurry; fast wingbeats between glideswith closed wings.

MALE

largerbill

strikingwingbars

tertials havewhite tips

larger headwhiteband onwings

small darkeye

conspicuouslyhooked bill

greenishbody

brownwings

streakedbelow

red underside

MALE

JUVENILE

IN FLIGHT

dark tail

PARROT CROSSBILL 32;see p.451

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

rich redrump

FEMALEbrightpinkishrump

SIMILAR SPECIES

FINCHES

393

Length 15cm (6in) Wingspan 22–26cm (9–10in) Weight 21–27g (3⁄4 –15⁄16oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Fringillidae Species Carpodacus erythrinus

Several species of Rosefinches are widespread across Asia but only this one breeds in Europe. It is a bright, sturdy finch with a thick,

bulky bill and small dark eyes in a plain face, giving a distinctiveexpression in all plumages. It has shown a tendency to spreadwestwards in recent years, with sporadicbreeding even in Great Britain; singing malesmay turn up in early summer in unexpectedplaces.This may or may not lead to long-termcolonization; other species, such as the Serin,have shown a similar pattern withoutproperly establishing themselves.VOICE Short, ascending whistle, vuee or tsoee;song soft, rhythmic, whistling sequence.NESTING Small neat grass nest low in bush;4 or 5 eggs; 1 or 2 broods; May–July.FEEDING Feeds on seeds, buds, shoots, andsome insects, found in bushes or on ground.

OCCURRENCEPresent from May to August fromC Europe eastwards, north toScandinavia, breeding in deci-duous woodland and bushy places,often in wetland areas near lakesor rivers. In autumn, rare migranton W European coasts.

Scarlet Rosefinch

JUVENILEThe pale wingbars and dark,round eyes are conspicuous on this juvenile.

bold blackeye

FEMALE

CHAFFINCH 32;see p.380

CROSSBILL 32;different habitat;see p.392

brownwings

dullbrownback

two pale buffwingbars

redrump

brown back

mid-brown back

hint of narrowwingbars

pale underside withfine dark streaks

fine streaks on crownand cheeks

MALE(SUMMER)

JUVENILE

MALE(SUMMER)

IN FLIGHT

JUVENILE

cherry-red head andbreast (loses red in winter)

FLIGHT: quite weak, soft; whirring wingbeats andslight undulations.

whitewingbars

grey capdark cap

greyback

soft streaksbelow

short,roundedbill

BULLFINCH 32;see p.390

larger

thicker bill

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

BUNTINGS

BUNTINGS

394

ABUNTING LOOKS MUCH like a finch: ingeneral, buntings are a little slimmer and

longer-tailed, and the structure of the bill is moreconstant, with a small upper mandible fittingneatly into a deeper, broader lower one that hasa curiously curved cutting edge.

Most buntings have dark tails with white sides,but some, such as the Corn Bunting, have plainertails. They show a variety of head patterns. Malesare much like females in winter, with thesepatterns obscured by dull feather edges, but thedull colours crumble away in spring to revealstriking breeding plumage colours.

Females and juveniles, lacking these patterns,are more difficult to identify and some requirecare. Habitat, location, and time of year may beuseful. Calls also help: several muchrarer species visit westernEurope in the autumn andlook rather like Reed

PRE-ROOST GATHERINGCorn Buntings get together before flying to a roost in a thicket or reed-bed. Their flight calls often give them away.

DRINKING POOLCorn Buntings and other species often have afavourite pool where they drink.

SPRING PERFECTIONThis male Reed Bunting is at hisbest, having lost the dull featherfringes of winter. His plumagegradually turns paler in summer.

Family Emberizidae

Buntings, but a hard, sharp “tik” call concentratesattention, as the Reed Bunting does not haveany corresponding call note. Songs are mostlybrief, not especially musical, and repetitive,although some, such as the Yellowhammer’s

all-summer-long song phrase, have aparticularly pleasing and evocative character.

Most buntings are seed-eaters outside thebreeding season and have suffered declines in

areas where intensive modern farming hasreduced the opportunities for birds to findweed seeds in winter. The Cirl Bunting hasalso declined with a lack of grasshoppers,which it feeds to its young in summer.

BUNTINGS

395

Length 15cm (6in) Wingspan 21–26cm (81⁄2 –10in) Weight 15–22g (9⁄16 –13⁄16oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Emberizidae Species Emberiza schoeniclus

OCCURRENCEBreeds in C and N Europe exceptfor Iceland; seen in winter only inS Europe. Inhabits wet places withreeds, sedge, rushes, willowthickets, and fringes of lakes andrivers; also drier heathy slopes andheathland bogs. Sometimes visitsgardens in winter, especially inhard weather.

Reed Bunting

IN FLIGHT

MALE(WINTER)

LAPLAND BUNTING 2winter, similar to 32; see p.402

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

FEMALE

streaked whitishunderside

black and whiteneck and headrufous

forewings

widewhitetail sides

buff-brownback withblack streaks

obscuredhead pattern

whitestripeundercheeks

cream stripeover eye

hint of palecollar

long,notched tail

cream andblack streakson backOne of the more

common buntings,especially in any dampor wet landscape, theReed Bunting is easy to find and identify insummer. Males sing monotonously from low perchesin the wetland vegetation. In winter, when males are far less striking,Reed Buntings are not so easily identified and also spread widelyover all kinds of open ground and in thickets of willow, youngconifers, and farmland hedgerows.They visit gardens at times.VOICE Typical call quite full, loud, high tseeu or psiu, high, thin,pure sweee; zi zi; song short, stereotyped,simple, jangly phrase, two or three groups ofnotes clearly separated, srip srip srip sea-sea-seastitip-itip-itipip.NESTING Bulky nest of grass, sedge, andother stems, lined with roots and hair, on orclose to ground in thick cover; 4 or 5 eggs;2 broods;April–June.FEEDING Mostly feeds on insects insummer, seeds at other times, taken low inbushes or on ground, often on open grassnear water.

FLIGHT: slightly erratic, bounding, with flicking tail;dives into cover with flourish.

HOUSE SPARROW 2similar to 32; see p.375

dumpier

short tail with no white

MALE(SUMMER)

rusty wingpanel

WINTER DRABNESSBrown feather tips in winter obscure the male’shead pattern. However, in spring, they wearaway to reveal the full colours.

MALE(SUMMER)

bold blacktail with widewhite sides

pale red-brown legs

SIMILAR SPECIES

duller

CHAFFINCH 2similar to 2; see p.380

short blacklegs

whitewingbars

Length 12–13cm (43⁄4 –5in) Wingspan 18–20cm (7–8in) Weight 15–18g (9⁄16 – 5⁄8oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Emberizidae Species Emberiza pusilla

BUNTINGS

396

SIMILAR SPECIESOCCURRENCEBreeds in extreme NE Europe inopen spaces in conifer forest.Autumn migrants rare on NW European coasts and islands,even rarer inland, often in dampplaces with weedy growth.

Little Bunting

LAPLAND BUNTINGjuvenile; see p.402

blackishsides ofcrown rust-red

crownand face

pale eye-ring

blackish cornersof cheeks

buff, brown, and blackstreaks on back

whiteundersidewith darkstreaks

pale legs

FEMALE

bigger

short dark legs

rusty rump andflank streaks

weakeye-ring

FLIGHT: quick, weak, light flitting action withflicked tail and short bursts of wingbeats.

Seen in the UKJ F M A M O N DJ J A S

MALE(WINTER)

Rather like a small Reed Bunting (and requiring great care when identifying migrants in autumn), the Little Bunting is a bird of

the far north. It breeds in the vast taiga zone with mixed coniferousand birch forest. Rarely, one or two may winter in western Europe.It is, like many buntings, very much aground bird most of the time, scuttlingabout on or very close to ground level evenwhen disturbed. Generally rather quiet andunobtrusive, it is easy to overlook.VOICE Call short, sharp, ticking zik; songshort, high, mixed warble with clicking,rasping, and whistled notes.NESTING Nest of grass and moss, inhollow on ground under bush; 4 or 5 eggs;1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Eats insects in summer; picksseeds from ground in autumn.

IN FLIGHT

SPRING MALEThe rufous colouring over the entirecrown, face, and cheeks makes asummer adult eye-catching.

REED BUNTING 2similar to 32;see p.395

white edgeof tail

MALE(SUMMER)

sharp,straight-edgedbill

roundedbill

MALE(SUMMER)

RUSTIC BUNTING 32;see p.452

rufous face

pale crownstripe

greyishshoulders

greyish forewings(rufous on ReedBunting)

Order Passeriformes Family Emberizidae Species Emberiza hortulana

BUNTINGS

397

Length 15–16cm (6 –61⁄2 in) Wingspan 22–26cm (9–10in) Weight 21–27g (3⁄4 – 15⁄16oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Vulnerable†

Male Ortolans sing from bushes or trees on warm open slopes or in areas of upland pasture with hedges, walls, and copses.

Their persistence makes up for a lack of real musical quality. OrtolanBuntings are also scarce but regular migrants in many coastal areas.They are usually quite shy and quick to fly off but tendto feed in open, grassy places where they can bewatched from a distance.They are slim, pale buntingswith sharp pink bills and obvious pale eye-rings.VOICE Call thick, metallic, dl-ip and chu; song fluty,simple, ringing phrase, often repeated several times thenchanged to higher pitch, sia sia sia si sia sru sru sru sru.NESTING Simple, hair-lined nest of grass and straw, onor near ground; 4–6 eggs; 2 or 3 broods;April–July.FEEDING Eats insects in summer, and seeds fromground at other times, often from short grass clearingsin dunes or fields.

OCCURRENCEBreeds across most of Europeexcept for UK, Iceland, and N Scandinavia, in variety of placesfrom warm, bushy, stony slopes tosemi-alpine pasture. Migrates toAfrica in winter; rare on NW Euro-pean coasts in spring and autumn.

Ortolan Bunting

FLIGHT: flitting, undulating, with bursts ofrelatively weak wingbeats; straighter over longdistance with longer, shallow undulations.

green head

yellow eye-ring

yellowmoustache

orangeunderside

pale greenchest

brighter buffthan female

pink bill

MALE(SUMMER) FEMALE

black tail withwhite sides

REED BUNTING 2similar to 32;see p.395

sharp,triangular bill

pale eye-ring

greyer thanjuvenile

pale eye-ring

SIMILAR SPECIES

morerufous

rustyrump

olive-buffrump

palechin

MALE(SUMMER)

IN FLIGHT

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

YELLOWHAMMER 32;see p.398

JUVENILE

bolder headpattern

STREAKY FEMALEThe general colour and pattern of the male are evident but subdued andfaintly streaked on the female.

Length 16cm (61⁄2 in) Wingspan 23–29cm (9–111⁄2 in) Weight 24–30g (7⁄8 –11⁄16oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Emberizidae Species Emberiza citrinella

BUNTINGS

398

The common bunting of farmland and bushy heaths, theYellowhammer is typical of warm, sunny days when the males

sing non-stop. In winter, they gather in small groups, or mix withother buntings and finches, roaming weedy fields or ploughedland, searching for seeds. Small parties of Yellowhammersdraw attention to themselves by their sharp calls. In flight, theyshow the typical long, white-edged black tail of buntings.VOICE Call sharp, quick, metallic, spluttering tsik, tzit, or twitik;song sharp, thin, metallic trill with one or two longer, higher orlower notes at end, ti-ti-ti-ti-ti-ti-ti-ti-teee-tyew, or simplerquick trill.NESTING Hair-lined nest ofgrass and straw on ground inbase of bush or below bank;3–5 eggs; 2 or 3 broods;April–July.FEEDING Eats some insectsin summer, otherwise mostlytakes seeds from ground.

SIMILAR SPECIES OCCURRENCEBreeds in most of Europe exceptfor Iceland, N Scandinavia, S Spain, and S Portugal.Widespread in S and W Europe in winter. On upland pastures,heaths, farmland with hedges,and coastal grassland.

Yellowhammer

ORTOLAN BUNTING 32;dull rump; see p.397

CIRL BUNTING 32; dull oliverump; different call; see p.399

REED BUNTING 2similar to 2; see p.395

SINGING MALEThe Yellowhammer’s sharpsong is characteristic ofwarm summer days ongorsy heaths.

yellowundersidewith finedark streaks

darker, lessyellow

rufousrump

yellow head withdusky stripes

black and rufousstreaks on back

yellowbody

browner

whiteeye-ring

palepinkbill

less yellowon head

darkerback

rustyflanks

pale cheekspot

morestreakedbelow

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

black tailwith whitesides

FLIGHT: undulating, quite fast; steep rise fromground when disturbed; bursts of wingbeats.

WINTER FLOCKSeeds attractYellowhammers inwinter, and they feedin dense groups wherethey are still common.

MALE(SUMMER)

MALE(SPRING)

IN FLIGHT

MALE(SUMMER)

FEMALE

mixed rufous, buff,and black back

BUNTINGS

399

Length 15–16cm (6 –61⁄2 in) Wingspan 22–26cm (9–10in) Weight 21–27g (3⁄4 – 15⁄16oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure

Order Passeriformes Family Emberizidae Species Emberiza cirlus

With a song that recalls both Yellowhammer and Bonelli’sWarbler (see p.335), the Cirl Bunting is a common bird of

open, bushy slopes and well-treed farmland with hedges andthickets. It needs old, unimproved grassland, especiallywith a great many grasshoppers, so is suffering in theface of agricultural intensification. Males sing frombush tops but also from inconspicuous perches partway up trees, quite difficult to spot and likely to sitquite still for minutes on end.VOICE Call very simple, short, high, thin sip; songfast, rattling trill on one note, or slower, lighter, morebubbling variant, t-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r or ti-ti-ti-ti-ti-ti-ti-ti-ti-ti-ti.NESTING Rough nest of grass and stalks, low inshrub or hedge; 3 or 4 eggs; 2 broods;April–July.FEEDING Needs to eat grasshoppers and similarinsects in summer; otherwise takes seeds from ground.

OCCURRENCEBreeds in extreme SW England,France, Spain, Portugal, and eastto Balkans. Found all year on warm,bushy, often stony slopes, aroundtall, leafy orchard edges, and inolive groves. In winter, in weedy or grassy fields and gardens.

Cirl Bunting

IN FLIGHTMALE(SUMMER)

MALE (WINTER)

SIMILAR SPECIES

YELLOWHAMMER 32; rusty rump; see p.154

REED BUNTING 2similar to 32;see p.395

black eye-stripe blackchin

rusty patchon side ofbreast

stronglystripedhead

palechin

olive-buffrump

olive-brownrump

pale yellowunderside

black tail withwhite sides

MALE(SUMMER)

streaked, dark greenishcap (with strongerstripes in winter)

bright yellow aboveand below eye

FLIGHT: flitting, undulating with bursts ofrelatively weak wingbeats; straighter over longdistance with longer, shallow undulations.

FEMALE

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

bolder headpattern

morerufous

fine streakson underside

FEMALE

FEMALE BIRDThe female Cirl Bunting has a strongly striped pale yellow and blackishhead. The wings have rusty patches and the breast is pale yellowish.

Length 15cm (6in) Wingspan 22–26cm (9–10in) Weight 21–27g (3⁄4 – 15⁄16oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Vulnerable

Order Passeriformes Family Emberizidae Species Emberiza cia

BUNTINGS

400

This is a small, slim, colourfulbunting but can be frustratingly

difficult to see. It tends to sit somewhere on a stony slope, oftenamong thick bushes, calling frequently with a short, very thin, highnote that is hard to pinpoint. In winter, it gathers in small flocks,often in grassy or weedy fields. It may be seen foraging beside roadsin stony cuttings, or around archaeological sites with plenty of fallenstones and rough grass.VOICE Call very thin,short, high sip, monotonousand elusive; song high, clear,erratic warbling phrase.NESTING Nest of grass,roots, and bark on groundin thick cover; 4–6 eggs;2 broods;April–June.FEEDING Feeds on insectsin summer; takes seeds from or near ground at other times.

SIMILAR SPECIESOCCURRENCEBreeds throughout Spain andPortugal, in Mediterranean region,and locally in Alps and C Europe.In rocky areas with dry, bushyslopes and crags and boulders, inalpine meadows and grassy placesalongside road cuttings. Seen allyear in majority of range.

Rock Bunting

ORTOLAN BUNTING 32;2has yellow and blackstripes on head;see p.397

CRETZSCHMAR’SBUNTING 32;see p.453

CIRL BUNTING 32;see p.399

FLIGHT: quite slow, low, erratic, with bursts ofwingbeats; also flitting between bushes.

grey headand chest

slim body

orange-brownunderside

white-edged,black tail

black stripes on crown,through eye, andbelow cheek

black andyellow onhead

grey andorangehead

greenishand yellowhead

rusty brownstreaks onback

less greyon breastthan male

FEMALE

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

MALE

IN FLIGHT

MALE(WINTER)

broadwings

duller headstripes

rustyrump

3

MALE (SUMMER)

GROUND FEEDERRock Buntings feed on grassy clearings, among low rocks and shrubs,around tumbled boulders, and often along roadside cuttings.

buffish grey chest

BUNTINGS

401

Length 16–17cm (61⁄2 in) Wingspan 32–38cm (121⁄2 –15in) Weight 30–40g (11⁄16 –17⁄16oz)

Social Flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Emberizidae Species Plectrophenax nivalis

In summer, Snow Buntings are in the

far north or on thehighest peaks, usuallywhere snow is still present.In winter, they roam widely overhigh ground, from ski resorts to barren,exposed mountainsides, but are more easily seen where theywinter on the coast. Flocks prefer shingle banks and sheltered,muddy or gravelly marshes just inland of the beach, sometimesmixed with other buntings, finches, and larks.Their complexface and chest patterns may be confusing but the extensivewhite areas seen when they fly are good clues.VOICE Loud call deep, clear pyew or tsioo, frequent lighter,trilling, rippling tiri-lil-il-il-il-ip; song short, clear, ringing phrase.NESTING Nest of moss, lichen, and grass stems in cavityamong rocks; 4–6 eggs; 1 or 2 broods; May–July.FEEDING Takes insects in summer, mainly seeds and strandlineinvertebrates on beaches in winter.

Snow Bunting

FEMALE(WINTER)

OCCURRENCEBreeds very locally in N Scotland,Iceland, and N Scandinavia, ontundra or similar mountain tophabitat. In winter, on coasts in S toN France and inland E Europe, atfringes of breeding range.

JUVENILE

red-brownbreast sides

black and brown streakson back (plumagegreyer in summer)

brown cap

dark-tippedyellow bill

whitebelow

black backand wingtips

sandy brownback

red- or orange-brown cap and cheeks

stocky bodywith short legs

LAPLAND BUNTINGjuvenile; see p.402

REED BUNTING 2similar to 32winter;see p.395

SIMILAR SPECIES

short blacklegs

ATTRACTED BY SEEDSSnow Buntings can be attracted to patches of seeds scatteredon the ground at the edge of a shingle beach in winter.

MALE (SUMMER)

IN FLIGHT

streakedbelow

FLIGHT: bouncy, erratic, as if swept by wind, withflurries of wingbeats and deep undulations; long wings.

MALE(WINTER)

MALE (WINTER)

blackwingtips

whitewings

small whitewing patch

dark grey headand back

blacktail withwhitesides

IMMATURE

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

white head

whiteunderside

Length 14–15cm (51⁄2 –6in) Wingspan 25–28cm (10–11in) Weight 20–30g (11⁄16 –11⁄16oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Emberizidae Species Calcarius lapponicus

BUNTINGS

402

In summer, a bird of remote, wild places,the Lapland Bunting is more familiar as

a winter bird or autumn migrant. It appearsnear the coast, on grassy places such as golfcourses, in dunes, and around grassier partsof salt marshes. It tends to creepinconspicuously until flushed from almostunderfoot, or is noticed flying overhead with its distinctive calls. Its plumagepatterns are superficially like those of a Reed Bunting, although more complex and richly marked, but its shape and actions recall a Snow Bunting.VOICE Calls typically hard, quick, staccato rattle and clear whistle, t-r-r-r-r-ik teu ortikikikiktik teu; song in flight like short bursts of Skylark’s song.NESTING Nest of moss, lichens, and grass on ground, in hollow in tussock, oramong rocks; 5 or 6 eggs; 1 brood; May–June.FEEDING Shuffles on ground, finding seeds; feeds on insects in summer.

SIMILAR SPECIESOCCURRENCEBreeds in N Scandinavia, in tundraand high plateaux. In winter,mostly on salt marsh and short,wet grassland close to coasts,around North Sea and Baltic.Quite rare inland.

Lapland Bunting

SNOW BUNTING 32;see p.401

RUSTIC BUNTINGsee p.452

REED BUNTING 2similar to 2; see p.395

FLIGHT: quite direct, shallow undulations; bursts of fast wingbeats between glides.

MALE (WINTER)rufous panelbetween whitebars on wings

dark ear covertcorners

dark stripeseach side ofpale crown

patchy headpattern

rufoushead

streakedback

black legsshort dark tailwith white sides

dullerwingbars

darker crownand cheekpatch

big whitearea onwings

JUVENILE

IN FLIGHT

HARD TO SEEThis female LaplandBunting, feeding amonglong grassy vegetation atthe edge of coastal saltmarshes, is hard to spot.

JUVENILE

MALE (SUMMER)

black cap,face, andbreast

bright rustynape

whitebelly

pale stripe curvesdown frombehind eye

Seen in the UKJ A S O N DJ F M MA J

rusty rump

rufous wingpanel

whitishundersidewith blackstreaks

BUNTINGS

403

Length 18cm (7in) Wingspan 26–32cm (10–121⁄2 in) Weight 38–55g (13⁄8 –2oz)

Social Small flocks Lifespan 2–3 years Status Secure†

Order Passeriformes Family Emberizidae Species Miliaria calandra

Alarge bunting, the Corn Bunting is

superficially like aSkylark, being a similarlypale, streaky brown. It is, however, plain on both wings and tail, andit perches on wires, fence posts, clumps of earth, or bushes, singing a short, simple phrase repeated with little variation. It feeds on theground like other buntings, hopping and creeping rather thanwalking like a lark. It can often be seen flying over in small groups,calling distinctively, towards dusk,heading for communal roosts whichmay be scores or even hundreds strong.VOICE Call short, abrupt, clicking plip or quit; song jangling, dry, fastrattled phrase like rattled keys orbroken glass, ti-ti-ti-tchee-iriririrr.NESTING Nest of grass and roots,lined with finer material, on ground;3–5 eggs; 1 or 2 broods;April–June.FEEDING Picks insects and seeds insummer, seeds in winter, from ground.

Corn Bunting

SINGING

SIMILAR SPECIESOCCURRENCEBreeds locally in UK, across Europenorth to Baltic, most commonly inS Europe. Around meadows,cereal prairies, and farmland withhedges and scattered trees.Present all year except in E Europe,where summer visitor only butdeclining in many areas.

large, triangularpale yellowish bill

dark eye withthin pale ring

dark stripeson crown

dark lower edge to cheeks

streaked, palebrown back

plainwings

row of darkspots onwing coverts

plain browntail

FLIGHT: long undulations; powerful bouts ofwingbeats between looping glides with closed wings;in display, sometimes flies off with legs lowered.

IN FLIGHT

Seen in the UKJ J A S DNOMAMFJ

REED BUNTING 2;see p.395

smaller

white tailsides

white tailsides

small darkbill

SKYLARKwalks on ground;see p.265

crest YELLOWHAMMER 2;see p.398

rusty rump

white tailsides

pale breast

weak headpattern

plaintail

stockyshape

WINTER FLOCKSWhere they remain common, Corn Buntings feed insmall groups or even larger flocks in winter, resortingto hedges when disturbed.

dark streaks belowoften merge intocentral spot

404

RARE SPECIES/DIVERS AND GREBES

Length 31–38cm (12–15in) Wingspan 50cm (20in)

Family Podicipedidae Species Podilymbus podiceps

ADULT (SUMMER)

black throat

stout white billwith black band

Family Gaviidae Species Gavia adamsii

Length 80–90cm (32–35in) Wingspan 1.35–1.5m (41⁄2 –5ft)

White-billed DiverIf anything, this massive diver is even bigger than aGreat Northern Diver (see p.58), similarly chequeredin summer but with an uptilted, yellowish white bill.The bill lacks a complete dark ridge and tip in winter,when the sides of the face are also paler than a GreatNorthern Diver’s. In flight, its heavy head and longerfeet are sometimes noticeable.OCCURRENCE Rare in summer in Arctic Europe; inwinter, very few south into North Sea.VOICE Silent in winter; loud wailing and laughingnotes in summer.

WINTER

uptilted, yellowishwhite bill

pale cheeks

RARE SPECIES

Europe has a remarkably wide variety of habitats and extends over a huge

geographical spread from the Arctic to theMediterranean, from the Atlantic to the BlackSea.There are regular European species thatbreed only in very small areas of this range(for example, the Pied Wheatear along theBlack Sea shores), or appear only as migrantsin small parts of the continent (for instance,the Great Shearwater that regularly sweepspast the southwest of Ireland on its oceanicmigrations).These are, nevertheless, seen everyyear in the right areas. Some, for example,Mediterranean Shearwaters that are numerousin the Mediterranean in summer, but rareelsewhere, are relatively numerous. Others,with abbreviated treatment here, such as thePied-billed Grebe from North America, arereally rarities, properly belonging to theavifauna of other continents.A few individuals stray far from their breeding range to turn up in Europe, some

species every year, others not so regularly.They are always, however, recorded in verysmall numbers.

The birds on the following pages includesome that are rare everywhere in Europe andalways unpredictable, most of which onecannot really plan to see, and others that arerare or restricted in range, but easily seen ifone visits the right place at the right time of year.

SUMMER SPECIALSooty Shearwaters from the southernhemisphere appear off northwestEuropean coasts during their“winter” travels, in our summer and autumn.

Pied-billed GrebeThis stocky, big-headed grebe is like a large LittleGrebe (see p.59) with a much stouter bill, which isplain yellowish in winter, but uniquely white with ablack band in summer. In summer, it also has a blackthroat. Juveniles have dark head stripes. Rare visitorsfrom North America may remain for some weeks on a suitable lake or reservoir.They tend to keep quiteclose to well-vegetated shores.OCCURRENCE Rare in W Europe in autumn/winter,from Americas.VOICE Silent when not breeding.

405

PETRELS AND SHEARWATERS

Length 34–39cm (131⁄2 –151⁄2in) Wingspan 78–90cm (31–35in)

Family Procellariidae Species Puffinus yelkouan

Mediterranean ShearwaterMediterranean “Manx” shearwaters are now separatedas a full species or even split into two species. EastMediterranean birds (Yelkouan) are like small, moreflappy Manx Shearwaters with feet projecting slightlybeyond the tail, while the western ones (Balearic) arebrowner both above and below, but paler and smallerthan Sooty Shearwaters.These birds may be seen onor low over the sea off Mediterranean shores in summer.OCCURRENCE Breeds in coast and islands inMediterranean; a few north to North Sea.VOICEStrangled,yodellingnotes overcolonies atnight.

Family Procellariidae Species Puffinus assimilis

Length 25–30cm (10–12in) Wingspan 58–67cm (23–26in)

Little ShearwaterThe Little Shearwater is like a small, slightly dumpyManx Shearwater (see p.67), often with a paler greyinner wing/black outer wing contrast and with moreextensive white on its face quite easy to see atmoderate range. It must nevertheless be watched withcare in order to prove its identity, especially outside itsnormal range. It flies with rather fast wingbeats andfew, short glides.OCCURRENCE Breeds in Azores, Madeira, andCanaries; rare off NW Europe, in summer and autumn.VOICE Rhythmic laughing notes at colony at night.

extensive whiteon face

dark upperparts

Length 40–50cm (16–20in) Wingspan 0.95–1.1m (3–31⁄2ft)

Family Procellariidae Species Puffinus griseus

Sooty ShearwaterOne of the southern ocean seabirds that migratesnorth in the European summer, the Sooty Shearwateris regularly seen off some headlands and ferry routesin West European seas. It is slightly pot-bellied, withlong, narrow, angular wings, and appears all darkexcept for a variably pale underwing panel thattypically looks like a soft, silvery white central patch.The Sooty Shearwater is quite noticeably larger than a Manx Shearwater (see p.67) when they are seentogether, and can resemble a dark skua at times.OCCURRENCE Biscay, Irish and British coasts, fromAugust to October.VOICE Silent.

all-dark appearance

Length 43–51cm (17–20in) Wingspan 1.05–1.22m (31⁄2 –4ft)

Family Procellariidae Species Puffinus gravis

Great ShearwaterBreeding in the southern oceansand migrating north in thenorthern summer and autumn,the Great Shearwater is a masterof its challenging marineenvironment. It banks steeplyand often to a great height,gliding at speed withfew flaps. Its darkbrown cap looksblack at a distance,and the brown back, narrowwhite collar, white over the tail,and dark patches under the wingall aid identification.OCCURRENCE Rare tomoderately common well out atsea off W Europe, from August to October.VOICE Silent.

brownback

darkbrowncap

narrowwhitecollar

brownishabove

406

SHEARWATERS AND PETRELS/CORMORANTS AND PELICANS

Family Procellariidae Species Oceanodroma castro

Length 19–21cm (71⁄2 –81⁄2in) Wingspan 43–46cm (17–18in)Length 16–18cm (61⁄2 –7in) Wingspan 38–42cm (15–161⁄2in)

Family Procellariidae Species Oceanites oceanicus

Length 1.6–1.8m (51⁄4 –6ft) Wingspan 2.7–3.2m (83⁄4 –10ft)

Family Pelecanidae Species Pelecanus crispus

Wilson’s Storm-petrelAbundant in Antarctic seas,Wilson’s Storm-petrelsrarely stray north of the equator.They remain well out at sea, sometimes with Storm Petrels (see p.68),feeding on floating offal and sometimes approachingfishing vessels or following ships.The white rump isvery broad, the upperwing has a pale band but theunderwing is all-dark.The long wings and legs give a particularly buoyant action.OCCURRENCE Very rare off NW Europe in latesummer.VOICE Silent.

Madeiran Storm-petrelVery like Leach’s Petrel (see p.69), the MadeiranStorm-petrel is distinguished with difficulty by itsbroader white rump, extending wellaround the sides, and less forkedtail. It is an entirely marine birdexcept when visiting nestingcolonies at night; it is rathersolitary at sea and does not followships. It breeds in burrows andcrevices on rocky islands.OCCURRENCE Breeds offPortugal and inMadeira; rare atsea north of thisrange.VOICE Cooingpurrs and squeakynotes from burrowat night.

Family Pelecanidae Species Pelecanus onocrotalus

Length 1.4–1.75m (41⁄2 –53⁄4ft) Wingspan 2.45–2.95m (8–93⁄4ft)

White PelicanHuge and contrasted black and white, the White Pelicanis rose-pink in summer (the juvenile is duller). It hasan orange-yellow bill pouch and a dark eye in a patchof pink. Overhead it shows black trailing edges and tipsto the wings, like a White Stork (see p.85), but it lacksthe stork’s long legs and slender neck. Flocks circleand soar in a more coordinated fashion than storks.OCCURRENCE Breeds in Balkans and E Europe, onlarge lakes and marshes.VOICE Various grunts at nest.

Dalmatian PelicanGlobally rare and endangered, the Dalmatian Pelican is one of the world’s largest birds. Its obvious pelicanform, greyish head and body, reddish bill pouch insummer, and dull wings (with no sharp black andwhite contrast) identify it. Close views reveal a paleeye in a whitish area (dark on pink on the WhitePelican). In flight, it is a magnificent sight, soaringeffortlessly in warm air.OCCURRENCE Breeds in Greece and Danube Delta,on large reedy lakes and swamps.VOICE Silent.

greyish body(juvenile duller)

pale eye inwhitisharea

ADULT

ADULT

orange-yellow billpouch

dark eye inpink area

black under-wings

long legs pale bandon innerwings

reddish billpouch

407

CORMORANTS AND PELICANS/EGRETS AND IBISES/WILDFOWL

Family Ardeidae Species Egretta gularis

Length 55–68cm (22–27in) Wingspan 88–112cm (35–44in)

Length 55–65cm (22–26in) Wingspan 88–105cm (35–41in)

Family Threskiornithidae Species Plegadis falcinellus

Length 45–55cm (18–22in) Wingspan 75–90cm (30–35in)

Family Phalacrocoracidae Species Phalacrocorax pygmeus

Length 65–75cm (26–30in) Wingspan 1.33–1.56m (41⁄4 –5ft)

Family Anatidae Species Anser caerulescens

Western Reef EgretLike a thick-billed Little Egret (see p.80), the WesternReef Egret is typically dark grey with a white chin inWest Africa, but white with pale grey or dark irregularmarks in the Red Sea. Its legs are dull andbrownish, the bill brown or blackish,with a yellower base. It is generallyseen on the coast (but Little Egretsalso frequent rocky shores), andoften on piers and quays andassociated structures.OCCURRENCE Sinai and RedSea; very rare inMorocco.VOICE Silent.

ADULT

Snow GooseAppearing especially brilliant white, even in thecompany of swans, the Snow Goose has a grey patchadjacent to bold black wingtips, a thick reddish bill,and deep pink legs. Some are grey-brown, bluer onthe wings, with a white head, sometimes called “bluegeese”. Hybrid Canada x Greylag Geese are muchbigger but may have a similar pattern, and “farmyard”white geese occasionally fly free.OCCURRENCE Rare visitor to NWEurope from N America, or escapee.VOICE Soft, rising, cackling notes.

brilliant whitebody (juvenileduller and greyer)black

wingtips

Glossy IbisExtremely slender but round-winged in flight, andelegant, round-bodied, but long-necked on theground, the Glossy Ibis looks almost black unless seenclosely in good light.Then it shows reflections ofbronze and deep coppery red. Its slim, downcurvedbill is distinctive as it wades and probes for food at thewater’s edge. Flocks tend to fly in wavy lines.OCCURRENCE Rare in S Europe;more in Balkans and Middle East.VOICE Mostly silent.

slim,curvedbill

coppery redand bronzebody

reddishbill

whitechin

dark greybody

Pygmy CormorantA typical cormorant, the Pygmy Cormorant isnevertheless stocky, round-headed, short-billed, and thick-necked. Close viewsreveal a brown head and neck; in winterthe throat is pale and the head lessbrown.The juvenile is paler below.When perched, or in flight, a ratherlong and rounded tail is evident.Groups often swim amongstvegetation or perch inoverhanging trees or reeds,sometimes visiting coasts in winter.OCCURRENCE Balkansand Black Sea coasts, onrivers and deltas.VOICE Croaksand grunts atcolonies.

long, roundedtail

ADULT (SUMMER)

408

WILDFOWL

Family Anatidae Species Branta ruficollis

Length 54–60cm (211⁄2–231⁄2in) Wingspan 1.1–1.25m (31⁄2 –4ft)

Red-breasted GooseUniquely patterned black, white, and deep red, theRed-breasted Goose is an easy bird to identify but issometimes surprisingly difficult to spot in a dense flockof slightly larger Brent or Barnacle Geese (see pp.99, 98).Strong sunlight makes even White-fronted Geese (see p.93) very contrasty, andthe Red-breasted can be hardto find among them.OCCURRENCE Large flocks in winter around Black Sea; very rare in W Europe.VOICE Loud, sharp,double pik-wik.

striking black,white, and redplumage

ADULT

Family Anatidae Species Anser erythropus

Length 56–66cm (22–26in) Wingspan 1.15–1.35m (33⁄4 –41⁄2ft)

Lesser White-fronted GooseNow extremely rare, numbers of this goose are beingboosted by birds “fostered” under other geese, blurringthe true wild pattern. In a winter goose flock, its fasteraction, long wingtips, neat round head, and very short,shocking-pink bill help to identify it;other useful features are the bold whiteblaze over the crown and bright yelloweye-ring. Juveniles lack the white blaze.OCCURRENCE Very rare breeder in N Scandinavia; rare in W Europe in winter.VOICE High, quick,yelping notes.

longwingtips

ADULT

Length 63–73cm (25–29in) Wingspan 1.1–1.3m (31⁄2 –41⁄4ft)

Family Anatidae Species Alopochen aegyptiacus

Egyptian GooseIntroduced as an ornamental bird to England, theEgyptian Goose has established itself in the wild butnot spread far beyond eastern England. It looks alittle like a pale brown Shelduck (see p.100),with a short pink bill, a brown eyepatch, and big white wingpatches. Some look quite rufous,others greyer.OCCURRENCE E England;occasional wanderers elsewhere.VOICE Loud, raucous,staccato cackling.

large whitewing patch

long pinklegs

ADULT

Family Anatidae Species Tadorna ferruginea

Length 58–70cm (23–28in) Wingspan 1.1–1.35m (31⁄2 –41⁄2ft)

rust-orangebody

narrowblackcollar

MALE

pale face

Ruddy ShelduckClearly a shelduck in shape and actions, the RuddyShelduck is instantly identifiable by its mostly richrust-orange plumage.The males have a pale head andnarrow black collar; females have whiter faces. Inflight, the forewing is strikingly white. Other shelduckspecies that may escape from collections look similarbut differ in head and neck details. Periodicappearances of Ruddy Shelducks in the UK in latesummer may involve truly wild birds.OCCURRENCE Rare in E Greece and Turkey;vagrant in W Europe.VOICE Nasal honking calls.

white spoton face

browneyepatch

large whiteforeheadblaze

409

WILDFOWL

Family Anatidae Species Aix sponsa

Length 43–51cm (17–20in) Wingspan 68–78cm (27–31in)

Length 53–61cm (21–24in) Wingspan 80–90cm (32–35in)

Family Anatidae Species Anas rubripes

Length 41–49cm (16–191⁄2 in) Wingspan 65–75cm (26–30in)

Family Anatidae Species Aix galericulata

Length 48–56cm (19–22in) Wingspan 75–85cm (30–34in)

Family Anatidae Species Anas americana

Black DuckClearly related to the Mallard (see p.101), the BlackDuck is like a plainer, darker female Mallard with acontrasted pale head, blue hindwing patches lackingthe white edges shown by a Mallard, and a bold whiteunderwing that is viewed when flying or flapping itswings.The bill is greenish yellow and the legs richorange.Various farmyard Mallard derivatives may look superficially similar.OCCURRENCE Rare vagrantfrom North America inNW Europe.VOICE Mallard-like quacks.

American WigeonBearing an obvious resemblance to the EuropeanWigeon (see p.105), the male American Wigeon ismoderately easy to identify by the white foreheadand broad dark green band across a pale, speckledface and a dusky pinkish body. Females, however, arevery difficult, but a contrasted greyer head and darkeye patch sometimes help in identification; white“wingpits” are diagnostic if seen clearly.OCCURRENCE Regular but rare visitor from NorthAmerica to W Europe, in autumn/winter.VOICE Drake has Wigeon-like whistle.

Wood DuckRather like the Mandarin, the Wood Duck hasescaped into the wild but is far less well-established.Males have a long, dark, drooped crest, bold white facemarks, and a white band between the dark chest andorange flanks; females look like female Mandarins butwith a dark-tipped (not pale-tipped) bill and shorterand broader “spectacles”.OCCURRENCE Very rare in Iceland, from NorthAmerica; scattered escapees in UK.VOICE Mostly silent.

MALE

ADULT

MandarinSuitably exotic-looking for a duck of Southeast Asianorigin, the Mandarin has been introduced into southGreat Britain. Drakes have bushy orange “whiskers”and triangular orange “sails” on the back, and a blackchest; females are dark grey-brown, mottled paler onthe sides, with fine white “spectacles”.They oftenperch in trees near freshwater lakes and rivers.OCCURRENCE Locally in Great Britain, aroundwood-fringed lakes and slow rivers.VOICE Short, rising whistling note.

dark overall

plain darkwings

dusky pinkishbody

white onheadbushy

orangewhiskers

orange“sails”

dark, droopingcrest

pale orange flanks

dark eye patch

palebill

MALE MALE

Length 37–46cm (141⁄2 –18in) Wingspan 65–75cm (26–30in)

Family Anatidae Species Aythya collaris

Length 38–42cm (15–161⁄2in) Wingspan 60–67cm (23–261⁄2in)

Family Anatidae Species Aythya nyroca

Ferruginous DuckA fast-declining bird, the Ferruginous Duck is a sleek,rich mahogany-red diving duck, with broad, dazzlingwhite wing stripes. Drakes have white eyes and darkgrey bills fading to whitish before a black tip. Femalesare duller and brown-eyed.All have a pure whitepatch under the tail and peaked heads. Hybrid divingducks may look very similar and require closeattention to features such as eye and bill colours.OCCURRENCE Declining breeder in C and E Europe; rare visitor in NW Europe.VOICE Quiet; occasional purring growls.

410

WILDFOWL

Family Anatidae Species Anas discors

Length 37–41cm (141⁄2 –16in) Wingspan 55–65cm (22–26in) Length 39–42cm (151⁄2 –161⁄2in) Wingspan 63–70cm (25–28in)

Family Anatidae Species Marmaronetta angustirostris

Marbled DuckRare and local, the Marbled Duck is a pale, mottledgrey-brown bird with a distinctive dark mask runninginto a slight tuft on the nape.The bill looks dark, thetail and rear end of the bird pale. In flight, the wingsshow little pattern except for darker tips and analmost-white trailing edge. Pale spots on the flanks aredistinctive if seen at close range. Most Marbled Ducksfound in NW Europe are suspected to be escapedbirds from collections.OCCURRENCE Very rare, in S Spain, Morocco, andTurkey.VOICE Silent.

Ring-necked DuckThis is a close relative of the Tufted Duck (see p.110),identified by a more pointed head shape with no tuft,and grey wingbars. Drakes have grey flanks with a white“peak” at the front, brown females a Pochard-like (see p.108) pale face and white “spectacle”. Hybridducks with similar patterns cause identificationproblems.A whitish ring behind the black bill tip isthe sign of a true Ring-necked Duck.OCCURRENCE Very rare but regular vagrant from North America to W Europe.VOICE Low growling notes.

Blue-winged TealThis small, long-billed surface-feeding duck is usuallyseen in immature plumage which is dark, mottled, andTeal-like (see p.106), with a broken pale line over theeye and whitish spot near the bill, pale blue forewings,and yellowish legs. Males have a bold, vertical whiteblaze on the face and bright blue on the wings; femalesare duller.The face pattern is echoed by summer maleShovelers (see p.104), a species with which Blue-winged Teals at times associate. Occasionally one mayremain for some time on a suitable lake in Europe.OCCURRENCE Rare autumn/wintervagrant from North America.VOICE Mostly silent.

MALEdark, mottledbody

ADULTpale spotson flanks

slight tuftat nape

darkmask

white eyedark greybill withblack tip

MALE

white patchunder tail

MALE

vertical whiteblaze on face

white “peak” ongrey flanks

pointedhead

whitish ringbehind blackbill tip

411

WILDFOWL

Length 38–45cm (15–18in) Wingspan 70cm (28in)

Family Anatidae Species Aythya affinis

Lesser ScaupA black-fronted, pale-bodied diving duck (resemblingTufted Duck and Scaup, see pp.110, 109), this rare birdhas a rounded head with a very slight bump on thenape but no tuft. Its bill is pale blue-grey with a tinyblack tip.The back is quite coarsely marked with wavygrey bands (greyer and more thickly marked thanScaup).The white flanks are sullied with pale grey, andfaintly barred, unlike the pure white of an adult Scaup.Females are like female Scaup with a peaked nape.OCCURRENCE Very rare vagrant toW Europe in autumn/winter, fromN America.VOICE Mostly silent.

Length 55–63cm (22–25in) Wingspan 87–100cm (34–39in)

Family Anatidae Species Somateria spectabilis

King EiderThis big, striking eider occasionally appears amonglarge flocks of common Eiders (see p.111).The malelooks darker, with black upperparts and deep salmonforeparts, and has a striking bulbous orange bill base;the female is warm gingery brown, with a slim greybill and a “smiling” upturned gape line.At very closerange, it shows tiny “sails” on the back.OCCURRENCE Most often in N Scandinavia and Iceland, but rare; occasional in NW Europe.VOICE Deep cooing notesin spring.

MALE

Family Anatidae Species Somateria fischeri

Length 50–58cm (20–23in) Wingspan 80–95cm (32–37in)

Spectacled EiderA rare and elusive northern species, this is a largeduck but smaller than the Eider (see p.111); the drake is similarly white above and black below, and has awedge-shaped face with a pale green head marked bya large whitish disc around the eye.The brown femalehas a pale buff version of this pattern. Unlike the KingEider, this species has not been found accompanyingEider flocks in NW Europe and remains a verydifficult bird to see.OCCURRENCE Breeds in Siberiaand Alaska; very rare in Norway.VOICE Silent inwinter.

MALE

Length 42–48cm (161⁄2 –19in) Wingspan 68–77cm (27–30in)

Family Anatidae Species Polysticta stelleri

Steller’s EiderThis is a small and unusual eider, with a “normal”head and bill shape.The drake is largely pale, with ablack stern and collar and bold black eye-spot. Femalesand immatures are dark, with two narrow white barson the hindwing and white under the wing; the thick bill is grey, the head rather square with a slight bump on the nape.OCCURRENCE Arcticbreeder, regular in N Norway,rare in Baltic in winter.VOICE Mostly silent.

sails

whitepatch

MALE

MALE

small bumpon nape

blue-grey billwith smallblack tip

black and whiteplumage

large whitish discaround eye

wedge-shapedhead

grey head slight bumpon nape

black and whitewing feathers

thick greybill

wavy grey bandson back

Harlequin DuckHarlequin Ducks prefer rushing rivers, moving tocoasts and lakes in winter, but rarely travelling far.Drakes are boldly patterned but look essentially dark,with strange white stripes and spots on the head, neck,and chest. Females are dark brown, dumpy divingducks, with a diffuse white face patch and brightwhite ear-spot.OCCURRENCE Iceland; exceedingly rare vagrant inNW Europe.VOICE Mostly silent.

412

WILDFOWL

Family Anatidae Species Netta rufina

Length 53–57cm (21–221⁄2in) Wingspan 85–90cm (34–35in)Length 45–56cm (18–22in) Wingspan 85–95cm (34–37in)

Family Anatidae Species Melanitta perspicillata

Length 42–53cm (161⁄2 –21in) Wingspan 67–82cm (26–32in)

Family Anatidae Species Bucephala islandica

Surf ScoterBig, bulky, and almost Eider-like (see p.111) in itsdeep bill and wedge-shaped head, the Surf Scoter isworth looking for in large scoter flocks offshore.Verysimilar to Coots (see p.159) when asleep, drakes showa bold white nape patch and multi-coloured bill, butfemales are difficult to identify, looking like VelvetScoters (see p.113) with all-dark wings.The deep, darkbill is distinctive only at close range.OCCURRENCE Rare but regular vagrant from North America; exceedingly rare inland.VOICE Silent.

Barrow’s GoldeneyeLike a large Goldeneye (see p.115), this Icelandicspecies has a squarer, bigger head, marked on the drakeby a long, kidney-shaped white patch where theGoldeneye has a rounder spot.The back is more solidlyblack. Females are harder to tell, with a rounder crown,bulkier nape, and more yellow on the bill in summer.OCCURRENCE Breeds and winters in Iceland;rare vagrant elsewhere.VOICE Deep growling notes from female.

Red-crested PochardThis large, bulky duck behaves more like a surface-feeder than a diving duck. Drakes have obvious “fuzzy”ginger heads, red bills, and black chests; females are plainbrown with a dull whitish lower face. Both have verybroad white wingbars.They tend to turn up amongstflocks of Tufted Ducks (see p.110) and Pochards (seep.108) on fresh water.OCCURRENCE Breeds locally in S and E Europe;elsewhere occasional (usually escapees).VOICE Various quiet barking notes.

ginger head

white flanks

MALE(SUMMER)

Family Anatidae Species Histrionicus histrionicus

Length 38–45cm (15–18in) Wingspan 63–70cm (25–28in)

MALEyellow eye

angularnape

solid blackback

kidney-shapedwhite spot

red bill

MALE white facepatch

blue-greybody withwhite stripesbrown

flankspointedtail

multi-coloured bill

white nape patch

MALE

413

WILDFOWL/BIRDS OF PREY

Family Accipitridae Species Gypaetus barbatus

Length 1.05–1.25m (31⁄2 –4ft) Wingspan 2.35–2.75m (73⁄4 –9ft)

Length 0.98–1.12m (31⁄4 –33⁄4ft) Wingspan 2.5–2.8m (81⁄4 –91⁄4ft)

Family Accipitridae Species Torgos tracheliotus

Length 43–48cm (17–19in) Wingspan 60–70cm (231⁄2 –28in)

Family Anatidae Species Oxyura leucocephala

Length 70–80cm (28–32in) Wingspan 1.75–2.05m (53⁄4 –63⁄4 ft)

Family Accipitridae Species Aquila heliaca

White-headed DuckStiff-tailed ducks include the introduced Ruddy Duck(see p.119) and native White-headed Duck in Europe.The latter is bulkier, paler, and less rich red in colour:drakes have more white on the head and swollen, palesky-blue bills, while females have grey bills with aswollen base and black and whitish bands across thecheek. Immatures have black heads.OCCURRENCE Rare in S Spain and Turkey, on largefreshwater lakes.VOICE Mostly silent.

Lappet-faced VultureA massive vulture, the Lappet-faced Vulture resemblesthe Black Vulture (see p.122) but has a paler body andshows narrow pale lines across the underwing. Closeviews reveal a bluish white head and very deep palebill.The wings are broad, deeply fingered, and bulging on the rear edge; the tail is extremely short.The wings are held flat or slightly arched in flight,which consists mostly of a series of long glides andhigh, circling soaring.OCCURRENCE Very rare, in Middle East.VOICE Silent.

Imperial EagleThis large, dark eagle has a pale grey base to the tailand white marks on the shoulders. Immatures arepaler, with a bold pale rump, white upperwing bands,and contrasted underwings with a pale patch behindthe angle.They have buffish bodies, with heavy, darkstreaks.The wings are held flat or drooped in a glide,unlike the Golden Eagle (see p.126).OCCURRENCE Rare in upland forests in Balkans.VOICE Loud, barking notes.

LammergeierOne of Europe’s most spectacular birds, theLammergeier is a massive, long-tailed vulture, flyingwith occasional deep, slow wingbeats but mostly withlong, flat-winged, magnificent glides.Adults havewhite heads and rusty underparts and look shinycharcoal-grey above. Immatures are more uniformlygrey or dark-hooded and paler-bellied.The long,wedge-shaped tail is most obvious on males.OCCURRENCE Rare in Pyrenees, Crete, and Balkans;reintroduced in Alps.VOICE Silent.

MALE(SUMMER)

ADULT

ADULT JUVENILE

saw-toothedrear edge

sky-bluebill

stiff tail whitehead

flat wings

white head

diamond-shaped tail

dark brown streakson breast

pale window oninner primaries

narrowpale lines

deeply fingered wings

darkhindwings

414

BIRDS OF PREY

Family Accipitridae Species Aquila pomarina

Length 55–65cm (22–26in) Wingspan 1.43–1.68m (43⁄4 –51⁄2ft)Length 72–85cm (28–34in) Wingspan 1.8–2.1m (6–7ft)

Family Accipitridae Species Aquila adalberti

Length 62–74cm (24–29in) Wingspan 1.65–1.9m (51⁄2 –61⁄4ft)

Family Accipitridae Species Aquila nipalensis

Spanish Imperial EagleOne of Europe’s big eagles, the Spanish Imperial Eagleis a bird of lowlands and forested areas. It flies onrather flat wings, unlike the Golden Eagle (see p.126),adults showing a bold white front edge, a pale head,and a two-tone, dark-tipped tail. Juveniles are ginger-brown with dark wingtips, hindwings, and tail, a palerump, and a whitish band along the upperwing.OCCURRENCE Rare resident in C and S Spain.VOICE Deep, barking notes.

Family Accipitridae Species Aquila clanga

Length 59–69cm (23–27in) Wingspan 1.53–1.77m (5–53⁄4ft)

Steppe EagleOne of the massive, heavy eagles of Asia, migratinginto Africa for the winter, the Steppe Eagle is closelyrelated to the Tawny Eagle. It flies on flat or droopedwings, and immatures have a broad white band along the middle of the underwings, gradually lostover several years until the all-dark adult plumage isattained. It has a particularly long, protruding headcompared with the chunkier spotted eagles.OCCURRENCE Migrant in Middle East.VOICE Silent on migration.

IMMATURE

Spotted EagleOf the big brown eagles, this is the stockiest andbroadest-winged in silhouette.Adults are very darkexcept for a small pale patch at the base of theprimaries and a paler patch above the tail; immaturesare marked by rows of pale feather tips across thewings and a white crescent over the tail.The strong legs are heavily feathered.OCCURRENCE Rare in summer in E Europe.VOICE Occasional low barkingnotes.

IMMATURE

long, protrudinghead

broad white band onunderwings

pale feather tipsacross wings

Lesser Spotted EagleThis eagle migrates in large flocks into Africa for thewinter. It is plain brown when adult except for a palemark at the base of the primary feathers; the forewingis paler than the hindwing (often uniform, or reversed,on Spotted Eagle). Juveniles have a single line of whiteacross the upperwings, a white band above the tail, andpale patches on the outer wings.OCCURRENCE Breeds in SEEurope north to E Baltic;migrates to Africa throughMiddle East.VOICE High-pitchedyapping barks.

pale spotson wings

dark andpale bandson wings

JUVENILE

plainbrownbody

JUVENILE

strong,yellow-based bill

415

BIRDS OF PREY

Family Accipitridae Species Circus macrourus

Length 40–50cm (16–20in) Wingspan 0.97–1.18m (31⁄4 –33⁄4ft)

Length 50–60cm (20–231⁄2in) Wingspan 1.3–1.5m (41⁄4 –5ft)

Family Accipitridae Species Buteo rufinus

Length 31–36cm (12–14in) Wingspan 71–85cm (28–34in)

Family Accipitridae Species Elanus caerulescens

Length 30–37cm (12–141⁄2in) Wingspan 63–76cm (25–30in)

Family Accipitridae Species Accipiter brevipes

Black-shouldered KiteA medium-sized, blunt-headed, broad-winged bird ofprey with a short, narrow tail, the Black-shoulderedKite is often seen hovering towards dusk, like a big,clumsy Kestrel (see p.140). It is uniquely grey withblack shoulder patches and a whiteunderside, the wingtips grey above butblack beneath. Juveniles are dullerwith pale scaly feather edges on adarker grey back.OCCURRENCE Rare in S and WSpain and Portugal, commonin Egypt, near marshland.VOICE Sharp, high kree-ak sound.

Levant SparrowhawkClearly a long-tailed, broad-winged, bird-eating hawk,Levant Sparrowhawk is more sociable than theSparrowhawk (see p.138) and migrates in flocks. Maleshave black-tipped, rather pointed wings, which aremostly white beneath; females also show darkwingtips. Both have dark eyes (Sparrowhawk’s areyellow) and a black chin stripe, while males have greycheeks (rusty on Sparrowhawk).OCCURRENCE Breeds in Balkans and E Europe;migrates to Africa in autumn.VOICE Shrill, repeated ke-wik.

Pallid HarrierOf the harriers, the male Pallid Harrier is the palest andmost ghost-like, identified by its white breast and narrow dark wedge-shaped wingtippatch. Females are like Montagu’sHarriers (see p.134) with darkerhindwings and a pale collar, whilejuveniles have a bolder whitishcollar beneath dark cheeks anda dark band around the hindneck.All have white rumps.OCCURRENCE Raremigrant in SE Europe.VOICE High,whinnying, trillingchatter.

MALE

ADULT

black shoulderpatch

dark, wedge-shapedwingtip patch

very palegrey body

Long-legged BuzzardA big, bright buzzard with a pale cinnamon or rustytail and whitish flight feathers with narrow black tips,the Long-legged Buzzard often hovers over openground. It has a long-winged, eagle-like appearance.The belly or at least flank patches are dark and theupperwing has a dark wrist patch against a paler outermark.The tail is not black-tipped.OCCURRENCE Breeds in Greece,Turkey, and N Africa; moves southfor winter.VOICE Mostly silent.

greycheeks

broadhead

pale head

dark flanks

black-tipped,pointedwings

orangeunderside(female whitewith darkbars)

MALE

Gyr FalconThe biggest and most heavily built falcon, the GyrFalcon may be dark brownish (juveniles), slaty grey, oralmost pure white according to age and location: thegrey birds breed in N Europe, while the white onesvisit mostly in late winter or spring fromGreenland.The outer wing has palerareas underneath and the forewingis rather darker than thetrailing edge.OCCURRENCE Rarevagrant in W Europe, andrare breeder in Icelandand N Norway.VOICE Deep, hoarse,rattling chatter.

416

BIRDS OF PREY

Family Falconidae Species Falco eleonorae

Length 37–42cm (141⁄2 –161⁄2in) Wingspan 87–104cm (34–41in)Length 28–34cm (11–131⁄2in) Wingspan 65–76cm (26–30in)

Family Falconidae Species Falco vespertinus

Length 47–55cm (181⁄2 –22in) Wingspan 1.05–1.29m (31⁄2 –41⁄4ft)

Family Falconidae Species Falco cherrug

Red-footed FalconSmall, delicate, slightly rounded in its contours, theRed-footed Falcon is between a Hobby and Kestrel(see pp.142, 140) in shape and behaviour. It hovers,but also swoops gracefully in pursuit of insects. Oldmales are smoky grey with paler wingtips,young ones grey with dark wingtips and reddish belly patches. Females are barred grey andbrown, and pale buffon the crown andunderside.OCCURRENCE Breedsin E Europe, regular butrare in spring/summerin W Europe.VOICE High, quick,staccato chatter.

paler wingtips

MALE

Family Falconidae Species Falco rusticolus

Eleonora’s FalconThis is a large, rakish, long-tailed, sharp-winged falconof Mediterranean regions. One form is all-dark andblackish, and another has a white collar, dark moustache,and rufous underside.The underwing is two-toned,dark in front. Juveniles are plainer with narrow bars andpale cheeks. Eleonora’s Falcons catch smallmigrant birds over the sea or big insectsover lakes and marshes.OCCURRENCE Scarceon Mediterraneanislands and coasts.VOICE Sharp, nasal,grating chatter.

ADULT (PALE FORM)

ADULT (PALE FORM)

Length 53–63cm (21–25in) Wingspan 1.09–1.34m (31⁄2 –41⁄2ft)

SakerA massive, powerful, broad-winged falcon, equal to amale Gyr Falcon in size, and paler and browner than a Peregrine (see p.143), the Saker has a pale buff headwith only a thin dark moustache, and usually darkthigh feathers.The underwing is strongly two-toned.Juveniles are darker, blackish on the flanks, and darkunder the tail unlike a young Lanner.OCCURRENCE Rare in SE Europe, in hills,forests, and semi-aridgrassland.VOICE Loud, harsh,ringing chattering calls.

dark thighfeathers

white body andwings withblack spots

ADULT

smoky greybody

whiteneck

brownish upperparts

pale buffhead

417

BRIDS OF PREY/GAMEBIRDS

Family Tetraonidae Species Bonasa bonasia

Length 34–39cm (131⁄2 –151⁄2in) Wingspan 48–54cm (19–211⁄2in)

Length 33–36cm (13–14in) Wingspan 46–53cm (18–21in)

Family Phasianidae Species Alectoris graeca

Family Falconidae Species Falco biarmicus

Length 15–16cm (6–61⁄2in) Wingspan 8–9cm (31⁄4–31⁄2in)

Family Phasianidae Species Alectoris barbara

LannerThis is one of the big falcons, longer-tailed andslimmer-winged than a Peregrine (see p.143), anddarker and greyer than a Saker. It has a paler breastthan a Peregrine and its head is marked with buff or rufous.Thejuvenile is browner, heavily stripedbelow, but paler under the tail.All have a dark forewing bandunderneath the wing, mostobvious on young birds.OCCURRENCE Rare in S Italy and Balkans,in semi-arid areas and mountains.VOICE Harsh, loud,rasping chatter.

Rock PartridgeA rare partridge of mountains and rocky slopes, bestidentified by distribution and habitat, the RockPartridge has a pure white throat, black curving downbeside the bill, and very little white behind the eye.It is a plain-backed, barred-flanked bird, like a Chukaror Red-legged Partridge (see pp.418, 150) in generalappearance, with a short red bill and red legs and a rufous tail showing in flight.OCCURRENCE Scarce on alpine slopes, in Alps, Italy,and Balkans.VOICE Short, hard,choking notes inlong series, morevaried thanChukar’s.

grey rump

ADULT

Barbary PartridgeA rare bird very restricted in range in Europe, theBarbary Partridge has striped flanks, a mostly whitishgrey face without a dark eye-stripe, and a spotted,reddish brown collar. Its breast is grey, the belly paleorange, and legs pale reddish.A dark central stripeshows on the crown. It is very like a Red-leggedPartridge (see p.150) when seen flying off and itsgeneral behaviour is similar.OCCURRENCE Gibraltar,Corsica,Atlantic islands,and N Africa.VOICE Series of quick,rhythmic, hoarse notes.

ADULT

striped flanks (lessneatly patternedon juvenile)

Hazel GrouseIn its dense forest habitat, the Hazel Grouse is veryhard to see, typically flying off from the ground wellbefore anyone gets close. It is always secretive, lookingdark, and only revealing a spotted chest and undersideat close range; males have black throats. In flight, thebrown wings and paler grey rump, contrasting with a black tail band, may be glimpsed.OCCURRENCE Forestand mountains of C and E Europe,and Scandinavia.VOICE Very thin,high notes fromdisplaying malealmost Goldcrest-like (see p.337).

MALE

barred flanks(less regularon juvenile)

ADULT

black stripethrough eye

whitish greyface

reddish browncollar

blackthroat

Length 43–50cm (17–20in) Wingspan 95–105cm (371⁄2 –411⁄4in)

blue-greyback

buff or rufoushead

Length 90–105cm (35–41in) Wingspan 65–75cm (26–30in)

Family Phasianidae Species Chrysolophus pictus

418

GAMEBIRDS

Family Phasianidae Species Turnix sylvatica

Length 15–17cm (6–61⁄2in) Wingspan 25–30cm (10–12in)

Small Button-quailThis tiny bird is an enigma and may even be extinct in Europe, but is common in Africa. It may survive indry, heathy places with palmetto scrub. If flushed, itreveals a tiny, Quail-like form (see p.152) with obviouspale upperwing patches. On the ground, its palegreyish face with no dark stripes would be distinctive.The Small Button-quail calls at dusk and dawn.OCCURRENCE Very rare in S Spain; scarce in Morocco.VOICE Deep, booming hoooo hoooo hoooo notes.

Family Phasianidae Species Chrysolophus amherstiae

Length 1.05–1.2m (31⁄2 –4ft) Wingspan 70–85cm (28–34in)

Lady Amherst’s PheasantThis striking pheasant is very difficult to see in denseundergrowth beneath dark conifer forest. Males areuniquely patterned black and white with yellow onthe rump; they have long red feathers beside theextremely long tail. Females are dark rufous, closelybarred black, with a paler, unbarred belly unlike theGolden Pheasant; at 60–80cm (231⁄2–32in) long, theyare much smaller than the males.OCCURRENCE Introduced but rare resident in C England.VOICE Loud, strident aaahk-aik-aik at dusk.

MALE

very longtail

long redfeathers

striking black andwhite plumage

Golden PheasantIntroduced but not spreading far from old release sites,the Golden Pheasant is difficult to see, despite its brightcolours. Males are strikingly red and yellow, with long,marbled, golden-brown tails. Females, which are muchsmaller at 60–80cm (231⁄2–32in) long, are pale brownwith black barring all over, and much less spotted than a Pheasant (see p.153).OCCURRENCE Rare; very local in S Scotland and S and E England.VOICE Loud, shrieking eh-aik.

long golden-brown tail

red and yellowplumage

MALE

ADULT

spots on orangebreast

Length 32–35cm (121⁄2 –14in) Wingspan 47–52cm (181⁄2 –201⁄2in)

Family Phasianidae Species Alectoris chukar

ChukarA large, pale, rather plain partridge with bold flankstripes, the Chukar is characterized by black on theforehead but not beside the bill, a creamy throatsometimes spotted at the base, anda broad pale line behind the eye.Only when introduced birds areencountered do these subtlepoints matter too much as distributionis usually sufficient to identify it.OCCURRENCE Common in MiddleEast; rare in NE Greece.VOICE Loud, rhythmic,hollow cha-cha-cha-chakerchaker chaker.

ADULT

broad white linebehind eye

bold stripeson flanks

419

CRAKES AND COOTS

Family Rallidae Species Porzana pusilla

Length 16–18cm (61⁄2 –7in) Wingspan 33–37cm (13–141⁄2in)

Length 39–44cm (151⁄2 –171⁄2in) Wingspan 75–85cm (30–34in)

Family Rallidae Species Fulica cristata

Length 17–19cm (61⁄2 –71⁄2in) Wingspan 34–39cm (131⁄2 –151⁄2in)

Family Rallidae Species Porzana parva

Crested CootRare in Europe, this bird is very like a Coot (seep.159). It is best distinguished by a duller bill againstthe white facial shield, a rather more rounded shape to the black face against the bill base, often a “bump”near the tail when swimming, and a plainerupperwing with no pale trailing edge.The small redknobs on the forehead which give it its name areusually hard to see but can be quite obvious in spring.OCCURRENCE Very rare in SW Spain, Morocco.VOICE Shrill double note, unlike Coot, and hollow,nasal ka-hah.

ADULT (SPRING) red knobs onforehead

greyish body

Little CrakeA tiny, elusive bird of dense waterside vegetation andditches, sometimes emerging onto open mud or weed,the Little Crake looks like a tiny Water Rail (see p.156)with a short bill. Males are blue-grey and unmarkedbelow, and brown with blackish streaks and a few longbuff lines above. Females are pale brown, buff beneath,with a few blackish streaks on top.OCCURRENCE Sporadic across C and E Europe;vagrant in W.VOICE Nasal, yapping notes accelerate into fast trill.

FEMALE

blackish streaks onpale brown back red base

to bill

long wingsand tail

Length 45–50cm (18–20in) Wingspan 90–100cm (35–39in)

Family Rallidae Species Porphyrio porphyrio

Purple GallinuleThis huge Moorhen-like (see p.158) bird is oftenelusive in thick, reedy swamps, but comes into theopen at times. It is immediately obvious: large andpurplish blue (in Egypt, with a green back andturquoise face).The massive red bill and shield andlong pink-red legs are easy to see, as is the bold whitepatch under the short tail.OCCURRENCE SW Spain, Corsica, Egypt.VOICE Loud, abrupt, bleating and hooting calls, hardly bird-like in tone.

largeredbill

ADULT

bold whitepatch under tail

long pink-red legs

purplish bluebody

bulgingrump

Baillon’s CrakeCompared with the Little Crake, this is a rounder,dumpier, short-winged, and short-tailed bird. Sexes arealike: brown above with black-edged white flecks, greybelow with white bars on the flanks; the bill is green(red at base on Little and Spotted Crakes, see p.157)and the legs greenish. Juveniles are greyer and morebarred than paler young Little Crakes.OCCURRENCE Rare and very local in W Europe;vagrant in NW.VOICE Quiet, short, soft, dry rattle.

redshield

short wingsgreen billwith nored

ADULT

420

CRANES/WADERS

Family Glareolidae Species Cursorius cursor

Length 24–27cm (91⁄2 –101⁄2 in) Wingspan 70cm (28in)

Length 85–100cm (34–39in) Wingspan 1.55–1.8m (5–6ft)

Family Gruidae Species Anthropoides virgo

Demoiselle CraneObviously a crane, this large grey bird is not alwayseasy to tell from the common Crane (see p.160),especially in flight. Good views reveal a white headplume, long black breast feathers, and neat, narrowfeathers (not bushy) cloaking the tail; in flight, theupperwing is less contrasted than on the CommonCrane but wear increases the contrast as a pale grey“bloom” fades, and the smaller size is not obvious.Demoiselles are mainly Middle Eastern birds, regular

in Cyprus, but very rare farther west.OCCURRENCE Rare in extreme

E Europe.VOICE High, sharp

trumpeting notes.

Family Burhinidae Species Burhinus senegalensis

Length 38–45cm (15–18in) Wingspan 76–88cm (30–35in)

Senegal Thick-kneeThis is a close relative of the Stone-curlew (see p.167)and can be distinguished only with care in a closeview by a broad greyish band across the closed wing(narrow black and white bands on Stone-curlew).In flight, the white wingtip spots are slightly larger.Senegal Thick-knees are often seen on buildings or in groups on muddy riverbanks,unlike Stone-curlews.OCCURRENCE In delta, alongNile, and Cairo, Egypt.VOICE Loud, ringingwhistles varyingin pitch andvolume.

broad greyishband

Length 24–28cm (91⁄2 –11in) Wingspan 60–70cm (231⁄2 –28in)

Family Glareolidae Species Glareola nordmanni

Black-winged PratincolePratincoles are beautiful, elegant, aerial birds, althoughthey spend much time hunched on the ground.TheBlack-winged Pratincole is rather dark, with little redon the bill, quite extensive black on the face, and a tailshorter than the wingtips (unlike Collared Pratincole,see p.168). It is easier to identify in flight, but lightingeffects demand care: the underwings are solidly blackish,and the upperwing dark with no pale trailingedge (Collared shows a white line).OCCURRENCE Breeds aroundBlack Sea; rare migrant/vagrant in W Europe mostly in summer.VOICE Hard, grating flightcall, kettek or kit-i-kit.

Cream-coloured CourserThis is a desert bird, only rarely straying beyond thisharsh environment. It is hard to spot on the ground,on which it moves in quick, jerky runs,head high, but striking in flight withblack wingtips above and solidly blackunderwings. Pale grey-buff or pinkishbuff, except for a grey nape and blackand white stripes behind the eye ontothe nape, it has long, pale whitish-grey legs. Juveniles have soft darkmottles above and the headstripes are duller, the nape palegrey-brown.OCCURRENCE Breeds in Middle East, NorthAfrica; rare vagrantfarther north.VOICE Short, high,sharp flight calls.

ADULT

ADULT

long black breastfeathers

ADULT (SUMMER)

ADULT

long palelegs

421

WADERS

Length 17–19cm (61⁄2 –71⁄2 in) Wingspan 45–58cm (18–23in)

Family Charadriidae Species Charadrius mongolus

ADULT (WINTER)

narrowpale stripeover eye

blackish or darkgrey-green legs

Length 23–27cm (9–101⁄2in) Wingspan 50–60cm (20–231⁄2 in)

Family Glareolidae Species Glareola maldivarium

Oriental PratincoleWhile obviously a pratincole, this is not an easy speciesto identify, sharing characteristics with both CollaredPratincole (see p.168) and Black-winged Pratincole.It looks short-tailed (with only a shallow fork and nostreamers), and combines the dark upperwing and lackof a white trailing edge of Black-winged with thechestnut-red underwing coverts of Collared.A wornor moulting Collared is the likeliest source of confusion.It is similarly elegant in the air, and a proficient hunterof flying insects.OCCURRENCE Very rare vagrant to W Europe,from Asia, mostly in late summer.VOICE Strident and tern-like.

ADULT

Family Charadriidae Species Charadrius semipalmatus

Length 16–17cm (61⁄2 in) Wingspan 33–38cm (13–15in)

Semipalmated PloverVery much like the Ringed Plover (see p.170), it isunlikely that a vagrant Semipalmated Plover will usuallybe noticed. In summer, it has less white behind the eyeand a thinner black breast-band than a Ringed. Inwinter or immature plumages, the shorter bill, narrowbreast-band, and fractionally smaller size are useful;suspicions need to be confirmed by the call.OCCURRENCE Very rare vagrant to W Europe, fromNorth America.VOICE Bright, rising, double whistle,chi-weee, more clearly articulatedthan a Ringed Plover’s.

narrow blackbreast-band

darkbill

short tail

ADULT(WINTER)

Length 23–26cm (9–10in) Wingspan 45–50cm (18–20in)

Family Charadriidae Species Charadrius vociferus

KilldeerThe Killdeer is larger than a Ringed Plover (see p.170)and has a long tail, a tall but horizontal stance, and anobvious double black breast-band. Its legs are dull, therather long bill black. In flight, it is striking because ofits long tail and contrastingly rusty rump, unlike anyother ringed plover type, and bold white stripe onalmost black wings. It may turn up almost anywhereon open, flat, sandy or wet or derelict ground.OCCURRENCE Rare vagrant to W Europe in autumnor winter, from North America.VOICE Loud, fluty whistle, klu-eeeor kil-deeee. long

blackbill

thickblackbilllong tail

ADULT

Lesser Sand PloverIn summer, this species has a more solidly dark reddishbreast-band than the Greater Sand Plover. It is alsostockier, with a broad, round head that is not sodisproportionately large, and a slightly shorter, moretapered bill. It has blackish or dark grey-green legs.In winter and immature plumages, it shows a neat darkpatch on each side of the breast and a rather narrowpale stripe over the eye.OCCURRENCE Rare vagrant in Europe,from Asia, nowhere regular.VOICE Hard, short, trilled or repeated trrrk or tirrik.

double blackbreast-band

Length 19–22cm (71⁄2 –9in) Wingspan 57–64cm (221⁄2 –25in)

Family Charadriidae Species Charadrius leschenaultii

422

WADERS

Family Charadriidae Species Charadrius asiaticus

Length 19–21cm (71⁄2 –81⁄2 in) Wingspan 57–64cm (221⁄2 –25in)

ADULT(WINTER)

Caspian PloverThis small- to medium-sized plover is long-legged,small-billed, and elegant. Pale brown above and whitebelow, it has a broad chestnut breast-band in summer;winter birds and immatures have pale earthy buff acrossthe chest, more extensively dark than on a sand plover.The legs are greenish, the wings show a white stripe,and the rump is all-dark in flight.OCCURRENCE Rare vagrant in Europe from Asia; scarcemigrant in Middle East.VOICE Short chup.

Pacific Golden PloverMore similar to the Golden Plover (see p.174) thanthe American Golden Plover, this slightly smaller,longer-legged plover is hard to detect. In summer, ithas bolder black chequering above and more blackbelow than the Golden Plover. In winter, it is similarto the American species but less grey, longer-billed,and longer-legged.The dusky underwing is visible inflight. It has longer tertials than the American bird.OCCURRENCE Very rare vagrant fromSiberia to W Europe, mostly late summer.VOICE Sharp, whistled chu-wit likeSpotted Redshank (see p.188).

Family Charadriidae Species Pluvialis fulva

Length 21–25cm (81⁄2 –10in) Wingspan 45–50cm (18–20in)

JUVENILE long legs

Greater Sand PloverMuch bigger than a Ringed Plover (see p.170), theGreater Sand Plover is also longer-legged, more upright,larger-billed, and has a big, broad, bulbous head. Insummer, it is rusty red on the head and chest; in winter,it is plain with dusky chest sides on the white under-side.Young birds have pale scaly feather edges on theback. Care is needed to separate this from theLesser Sand Plover.OCCURRENCE Rare vagrant inEurope; regular in Israel and Egypt.VOICE Trilling trr-rr, oftenrepeated quickly.

long, dullgreen legs

JUVENILE

Length 24–27cm (91⁄2 –101⁄2 in) Wingspan 50–55cm (20–22in)

Family Charadriidae Species Pluvialis dominica

American Golden PloverDifficult to find in Golden Plover flocks (see p.174), awinter American Golden Plover tends to look greyer,with a bolder head pattern, slightly longer legs, andlonger wingtips. In summer, it is less yellow above, moreextensively black beneath, with bold white chest sides.In flight, the dusky grey underwing is a crucial clue.Grey Plovers (see p.173) are larger and much bigger-billed; Pacific Goldens are more difficult to separate.OCCURRENCE Regular but very rarevagrant in W Europe, from NorthAmerica, in autumn-winter.VOICE Klu-i, stressedon first syllable.

JUVENILEwhite underparts

long wingtipsbeyond tertials

blackear-spot

largeblackbill

dusky chestsides

pale, scalyfeather edges

long legs

short wingtipsbeyond tertials

white overeye

longbill

Length 27–30cm (101⁄2 –12in) Wingspan 60–65cm (231⁄2 –26in)

Family Charadriidae Species Vanellus gregarius

423

WADERS

Length 15–18cm (6–7in) Wingspan 30–34cm (12–131⁄2 in)

Family Scolopacidae Species Limicola falcinellus

Length 25–28cm (10–11in) Wingspan 60–65cm (231⁄2 –26in)

Family Charadriidae Species Vanellus spinosus

Spur-winged LapwingA big and boldly marked plover, scarcely reachingEurope, this is a common species along riversides andon sandy places in the Middle East. It is easilydistinguished by its black cap and breast, bold whiteneck, and grey-brown back. It often stands inpairs or forms noisy groups.In flight, the wings showblack tips and a broad whitediagonal band on top.OCCURRENCE Rare inGreece; common inIsrael, Egypt, especiallyalong Nile.VOICE Loud,metallic,repeated,high titi-tirikand similar notes.

ADULT

Sociable LapwingA rather large, bulky plover, typically associating withLapwings, the Sociable Lapwing looks grey with a darkbelly and a black and white striped face in summer. Inwinter, the body is more uniform sandy grey and thehead less boldly marked, but still showing a dark capand pale stripes over the eye. In flight,the wings reveal a broad whitetriangular patch and black tips;the tail has a black band.OCCURRENCE Rare vagrantto W Europe from Asia,sometimes in winter; raremigrant in SE Europe.VOICE Harsh,chattering notesin flight, butusually silent.

JUVENILE

Broad-billed SandpiperA small, short-legged wader, this bird has a contrastingdark back and white belly. In spring, it has a “frosty”look, fading to darker brown with coppery edges inlate summer, with long whitish stripes on the back.In winter, it is much paler and plainer grey.The bestfeature is then the two white lines over each eye thatbecome bolder in summer.The bill is rather heavy,

faintly kinked down, and thinner at the tip.OCCURRENCE Breeds in Scandinavia,

migrates through E Europe; rare in west,mostly in late spring.VOICE A high,buzzing trill,bree-eeet.

Length 26–29cm (10–111⁄2 in) Wingspan 60cm (231⁄2in)

Family Charadriidae Species Vanellus leucurus

White-tailed LapwingMore upright, long-legged, and elegant than otherlapwings, this species is identified by its white tail with no black band, and long yellow legsthat extend well behind the tail in flight.It may show a dark grey breast-bandagainst a whiter belly.The wings have aneat black-edged white band and largeblack tips.Young birds are spotted above.OCCURRENCE Very rare in Romania;very rare vagrant in W Europein late summer.VOICE Usually silent.

long yellowlegs

ADULT(SUMMER)

dark greybreast-band

pale grey-brownhead

darkback

doublewhite lineover eye

blackcapwhite

cheeks

blackbreast

grey-brownback

darkcap

white overeye

ADULT

424

WADERS

Length 24–27cm (91⁄2–101⁄2in) Wingspan 40cm (16in)

Family Scolopacidae Species Calidris tenuirostris

Great KnotWith some resemblance to the Knot (see p.176),especially in winter, the Great Knot is neverthelesslarger, with a small head, longer bill, slightly longerlegs, and a longer, more tapered rear end. Juveniles arebrowner than young Knots, with dark scaly upperparts;they have dark breasts with rows of neat dark spots.Winter adults are grey but have darker breast spots,unlike a Knot.The bill is thick-based, tapered,and slightly downcurved; the rump is grey, like a Knot’s.OCCURRENCE Very rare vagrantin NW Europe and MiddleEast, from Siberia.VOICE Vagrantsmostly silent.

taperedrear end

spottedunderside

Long-toed StintA small, long-legged, long-toed, slightly curve-billedstint, the Long-toed Stint tends to creep about like a tiny crake, or stretch upwards and look very upright.It is like a bright Least Sandpiper or a tiny WoodSandpiper (see p.185), with yellowish legs, a dark capreaching the bill, dark cheeks, a pale bill base, andbright upperpart “V”s on autumn juveniles.OCCURRENCE Very rare vagrant from E Siberia.VOICE Short trill, chrrip.

Family Scolopacidae Species Calidris subminuta

Length 14–15cm (51⁄2 –6in) Wingspan 25–30cm (10–12in)

ADULT

Length 22–25cm (9–10in) Wingspan 38–40cm (15–16in)

Family Scolopacidae Species Xenus cinereus

Terek SandpiperDisproportionately large-billed, this rare, short-leggedsandpiper has a rather low, forward-leaning carriage thatis exaggerated as it lurches and runs over muddy shores.It is plain dull greyish brown with a whiter underside,marked by a white trailing edge to the wing (but therump is grey). In summer, it has blackish bands alongthe back.The legs are pale to rich orange-yellow.OCCURRENCE Rare migrant in E Europe, very rarevagrant in W Europe, from Asia.VOICE Soft notes in short,rapid series in flight.

Family Scolopacidae Species Calidris minutilla

Length 13–14cm (5–51⁄2 in) Wingspan 25–30cm (10–12in)

streaked back

tinybill

Least SandpiperRather like a tiny Pectoral Sandpiper (see p.426), theLeast Sandpiper is distinguished from the Little Stint(see p.181) by its pale legs and from Temminck’s (seep.180) by its streakier back, darker breast, and fine pale“V” on the upperparts on juveniles. Pale legs instantlyindicate something quite rare; the tiny (barely sparrow)size and angular shape are also distinctive.The Long-toed Stint is very similar but even rarer.OCCURRENCE Rare vagrant in W Europe, fromNorth America.VOICE Sharp, abrupt keek, ki-keek or tree-eep.

yellow legs

pale legs

ADULT(SUMMER)

large,upturnedbill

pale legs

ADULT

cream stripeson back

shortbill

ADULT (SUMMER)

short legs

425

WADERS

Length 14–17cm (51⁄2 –61⁄2 in) Wingspan 28–31cm (11–12in)

Family Scolopacidae Species Calidris maura

Western SandpiperVery rare in Europe, and very difficult to tell from a Semipalmated Sandpiper or Little Stint (see p.181),the Western Sandpiper is a tiny, stint-like wader withlong legs and a slim, quite long, slightly curved bill. Ithas a slight pale “V” on its back in autumn, with a bandof rufous feathers on each side, a broad pale band overthe eye, and tiny webs between its toes.OCCURRENCE Very rare vagrantin W Europe, in autumn, fromNorth America.VOICE High, thin,rough jeet.

ADULT

tiny websbetweentoes

Length 14–17cm (51⁄2 –61⁄2in) Wingspan 30–33cm (12–13in)

Family Scolopacidae Species Calidris bairdii

Baird’s SandpiperOf the vagrant small North American sandpipers,Baird’s Sandpiper is the buffiest and longest-tailed,looking low-slung and tapered, with a short black billand short blackish legs. Immatures have particularlywell-marked pearly white, scaly feather edges on theupperparts and a buff breast above very whiteunderparts. In flight, the rump is mostly dark and thewings have a thin white stripe.OCCURRENCE Rare vagrant fromNorth America, mostly in autumn.VOICE Short, purring trill, trreeet.

JUVENILE

shortlegs

Family Scolopacidae Species Calidris fuscicollis

Length 14–17cm (51⁄2 –61⁄2 in) Wingspan 30–33cm (12–13in)

White-rumped SandpiperAlmost as slim and tapered as Baird’s Sandpiper, thejuvenile White-rumped Sandpiper in autumn is toldby its less scaly upperside, with more rufous and black,a tiny pale bill base, a whiter stripe over the eye, andwhite “V” lines on the back.Adults are plain and greyin winter, also with long, tapered wingtips. In flight,the white patch above the tail is an obvious feature.OCCURRENCE Very rare in W Europe, in autumn,from North America.VOICE Thin, sharp, squeaky tzeet.

ADULT (WINTER)

long wings

blacklegs

Length 13–15cm (5–6in) Wingspan 25–30cm (10–12in)

Family Scolopacidae Species Calidris pusilla

Semipalmated SandpiperThis is like a dull Little Stint (see p.181) with less clearpale “V”s above, a thicker, blunter bill, and with tinywebs between the toes. Bright juveniles have somegingery rufous on the head and back, others are greyer with a little buff around the neck and chestsides.Western Sandpipers are very similar, with slightly longer bills and more distinct streaks on thesides of the breast.OCCURRENCE Rare vagrant from North America.VOICE Short, muffled tchrp, stint-like tip.

partlywebbedtoes

JUVENILE

greyish or gingeryrufous back

thick,bluntbill

scaly backshortbill

long, slightlycurved bill

short black bill

very longwings

426

WADERS

Length 13–16cm (5–61⁄2in) Wingspan 25–30cm (10–12in)

Family Scolopacidae Species Calidris ruficollis

Red-necked StintIn summer, the largely rust-red neck and upper chestof the Red-necked Stint are distinctive, althoughlarger Sanderlings (see p.177) look similar in latesummer. However, autumn vagrants are confusinglylike Semipalmated Sandpipers and Little Stints (seep.181), requiring close study for identification.Thevery short bill, unwebbed feet, short legs, and deepbody may help; grey wings against the brighter back,and a lack of white “V”s above are also useful.OCCURRENCE Very rare in Europe, from E Siberia.VOICE High, hoarse chrit.

short bill

Family Scolopacidae Species Calidris acuminata

Length 17–21cm (61⁄2–81⁄2 in) Wingspan 40cm (16in)

Sharp-tailed SandpiperA smallish wader, the Sharp-tailed Sandpiper is likethe rather less rare Pectoral Sandpiper without theclosely streaked breast-band.Adults have a cap that is streaked dark and pale rufous, and a streaked breastpetering out in a scattering of loose spots; immatureshave a plain peachy breast, finely marked at the sides.All have greenish yellow legs and a yellowish base to the short, slightly curved bill.OCCURRENCE Very rare vagrant in NW Europe, from SE Asia,early autumn.VOICE Soft, quiet wheep.

Pectoral SandpiperOne of the commoner North American birds inEurope (but still rare), this Ruff-like (see p.200) waderis quite small, with bright buff feather edges above anda white “V” on the back, a dark cap, and, most usefullyfor identification, a closely streaked breast sharplydefined against the white belly. In flight, the rumpshows oval white sides.The legs are yellow.OCCURRENCE Rare but regular in W Europe inautumn, from North America.VOICE Short, quite deep, throaty trill, trrr’t.

Family Scolopacidae Species Calidris melanotos

Length 19–23cm (71⁄2–9in) Wingspan 38–44cm (15–171⁄2in) Length 18–20cm (7–8in) Wingspan 35–37cm (14–141⁄2in)

Family Scolopacidae Species Tryngites subruficollis

Buff-breasted SandpiperAlthough often near water on migration, this sandpiperis as likely to be seen on open, dry ground where it runsin short, quick bursts. It is small, rounded, with longyellow legs and a short black bill, rather like a tiny Ruff(see p.200).The upperparts are spangled dark withscaly pale fringes.The whole neck and breast area is a warm, rich buff, slightly spotted at the sides. Inflight, the rump looks dark, the wingshave just a diffuse paler central band.OCCURRENCE Regular but rarevagrant to NW Europe, fromNorth America.VOICE Mostlyrather silent.

long yellowlegs

JUVENILE

ADULT(SUMMER)

shortbill

diffusebreast-band

streakedrufouscap

JUVENILE

rust-redneck

dark capclosely streakedbreast

bright bufffeather edgeson upperparts

JUVENILE

definedbreast-band

buffbreast

scaly patternon back

427

WADERS

Family Scolopacidae Species Tringa melanoleuca

Length 30–35cm (12–14in) Wingspan 53–60cm (21–231⁄2in)

Length 18–21cm (7–81⁄2in) Wingspan 35–39cm (14–151⁄2in)

Family Scolopacidae Species Tringa solitaria

Solitary SandpiperA small Tringa sandpiper, much like the Green Sand-piper (see p.186), this species is distinguished by its darkrump. It has a less obvious white face stripe but a bolderwhite eye-ring than the Green Sandpiper, and is darker,duller, and shorter-legged than a Wood Sandpiper (see p.185). Its long, tapered rear end is often bobbed upand down, as with the Green Sandpiper and the smaller,browner Common Sandpiper (see p.184).OCCURRENCE Rare vagrant to NW Europe, fromNorth America.VOICE Rich tewit-weet.

bold whiteeye-ring

dark rump

dark, dullplumage

Length 18–20cm (7–8in) Wingspan 32–35cm (121⁄2 –14in)

Family Scolopacidae Species Actitis macularia

Spotted SandpiperVery like a Common Sandpiper (see p.184), theshorter-tailed Spotted Sandpiper is distinguished insummer by a scattering of small or large black spotsunderneath. In autumn or winter, adults are plainer,greyer, with brighter yellow legs and a sharper call.Juveniles are plainer, less spotted on the edges of thelonger wing feathers, but more contrastingly barredon the wing coverts.OCCURRENCE Very rare visitor from North America,sometimes winters.VOICE Sharp, thin peet or peet-weet.

Length 23–25cm (9–10in) Wingspan 45–50cm (18–20in)

Family Scolopacidae Species Tringa flavipes

Lesser YellowlegsThis looks like a small, delicate, greyer, slender Redshankor small Greenshank, and is also similar to the smaller,rounder Wood Sandpiper (see pp.187, 189, 185). It haslong, bright, pale yellow to orange-yellow legs and, inflight, reveals plain wings and a square white rump.Thebill is thin and straight (Greater Yellowlegs has a thickerbill, faintly upturned). It often wadesquite deeply and so may be confusedwith Wilson’s Phalarope.OCCURRENCE Regular but rarevagrant from North America toW Europe.VOICE High, clear tew,sometimes repeatedat same pitch.

short tail

plain greyishupperparts

ADULT(WINTER)

ADULT

thin, straight bill

yellow legs

Greater YellowlegsMore Greenshank-like (see p.189) than the LesserYellowlegs, the Greater Yellowlegs is nevertheless notalways easy to distinguish from the Lesser.The bill isthicker, slightly paler-based, and faintly upturned, and,in most birds, there are more obvious white spots onthe upperparts (which are browner than a summerGreenshank’s or Lesser Yellowlegs’).Thesquare white rump differs from the“V”-shaped wedge on a Greenshank.OCCURRENCE Very rare vagrant to

W Europe, from North America.VOICE Loud, often with

three notes, with third noteat lower pitch, tew-tew-tew, but sometimesvery like Lesser.

JUVENILEsquarewhite rumpJUVENILE

Family Scolopacidae Species Limnodromus scolopaceus

428

WADERS

Family Scolopacidae Species Micropalama himantopus

Length 18–23cm (7–9in) Wingspan 37–42cm (141⁄2 –161⁄2in)

Stilt SandpiperIn water, when its long green legs are hidden, thisspecies is often mistaken for a grey Ruff, Redshank(see pp.200, 187), or some other medium/small waderin winter plumage. Its long, thick, slightly downcurvedbill is a useful clue. In summer, the barred underpartsand a rusty cheek patch are obvious. Juveniles aremarked with rufous above, streaked on the flanks, andshow a dark cap and pale stripe over the eye (dowitcher-like).A square white rump shows in flight.OCCURRENCE Rare vagrantto NW Europe from NorthAmerica.VOICE Soft, chirrupy trrr-p.

ADULT (WINTER)

Length 26–30cm (10–12in) Wingspan 43–50cm (17–20in)

Family Scolopacidae Species Gallinago media

Great SnipeDifficult to identify when out of its usual range, theGreat Snipe is a big, dark, heavy snipe with a ratherthick bill and heavy, dark underpart barring.The closedwing shows lines of white feather tips. In flight, the adultshows big white tail sides, reduced on a juvenile.Theupperwing is a better clue, with a central dark band,edged with white, right across to the outer edge. Its low,heavy, quiet flight is also a fair clue.OCCURRENCE Breeds in Scandinavia, Baltic area, and eastwards; rare migrantin E Europe, vagrant in W.VOICE Occasional deep croaks.

thickbill

darkbarring onunderparts

white tipsto coverts

Length 28–32cm (11–121⁄2in) Wingspan 50–55cm (20–22in)

Family Scolopacidae Species Bartramia longicauda

Upland SandpiperAn unusual, slim-necked, long-tailed wader of dryground, the Upland Sandpiper looks rather like a slim,young Ruff (see p.200) with shorter legs, a thin bill,and a dark-capped crown.The dark eyes stand outwell on its pale face.The Upland Sandpiper is all-dark on wings and tail,and the underwing is darkand closely barred.OCCURRENCE Very rare inautumn, from North America.VOICE Whistling, bubblingnote, quip-ip-ip-ipin flight.

JUVENILE

darkeye

long tail

thinbill

Long-billed DowitcherThis wader looks something like a cross between aRedshank and a Snipe (see pp.187, 196): it is typicallyquite pale and rather plain in autumn or winter, witha dark cap edged by a bold white line over each eye(an obvious “V” from the front).The bill is long, thick,and snipe-like, the legs short and greenish. In flight, itreveals a white wedge or long oval on the back and awhitish trailing edge to the wing. Good views revealbroad black and narrow whitebars on the tail.OCCURRENCE Regularbut still rare vagrant toW Europe fromNorth America.VOICE Short,sharp kik orkeek, oftenrepeated inseries such askip-ip-ip-ip.

Length 27–30cm (101⁄2 –12in) Wingspan 42–49cm (161⁄2 –191⁄2in)

JUVENILE

long,thickbill

close darkbars on tail

relatively short,green legs

ADULT

darkcrown

pale stripeover eye

long,thickbill

429

WADERS/SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

Family Laridae Species Larus genei

Length 37–42cm (141⁄2 –161⁄2in) Wingspan 90–102cm (35–40in)

Slender-billed GullThis looks very like the Black-headed Gull (see p.206),except for the fact that it has a white head: there is notrace of a hood. It has a rather thick, long, orange-redto blackish bill and long, orange-red legs. Juvenileshave weak brown markings on the wings and a narrowtail band.A close view reveals a pale eye (unlike anysimilar gulls), but this is hard to see at any distance.OCCURRENCE Rare breeder, locally alongMediterranean coastal area; vagrant elsewhere.VOICE Low, strained version of Black-headed Gull calls.

long, orange-red legs

whitehead

long redto blackbill

Length 41–49cm (16–191⁄2 in) Wingspan 1.12–1.24m (33⁄4 –4ft)

Family Laridae Species Larus delawarensis

Ring-billed GullLike a stocky Common Gull (see p.207), but palerabove, the Ring-billed Gull has less white between thegrey of the back and black wingtip, a pale eye (lookingdark at a distance), and a thicker bill, with a black bandnear the tip.The legs are greenish to yellow. One-yearolds are more spotted on the neck and flanks, theblack tail band less clear-cut.OCCURRENCE Rare vagrant inNW Europe, regular in SWBritain, from North America.VOICE Raucous, squealing calls.

pale greyback

yellowishlegs

paleiris

ADULT(SUMMER)

ADULT (SUMMER)

Length 22–24cm (9–91⁄2 in) Wingspan 38–44cm (15–171⁄2 in)

Family Scolopacidae Species Phalaropus tricolor

Wilson’s PhalaropeThe largest phalarope, and most prone to feed on mud,Wilson’s is slender but short-legged, less elegant onland than when swimming. In summer, a striking darkband curves back from the eye and down the neck. Inwinter, the back is pale grey, and there is only a hint ofthe neck stripe. Immatures have dark feathers withbuff edges on the upperparts, and yellowish legs.Allhave a long, fine, straight bill and a whiterump in flight.Yellowlegs and WoodSandpipers (see p.185) are very similar.OCCURRENCE Vagrant to W Europe from North America,in late spring and autumn.VOICE Short, nasal vit in flight.

ADULT(WINTER) pale legs

Length 31–34cm (12–131⁄2 in) Wingspan 79–84cm (31–33in)

Family Laridae Species Larus philadelphia

ADULT(SUMMER)

blackhood

slimblackbill

long,fine bill

black bandon thick bill

Bonaparte’s GullResembling a small, delicate Black-headed Gull (seep.206), Bonaparte’s has a slim, black bill like a LittleGull’s (see p.213) and a light, airy flight like a tern’s. Itsupperwing is like a Black-headed’s (with a white outertriangle and black trailing edge), but the underwing ispure white except for a sharp, thin, black edge towardsthe tip.Adults in summer have slaty-black hoods; inwinter and on immatures, the head is white with adark ear-spot. Juveniles have a darker diagonal bandacross the wing coverts and darker trailing edge than a Black-headed Gull.OCCURRENCE Rare vagrant to W Europe from North America.VOICE High, sharp, tern-like notes and squealing calls.

Family Laridae Species Larus audouinii

Length 44–52cm (171⁄2 –201⁄2in) Wingspan 1.17–1.28m (33⁄4 –41⁄4ft)

430

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

Family Laridae Species Larus ichthyaetus

Length 58–67cm (23–26in) Wingspan 1.46–1.62m (43⁄4 –51⁄4 ft)

Length 30–36cm (12–14in) Wingspan 80–87cm (32–34in)

Family Laridae Species Larus sabini

ADULT(SUMMER)

Length 32–36cm (121⁄2 –14in) Wingspan 80–87cm (32–34in)

Family Laridae Species Larus pipixcan

Great Black-headed GullIn summer, this huge gull has a black hood, pale greyback, white outer wings, and small black wingtips, setoff by yellow legs and a long yellow bill banded blackand red. In winter, the hood is lost and immature birdshave a grey smudge through the eye. Often confusedwith Herring Gulls (see p.209), the flat forehead andlong bill profile are useful for identification.OCCURRENCE Very rare inEurope, regular in Middle Eastoutside breeding season.VOICE Deep, nasal,throttled call in flightbut mostly silent.

yellow legs

ADULT(SUMMER)grey legs

Sabine’s GullThis rare autumn migrant is brought close inshore innorthwest Europe by Atlantic gales. It resembles ajuvenile Kittiwake (see p.216) but the wing pattern iscomposed of three sharp triangles, dark (grey on adults,grey-brown on juveniles) in front, black at the tip, andpure white at the back, with no diagonalblack band. Unlike immature Kittiwakes,which lose most of their blackand look dull and scruffy,Sabine’s Gull looks very neat.OCCURRENCE Regular inautumn off W Europe, rare in North Sea.VOICE Tern-like calls unlikely to beheard from migrants.

Franklin’s GullA small, dark, short-legged gull, Franklin’s Gull lookslike a Laughing Gull but has a white band crossing thewing near the black and white tip.The bill is typicallyshort, less tapered, and less drooping in appearance thana Laughing Gull’s, but some are difficult to separate onthe ground.Young birds have white on the breast andflanks where Laughing Gulls are dark, and dark outerprimaries unlike the much palerBlack-headed Gulls (see p.206).Common Gulls are paler andmuch larger (see p.207).OCCURRENCE Very rare in NW Europe, from North America.VOICE Soft nasal calls, butusually rather silent.

ADULT(WINTER)

black legs

Audouin’s GullOnce very rare, now increasing,Audouin’s Gull isslimmer-winged, narrower-tailed, and stubbier-billedthan the Herring Gull (see p.209).Adults are very palegrey, their wingtips extensively black with tiny whitespots on the feather tips.They have grey or greenishlegs and dark red bills, banded black and tipped yellow.The dark eye and long white face shape are distinctive.Young birds are dark, with mostly blacktails, very long wings, and blackish legs.OCCURRENCE Breeds in E Spain,Balearics, Morocco, and Mediter-ranean islands, rare in Atlantic.VOICE Low, nasal calls.

darkeye

pale greyback

jet-blackhood

short darkbill withyellow tip

pale eye-ring

dark hood(jet-black insummer)

ADULT

dark head(pale inautumn,winter)

Ross’s GullA rare Arctic species, Ross’s Gull is pigeon-like in form,with rather broad-based but long wings and a wedge-shaped tail. Its very short bill is black, the short legs redor pinkish. Summer adults are flushed bright pink andhave a thin black collar; winter birds are duller and theblack is reduced or replaced by smudges of grey.Youngbirds have a Little Gull-like (see p.213) dark zigzagpattern but the hindwing is all white; they show a darkear-spot and a smoky grey hindneck.OCCURRENCE Rare vagrant,mostly in winter, sometimesspring, from Arctic.VOICE Mostly silent.

431

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

Ivory GullAlmost pigeon-like with its dumpy form and short legs,the Ivory Gull is longer and more tapered at the backand longer-winged in flight. It has black legs, dark eyes,and a grey bill with a yellow tip. Juveniles are lightlyspotted with black and smudged dark on the face.Albino Kittiwakes and Common Gulls (see pp.216, 207)may cause identification problems: the bill colours arethen important.OCCURRENCE Rare vagrant in WEurope; breeds in Svalbard and highArctic islands.VOICE Loud, shrill tern-like callsbut mostly silent in winter.

Family Laridae Species Rhodostethia rosea

Length 29–32cm (111⁄2 –121⁄2 in) Wingspan 73–80cm (29–32in)

Family Laridae Species Larus atricilla

Length 36–41cm (14–16in) Wingspan 0.98–1.1m (31⁄4 –31⁄2ft) Length 41–47cm (16–181⁄2in) Wingspan 1–1.13m (31⁄4 –33⁄4ft)

Family Laridae Species Pagophila eburnea

Length 42–49cm (161⁄2 –191⁄2in) Wingspan 86–92cm (34–36in)

Family Sternidae Species Sterna maxima

IMMATURE(1ST WINTER)

IMMATURE(1ST WINTER)

black legslong wings

Royal TernThis is a large, magnificent tern, almost the size of aCaspian Tern (see p.223) but more elegant.A very palebird, it has white underwings marked only by narrowdark feather tips (Caspian Tern has a big black patch)and a white rump (the smaller Lesser Crested Tern isgreyer). It is white-headed with a black nape, but has a black cap in summer; the bill is dagger-like, and richorange. Immatures have dark primaries and hindwingbars, like a young Common Gull (see p.207).OCCURRENCE Very rare vagrant in NW Europe, fromNorth America and/or Africa.VOICE Rather weak, strident,scratchy calls.

black legs

ADULT (WINTER)ADULT (SUMMER)

white body withdark spots

long orangebill

thin blackcollar

no black onwings

Laughing GullA long-winged, sharp-featured gull with a long blackbill and black legs, the Laughing Gull is usually easy to identify. Summer adults have jet-black hoods withthin white eyelids. In winter, the head has only duskysmudges.The back is a deep mid-grey.Young birds arebrowner on the wings with black along the hind edge,have black tail bands, and are smoky grey across thebreast and along the flanks, looking very contrasty withtheir white rump and underside.OCCURRENCE Rare vagrant in W Europe,from North America.VOICE Loud, squealing notes.

blackbill

432

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS

Length 33–36cm (13–14in) Wingspan 64–70cm (25–28in)

Family Sternidae Species Sterna forsteri

Forster’s TernVery like a Common Tern (see p.220), Forster’s has palerwingtips (all frosty-white or pearly grey in winter) andwhite underparts in summer. In winter, it shows a boldblackish mask and a black bill (like the Gull-billed Tern,see p.219); the bill is shorter than on a Sandwich Tern(see p.218) and slimmer than a Gull-billed’s. Juvenileshave a black mask and dusky grey centres to the tertials.The shape, size, and behaviour are much the same as forthe Common Tern.OCCURRENCE Rare vagrant to W Europe, mostlylate autumn or winter, from North America.VOICE Mostly silent in winter.

Length 33–40cm (13–16in) Wingspan 76–82cm (30–32in)

Family Sternidae Species Sterna bengalensis

Lesser Crested TernLarge and elegant, like a slightly darker-backedSandwich Tern (see p.218), the Lesser Crested has agrey rump (hard to see), black legs, and a long, slim,dagger-like, bright orange bill. In summer, it has aragged black crest, inwinter a whiteforehead and crown.It is difficult toseparate in isolation from theRoyal Tern which is bigger,thicker-billed, and whiter-rumped. Immatures have darkwing markings like a youngCommon Gull(see p.188), butless bold than ona Royal Tern.OCCURRENCE Occasional birdsin Sandwich Tern colonies insummer, but a rare vagrant.VOICE Loud, grating,Sandwich Tern-like kirrik.

orangebill

Family Sternidae Species Sterna fuscata

Length 42–45cm (161⁄2 –18in) Wingspan 72–80cm (28–32in)

Sooty TernA large black and white tern, the Sooty Tern is a tropicalbird, spending most of its time well out over the sea. Itlooks boldly pied, with a long and deeply forked tail, thestreamers tipped with a blob of white; feather texturesdiffer, causing slight variations in some lights.Theforehead has a deep, wide white patch that reaches tojust above the eye. Young birds are dark above withpale bars, and mostly very dark brown below.OCCURRENCE Rare vagrant in summer and autumn;breeds in Red Sea, Caribbean.VOICE Mostly silent away frombreeding areas.

ADULT

deeplyforked tail

Bridled TernLike the Sooty Tern, the Bridled Tern is a tropicalseabird that looks very dark above and white below,with a long, forked, white-edged, dark tail. Good viewsreveal a contrast between the brownish grey back andblack cap and wingtips; the white forehead tapers backinto a point behind the eye. Care is required to ruleout the larger, blacker Sooty Tern, which is also a rarevagrant in Europe. Juveniles are dark and barred above,paler below.OCCURRENCE Rare vagrant mostly in late summer; breeds in Red Sea,W Africa.VOICE Mostly silent.

Family Sternidae Species Sterna anaethetus

Length 37–42cm (141⁄2 –161⁄2in) Wingspan 65–72cm (26–28in)

whiteovereye

brown back

forked, white-edged, dark tail

ADULT(SUMMER)

white forehead

black ear patch

ADULT

ADULT (WINTER)

433

SKUAS, GULLS,AND TERNS/AUKS/SANDGROUSE

Family Alcidae Species Uria lomvia

Length 40–44cm (16–171⁄2in) Wingspan 64–75cm (25–30in)

Length 30–35cm (12–14in) Wingspan 60–65cm (231⁄2 –26in)

Family Pteroclididae Species Pterocles orientalis

Black-bellied SandgrouseSandgrouse are pigeon-like in form, partridge-like inplumage, with tiny bills, short legs, long, tapered wings,and long tails.The Black-bellied has a short tail, and ischunky, with an obvious bold black underside andwhite underwings with black tips. On the ground, themale’s plain face and breast (one narrow bar at thelower edge) are distinctive; the back isspotted on the male and closely barred ina complex pattern on the spotted female.Black-bellied Sandgrouse are shy; they flylong distances each morning to drink.OCCURRENCE Breeds in C and S Spain,Turkey, in wide open,dry plains.VOICE Rolling, bubblingflight call, fast trillslowing to stutter.

black underside

Pin-tailed SandgrouseSlimmer than the Black-bellied Sandgrouse, the Pin-tailed has a fine tail spike, a bright white belly, and whiteunderwings with bold black tips (like Black-bellied).On the ground, the face looks rufous with a black eye-stripe, the breast narrowly banded with black, the backbeautifully spotted (male) or barred (female) with buffin a delicate and complex pattern. Large flocks visitpools to drink each morning.OCCURRENCE Rare breeder in C and S Spain, very rare in S France, in arid,stony areas.VOICE In flight, rhythmic,grating, descending cata-cata or rrria-rrria.

Length 28–32cm (11–121⁄2in) Wingspan 55–63cm (22–25in)

Family Pteroclididae Species Pterocles alchata

MALE

Length 20–24cm (8–91⁄2in) Wingspan 50–56cm (20–22in)

Family Sternidae Species Chlidonias leucopterus

White-winged Black TernThe three Chlidonias terns, Black,Whiskered (see pp.224, 225), and White-winged Black, are the“marsh” terns; this is the smallest and dumpiest, with aslightly quicker flight action than the other two. Insummer, it is boldly black with white wings and tail;autumn juveniles have a dark back, pale wings, whitishrump, and clean white breast sides (no dark spot as onBlack); winter adults are much paler, withwhitish rumps.OCCURRENCE Breeds in E Europe,rare migrant elsewhere, mostly in autumn.VOICE Short, simple, squeakykek notes in flight.

ADULT (SUMMER)

white tail

blackupper-parts

whiteforewings

Brünnich’s GuillemotExtremely like a Guillemot (see p.229), Brünnich’s ismore thickset and thicker-billed, with a white streakalong the gape and a pointed white breast against thedark foreneck (rounded on Guillemot). Its flanks arepure white, not streaked. In winter, the head is dark to below the eye, without the dark eye-stripe of aGuillemot or the white patch behind the eye of a Razorbill (which it otherwise resembles, see p.230).It looks the most solid, short-necked, and deep-belliedof the auks in flight.OCCURRENCE Breeds in Iceland, far N Scandinavia; vagrant in NW Europe.VOICE Crow-like growling notes.

ADULT (SUMMER)whitestripe onblack bill

spottedback

FEMALE

434

CUCKOOS/PARROTS/OWLS

Family Cuculidae Species Coccyzus americanus

Length 29–32cm (111⁄2 –121⁄2in) Wingspan 48–52cm (19–201⁄2in)Length 35–39cm (14–151⁄2in) Wingspan 55–65cm (22–26in)

Family Cuculidae Species Clamator glandarius

Length 59–68cm (23–27in) Wingspan 1.28–1.48m (41⁄4 –43⁄4ft)

Family Strigidae Species Strix nebulosaFamily Psittacidae Species Psittacula krameri

Length 39–43cm (151⁄2 –17in) Wingspan 42–48cm (161⁄2 –19in)

ADULT

Ring-necked ParakeetThis introduced bird to Europe and the Middle Eastthrives in very localized areas.The typical long-tailedparakeet form, with a short bill and bright greenplumage, as well as the loud calls, are distinctive (but other species escape at times andcould be confused). Males have ablack chin and dark neck-ring(red on the nape); femaleshave a plain green head.OCCURRENCE Variouspopulations from SEEngland to Istanbuland Cairo, mostly intowns and suburbs.VOICE Loud,squealing,squawking calls.

Great Grey OwlSitting upright in a tree this owl looks enormous; inflight it is very impressive. It is very large-headed witha grey facial disc and whitemarks between the eyes.The outer wings havebuff patches and darkbars.Young birds lookdark grey; watchingthem may attractdangerous attacks from angry parents.OCCURRENCEBreeds in boggynorthern forests,in NE Sweden and Finland; rarevagrant elsewhere.VOICE Deep,growling notes;song is series of slow, booming hoots.

Yellow-billed CuckooA small, neat, white-breasted cuckoo, the Yellow-billedCuckoo is pale brown above with rusty wingtipsand black tail sides with big white spots.The white tail feather tips may beobvious when perched.The small eyes are dark,and the bill short andslightly curved. In flightthe long wings and tail and the slender, raised head give a typically cuckoo appearance:it usually swoops upwards to aperch.Yellow-billed Cuckoosrarely survive more than a dayor so when they reach Europe.OCCURRENCE Very rarevagrant to NW Europe inlate autumn, from NorthAmerica.VOICE Vagrants are silent.

ADULT white-spotted, greyupperparts

long tail

MALE

whitebelow

white spotson tail whenspread

black-tippedyellow bill

red nape

blackchin ofmale

white crescentsbetween smallyellow eyes

broadgreyfacialdisc

massivebody

Great Spotted CuckooThis unusual-looking bird is quite unlike the Cuckoo(see p.237). In flight, it is long and slim, with broad-based, tapered, slightly rounded wings and a long,narrow tail, its head small and held up, the chest ratherdeep.Adults are grey above, with white spots, whitishbelow, and grey on the crown. Juveniles have a blackcap, darker back with pale spots, and a rusty outerwing.The yellowish chest and white belly are striking.It perches with wings and tail drooped.OCCURRENCE Breeds in Spain, Portugal, and S France; rare in Italy; vagrant farther north.VOICE Loud, rattling or cackling trilloften given from cover.

palebrownabove

435

OWLS

Family Strigidae Species Nyctea scandiaca

Length 53–65cm (21–26in) Wingspan 1.25–1.5m (4–5ft)

Length 35–43cm (14–17in) Wingspan 69–82cm (27–32in)

Family Strigidae Species Surnia ulula

Length 50–59cm (20–23in) Wingspan 1.03–1.24m (31⁄2 –4ft)

Family Strigidae Species Strix uralensis

Length 15–19cm (6–71⁄2in) Wingspan 32–39cm (121⁄2 –151⁄2in)

Family Strigidae Species Glaucidium passerinum

Ural Owl This big, grey-brown owl has a longer tail than a Tawny(see p.239) or Great Grey Owl, a plainer, pale grey-buffface, and small dark eyes (with no white crescents).Theback has two lines of pale spots; theunderside is white with dark streaks.The wings are more uniform thana Great Grey’s, although the tipsare closely barred.Young birdsare paler-faced and brownerthan young Great Greys,distinguished by their eye colour.OCCURRENCE Rarebreeder in mountain forestin E Scandinavia, NEEurope, and E Europe.VOICE Deep, cooinghoots, two, then two,then three with pauses.

Hawk OwlAs it perches on a treetop or, more especially, flies acrossa forest clearing, this owl gives a hawk-like effect.It has a much bigger head, with a bold black “frame” to the white face andfierce yellow eyes; the back is dark,broadly smudged and spottedwith white.Young Hawk Owlsare darker and more uniformlygrey. No other owl has thesame big-headed, long-tailed, upright shape of the Hawk Owl.OCCURRENCE Breeds in N Scandinavia inboggy areas orclearings in forest.VOICE Long,rapid, bubblingsong and fast,chattering calls.

Pygmy OwlThis tiny owl is round-headed with no trace of “ear”tufts, and has a medium-length, narrow tail. It perchesin the open in moderate light, revealing short whiteeyebrows, yellow eyes, and a white underside withheavy brown bars on the flanks and streaks in themiddle. In flight, it looks very small, rounded, andwoodpecker-like, both in shape and its undulating action.Young birds are darkeron the breast and crown.OCCURRENCE Breeds inScandinavia, NE Europe,Alps, and C Europeanmountain forests.VOICE Song is seriesof even, short, softwhistles (little morethan a second apart).

ADULT

MALE

ADULT

ADULT

Snowy OwlA huge owl, big-headed and broad-winged, with atiny hint of ear tufts, the Snowy Owl is nearly all-white(male) or white with narrow dark bars (female).Youngbirds are mostly grey-brown. Barn Owls (see p.246) incar headlights can look big and white but SnowyOwls are giants, with a distinctive fast-up, slow-downwingbeat and a liking for remote landscapes.OCCURRENCE Rare breeder in Iceland and N Scandinavia; vagrant elsewhere.VOICE Grating, chattering,and barking notes.

dark streakson paleunderside

long tail

brown-streakedwhite underside

all-whitebody

long tail

yelloweye

black “frame”to white face

whiteundersidewith greybars

Family Apodidae Species Apus affinis

Length 12–13cm (43⁄4 –5in) Wingspan 32–34cm (121⁄2 –131⁄2in)

436

NIGHTJARS/SWIFTS/WOODPECKERS AND WRYNECKS

Family Apodidae Species Apus caffer

Length 14–15cm (51⁄2 –6in) Wingspan 33–37cm (13–141⁄2in)Length 30–34cm (12–131⁄2in) Wingspan 60–65cm (231⁄2 –26in)

Family Caprimulgidae Species Caprimulgus ruficollis

Length 27–30cm (101⁄2 –12in) Wingspan 45–50cm (18–20in)

Family Picidae Species Pacus canus

White-rumped SwiftOverhead the White-rumped Swift is a fast-moving,narrow-winged, shapely swift, very dark except for palermarks on the hindwing and sometimes a paler midwingband. It has narrow, swept-back, scythe-shaped, stiffwings and a narrow, forked tail, often held closed in asingle spike.The white rump is a narrow, curved bandbarely visible from below (unlike the broad, easily seenrump of the Little Swift).OCCURRENCE Breeds very locallyin SW Spain; winters in Africa.VOICE Short, hard notesrunning together asfast trill.

Little SwiftWith straight, blade-like wings and a short, square tail,the Little Swift looks paler-winged and darker-bodiedoverhead, with a dull white throat, but in any otherview the square white rump is very obvious. Incomparison, House Martins (see p.277) are less stiff-and narrow-winged, and white beneath as well as onthe rump;White-rumped Swifts have scythe-likewings, a narrow white rump, and a deeply forked tail.Flocks of Little Swifts are often seen over towns andvillages in areas where this species is common.OCCURRENCE Very rare vagrant from N Africa and Middle East.VOICE Fast, twittering sounds.

Grey-headed WoodpeckerA brief view of this bird shows an obvious resemblanceto a Green Woodpecker (see p.259): the Grey-headedWoodpecker is slightly duller, with a plain grey head except for a thinblack line from theshort, spiky bill (and a red forehead only on the male).Therear flanks areunmarked (faintlybarred on Green)and the tail sides arealso plain (not barred).OCCURRENCE Widespreadin France, east through C Europe and S Scandinavia.VOICE “Laughing” call likeGreen Woodpecker, muchless ringing, with distinctivedeceleration and fading away.

Red-necked NightjarThis nightjar is restricted in range and habitat and bestseparated from the common Nightjar (see p.247) byits call. Its rusty collar is distinctive in good light; bothsexes have white wing and tail spots and usually alarge white throat patch.The shape and actions are thesame as a Nightjar’s, very short- and broad-headed,long-tailed, and long-winged; the tail is often fannedand broad, almost like a third wing.OCCURRENCE Breeds almost throughout Spain andPortugal, rare in S France; rare vagrant elsewhere.VOICE Repetitive, wooden, hollow, slightly squeakydouble tap, ko-tok ko-tok ko-tok ko-tok.

stiffdarkwings

rusty collar

broad whiterump

squaretail

dull whitethroat

red forehead

thinblackline

greenback

MALE

pale underwing

crescentic whiterump

narrow,forked tail

437

WOODPECKERS AND WRYNECKS/LARKS

Family Picidae Species Dendrocopos leucotos

Length 25–28cm (10–11in) Wingspan 40–45cm (16–18in)

Length 22–24cm (9–91⁄2in) Wingspan 40cm (16in)

Family Picidae Species Picoides tridactylus

Length 23–25cm (9–10in) Wingspan 38–44cm (15–171⁄2in)

Family Picidae Species Dendrocopos syriacus

Length 13–14cm (5–51⁄2in) Wingspan 24–32cm (91⁄2 –121⁄2in)

Family Alaudidae Species Calandrella rufescens

Syrian WoodpeckerThis is the most similar woodpecker to the commonGreat Spotted Woodpecker (see p.260). Male (rednape), female (black nape), and juvenile (red crown)variations are like Great Spotted butthe red under the tail isreplaced by pale pink-red on Syrian.Theblack face-stripe doesnot join the black hind-neck (hard to tell whenthe bird is hunched), andthe bill is rather long.OCCURRENCE Commonin SE Europe, scarce butspreading northwest intoE Europe.VOICE Soft kik; drummingslightly longer and less abruptthan Great Spotted’s.

Three-toed WoodpeckerA small, elusive woodpecker of coniferous forest, theThree-toed is unique in Europe in having a yellowishcap, but this is hard to see, and the black and whitestriped face is a better feature.The back is largely black, with a patch of white bars (in theAlps and SE Europe)or a white centralstripe (N Europe).Dead spruce branchesstripped of bark andholes chipped out tocollect sap are clues to thepresence of this shy bird.OCCURRENCE Local inScandinavia and NE Europe;rare in Alps, Balkans, and E Europe, in hilly forest with dead trees.VOICE Soft, nasal, shortkik; drumming loud, long,slightly accelerating.

Lesser Short-toed LarkThis small, pale, streaky lark is much like the Short-toed Lark (see p. 269), but distinguished by a gorget of fine, dark streaks; it also has more uniform wings (lesscontrasted rows of dark feather centres). In some waysit looks more like an undersized Skylark (see p. 265),but lacks the pale hind edge to thewings. Close views should show a longer wingtip point.The callsare important in helping to make identification certain.OCCURRENCE Rare in S and E Spain and Turkey,Middle East, and N Africa.VOICE Dry, buzzingtrill, drrrrt; song rich,varied, quick, withbuzzy callsintermixed.

White-backed WoodpeckerA rare, large woodpecker of undisturbed forest,this obvious pied type has barredwings (no white shoulderpatch) and a white rump.Close views are difficult,but show a red crownon males and buffishunderparts deepeningto pinkish red underthe tail.A white bandbetween the dark backand cheek patches isdistinctive. Oldwoodland is importantfor this declining species.OCCURRENCE Very rare inPyrenees; scattered residentin E Europe and S Scandinavia.VOICE Dull, throaty kik,sometimes repeated;drumming accelerates.

MALE

pale pink-redunder tail

FEMALE

redcrown

pinkish redunder tail

yellowish cap

no redunder tail

streakedbreast

long wingpoint

Blyth’s PipitOnly recently observed with any regularity in Europe,Blyth’s Pipit is difficult to identify, resembling Richard’sand juvenile Tawny Pipits (see p.279). It is fractionallysmaller than Richard’s, with a shorter tail, a slightlyricher underside colour, a slightly shorter, pointed bill,and shorter hind claws. It may look more like a smallpipit species and more wagtail-like thanRichard’s, but only close observationand several clearly heard calls canseparate them for certain.OCCURRENCE Very rare vagrantin NW Europe, from Asia.VOICE Slightly higher thanRichard’s, less explosive,with fading, breathyquality, psh-eee.

438

LARKS/PIPITS AND WAGTAILS

Family Motacillidae Species Anthus godlewski

Length 15–17cm (6–61⁄2in) Wingspan 28–30cm (11–12in)

Dupont’s LarkIn its hot, sandy, open, often saline habitat, Dupont’sLark is usually difficult to see: it prefers to run ratherthan fly when disturbed.This streakylark stands upright, showing a closelystreaked breast and white underside.In flight, the wings lookplain above, pale below(unlike Skylark or CalandraLark, see p.265, 270), andthe tail a little longer than onCrested Lark (see p.266).OCCURRENCE Rare and localin E Spain and North Africa,in short, sparse, vegetation.VOICE Call thin choo-chee; song short,whistling, fluty notes.

Length 17–18cm (61⁄2 –7in) Wingspan 30cm (12in)

Family Alaudidae Species Chersophilus duponti Family Motacillidae Species Anthus richardi

Length 17–20cm (61⁄2 –8in) Wingspan 29–33cm (111⁄2 –13in)

Richard’s PipitThis is a large pipit, Skylark-like (see p.265) in its size,bulk, and general plumage. It often stands upright,breast pushed out, on long, thick legs, its bold, strongbill quite distinct.There is no trace of a crest.The faceis marked by a bold whitish area around the eye witha dark mark beneath; there is a thick black lineon each side of the throat (less marked on a Tawny Pipit, see p.279).The long tail is often bobbed.OCCURRENCE Regular, but rare, late autumn migrant in NW Europe, from Asia.VOICE Loud, rasping schreepand quieter variations.

very longhind claws

long blackish tailwith white sides

wagtail-likeshape

Olive-backed PipitLooking rather dark and uniform above or bright andstreaked in front in a brief view, this pipit reveals asubtle pattern on closer examination. It is greenish,with very soft streaking above, and has a dark cap, abroad, bright cream stripe above the eye, a dark stripethrough the eye, and a cream spot on the ear coverts.The underside is bright yellow-buff to buffwith bold blackstreaks. It frequentlywalks in longishvegetation, bobbingits tail, but flies intotrees if disturbed.OCCURRENCE Rarevagrant in NW Europefrom Asia, mostly in late autumn.VOICE Tree Pipit-like hoarse or buzzing speesor tees.

Length 14–15cm (51⁄2 –6in) Wingspan 24–27cm (91⁄2 –101⁄2in)

Family Motacillidae Species Anthus hodgsoni

shorttail

curvedbill

flattishcrown

long,narrowneck

bold darkstreaks onpaleunderside

439

PIPITS AND WAGTAILS/THRUSHES

Length 15–17cm (6–61⁄2in) Wingspan 24–26cm (91⁄2 –10in)

Family Turdidae Species Luscinia luscinia

Length 14–15cm (51⁄2 –6in) Wingspan 23–25cm (9–10in)

Family Motacillidae Species Anthus gustavi

Pechora PipitSlim and streaky like most pipits, the Pechora Pipit hasbolder pale stripes on the back (edged black), strikingwhite wingbars, a buff breast, a white belly streakedwith black, and a pinkish-based bill. It is difficult to seewell and crouches when disturbed.The breast/bellycontrast, wingbars, and longer wingtips helpseparate it from a juvenile Red-throated Pipit (see p.284).OCCURRENCE Rare vagrantin autumn in NW Europe,from Asia.VOICE Short, slightlybuzzed, clicking dzep,not often heard.

Thrush NightingaleLooking very much like the Nightingale (see p.296),this is a somewhat drabber species, more olive-grey,with a less obvious rufous tail. It typically has a cloudedgreyish chest, with soft, diffuse, darker mottles andfaint streaks on the breast (Nightingales are usuallyplainer on the throat and breast).The yellow gape of a Thrush Nightingale is often moreobvious than on a Nightingale.OCCURRENCE Breeds in S Scandinavia and NE and E Europe; rare migrant in W Europe.VOICE Sharp whistle,and croaked, creakycall; song very richand varied, loud and far-carrying. faint

markingson breast

dull tail

Citrine WagtailIn spring, male Citrine Wagtails look like YellowWagtails (see p.286), but with a greyer back and anarrow black band between the back and yellow head.Females lack the black, have less yellow, but showyellow around dark cheeks (which have a paler centre).Autumn juveniles are like young Pied Wagtails (seep.285), with a plainer chest; they havepale-centred cheeks, and are pale buffishbetween the eye and bill.OCCURRENCE Regular inMiddle East, rare in SE Europe,vagrant (mostly autumn) inNW Europe.VOICE Like Yellow, butharsh, distinctlybuzzed tzsip.

Family Motacillidae Species Motacilla citreola

Length 16–17cm (61⁄2in) Wingspan 24–27cm (91⁄2 –101⁄2in)

MALE(SPRING)

Length 15–17cm (6–61⁄2in) Wingspan 22–27cm (9–101⁄2in)

Family Turdidae Species Cercotrichas galactotes

Rufous Bush RobinBush robins, mostly an African group, are small, long-tailed chats, often raising and fanning their tails andbounding along in leaping hops on the ground.Thisspecies is bright buff, with a ginger-orange tail tippedwith narrow black and big white spots. A bold whiteline over the eye and black eye-stripe aredistinct. In SE Europe and the MiddleEast, birds have dull sandy brown on thehead and back, with a contrasted rufousrump.The tail spots are especiallyobvious in flight.OCCURRENCE Scarce breeder in S Spain, Balkans, Middle East,and North Africa.VOICE Clickingand buzzingcalls; high,clear, thrush-like song.

blackcollar

boldstreaks

twowingbars

yellowunderside

bold whiteline

rufous tailwith whitespots

440

CHATS AND THRUSHES

Family Turdidae Species Oenanthe isabellina

Length 15–16cm (6–61⁄2 in) Wingspan 27–31cm (101⁄2 –12in)Length 13–14cm (5–51⁄2 in) Wingspan 21–24cm (81⁄2 –91⁄2 in)

Family Turdidae Species Tarsiger cyanurus

Length 27–31cm (101⁄2 –12in) Wingspan 40–45cm (16–18in)

Family Turdidae Species Zoothera dauma

Red-flanked BluetailThis rare bird inhabits dense northern forests. Malesare slaty blue above, brighter on the crown, with awhite chin and pale underside edged orange. Femalesand immatures are browner, with dusky chests andorange flanks; the tail is dull steel-blue.The whitethroat stands out as a well-defined wedge. In general,the form and behaviour resemble the Robin (see p.295),but it is a shy bird. It frequently flicks its wings and tail.OCCURRENCE Breeds in extreme NE Europe; very rare vagrant in NW Europe in autumn.VOICE Short whistle andhard, short tak; song short,bright, melancholyphrases.

Isabelline WheatearA pale, female or young Wheatear (see p.300),especially of the large Greenland race, can look verymuch like this rarer species. Greyish brownabove, with slightly darker and weaklymarked wings, it has a taperingwhitish stripe over the eye (lessbroad and flared than on Wheat-ear).The tail has a broad blackband with a very short central“T” stem, leaving a squarish,slightly creamy white rump.OCCURRENCE Breeds inNE Greece,Turkey, andMiddle East; rare vagrantin NW Europe.VOICE Short, hard call;song includes short,repeated whistles.

FEMALE

Family Turdidae Species Catharus minimus

Length 15–17cm (6–61⁄2 in) Wingspan 28–32cm (11–121⁄2 in)

Grey-cheeked ThrushSeveral North American thrushes are small, like softlymarked miniature Song Thrushes (see p.307).The Grey-cheeked Thrush is dull olive-brown, with a greyer facemarked by a thin, weak eye-ring and cold greyish chestmarked by rounded, blurry, dark spots.The underwing(hard to see) has several dark and whitish bands.This isa shy bird, usually remaining on or close to the groundin thick bushes.OCCURRENCE Very rare late autumn vagrant in NW Europe, from North America.VOICE Shrill tsee.

AUTUMN

steel-bluetail

darkspot onwings

creamy buffunderside

black tail

black-edged,buff spotson back

blackcrescentsbelow

White’s ThrushOnly a juvenile Mistle Thrush (with bright, palespeckling above and pale wingbars; see p.309) looksmuch like a White’s Thrush.The latter is a difficultbird to observe, being wary and flighty and keeping to low cover where it creeps and shuffles secretively.It is a pale, sandy buff bird with black crescents below;the back has black-edged buff spots. In flight, the taillooks dark with pale sides and the underwing flashesstriking black and white stripes (Mistle Thrush hasplain white underwings).OCCURRENCE Rare vagrant, typically in late autumn,in NW Europe, from Asia.VOICE Silent bird on migration.

thick,long bill

rounded, blurry darkspots on grey chest

olive-brownbody

orangeflanks

441

CHATS AND THRUSHES

Family Turdidae Species Turdus ruficollis

Length 23–26cm (9–10in) Wingspan 37–40cm (141⁄2 –16in)

Length 21–23cm (81⁄2 –9in) Wingspan 36–38cm (14–15in)

Family Turdidae Species Turdus obscurus

Length 20–21cm (8–81⁄2 in) Wingspan 34–36cm (131⁄2 –14in)

Family Turdidae Species Zoothera sibirica

Length 20–23cm (8–9in) Wingspan 36–39cm (14–151⁄2 in)

Family Turdidae Species Turdus naumanni

Siberian ThrushLike the other Zoothera species,White’s Thrush, thisbird has bold black and white bands under the wings,sometimes visible as it flies off. Males are slate-grey,blacker on the face, with a white stripe over each eye,a white belly, and white tips to the outer tail feathers;immature males are duller. Females are brown, barredwith black crescent-shaped marks below,with a buff line over the eye and abroader buff band under the cheeks.The white tail corners and bandedunderwings are distinctive.OCCURRENCE Very rarevagrant in NW Europein autumn/winter,from Asia.VOICE Thin,simple call, tsee.

FEMALE

white stripeson face

Dusky ThrushThe two forms of this species are very different: the“Dusky Thrush” has rich, dark upperparts, bold blackand white face stripes, and white underparts spottedblack (concentrated in a breast-band and flank spots),and “Naumann’s Thrush” has orange-buff on the face,orange spots on the underside, and a rusty rump andtail. Both are obvious medium-large thrushes, boldand upright like a Song Thrush (see p.307), but shyand likely to fly off low and fast if approached.OCCURRENCE Very rare vagrant in W Europe,from Siberia, mostly in autumn/winter.VOICE Rather hard, sharp alarm note.

DUSKY FORMAUTUMN

pale stripeover eye

whitespotundereye

Eyebrowed ThrushA neat, smallish thrush, the Eyebrowed Thrush sharesthe pale stripe over the eye with a Redwing (see p.308).It has a white spot under the eye, and orange flanksand breast-band.The bill is yellowish at the base andthe legs look dull orange-yellow. The underside ismore uniformly orange than any Redwing’s andentirely lacks streaks or spots.Adults have a grey hood, more contrasted than the autumn immatures.OCCURRENCE Rare autumn vagrantin NW Europe, from Siberia.VOICE Thin, Redwing-liketseeee note.

Dark-throated ThrushThe two forms, the Black-throated and the Red-throated, are both Blackbird-like (see p.311) with palegrey-brown backs and dull white underparts withdusky streaking.The face and chest are black on maleBlack-throateds and dusky rust-red on Red-throateds.Immatures are streaked on the face and breast, with a hint of the black or red colour developing in males.The rump is a paler grey than the tail.OCCURRENCE Both very rare in W Europe,in autumn/winter, from Asia.VOICE Fieldfare-like (see p.310)chacking calls. dark

chestJUVENILE MALE(BLACK-THROATED)

buffbandundercheeks

greyback

dark crescent-shaped marksbelow

Rüppell’s WarblerBigger than a Sardinian Warbler (see p.318), Rüppell’sWarbler is even more striking, with its black face, greynape, white moustachial stripe, and big black throat.Ared eye-ring is also obvious. Females have a grey faceand a pale throat with darker spots. Juveniles are palerstill, grey-faced,with a faint reddish eye-ring; they sharethe adults’ dark-centred, pale-edged wing feathers andat least a hint of a white moustache.All have pale reddishbrown legs.OCCURRENCE Breedsin SE Europe; very rarevagrant elsewhere;winters in Africa.VOICE Sharp,hard zak andrattle.

442

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

Family Sylviidae Species Sylvia melanothorax

Length 13cm (5in) Wingspan 15–18cm (6–7in)

Cyprus WarblerA typical Sylvia warbler in its spiky-billed, cappedappearance with an inquisitive expression, bulky body,and slim, sometimes raised tail, this is a SardinianWarbler-like (see p. 318) bird with dusky markingsbeneath. Males show a white streak between the blackhead and dark-spotted throat; the underparts are spottedblackish. Females are greyer, the chest more subtlymottled. Both have a red orbital ring and a thin whiteouter eye-ring.All have dark spotsunder the white-edged tail.OCCURRENCE Breeds inCyprus; rare migrant throughMiddle East.VOICE Dry, ticking notes and rattling alarm call.

spottedunderparts

Length 15–16cm (6–61⁄2in) Wingspan 20–25cm (8–10in)

Family Sylviidae Species Sylvia hortensis

Orphean WarblerA big warbler of olive groves and bushy slopes, theOrphean Warbler is rather like a massive LesserWhitethroat (see p.317). Males have dark grey heads,somewhat blacker on the cheeks, with big whitethroats and whitish eyes. Females and immatures areslightly browner above and slightly buffer on the chest(not so white beneath or pure grey above as the male),and have dark eyes.The long dark tail has white sides,unlike a Blackcap’s (see p.316).OCCURRENCE Breeds in Mediterranean region and N to C France; very rare outside this range.VOICE Hard tak; simple/repetitive in SW, more prolonged in SE Europe.

long tail

buffchest

paleeye

MALE

MALE(SPRING)

Family Sylviidae Species Sylvia rueppelli

Length 13cm (5in) Wingspan 18–21cm (7–81⁄2in)

MALE

whitemoustache

Length 12–13cm (43⁄4 –5in) Wingspan 14–17cm (51⁄2 –61⁄2in)

Family Sylviidae Species Sylvia conspicillata

Spectacled WarblerThis warbler looks very like a small Whitethroat (seep.319).The male has a grey head with a white throat(greyer in the centre) and a black patch between theeye and the bill; the eye is encircled by white.Theback is grey-brown, and the wings have a rusty patch;the breast is darker pinkish than a Whitethroat’s.Thefemale is browner-headed, like the female Whitethroat,but the wing is more uniform rust-brown, the wingtipprojection shorter. Juveniles in autumn are similar.OCCURRENCE Breeds in Spain east to Italy and in the Canaries; very rare vagrant farther north.VOICE Distinctive buzzing dzz or d-rrr, sometimeslonger, dry, hesitant rattle.

pinkbreast

MALE

rusty patchon wings

bright legs

whitethroat

black head

red eye-ring

blackthroat

443

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

Family Sylviidae Species Acrocephalus paludicola

Length 12–13cm (43⁄4 –5in) Wingspan 17–19cm (61⁄2 –71⁄2in)Length 13–16cm (5–61⁄2in) Wingspan 25–30cm (10–12in)

Family Sylviidae Species Sylvia sarda

Marmora’s WarblerSimilar to a Dartford Warbler (see p.321) in size, shape,behaviour, and general character, Marmora’s Warbler is a much more restricted bird in range. It is a greyerbird, the male rather plain smoky grey except for apaler throat, red bill base, red eye, and red legs. Femalesare paler, duller but equally grey, with no trace of brown;immatures are just slightly tinged with olive-brownabove, a little less so on the wings than a juvenileDartford Warbler, and a little paler, purer grey,on the throat than the commoner bird.OCCURRENCE Scarce breeder inBalearics, Corsica, and Sardinia;very rare vagrant elsewhere.VOICE Dull, buzzy tshek or tsak notes; song quite soft,fast rattling warble withbrighter trill at end.

Aquatic WarblerRare and declining, the Aquatic Warbler is much like a bright, strongly patterned Sedge Warbler (see p.322),especially the immature Sedge that tends to have a palecrown stripe and some faint breast streaks resemblingthe marks on Aquatic.A peach-buff bird with streaksof black and cream, it has a striped head with a sharplydefined pale crown stripe. Fine streaks on the chestand flanks are distinctive in summer.A cream “V” on the back is characteristic.OCCURRENCE Rare breedersouth of Baltic; regular butvery rare migrant inreedbeds in W Europe.VOICE Short, metallictak; song varied, lessenergetic thanthat of SedgeWarbler.

black andcreamstripes onbody

ADULT

MALE(SUMMER)

Length 12cm (43⁄4in) Wingspan 15–16cm (6–61⁄2in)

Family Sylviidae Species Locustella lanceolata

Lanceolated WarblerThe most-streaked Locustella species, this is a particularlysecretive bird, creeping and hiding in the sparsest coverand very difficult to watch. It looks like a small, darkGrasshopper Warbler (see p.328) with striped underparts(or in autumn at least a gorget of diffuse streaks) andquite distinct, narrow dark spots under the tail (softer,longer marks on Grasshopper). Narrower, more definedpale edges to the tertials may aid identification but,while typical ones are distinctive, there is a problem withoverlapping features with these two species.OCCURRENCE Very rare but regularvagrant in NW Europe, fromSiberia, in autumn.VOICE Short clicking callnote, rarely heard.

pale edgesto tertials

ADULT

Length 15–16cm (6–61⁄2in) Wingspan 8–9cm (31⁄4 –31⁄2 in)

Family Sylviidae Species Locustella fluviatilis

River WarblerSmall warblers with rounded tails, very long undertailcoverts, and rounded outer edges to the closed wings,the Locustella species have a thick, tapered rear end anda sharp bill.Their songs are insect-like, prolongedtrillings: that of the River Warbler is the best way tolocate it.This is a dark brown bird, with whitish tailfeather tips and a gorget of soft, brown streaks (unlikeReed, Savi’s, or Cetti’s Warblers; see pp.324, 329, 330)but a plain back (unlike Grasshopper or SedgeWarblers; see pp.328, 322).OCCURRENCE Breeds in NE Europefrom Baltic south to Black Sea; rare insummer in W Europe.VOICE Song hasrhythmic, fast,hissing, mechanicalquality, tsi-tsi-tsi-tsi-tsi-tsi-tsi-tsi.

ADULT

rounded edge ofwings

plainback

444

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

Family Sylviidae Species Acrocephalus agricola

Length 12–13cm (43⁄4 –5in) Wingspan 15–17cm (6–61⁄2in)Length 13–14cm (5–51⁄2in) Wingspan 17–19cm (61⁄2 –71⁄2in)

Family Sylviidae Species Acrocephalus dumetorum

Length 14–15cm (51⁄2 –6in) Wingspan 20–23cm (8–9in)

Family Sylviidae Species Hippolais languida

Blyth’s Reed WarblerThis species is dull and plain in appearance, withmarkedly uniform wings. It has a long bill and a palestripe from the bill to the eye (less clear behind theeye). Its wingtips are short and its legs dark (MarshWarbler’s are long and pale, respectively; see p.325).The wingtips are plain dark (Marsh has sharp palefeather edges) and the bill has a palebase, the lower mandible tipped darker(completely pale on Marsh).OCCURRENCE Breeds in NE Europe,rare vagrant in W Europe in summerand autumn.VOICE Short, hard, clickingcall; song rich, varied,each phrase slowlyrepeated several times.

Paddyfield WarblerThis small, pale, reed-type warbler is marked by astrong pale stripe over the eye, edged darker above and below. Its bill is quite short and pale, with a darktip.A rufous rump may be obvious (less so on autumnjuveniles).The short wings, with quite stronglypatterned tertials (dark centres and pale edges), help toseparate it from Blyth’s Reed Warbler.The unrelatedBooted Warbler can also look very similar.OCCURRENCEBreeds aroundBlack Sea; veryrare vagrant in W Europe.VOICE Short,hard tack andchek notes; fast,varied songwith muchmimicry.

Family Sylviidae Species Hippolais olivetorum

Length 16–18cm (61⁄2 –7in) Wingspan 24–26cm (91⁄2 –10in)

Olive-tree WarblerThe largest of the Hippolais group, the Olive-treeWarbler is one of Europe’s largest warblers, typicallyseen moving heavily through olive, almond, or holmoak foliage. It has a pale, strong, dagger-like bill, thickdark legs, and a long, square,white-edged dark tail. Itswingtip projection is particularly long. It appears verygrey (less so on more olive-hued juveniles) with amarked pale wing panel.There is a short white linefrom the bill to just above (not behind) the eye.OCCURRENCE Scarce breeder in Balkans and MiddleEast; winters in Africa.VOICE Short, hard tack; harsh,grating, repetitive song.

Upcher’s WarblerA rather large Hippolais warbler, with a pale, broad-based, dagger-like bill, Upcher’s Warbler has shortundertail coverts and long, square tail with whitishsides.The wings have a paler central panel whenclosed, formed by pale feather edges. Strong dark legsand a habit of swaying its tail from side to side arehelpful identifying features. It is slightlylarger and rounder-headed than thevery similar Olivaceous Warbler.OCCURRENCE Raresummer visitor inMiddle East;winters in Africa.VOICE Hard,metallic tacknote; energeticwarbling song.

dagger-like palebill

thick dark legs contrasteddark tail

longwingtips

shortwingtips

strong palestripe overeye

shortwingtips

pale sandygrey above

palerbelow

pale stripefrom bill to eye

445

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

Family Sylviidae Species Hippolais caligata

Length 11–12cm (41⁄4 –43⁄4in) Wingspan 18–20cm (7–8in)

Length 11–12cm (41⁄4 –43⁄4in) Wingspan 14–20cm (51⁄2 –8in)

Family Sylviidae Species Phylloscopus fuscatus

Length 12–14cm (43⁄4 –51⁄2in) Wingspan 18–21cm (7–81⁄2in)

Family Sylviidae Species Hippolais pallida

Length 12cm (43⁄4in) Wingspan 15–20cm (6–8in)

Family Sylviidae Species Phylloscopus swarzi

Olivaceous WarblerThe neat, long, flat-headed, long-billed, pale colouredOlivaceous Warbler is distinguished as much by its lackof marked features as anything else. It has an all-palelower mandible and greyish legs.The wings are plainalthough the feather tips are paler.The wingtip pointis short (longer on Icterine,p.331, shorter on Booted).It frequently dips its tail,like a Chiffchaff (see p.336).OCCURRENCE Scarcebreeder in Spain, morecommon in SE Europe;rare vagrant in NWEurope.VOICE Sparrow-liketwitter and hard, dry tack calls; song unmusical,fast warble withrecurring pattern.

Booted WarblerThis Hippolais warbler is like a Willow Warbler (seep.333) in general form, and also recalls the PaddyfieldWarbler in pattern. Pale sandy grey or warmer brown,it has a spiky, dark-tipped pale bill and a slight dark stripe through the eye and a thin pale line above it, sometimesquite marked.The broad-based bill,short undertail coverts, and long,slim, square-tipped tail (bobbedupwards but not flicked down)help to identify it.OCCURRENCE Breeds inextreme NE Europe; rarevagrant in W Europe inautumn.VOICE Dry, hard,tapping tak or tek.

Dusky WarblerStockier than a Chiffchaff (see p.336), the DuskyWarbler is browner, tinged grey or olive, with a broad,long pale stripe over the eye (whitest in front, buffbehind), pale orange-brown legs, and pale underpartswith slightly brighter, buffer flanks.The dark eye-stripe often sharpens the effect of the line over the eye.OCCURRENCE Rare but annual vagrant in NWEurope, from Asia, in late autumn.VOICE Hard tchuk or tak notes, or repeated tek tek.

Radde’s WarblerA rare and highly prized warbler, skulking and elusivebut calling often, Radde’s Warbler looks dark, bulky,and strong-billed. Its legs are thick and bright pinkish.A long, slightly kinked pale stripe runs over each eye,edged darker above and below.The back is olive green,less brown than the Dusky Warbler’s, and the undersidemore brightly flushed with orange-buff on the flanksand rusty-buff on the undertail coverts.OCCURRENCE Very rare but regularlate autumn vagrant to NW Europe,from Asia.VOICE Soft, repeated, slightlychuckling chup or chep.

narrow whitishsides of tail

thickpalelegs

pale sandygrey body

broad palestripe overeye

fine,pointedbill

dark eye-stripe

paleunderparts

long, slimtail

dark sides tocrown

pale stripeover eye

446

WARBLERS AND ALLIES

Family Sylviidae Species Phylloscopus trochiloides

Length 10cm (4in) Wingspan 15–21cm (6–81⁄2in)Length 12–13cm (43⁄4 –5in) Wingspan 16–22cm (61⁄2 –9in)

Family Sylviidae Species Phylloscopus borealis

Length 9–10cm (31⁄2 –4in) Wingspan 14–20cm (51⁄2 –8in)

Family Sylviidae Species Phylloscopus humei

Arctic WarblerThe Phylloscopus warblers, including the WillowWarbler (see p.333), are greenish, delicate, and quick-moving birds.The Arctic Warbler is rather thicksetand solid with a stout bill (pale lower mandible witha dark tip), a thick, dark stripe through the eye and a long cream line above it, and a thin cream wingbar(sometimes two). Larger than the Greenish Warbler,it has longer wingtips, and pinker legs in autumn.OCCURRENCE Breeds in extreme N Scandinavia;very rare migrant/vagrant in autumn in NW Europe.VOICE Call hard, sharp dzit; songlow, fast trill.

Family Sylviidae Species Phylloscopus inornatus

Length 9–10cm (31⁄2 –4in) Wingspan 14–20cm (51⁄2 –8in)

Greenish WarblerThis delicate, fast-moving warbler is grey-green aboveand silvery white below. The yellowish stripe over theeye typically reaches the top of the bill (unlike ArcticWarbler).A single narrow cream wingbar is usual, asecond short one occasional.Whiter flanks help to giveit a lighter look than the Arctic Warbler; but it may beconfused with some Chiffchaffs with a pale wingbar.OCCURRENCE Breeds in NE Europe; rare migrant inlate summer; occasional in late spring in W Europe.VOICE Loud, sweet, disyllabic schu-weet or tshi-li;quick, trilling song.

AUTUMN

long wingtips

thin wingbar

Hume’s Leaf WarblerA very close and very similar relative of the Yellow-browed Warbler, Hume’s is another tiny, but slightlyduller, warbler. It is dusky grey-green, whiter below,with a long, cream stripe over the eye, an all-dark bill(no pale base), and two pale wingbars, one broad andobvious, the upper one short, weak, and ofteninconspicuous. Its tertials are dull with pale tips, lessblackish than on the Yellow-browed.OCCURRENCE Very rare vagrant in NW Europe,from Asia.VOICE Loud, cheeping tsee-oo, falling at end, orflatter tsweeet.

AUTUMN

AUTUMN

pale wingbar

two palewingbars

whitetips

AUTUMN

Yellow-browed WarblerA very small, strongly patterned, beautiful warbler, theYellow-browed Warbler is clear grey-green or olive-green above, whiter beneath, with black-centred, white-tipped tertials and two yellowish cream wingbars; theupper one is thin and short, the lower longer andbroad, edged dark green and black, catching the eye inthe briefest view. It is an elusive, active little bird, oftenhard to see well against the sky in leafy trees.OCCURRENCE Rare but regularmigrant in NW Europe, in lateautumn, from Asia.VOICE Penetrating,sharp, rising sweeetor chi-weet.

long creamstripe over eye dark

bill

447

WARBLERS AND ALLIES/FLYCATCHERS

Family Muscicapidae Species Ficedula parva

Length 11–12cm (41⁄4 –43⁄4in) Wingspan 18–21cm (7–81⁄2in)

Length 12–13cm (43⁄4 –5in) Wingspan 12–13cm (43⁄4 –5in)

Family Muscicapidae Species Ficedula albicollis

Length 9cm (31⁄2in) Wingspan 12–16cm (43⁄4 –61⁄2in)

Family Sylviidae Species Phylloscopus proregulus

Length 12–13cm (43⁄4 –5in) Wingspan 12–13cm (43⁄4 –5in)

Family Muscicapidae Species Ficedula semitorquata

Pallas’s WarblerThe tiniest and most boldly patterned leaf warbler,Pallas’s Warbler is eye-catching but not easy to separatefrom the Yellow-browed unless the crown and rumpare visible. It is brighter green and neckless, its headboldly striped yellow and dark green-black, with a longcentral crown stripe. Its rump is pale, lemon-yellow or cream, best seen as it hovers briefly while feeding.OCCURRENCE Very rare but regular late autumnvagrant in NW Europe, from Asia.VOICE Rising, soft chuee call.

Collared FlycatcherThis is very similar to the Pied Flycatcher (see p.340),plumages other than the adult male’s being difficult.Females are greyer than Pied, with a greyish rump; thewing patch is thinner, but there is a larger white patchon the primaries. Juveniles may have a short upperwingbar. Confusions arise with hybrids, as well asSemi-collared Flycatchers.OCCURRENCE Breeds inE Europe, north to Balticislands; rare vagrant in W Europe in spring.VOICE Thin tseeeep andshort tek; song slow, harshwhistles of varying pitch.

Red-breasted FlycatcherThis delightful, tiny flycatcher is best identified by itsblack tail with a long rectangle of white on each sideat the base. Males have a grey hood and a small orange-red throat patch. Females and juveniles have plainerheads, with marked pale eye-rings, and smudgy marksbeside the throat.The legs are short and black, the tailoften cocked upwards. Migrants can be very tame.OCCURRENCE Breeds in E and NE Europe; rare butregular autumn migrant in NW Europe.VOICE Short, dry,Wren-like trr-r-rt and tut; song high, sharp,rhythmic, falling away inpurer cadence.

MALE

Semi-collared FlycatcherA difficult bird of restricted range, the Semi-collaredFlycatcher is best identified when breeding, by theadult males: the white throat hooks around under theear coverts in a half collar, the wings have a lot of whitewith a very big primary patch, and the rump is palegrey; Iberian Pied Flycatchers (see p.340), however,look very similar. Females have very thin white wingmarks, but a strong upper wingbar.OCCURRENCE Breedsin Balkans and Turkey;migrates through MiddleEast in spring and autumn.VOICE Call low, pipingwhistle; song slow, likeCollared Flycather’s,more rhythmic like Pied’s.

MALE(SUMMER)

upperwingbar

longwings

large whitewing patch

boldly stripedheadbroad lower

wingbar,edged darker

AUTUMN

bold white patchnear bill

white collar

white halfcollar

pale eye-ring

white on tail

JUVENILE

Family Sittidae Species Sitta whiteheadi

Siberian TitWith a pattern recalling a Willow Tit (see p.346), thisbigger bird also has a richer, brighter brown back andrusty flanks, contrasting with grey wings, white cheeks,and a dark brownish cap and bib.The cap is often dull,washed grey or grey-brown. From the front, the bibmakes a broad wedge under the large, almost bulbouscheeks. In very cold conditions in northern coniferforest, it is often fluffed out, looking unexpectedly large.OCCURRENCE Breeds in N Scandinavia in old, remote forest and birch wood.VOICE Basic zi-zi-tah tah tah muchlike Willow but less emphatic;song more nasal and buzzing.

448

TITS AND ALLIES/NUTHATCHES

Family Paridae Species Parus cinctus

Length 13–14cm (5–51⁄2in) Wingspan 20–21cm (8–81⁄2in)

Length 11–12cm (41⁄4 –43⁄4in) Wingspan 21–22cm (81⁄2 –9in)

Family Paridae Species Parus lugubris

Length 13–14cm (5–51⁄2in) Wingspan 21–23cm (81⁄2 –9in)

Sombre TitThe same size as a Great Tit (see p.342), the SombreTit’s basic pattern is more like a Willow Tit’s (see p.346).It has a deep, grey-black cap, a very large, wide blackbib, and a restricted wedge of white between theseacross the cheeks. It is a rather heavy little bird, with a thick bill. Relativelyquiet, it does not draw attention toitself unless calling.OCCURRENCE Breeds in woodsor on bushy slopes, in Balkans,Turkey, and Middle East.VOICE Like Blue Tit(see p.344), plusGreat Tit-likegrating churrs.

Corsican NuthatchA tiny nuthatch of pine forest in Corsica, thisunmistakable bird has a typical stout, tapered nuthatchform, with a spike-like bill, short legs but strong feet,and short, square tail held well clear of its perch. Maleshave a blackish cap and eye-stripe separated by a longwhite line. Females have the black replaced by grey,but the white line over the eye is equally distinctive.OCCURRENCE Only found inCorsica, in mature pine forest inhigh mountain valleys.VOICE Throaty,harsh call, repeatedat intervals; song an even, fast,high trill.

grey wings

brown flanks

squaretail

pale,dull greybelow

FEMALE

Length 12–13cm (43⁄4 –5in) Wingspan 19–21cm (71⁄2 –81⁄2in)

Family Paridae Species Parus cyanus

Azure TitA rare bird of remote places, this is a little-knownspecies in Europe. It has a basic Blue Tit-like look (see p.344), but lacks yellow and green entirely, andhas a longer tail with broad white sides.The crown is all white (no blue cap), the back pale grey, andwings blue with broad white bands.The underside is all white. Hybrids of Azure and Blue Tits have a pale blue cap and bluer tails with less white at the corners.OCCURRENCE Breeds in extremeNE Europe in damp woodsand willow stands.VOICE Most callsvery like BlueTit’s; song morestuttering.

long tail

pale streakon wings

greyback

greyabove

spiky bill

buff-greybelow

all-whitecrown

white wedgeon cheeks

Length 31–35cm (12–14in) Wingspan 38–40cm (15–16in)

Azure-winged MagpieThis striking bird is a magpie in form (see p.363), withan upright, short body, short wings, long tail, and stoutbill and legs, but quite different from the familiar piedbird in plumage. It has a deep black cap and a whitethroat; the back is pale fawn, the underside a paler shade, while the wings and tail are pale, dusty blue. Small flocks roamthrough pine woods,calling frequently.OCCURRENCE Breeds in S Spain and Portugal;resident.VOICE High, nasal, callswith bright, whiningquality, and deeper,grating notes.

449

NUTHATCHES/SHRIKES/CROWS

Family Laniidae Species Lanius isabellinus

Length 16–18cm (61⁄2 –7in) Wingspan 26–28cm (10–11in)

Length 17–18cm (61⁄2 –7in) Wingspan 24–26cm (91⁄2 –10in)

Family Laniidae Species Lanius nubicus

Length 14–15cm (51⁄2 –6in) Wingspan 23–25cm (9–10in)

Family Sittidae Species Sitta neumayer

Family Corvidae Species Cyanopica cyanus

Rock NuthatchThe best places to see this bird are archaeological sitesin Greece and Turkey, where it often flits about theruins, drawing attention to itself by its bold behaviourand voice. It looks like a large, washed-out Nuthatch(see p.352), but has a plain grey tail (no dark and white marks) andwhitish flanks (no rust-orange). Itoften perches very upright, breastpushed out, bobbing, almost likea slim Dipper (see p.290).OCCURRENCE Breeds in Balkans and Turkey,in rocky areas.VOICE Rising andfalling, far-carrying,strident whistlingnotes.

Masked ShrikeThe small, slender, and well-marked Masked Shrike ismostly black and white with peachy orange flanks andis easily identifiable. Males are brighter than females.Juveniles look like young Woodchat Shrikes (see p.358),but have slim, blacker tails, greyer upperparts with atleast some scaly whitish shoulder marks making moreof a patch than on Woodchat, and a bigger white patch on the primaries.OCCURRENCE Breeds inBalkans and Turkey; wintermigrant in Africa.VOICE Scratchy, hoarsenote and roughrattling call.

Isabelline ShrikeA close relative of the Red-backed Shrike (see p.357),the Isabelline Shrike is similar in basic appearance butpaler, more sandy-brown, with a pale, rusty tail. Maleshave a black mask and dark wings;females are plainer. Immatureslook like rusty-tailed, sandy-backed young Red-backed Shrikes,with paler, plainer upperparts; thetail may be entirely pale rufousor darker with rufous edges and a rufous rump.OCCURRENCE Very rarevagrant in W Europe, fromAsia, mostly in late autumn.VOICE Migrants aregenerally silent.

IMMATURE

rusty tail

MALE

large whiteshoulderpatch

orangeflanks

plain tail

long, paleblue tail

long black eye-stripe

longbill

whiteforehead

fawnbody

blackeye-stripe

pale bluewings

450

CROWS/STARLINGS/NORTH AMERICAN WARBLERS

Family Sturnidae Species Sturnus roseus

Length 19–22cm (71⁄2–9in) Wingspan 37–40cm (141⁄2–16in)Length 26–29cm (10–111⁄2in) Wingspan 40–46cm (16–18in)

Family Corvidae Species Perisoreus infaustus

Length 12–13cm (43⁄4 –5in) Wingspan 15cm (6in)

Family Parulidae Species Dendroica striata

Siberian JayThis brown and orange jay of north European forestsis unlike any other European species. It has a very darkface, paler grey-brown upperparts, and pale, quite bright,rust-orange wingbars, rump, and tail sides, and is lessstrongly contrasted than the Jay (see p.364). Plumagesof both sexes, at all ages and seasons, are alike. Oftenmoving in flocks, the Siberian Jay is usuallyshy but approaches settlements andforest camps in winter.OCCURRENCE Breeds inScandinavia, east into N Russia,in mature conifer forest.VOICE Usually silent;occasional mewing callsfrom flocks.

Rose-coloured StarlingThis exotic-looking starling is usually seen in westernEurope in immature plumages, but adults occur insoutheast Europe at times.Adults are pale pink (duskyin winter) with a black hood, wings, and tail; whitishfeather tips obscure some of the black in winter.Immatures are like sandy grey young Starlings (seep.372) except for a shorter yellowish bill, more contrastbetween pale body and dark wings, and a pale rump.OCCURRENCE Rare migrant in SEEurope, vagrant in W Europe, insummer and autumn.VOICE Short, harsh callsand varied, unmusical,rattling song.

rust-orangetail sides

Family Vireonidae Species Vireo olivaceus

Length 14cm (51⁄2in) Wingspan 23–25cm (9–10in)

Blackpoll WarblerIn summer, this is a black and white bird, but in autumnimmatures are dull-looking: greenish with soft darkstreaks on the back and pale greyish yellow underpartswith soft dusky streaks.They have a pale stripe aboveand pale marks below the eye, white under the tail, anddark wings with two long, narrow, diagonal wingbars.The white under the tail and streaked chest areimportant points to eliminate even rarer species.OCCURRENCE Very rare vagrant in NW Europe in late autumn, from North America.VOICE Liquid, sharp, short chip.

IMMATURE(AUTUMN)

Red-eyed VireoVireos are like rather large, stocky warblers with quitethick bills.The Red-eyed Vireo has a strong headpattern (grey cap edged black, broad white stripe overthe eye, and black eye-stripe), a dark red eye, and a basicgreen above, whitish below pattern.The greenish tailis short and square, helping to give it a slightly differentlook from European warblers with green upperparts.It tends to be quite slow and heavyin its movements through foliage.OCCURRENCE Very rare but annual vagrant in NW Europe, in autumn,from North America.VOICE Short,nasal chway.

ADULT(WINTER)

duskypinkbody

white overred eye

two curved whitewingbars

Family Fringillidae Species Loxia leucoptera

Length 16cm (61⁄2in) Wingspan 26–29cm (10–111⁄2in)

Length 12–14cm (43⁄4 –51⁄2in) Wingspan 21–27cm (81⁄2 –101⁄2in)

Family Fringillidae Species Loxia pytyopsittacus

451

NORTH AMERICAN WARBLERS/FINCHES

Family Fringillidae Species Carduelis hornemanni

Length 12–13cm (43⁄4 –5in) Wingspan 15cm (6in)

Family Parulidae Species Dendroica coronata

Length 16–18cm (61⁄2 –7in) Wingspan 30–33cm (12–13in)

Yellow-rumped WarblerWhile some autumn plumages are very difficult toidentify, most North American wood warblers arestriking birds, at least in summer.Yellow-rumpedWarblers are small, neat, active birds, distinguished by a yellow patch on each side of the chest, and a brightyellow rump.They are streaky brown above, andwhitish with blacker streaks below in autumn.Twolong, diagonal wingbars are clearly visible.The head is not strongly patterned but has white crescents above and below the eye.OCCURRENCE Very rare vagrantin NW Europe in late autumn,from North America.VOICE Frequent, hard,single notes, chikor twip.

Two-barred CrossbillA smallish crossbill, the Two-barred Crossbill is typicallymarked by two broad white wingbars (unlike theCrossbill, see p.392, which may only occasionally havewingbars) and white spots on the tertial tips. Males arerather deep cherry-red with blacker wings (Crossbillstend to be more orange-red with browner wings);females are green and brown, with yellow-green rumps.Dark back spots are distinctive. Juveniles are duller,browner, with much thinner wingbars, and are difficultto identify with absolute certainty.OCCURRENCE Rare breeder in extremeNE Europe; vagrant elsewhere.VOICE Weaker than Crossbill’s.

Parrot CrossbillCrossbills often give good views, but can still be verydifficult to tell apart. Parrot Crossbills are heavier,stockier, and more bull-necked than common Crossbills(see p.392), with small, centrally placed eyes, often agreyer “ruff ”, and a deep, bulbous bill with a shorthook but extension of the lower mandible above thetip of the upper one. Plumages are like the Crossbill’s;calls are sometimes distinct but difficult to judge.OCCURRENCE Breeds in Scandinavia, very rarely in Scotland; occasional migrant/vagrant elsewhere.VOICE Typically deeper, harder jip jipthan Crossbill’s.

Arctic RedpollRedpolls are split into several races or species; theArctic Redpoll is usually recognized as a species butcan be hard to distinguish. Males have a large whiterump, white underparts, and unmarked undertailcoverts; a broad whitish wingbar, small red foreheadpatch, and a short yellow bill aid identification.Females and immatures are more streaked, but therump is unstreaked white, the wingbar white, and the undertail area unmarked white.OCCURRENCE Breeds in extreme N Scandinavia; winters in Scandinaviaand vagrant in W Europe.VOICE Calls like Redpoll’s,not safely distinguishable.

MALE

whiteunderparts

broadwingbarunmarked

under tail

MALEIMMATURE (AUTUMN)

MALE two broadwingbars

heavy, stocky body

two whitewingbars

massive bill

452

FINCHES/BUNTINGS

Length 16–17cm (61⁄2in) Wingspan 27–37cm (101⁄2–141⁄2in)

Family Fringillidae Species Loxia scotica

Length 12–13cm (43⁄4 –5in) Wingspan 14–17cm (51⁄2 –61⁄2in)

Family Emberizidae Species Emberiza rustica

Scottish CrossbillIf Parrot and common Crossbills (see p.392) are hardto distinguish, the Scottish Crossbill, being intermediatebetween the two, can seem impossible to identify. It isrestricted to pine forest in Scotland, but the other twocan be found there, too. It has bulging cheeks, a thickneck, and a deep, hefty bill; its plumages are like thoseof the other species and its calls are confusingly difficultunless recorded and analysed technically. Researchcontinues into the relationship of all these forms.OCCURRENCE Resident in N Scotland,presumably does not move elsewhere.VOICE Much as Crossbill’s, sometimes deeper, thicker notes.

Rustic BuntingIn summer, males are boldly marked black and whiteon the head, reddish above, and white below with ared-brown breast-band. Females and autumn maleshave a paler central crown stripe on a duller head;both sexes raise their crown feathers at times.Immatures are streaked yellow-brown, with a broadpale stripe over the eye, a white ear-spot edged black,and a cream band under the cheek.The rump is rust-brown; two thin white wingbars are usually obvious.OCCURRENCE Breeds in Sweden, Finland, andRussia; rare migrant to E Europe and vagrant in W Europe; in wet forested areas; May to September.VOICE Short, sharp, penetrating tic or zit; song short,rhythmic, rattling phrase.

bulgingcheeks

becomes increasinglyred with age

MALE (AUTUMN)

rufous rump

IMMATUREMALE

Family Passeridae Species Montifringilla nivalis

Length 17–19cm (61⁄2–71⁄2in) Wingspan 34–38cm (131⁄2–15in)

Family Fringillidae Species Pinicola enucleator

Length 19–22cm (71⁄2–9in) Wingspan 30–35cm (7–81⁄2in)

SnowfinchThe Snowfinch is large, long-winged, and short-leggedwith black-tipped white wings recalling a SnowBunting (see p.401).The head is grey (black face andbib on summer male), the back dull grey-brown, andthe tail white with a narrow black centre. In summer,the male has a black bill; otherwise the bill is yellow.OCCURRENCE Sparse breeder, at high altitude, inPyrenees, Alps, Italy, and Balkans.VOICE Wide variety of sharp, hoarse,or mewing calls; trilling,sparrow-like song.

MALE (SUMMER)

Pine GrosbeakA massive finch, the Pine Grosbeak is Crossbill-like(see p.392) in plumage but more Bullfinch-like (seep.290) in form and behaviour. Males are cherry-redand grey with thin white wingbars; females have thered replaced by bronze-green or yellowish.Young malesdevelop orange-red in winter.The billis thick and rounded, but not crossed,the head rather small (unlike Crossbill),and the tail quite long.This berry-eater inhabits forest and sometimesgardens and towns in winter.OCCURRENCE Breedsin N Scandinavia,slightly morewidespread inwinter only.VOICE Clear, flutywhistling calls andduller conversationalnotes from flocks.

FEMALE

dull grey-brown back

black bill

thick,uncrossed bill

long tail

453

BUNTINGS

Family Emberizidae Species Emberiza leucocephalus

Length 16–17cm (61⁄2in) Wingspan 26–30cm (10–12in)

Length 16–17cm (61⁄2in) Wingspan 26–30cm (10–12in)

Family Emberizidae Species Emberiza melanocephala

Length 14–15cm (51⁄2–6in) Wingspan 23–26cm (9–10in)

Family Emberizidae Species Emberiza caesia

Length 15–16cm (6–61⁄2in) Wingspan 8–9cm (31⁄4 –31⁄2in)

Family Emberizidae Species Emberiza aureola

Black-headed BuntingThis big bunting has easily identifiable males with ablack head, yellow chin, rufous back, and yellow under-side; females and immatures are difficult to distinguishfrom vagrant or escaped Red-headed Buntings. Femaleshave large grey bills, hooded grey-brownheads, and pale yellow underparts, withsome rufous above (unlike Red-headed);immatures are slightly more streaked,especially on the crown (more thanRed-headed) and rather bright above(Red-headed typically dull).OCCURRENCE Breeds in S Italyand Balkans; rare late summervagrant in NW Europe.VOICE Various metallic,ticking calls; fulleraccelerating song.

MALE (WINTER) white cheeksstreaked,rusty back

MALE

Pine BuntingDifficulties arise with intermediates between the PineBunting and Yellowhammer (see p.398) but most purebirds are identifiable. Males are easy, with their whitecrown and cheek, edged black and rufous; the back isrusty with black streaks and the underside whitish.Females are greyer, with a less marked head; immatureshave white underparts streaked grey, a white spot onthe ear coverts, a white eye-ring, and white featheredges on the wings (yellowish on Yellowhammer).OCCURRENCE Vagrant in NW Europe, late autumnand winter, from Asia.VOICE Metallic ticking notes, like Yellowhammer’s.

Cretzschmar’s BuntingThis is very like an Ortolan Bunting (see p.397) butrust-red on the throat and moustache where theOrtolan is yellow.The head and chest are blue-grey,the back rufous-brown, and the underside a rich rust-orange. Females are duller; both sexes have a white eye-ring.The immature shows the eye-ring, black-streakedupperparts and broad, bright rusty edges to the tertials;it is a richer, more rufous bird than a young Ortolan.OCCURRENCE Breeds in Greece, Crete,Turkey, and some Greek islands; veryrare vagrant elsewhere.VOICE Sharp, short tsip note, very like Ortolan Bunting’s.

MALE

Yellow-breasted BuntingThe summer males of this small, neat bunting aredistinctive, with a black and chestnut head, upperparts,and breast-band, against bright yellow on the chest andbelly, and a white shoulder patch. In autumn, immaturesare streaked brown, rather yellower or buff beneath,finely streaked, with two white wingbars; they have apale central stripe on the top of the head, a broad palestripe over each eye, a pale band underthe cheek, and a pale spot at the rearof the dark-edged ear coverts.OCCURRENCE Breeds fromE Finland into Russia; raremigrant/vagrant in NW Europe in autumn.VOICE Short, tickingtsik note.

FEMALE

two wingbars

streaked rufous-brown above

blue-greyhead

blackhead

yellowunderside

pale stripeover eye

yellowor buffbelow

454

BUNTINGS/BOBOLINK

Family Emberizidae Species Junco hyemalis

Length 14cm (51⁄2in) Wingspan 25–30cm (10–12in)Length 18–20cm (7–8in) Wingspan 30–32cm (12–121⁄2in)

Family Emberizidae Species Pheucticus ludovicianus

Length 16–18cm (61⁄2 –7in) Wingspan 30cm (12in)

Family Icteridae Species Dolichonyx oryzivorus

Rose-breasted GrosbeakVery rare in Europe, this is an unmistakable bird byvirtue of its large size for a finch, very large bill, andstriking pattern. Males are black and white with redon the breast; immatures brown and streaked, maleswith red under the wings.These, and adult females, areboldly marked with a dark cap, very broad white bandover the eye, dark cheeks, and white throat; two barsof white spots cross the wing.The breast is buff,streaked with wavy black lines.OCCURRENCE Very rare vagrantin autumn in NW Europe,from North America.VOICE Short, hard,chik call.

Dark-eyed JuncoThis small American bunting is sparrow-like, ratherinconspicuous and quiet. Males are smoky grey, blackeraround the face, with an oval white belly patch, whitetail sides, and a pale pinkish bill. Females are tingedbrowner, especially on the wings, and a little sulliedbelow (less pure white) but share the same basic pattern, which isunlike any European species.OCCURRENCE Very rarevagrant, sometimesremaining all winter,in NW Europe,from NorthAmerica.VOICE Short, tickingnote, sometimesrepeated.

MALE

Family Emberizidae Species Zonotrichia albicollis

Length 15–17cm (6–61⁄2in) Wingspan 20–25cm (8–10in)

White-throated SparrowAmerican sparrows are more like European buntings.Adult White-throated Sparrows have a thin whitecrown stripe edged black, a broad white band over theeye (yellow at the front), grey cheeks, and a white chinpatch. Immatures are duller, with a greyish and lessclear-cut chin and throat.The body plumage, streakedbrown above and grey beneath, as well as the generalstance and behaviour, recall a Dunnock (see p.292).OCCURRENCE Rare vagrant in NW Europe, mostlyin spring, from North America.VOICE Call a sharp, persistent, thin zit, and thickerchink notes.

BobolinkBobolinks visiting Europe in autumn are ratheryellowish birds, striped with black and cream; they aredumpy and heavy-bellied, with a narrow, tapered headand tail.The bill is sharply triangular, and the headshows a central yellow-buff crown stripe edged blackand broad buff stripes over each eye.The back has twolong straw-coloured lines; the underside is creamywith faint streaks only on the flanks.A short,narrow, spiky tail helps to separate it froma common buntingor sparrow.OCCURRENCEVery rare vagrant inautumn in NW Europe,from North America.VOICE Short,sharp pink.

MALE

ADULT

ADULT (AUTUMN)

white spotson wings

white band over eyewith yellow in front

streaked brownupperparts

long,narrowtail

palepinkbill

smokygreybody

oval whitebelly patch

black and creamstripes onupperparts

creamybelow

VAGRANTS

455

The list that follows consists of birds thatoccur only very rarely in Europe, known

as vagrants or accidentals. It also looks a littlefurther beyond Europe, to list those birdswhose normal range is the Middle East andNorth Africa, so covering a total faunal areaknown as the Western Palearctic.

Vagrants to Europe arrive from Asia andNorth America (and fewer from Africa).Western Europe, especially the UK, is wellplaced to receive birds that are blown offcourse from eastern North America and crossthe Atlantic. It was thought that such birdscross the ocean on board ship, but it is now

accepted that even small birds can, with afollowing wind, survive a flight across theAtlantic, although they probably do notsurvive long afterwards. Larger species,however, such as some wildfowl, may live foryears in Europe and a few (that have beentrapped, ringed, and released in order tofollow their movements) have even returnedto North America in subsequent years.Theseare not, in any true sense, European birds, butare included here to complete the range ofspecies that have been recorded. Many appearagain, others may not: by their nature these“accidentals” are unpredictable.

VAGRANTS

Common Name Scientific Name Family/Scientific Name Description

Ostrich

Ostrich Struthio camelus Ratites/Struthidae Vagrant in North Africa, fromsouthern Africa

Albatrosses

Shy Albatross Diomedea cauta Albatrosses/Diomedeidae Large seabird from southern oceans

Yellow-nosed Albatross Diomedea Albatrosses/Diomedeidae Large seabird from southern chlororhynchos oceans

Black-browed Albatross Diomedea Albatrosses/Diomededae Long-winged seabird from melanophris South Atlantic

Wandering Albatross Diomedea exulans Albatrosses/Diomedeidae Large seabird from southern oceans

Petrels and Shearwaters

Black-capped Petrel Pterodroma hasitata Petrels and Shearwaters/ Large petrel from CaribbeanProcellariidae

Atlantic Petrel Pterodroma incerta Petrels and Shearwaters/ Large petrel from South AtlanticProcellariidae

Soft-plumaged Petrel Pterodroma mollis Petrels and Shearwaters/ Large petrel from South Atlantic Procellariidae

Fea's Petrel Pterodroma feae Petrels and Shearwaters/ Large, rare petrel from MadeiraProcellariidae

Zino's Petrel Pterodroma madeira Petrels and Shearwaters/ Large, rare petrel from MadeiraProcellariidae

Bulwer's Petrel Bulweria bulwerii Petrels and Shearwaters/ Dark, long-tailed petrel from Procellariidae mid-Atlantic islands

Streaked Shearwater Calonectris Petrels and Shearwaters/ Vagrant in Middle East, fromleucomelas Procellariidae tropical oceans

Flesh-footed Shearwater Puffinus carneipes Petrels and Shearwaters/ All-dark shearwater from Procellariidae Indian Ocean

Audubon's Shearwater Puffinus lherminieri Petrels and Shearwaters/ Small shearwater from Procellariidae Indian Ocean

VAGRANTS

456

Common Name Scientific Name Family/Scientific Name Description

Petrels and Shearwaters continued

Wedge-tailed Shearwater Puffinus pacificus Petrels and Shearwaters/ Large dark shearwater from Procellariidae Indian Ocean

White-faced Storm-petrel Pelagodroma marina Petrels and Shearwaters/ Small petrel from South AtlanticProcellariidae

Swinhoe's Storm Petrel Oceanodroma Petrels and Shearwaters/ Small, dark, oceanic petrel monorhis Procellariidae from Pacific

Gannets and Cormorants

Masked Booby Sula dactylatra Gannets/Sulidae Gannet-like seabird fromtropical oceans

Brown Booby Sula leucogaster Gannets/Sulidae Dark brown gannet, in Red Sea

Cape Gannet Morus capensis Gannets/Sulidae Black and white gannet fromsouthern Africa

Double-crested Phalacrocorax auritus Cormorants/Phalacrocoracidae Large black waterbird, vagrant Cormorant in UK, from North America

Darters and Anhingas

African Darter Anhinga rufa Darters and Anhingas/ Sharp-billed, cormorant-likeAnhingidae waterbird, vagrant in North

Africa, from southern Africa

Frigatebirds and Tropicbirds

Lesser Frigatebird Fregata ariel Frigatebirds/Fregatidae Large, fork-tailed seabird from tropical oceans

Red-billed Tropicbird Phaethon aethereus Tropicbirds/Phaethontidae White seabird from tropical oceans

Bitterns and Herons

Black-headed Heron Ardea melanocephala Herons/Ardeidae Dry-ground heron, vagrant in North Africa, from southern Africa

Goliath Heron Ardea goliath Herons/Ardeidae Very large heron, vagrant in Middle East, from Africa

Black Heron Egretta ardesiaca Herons/Ardeidae Small dark heron from Africa

Intermediate Egret Egretta intermedia Herons/Ardeidae White egret from Africa, Asia

Snowy Egret Egretta thula Herons/Ardeidae White egret from North America

Schrenck's Bittern Ixobrychus eurhythmus Herons/Ardeidae Small bittern from Asia

Least Bittern Ixobrychus exilis Herons/Ardeidae Small bittern from North America

Dwarf Bittern Ixobrychus sturmii Herons/Ardeidae Small bittern from Africa

American Bittern Botaurus lentiginosus Herons/Ardeidae Stripe-necked bittern from North America

Mangrove Heron Butorides striatus Herons/Ardeidae Small dark heron, in North Africa and Middle East

Storks

Yellow-billed Stork Mycteria ibis Storks/Ciconiidae White stork with red mask, vagrant in Middle East, from Africa

VAGRANTS

457

Common Name Scientific Name Family/Scientific Name Description

Ibises

Bald Ibis Geronticus eremita Ibises/Threskiornithidae All-dark ibis, rare breeder in North Africa

Wildfowl

White-faced Dendrocygna viduata Wildfowl/Anatidae Large, noisy duck, vagrant inWhistling Duck North Africa, from southern

Africa

Lesser Whistling Duck Dendrocygna javanica Wildfowl/Anatidae Small duck from Africa

Bar-headed Goose Anser indicus Wildfowl/Anatidae Pale grey goose from Asia

Spur-winged Goose Plectropterus Wildfowl/Anatidae Large goose from Africagambensis

Cotton Pygmy-goose Nettapus Wildfowl/Anatidae Small duck, vagrant in North coromandelianus Africa, from southern Africa

Baikal Teal Anas formosa Wildfowl/Anatidae Colourful surface-feeding duck from Asia

Cape Teal Anas capensis Wildfowl/Anatidae Surface-feeding duck, vagrant in North Africa, from southern Africa

Red-billed Teal Anas erythrorhyncha Wildfowl/Anatidae Surface-feeding duck, vagrant in North Africa, from southern Africa

Cape Shoveler Anas smithii Wildfowl/Anatidae Surface-feeding duck, vagrant in North Africa, from southern Africa

Southern Pochard Netta erythrophthalma Wildfowl/Anatidae Diving duck, vagrant in North Africa, from southern Africa

Redhead Aythya americana Wildfowl/Anatidae Pochard-like diving duck, vagrantin UK, from North America

Canvasback Aythya valisineria Wildfowl/Anatidae Large, pale Pochard-like duck from North America

Birds of Prey

Crested Honey Buzzard Pernis ptilorhyncus Hawks/Accipitridae Medium-sized bird of prey, vagrant in Middle East, from Asia

American Swallow- Elanoides forficatus Hawks/Accipitridae Fork-tailed kite from Northtailed Kite America

Bald Eagle Haliaeetus Hawks/Accipitridae Massive eagle from North leucocephalus America

Pallas's Fish Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus Hawks/Accipitridae Huge eagle from Asia

Rüppell's Vulture Gyps rueppellii Hawks/Accipitridae Distinctive vulture, vagrant in Middle East, from Africa

Bateleur Terathopius ecaudatus Hawks/Accipitridae Acrobatic eagle, vagrant in Middle East, from Africa

Dark Chanting Goshawk Melierax metabates Hawks/Accipitridae Large grey hawk, vagrant in Middle East, from East Africa

Shikra Accipiter badius Hawks/Accipitridae Small pale sparrowhawk, in Middle East

Swainson's Buzzard Buteo swainsoni Hawks/Accipitridae Large hawk from North America

VAGRANTS

458

Common Name Scientific Name Family/Scientific Name Description

Birds of Prey continued

Tawny Eagle Aquila rapax Hawks/Accipitridae Big brown eagle, rare in North Africa

Verreaux's Eagle Aquila verreauxii Hawks/Accipitridae Large black eagle, rare in North Africa

Amur Falcon Falco amurensis Falcons/Falconidae Red-footed falcon from Asia

Barbary Falcon Falco (peregrinus) Falcons/Falconidae Peregrine-like falcon, in Middle pelegrinoides East and North Africa

Sooty Falcon Falco concolor Falcons/Falconidae Large grey falcon from Middle East

American Kestrel Falco sparverius Falcons/Falconidae Tiny falcon from North America

Gamebirds

Caucasian Grouse Tetrao mlokosiewiczi Grouse/Tetraonidae Sleek black grouse, in Middle East

Caspian Snowcock Tetraogallus caspius Gamebirds/Phasianidae Large mountain grouse, in Middle East

Caucasian Snowcock Tetraogallus caucasicus Gamebirds/Phasianidae Large mountain grouse, in Middle East

Double-spurred Francolin Francolinus bicalcaratus Gamebirds/Phasianidae Brown gamebird, in North Africa

Black Francolin Francolinus francolinus Gamebirds/Phasianidae Blackish gamebird, rare in Middle East

Helmeted Guineafowl Numida meleagris Guineafowl/Numididae Dark, white-spotted gamebird, in North Africa

Cranes

Hooded Crane Grus monacha Cranes/Gruidae Dark-headed crane from Asia

Siberian White Crane Grus leucogeranus Cranes/Gruidae Large crane from Asia

Sandhill Crane Grus canadensis Cranes/Gruidae Grey crane from North America

Rails, Crakes, and Coots

Striped Crake Porzana marginalis Rails,Crakes, and Coots/ Small pale crake, rare in North Rallidae Africa

Sora Porzana carolina Rails,Crakes, and Coots/ Dark crake from North AmericaRallidae

Allen's Gallinule Porphyrula alleni Rails,Crakes, and Coots/ Moorhen-like bird from Africa Rallidae

American Purple Gallinule Porphyrula martinica Rails,Crakes, and Coots/ Moorhen-like bird from NorthRallidae America

American Coot Fulica americana Rails,Crakes, and Coots/ Coot from North AmericaRallidae

Bustards

Arabian Bustard Ardeotis arabs Bustards/Otididae Very large, pale bustard, in Middle East

VAGRANTS

459

Common Name Scientific Name Family/Scientific Name Description

Waders

Painted Snipe Rostratula Waders/Scolopacidae Snipe-like wader from Africabenghalensis

Crab Plover Dromas ardeola Plovers/Charadriidae Heavy-billed, black and white wader, in Middle East

Egyptian Plover Pluvianus aegyptius Plovers/Charadriidae Small wader from Africa

Black-headed Lapwing Vanellus tectus Plovers/Charadriidae Striking plover from Africa

Red-wattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus Plovers/Charadriidae Eye-catching plover from Asia

Chestnut-banded Plover Charadrius pallidus Plovers/Charadriidae Small sand plover from southern Africa

Three-banded Plover Charadrius tricollaris Plovers/Charadriidae Small plover from Africa

Kittlitz's Plover Charadrius pecuarius Plovers/Charadriidae Small, compact plover, vagrant in Middle East, from Africa

Short-billed Dowitcher Limnodromus griseus Waders/Scolopacidae Long-billed wader from North America

Hudsonian Godwit Limosa haemastica Waders/Scolopacidae Large, long-billed wader from North America

Eskimo Curlew Numenius borealis Waders/Scolopacidae Medium-sized wader (possibly extinct) from North America

Little Curlew Numenius minutus Waders/Scolopacidae Whimbrel-like wader from Asia

Grey-tailed Tattler Heteroscelus brevipes Waders/Scolopacidae Medium to small grey wader from SE Asia

Willet Catoptrophorus Waders/Scolopacidae Godwit-like wader from semipalmatus North America

Swinhoe's Snipe Gallinago megala Waders/Scolopacidae Dark snipe from Asia

Pin-tailed Snipe Gallinago stenura Waders/Scolopacidae Snipe-like bird from Asia

Skuas, Gulls, and Terns

South Polar Skua Stercorarius maccormicki Skuas/Stercoraridae Large skua from southern oceans

Brown-headed Gull Larus brunnicephalus Gulls/Laridae Small gull, vagrant in MiddleEast, from Asia

Glaucous-winged Gull Larus glaucescens Gulls/Laridae Large gull, vagrant in North Africa, from North America

Sooty Gull Larus hemprichii Gulls/Laridae Large dusky gull, in Red Sea

Grey-headed Gull Larus cirrocephalus Gulls/Laridae Vagrant in North Africa, from southern Africa

White-cheeked Tern Sterna repressa Gulls/Laridae Black-capped dark tern, in Middle East

Aleutian Tern Sterna aleutica Terns/Sternidae Grey tern from Arctic Pacific

American Little Tern Sterna antillarum Terns/Sternidae Little Tern from North America

Crested Tern Sterna bergii Terns/Sternidae Large tern from Indian Ocean

VAGRANTS

460

Common Name Scientific Name Family/Scientific Name Description

Skuas, Gulls, and Terns continued

Elegant Tern Sterna elegans Terns/Sternidae Long-billed tern from Caribbean

Brown Noddy Anous stolidus Terns/Sternidae Dark, tern-like seabird from tropical oceans

Skimmers

African Skimmer Rynchops flavirostris Skimmers/Rhynchopidae Long-billed bird, vagrant in Middle East, from Africa

Auks

Ancient Murrelet Synthliboramphus Auks/Alcidae Small, Little Auk-like seabird antiquus from N Pacific

Parakeet Auklet Cyclorrhynchus Auks/Alcidae Small auk-like seabird from psittacula N Pacific

Crested Auklet Aethia cristatella Auks/Alcidae Small Puffin-like seabird from N Pacific

Tufted Puffin Lunda cirrhata Auks/Alcidae Large dark puffin from N Pacific

Sandgrouse

Pallas's Sandgrouse Syrrhaptes paradoxus Sandgrouse/Pterocliidae Partridge-like bird, vagrant in W Europe, from Asia

Lichtenstein's Sandgrouse Pterocles lichtensteinii Sandgrouse/Pteroclididae Small, barred sandgrouse, in Middle East

Spotted Sandgrouse Pterocles senegallus Sandgrouse/Pteroclididae Large pale sandgrouse, in Middle East

Crowned Sandgrouse Pterocles coronatus Sandgrouse/Pteroclididae Pale sandgrouse, in Middle East

Chestnut-bellied Pterocles exustus Sandgrouse/Pterocliidae Large sandgrouse, in Middle EastSandgrouse

Pigeons and Doves

Yellow-eyed Dove Columba eversmanni Pigeons and Doves/ Small pigeon from Africa Columbidae

Bolle's Pigeon Columba bollii Pigeons and Doves/ Dark pigeon, endemic to Columbidae Canary Islands

Laurel Pigeon Columba junoniae Pigeons and Doves/ Dark pigeon, endemic to Columbidae Canary Islands

Trocaz Pigeon Columba trocaz Pigeons and Doves/ Dark pigeon, endemic to MadeiraColumbidae

Laughing Dove Streptopelia Pigeons and Doves/ Small dark dove, in Middle Eastsenegalensis Columbidae

Oriental Turtle Dove Streptopelia orientalis Pigeons and Doves/ Dark dove from AsiaColumbidae

African Collared Dove Streptopelia roseogrisea Pigeons and Doves/ Brown and pinkish dove, vagrantColumbidae in Middle East, from Africa

Namaqua Dove Oena capensis Pigeons and Doves/ Tiny, long-tailed dove, in Columbidae Middle East

Mourning Dove Zenaida macroura Pigeons and Doves/ Sharp-tailed, Collared Dove-like Columbidae species from North America

VAGRANTS

461

Common Name Scientific Name Family/Scientific Name Description

Cuckoos and Coucals

Didric Cuckoo Chrysococcyx caprius Cuckoos/Cuculidae Green and white cuckoo, vagrantin Middle East, from Africa

Oriental Cuckoo Cuculus saturatus Cuckoos/Cuculidae Small cuckoo from Asia

Black-billed Cuckoo Coccyzus Cuckoos/Cuculidae Small cuckoo from North erythrophthalmus America

Senegal Coucal Centropus senegalensis Coucals/Centropodidae Black-capped, rufous cuckoo, in North Africa

Owls

Pale Scops Owl Otus brucei Owls/Strigidae Small eared owl, rare in Middle East

Brown Fish Owl Ketupa zeylonensis Owls/Strigidae Large, eared owl, in Middle East

Hume's Tawny Owl Strix butleri Owls/Strigidae Small, pale desert owl, in North Africa and Middle East

Marsh Owl Asio capensis Owls/Strigidae Small Short-eared Owl-like bird, in North Africa

Nightjars

Nubian Nightjar Caprimulgus nubicus Nightjars/Caprimulgidae Small nightjar, rare in Middle East

Egyptian Nightjar Caprimulgus aegyptius Nightjars/Caprimulgidae Pale nightjar, rare in Middle East

Swifts

White-throated Needletail Hirundapus caudacutus Swifts/Apodidae Large swift from Asia

Chimney Swift Chaetura pelagica Swifts/Apodidae Dumpy swift from North America

Plain Swift Apus unicolor Swifts/Apodidae All-dark swift, in Canary Islands

Pacific Swift Apus pacificus Swifts/Apodidae Large swift from Asia

Kingfishers

Belted Kingfisher Ceryle alcyon Giant Kingfishers/ Big kingfisher from North Cerylidae America

Pied Kingfisher Ceryle rudis Giant Kingfishers/ Large, black and white kingfisher, Cerylidae in Middle East

White-throated Kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis Halcyon Kingfishers/ Big, red-billed kingfisher, in Dacelonidae Middle East

Bee-Eaters

Blue-cheeked Bee-eater Merops persicus Bee-eaters/Meropidae Greenish bee-eater from Middle East

Little Green Bee-eater Merops orientalis Bee-eaters/Meropidae Small, bright bee-eater, in Middle East

Rollers

Indian Roller Coracias benghalensis Rollers/Coracidae Colourful roller, vagrant in MiddleEast, from South Asia

VAGRANTS

462

Common Name Scientific Name Family/Scientific Name Description

Woodpeckers

Northern Flicker Colaptes auratus Woodpeckers/Picidae Colourful woodpecker from North America

Levaillant's Green Picus vaillantii Woodpeckers/Picidae Large, scarce green woodpecker, Woodpecker in North Africa

Yellow-bellied Sapsucker Sphyrapicus varius Woodpeckers/Picidae Small woodpecker from North America

Larks

Hoopoe Lark Alaemon alaudipes Larks/Alaudidae Large pale lark, in Middle East

Thick-billed Lark Rhamphocoris clotbey Larks/Alaudidae Heavy desert lark, in North Africa

Bimaculated Lark Melanocorypha Larks/Alaudidae Large lark, rare in Middle Eastbimaculata

White-winged Lark Melanocorypha Larks/Alaudidae Large lark from Asialeucoptera

Black Lark Melanocorypha Larks/Alaudidae Stocky lark from Asiayeltoniensis

Hume's Short-toed Lark Calandrella acutirostris Larks/Alaudidae Small lark, vagrant in Middle East, from Asia

Oriental Skylark Alauda gulgula Larks/Alaudidae Plain lark from Middle East

Chestnut-headed Eremopterix signata Larks/Alaudidae Small, sparrow-like lark from Sparrow-lark Africa

Black-crowned Eremopterix nigriceps Larks/Alaudidae Small, finch-like lark, in Sparrow-lark Middle East

Dunn's Lark Eremalauda dunni Larks/Alaudidae Small plain lark, rare in Middle East

Temminck's Lark Eremophila bilopha Larks/Alaudidae Pale, horned, desert-living lark, in Middle East

Martins and Swallows

Tree Swallow Tachycineta bicolor Swallows/Hirundinidae Glossy green and white swallow from North America

Plain Martin Riparia paludicola Swallows/Hirundinidae Small brown martin, in NorthAfrica

Ethiopian Swallow Hirundo aethiopica Swallows/Hirundinidae Long-tailed swallow from Africa

Wire-tailed Swallow Hirundo smithii Swallows/Hirundinidae Slender swallow from Africa

Rock Martin Ptyonoprogne fuligula Swallows/Hirundinidae Small, pale Crag Martin-like bird, in Middle East

Pipits

Buff-bellied Pipit Anthus rubescens Pipits and wagtails/ Dark-legged pipit from North Motacillidae America

Berthelot's Pipit Anthus berthelotii Pipits and wagtails/ Small pipit, in Canary Islands Motacillidae and Madeira

Long-billed Pipit Anthus similis Pipits and wagtails/ Large, pale, mountainside pipit, Motacillidae in Middle East

VAGRANTS

463

Common Name Scientific Name Family/Scientific Name Description

Shrikes

Black-crowned Tchagra Tchagra senegala Shrikes/Laniidae Boldly patterned shrike, in North Africa

Brown Shrike Lanius cristatus Shrikes/Lanidae Dull shrike from Asia

Long-tailed Shrike Lanius schach Shrikes/Lanidae Brownish shrike from Africa

Bulbuls

White-eared Bulbul Pycnonotus leucotis Bulbuls/Pycnonotidae Black and brown bulbul, vagrantin Middle East, from Asia

Waxwings

Cedar Waxwing Bombycilla cedrorum Waxwings/Bombycillidae Yellow-bellied waxwing, vagrant in UK, from North America

Grey Hypocolius Hypocolius ampelinus Waxwings/Bombycillidae Shrike-like bird, in Middle East

Mockingbirds

Northern Mockingbird Mimus polyglottus Mockingbirds/Mimidae Thrush-like bird from North America

Brown Thrasher Toxostoma rufum Mockingbirds/Mimidae Rusty, thrush-like bird from North America

Catbird Dumetella carolinensis Mockingbirds/Mimidae Chat-like bird from North America

Accentors

Black-throated Accentor Prunella atrogularis Accentors/Prunellidae Dunnock-like bird, vagrant in Middle East, from Siberia

Siberian Accentor Prunella montanella Accentors/Prunellidae Dunnock-like bird from Siberia

Radde's Accentor Prunella ocularis Accentors/Prunellidae Dunnock-like bird from Siberia

Chats and Thrushes

Siberian Blue Robin Luscinia cyane Chats/Turdidae Vagrant in NW Europe, from Siberia

Siberian Rubythroat Luscinia calliope Chats/Turdidae Colourful chat from Siberia

White-throated Robin Irania gutturalis Chats/Turdidae Large greyish chat from Middle East

Eversmann's Redstart Phoenicurus Chats/Turdidae Large redstart from Asiaerythronotus

Moussier's Redstart Phoenicurus moussieri Chats/Turdidae Brightly patterned chat, in North Africa

Güldenstädt's Redstart Phoenicurus Chats/Turdidae Striking chat from Asiaerythrogaster

Blackstart Cercomela melanura Chats/Turdidae Small, grey, black-tailed chat, in Middle East

Fuerteventura Stonechat Saxicola dacotiae Chats/Turdidae Small chat, endemic to Canary Islands

Cyprus Wheatear Oenanthe cypriaca Chats/Turdidae Pied wheatear from Cyprus

VAGRANTS

464

Common Name Scientific Name Family/Scientific Name Description

Chats and Thrushes continued

Desert Wheatear Oenanthe deserti Chats/Turdidae Black-tailed brownish wheatear from North Africa and MiddleEast

Finsch's Wheatear Oenanthe finschii Chats/Turdidae Large wheatear, in Middle East

White-crowned Wheatear Oenanthe leucopyga Chats/Turdidae Blackish wheatear from Middle East

Mourning Wheatear Oenanthe lugens Chats/Turdidae Piebald wheatear, in Middle East

Pied Wheatear Oenanthe pleschanka Chats/Turdidae Small dark wheatear from Middle East and extreme E Europe

Red-rumped Wheatear Oenanthe moesta Chats/Turdidae Large wheatear, in Middle East

Hooded Wheatear Oenanthe monacha Chats/Turdidae Large wheatear, in Middle East

Persian Wheatear Oenanthe Chats/Turdidae Dark wheatear, in Middle Eastxanthoprymna

Varied Thrush Zoothera naevia Thrushes/Turdidae Small thrush from W NorthAmerica

Wood Thrush Hylocichla mustelina Thrushes/Turdidae Small, spotted thrush from North America

Veery Catharus fuscescens Thrushes/Turdidae Tiny spotted thrush from North America

Hermit Thrush Catharus guttatus Thrushes/Turdidae Small spotted thrush from North America

Swainson's Thrush Catharus ustulatus Thrushes/Turdidae Small spotted thrush from North America

Tickell's Thrush Turdus unicolor Thrushes/Turdidae Colourful thrush from Asia

American Robin Turdus migratorius Thrushes/Turdidae Large thrush from North America

Babblers

Fulvous Babbler Turdoides fulvus Babblers/Timaliidae Thrush-like bird, in North Africa

Arabian Babbler Turdoides squamiceps Babblers/Timaliidae Pale, thrush-like bird, in Middle East

Warblers and Allies

Graceful Prinia Prinia gracilis Warblers/Sylviidae Small, long-tailed warbler, in Middle East

Scrub Warbler Scotocerca inquita Warblers/Sylviidae Small, long-tailed warbler, in Middle East

Gray's Grasshopper Locustella fasciolata Warblers/Sylviidae Shy warbler from AsiaWarbler

Clamorous Reed Warbler Acrocephalus stentoreus Warblers/Sylviidae Large reed warbler, in Middle East

Thick-billed Warbler Acrocephalus aedon Warblers/Sylviidae Large reed warbler-like bird from Asia

Basra Reed Warbler Acrocephalus griseldis Warblers/Sylviidae Rare reed warbler, in Middle East

VAGRANTS

465

Common Name Scientific Name Family/Scientific Name Description

Warblers and Allies continued

Desert Warbler Sylvia nana Warblers/Sylviidae Pale, sandy warbler from N Africa and Middle east

Tristram's Warbler Sylvia deserticola Warblers/Sylviidae Small, Whitethroat-like warbler, in North Africa

Ménétrie's Warbler Sylvia mystacea Warblers/Sylviidae Rare migrant warbler, in Middle East

Arabian Warbler Sylvia leucomelaena Warblers/Sylviidae Dark-headed warbler, in Middle East

Two-barred Greenish Phylloscopus Warblers/Sylviidae Small warbler (like Greenish Warbler (trochiloides) Warbler) from Asia

plumbeitarsus

Green Warbler Phylloscopus Warblers/Sylviidae Small warbler from Asia(trochiloides) nitidus

Eastern Crowned Phylloscopus coronatus Warblers/Sylviidae Small leaf warbler from AsiaLeaf Warbler

Plain Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus neglectus Warblers/Sylviidae Small leaf warbler from Asia

Ruby-crowned Kinglet Regulus calendula Kinglets/Regulidae Tiny Goldcrest-like bird from North America

Flycatchers

Brown Flycatcher Muscicapa dauurica Flycatchers/Muscicapidae Plain flycatcher from Asia

Acadian Flycatcher Empidonax virescens Tyrant Flycatchers/ Greenish flycatcher fromTyrannidae North America

Eastern Phoebe Sayornis phoebe Tyrant Flycatchers/ Small, dull flycatcher from Tyrannidae North America

Nuthatches

Red-breasted Nuthatch Sitta canadensis Nuthatches/Sittidae Small, stripe-headed nuthatch from North America

Eastern Rock Nuthatch Sitta tephronota Nuthatches/Sittidae Large nuthatch, in Middle East

Krüper’s Nuthatch Sitta krueperi Nuthatches/Sittidae Small, dark-capped nuthatch, in Middle East

Sunbirds

Nile Valley Sunbird Anthreptes metallicus Sunbirds/Nectariniidae Tiny, dark nectar-eater, in Middle East

Palestine Sunbird Nectarinia osea Sunbirds/Nectariniidae Long-tailed nectar-eater, in Middle East

Crows

Fan-tailed Raven Corvus rhipidurus Crows/Corvidae Short-tailed raven, in North Africaand Middle East

Brown-necked Raven Corvus ruficollis Crows/Corvidae Somewhat thinner-billed raven, inNorth Africa and Middle East

House Crow Corvus splendens Crows/Corvidae Grey and black crow, introduced in Middle East from India

Daurian Jackdaw Corvus dauuricus Crows/Corvidae Pied jackdaw from Asia

VAGRANTS

466

Common Name Scientific Name Family/Scientific Name Description

Starlings

Tristram's Starling Onychognathus Starlings/Sturnidae Dark, red-winged starling, in tristramii Middle East

Tanagers

Scarlet Tanager Piranga olivacea Tanagers/Thraupidae Large finch from North America

Summer Tanager Piranga rubra Tanagers/Thraupidae Finch-like bird from North America

Buntings

Rufous-sided Towhee Pipilo Buntings/Emberizidae Thickset finch-like bird from erythrophthalmus North America

Lark Sparrow Chondestes grammacus Buntings/ Emberizidae Streaky-headed bunting-like bird,vagrant in UK from North America

Fox Sparrow Passerella iliaca Buntings/Emberizidae Rufous bunting from North America

Song Sparrow Melospiza melodia Buntings/Emberizidae Streaky bunting from North America

White-crowned Sparrow Zonotrichia leucophrys Buntings/Emberizidae Sparrow-like bird from North America

Black-faced Bunting Emberiza Buntings/Emberizidae Dark bunting from Asiaspodocephala

Cinnamon-breasted Emberiza tahapisi Buntings/Emberizidae Dark-coloured bunting from Bunting Africa

Grey-necked Bunting Emberiza buchanani Buntings/Emberizidae Slender bunting from Asia

Yellow-browed Bunting Emberiza chrysophrys Buntings/Emberizidae Small bunting from Asia

Pallas's Reed Bunting Emberiza pallasi Buntings/Emberizidae Small bunting from Asia

Red-headed Bunting Emberiza bruniceps Buntings/Emberizidae Yellowish bunting from Asia

Cinereous Bunting Emberiza cineracea Buntings/Emberizidae Dull bunting from Asia

House Bunting Emberiza striolata Buntings/Emberizidae Small bunting, in North Africa and Middle East

Savannah Sparrow Passerculus Buntings/Emberizidae Sparrow-like bunting, vagrant sandwichensis in NW Europe, from North

America

Indigo Bunting Passerina cyanea Buntings/Emberizidae Dark bunting from North America

New World Warblers

Blackburnian Warbler Dendroica fusca New World Warblers/ Colourful warbler from NorthParulidae America

Yellow Warbler Dendroica petechia New World Warblers/ Small warbler from North Parulidae America

Yellowthroat Geothlypsis trichas New World Warblers/ Stocky warbler from North Parulidae America

Ovenbird Seiurus aurocapillus New World Warblers/ Woodland warbler from North Parulidae America

Northern Waterthrush Seiurus noveboracnesis New World Warblers/ Streaked warbler from North Parulidae America

VAGRANTS

467

Common Name Latin Name Family/Latin Name Description

New World Warblers continued

Tennessee Warbler Vermivora peregrina New World Warblers/ Plain warbler from North AmericaParulidae

Yellow-throated Vireo Vireo flavifrons Vireos/Vireonidae Small, warbler-like bird from North America

Philadelphia Vireo Vireo philadelphicus Vireos/Vireonidae Small, warbler-like bird from North America

Finches

Blue Chaffinch Fringilla teydea Finches/Fringillidae Large blue finch, endemic to Canary Islands

Canary Serinus canaria Finches/Fringillidae Greenish finch, endemic to Canary Islands

Red-fronted Serin Serinus pusillus Finches/Fringillidae Small finch, in Middle East

Syrian Serin Serinus syriacus Finches/Fringillidae Small, greenish, upland finch, in Middle East

Crimson-winged Finch Rhodopechys sanguinea Finches/Fringillidae Thickset mountain finch, in Middle East

Mongolian Finch Bucanetes mongolicus Finches/Fringillidae Large finch from Asia

Trumpeter Finch Bucanetes githagineus Finches/Fringillidae Small, pale pinkish finch, in Middle East

Sinai Rosefinch Carpodacus synoicus Finches/Fringillidae Pale, pink-tinged finch, in Middle East

Long-tailed Rosefinch Uragus sibiricus Finches/Fringillidae Small finch from Asia

Evening Grosbeak Hesperiphona Finches/Fringillidae Large finch from North Americavespertina

Desert Finch Rhodospiza obsoleta Finches/Fringillidae Pale finch, in Middle East

Sparrows

Dead Sea Sparrow Passer moabiticus Sparrows/Passeridae Small, colourful sparrow, in Middle East

Desert Sparrow Passer simplex Sparrows/Passeridae Pale, dark-billed sparrow, in Middle East

Hill Sparrow Carpospiza Sparrows/Passeridae Pale sparrow, in Middle Eastbrachydactyla

Chestnut-shouldered Gymornis xanthocollis Sparrows/Passeridae Pale sparrow, in Middle EastSparrow

New World Orioles

Brown-headed Cowbird Molothrus ater New World Orioles/ Black bird, vagrant in NW Icteridae Europe, from North America

Yellow-headed Blackbird Xanthocephalus New World Orioles/ Glossy black bird from Northxanthocephalus Icteridae America

Northern Oriole Icterus galbula New World Orioles/ Colourful oriole from NorthIcteridae America

GLOSSARY

468

GLOSSARYMany of the terms defined here areillustrated in the general introduction(pp. 8–53). For anatomical terms see alsopp.10–11.

• ADULT A fully mature bird, able tobreed, showing the final plumage patternthat no longer changes with age.• BARRED With marks crossing thebody, wing, or tail.• BROOD Young produced from asingle clutch of eggs incubated together.• CALL Vocal sound oftencharacteristic of a particular species,communicating a variety of messages.• COLONY A group of nests of ahighly social species, especially amongseabirds but also others such as the SandMartin and Rook.• COVERT A small feather in a well-defined tract, on the wing or at the baseof the tail, covering the base of the largerflight feathers.• CRYPTIC Describes plumage patternand colours that make a bird difficult tosee in its favoured habitat.• DABBLE To feed in shallow water,with rapid movements of the bill, sievingwater through fine comb-like teeth toextract food.• DECLINING Populations undergoinga steady decline over a number of years.• DIMORPHIC Having two forms:sexually dimorphic means that the maleand female of a species look different;otherwise indicates two colour forms.• DRUMMING Sound made bywoodpeckers with rapid beats of the billagainst a hard object, or by a snipe,diving through the air with vibrating tail feathers.• EAR TUFT A bunch of feathers onthe head of an owl, capable of beingraised as a visual signal and perhaps toassist camouflage.• ECLIPSE The plumage of maleducks that is adopted during the summer,when they moult and become flightlessfor a short time.• ENDANGERED Found in verysmall numbers, in a very small area or in a very restricted and declining habitat, sothat the future security of the species is in doubt.• ESCAPEE A bird that has escapedinto the wild from a collection of somekind, such as a zoo or wildlife park.• EYE PATCH An area of colouraround the eye, often in the form of a“mask”, broader than an eye-stripe.• EYE-RING A more or less circularpatch of colour, usually narrow and well-defined, around the eye.• EYE-STRIPE A stripe of distinctivecolour running in front of and behindthe eye.

• FAMILY A category in classification,grouping species or genera that areclosely related; ranked at a higher levelthan the genus.• FLIGHT FEATHER Any one of thelong feathers on the wing (primaries andsecondaries).• FOREWING The front part of awing, including the outer primaries,primary coverts, and secondary coverts.• GAPE A bird’s mouth, or the angle atthe base of the bill.• GENUS (pl. GENERA) A categoryin classification: a group of closely relatedspecies, whose relationship is recognizedby the same first name in the scientificterminology, e.g. Larus in Larus fuscus.• HINDWING The rear part of thewing, including the secondary feathers,especially when it has a distinctive colouror pattern.• HYBRID The result of cross-breeding between two species; usuallyinfertile. Rare in the wild.• IMMATURE Not yet fully adult orable to breed; there may be severalidentifiable plumages during immaturitybut many small birds are mature by thefirst spring after they have fledged.• INNER WING The inner part of thewing, comprising the secondaries androws of coverts (typically marginal, lesser,median, and greater coverts).• JUVENILE A bird in its firstplumage, that in which it makes its firstflight, before its first moult in the autumn.• LEK A gathering of birds at whichmales display communally, with mockfighting, while females choose which oneto mate with.• LOCALIZED More than 90 per centof the population occurs at ten sites or less.• MOULT The shedding and renewingof feathers in a systematic way; most birdshave a partial moult and a completemoult each year.• MIGRANT A species that spendspart of the year in one geographical areaand part in another, moving between thetwo on a regular basis. (See also p.26.)• ORDER A category in classification:families grouped to indicate their closerelationship or common ancestry; usuallya more uncertain or speculative groupingthan a family.• OUTER WING The outer half ofthe wing, comprising the primaries, theircoverts, and the alula, or bastard wing(the “thumb”).• ORBITAL RING A thin, bare, fleshyring around the eye, sometimes with adistinctive colour.• PRIMARY Any one of the longfeathers, or quills, forming the tip andtrailing edge of the outer wing, growingfrom the “hand”.

• RACE See SUBSPECIES.• RARE Found in small numbers orvery low densities, although notnecessarily at risk.• SCAPULAR Any one of a group offeathers on the shoulder, forming a moreor less oval patch each side of the back, atthe base of the wing.• SECONDARY Any one of the longflight feathers forming the trailing edgeof the inner wing, growing from the ulnaor “arm”.• SECURE The population is under nocurrent threat.• SONG Vocalization with characterparticular to the individual species, usedto communicate a claim to a breedingterritory and attract a mate.• SONG-FLIGHT A special flight,often with a distinctive pattern,combined with a territorial song.• SPECIES A group of living organisms,individuals of which can interbreed toproduce fertile young, but do notnormally breed, or cannot produce fertileyoung, with a different species.• SPECULUM A colourful patch on a duck’s hindwing, formed by thesecondary feathers.• STREAKED With small marks thatrun lengthwise along the body.• SUBSPECIES A race; a recognizablegroup within a species, isolatedgeographically but able to interbreedwith others of the same species.• SUPERCILIARY STRIPE A stripeof colour running above the eye, like aneyebrow.• TERTIAL Any one of a small groupof feathers, sometimes long and obvious,at the base of the wing adjacent to theinner secondaries.• UNDERWING The underside of awing, usually visible only in flight orwhen a bird is preening.• UPPERWING The upperside of thewing, clearly exposed in flight but oftenmostly hidden when the bird is perched.• VAGRANT An individual bird thathas strayed beyond the usual geographicrange of its species.• VENT The area of feathers betweenthe legs and the undertail coverts.• VULNERABLE Potentially at riskdue to a dependence on a restrictedhabitat or range, or to small numbers.• WINGPIT A group of feathers – theaxillaries – located at the base of theunderwing.• WINGBAR A line of colourproduced by a tract of feathers or feathertips, crossing the closed wing andrunning along the spread wing.• YOUNG An imprecise term todescribe immature birds; often meaningjuveniles or nestlings.

INDEX

469

Aaberrations 19Accentor,Alpine 293accentors 288Accipiter

brevipes 415gentilis 139nisus 138

Accipitridae 120, 413Accipitriformes 121Acrocephalus

agricola 444arundinaceus 326dumetorum 444melanopogon 323paludicola 443palustris 325schoenobaenus 322scirpaceus 324

Actitis hypoleucos 184macularia 427

Aegithalidae 341Aegithalos caudatus 348Aegypius monachus 123Aix

galericulata 409sponsa 409

Alauda arvensis 265Alaudidae 264, 437albatrosses 64Alca torda 230Alcedinidae 252Alcedo atthis 253Alcidae 201, 433Alectoris

barbara 417chukar 418graeca 417rufa 150

Alle alle 226Alopochen aegyptiacus

408Alpine Accentor 293Alpine Chough 367Alpine Swift 251American Golden

Plover 422American Wigeon 409Anas

acuta 103

Anas cont.americana 409clypeata 104crecca 106crecca carolinensis 106discors 410penelope 105platyrhynchos 101querquedula 107rubripes 409strepera 102

Anatidae 89, 407anatomy 10–11Anser

albifrons 93albifrons flavirostris 93anser 96brachyrhynchus 95caerulescens 407erythropus 408fabalis 94fabalis rossicus 94

Anseriformes 90Anthropoides virgo 420Anthus

campestris 279cervinus 284godlewski 438gustavi 439hodgsoni 438petrosus 281pratensis 282richardi 438spinoletta 280trivialis 283

Apodidae 248, 436Apodiformes 249Apus

affinis 436apus 249caffer 436melba 251pallidus 250

Aquatic Warbler 443Aquila

adalberti 414chrysaetos 126clanga 414heliaca 413nipalensis 414pomarina 414

Archaeopteryx 8

Arctic Redpoll 451Arctic Skua 204Arctic Warbler 446Ardea

cinerea 82purpurea 83

Ardeidae 74, 407Ardeola ralloides 79Arenaria interpres 183Asio

flammeus 243otus 242

Athene noctua 244Audouin’s Gull 430Auk, Little 226auks 201, 226, 433Avocet 165avocets 163Aythya

affinis 411collaris 410ferina 108fuligula 110marila 109nyroca 410

Azure Tit 448Azure-winged Magpie

449

BBaillon’s Crake 419Baird’s Sandpiper 425Bar-tailed Godwit 192Barn Owl 246Barnacle Goose 98Barred Warbler 315Barrow’s Goldeneye 412Bartramia longicauda 428Bean Goose 94Bearded Tit 349Bee-eater 254bee-eaters 252Bewick’s Swan 60bill shape 22binoculars 50, 51BirdLife International

53bird-tables 49birds of prey 120, 413birdwatching 50Bittern 75

Little 76

bitterns 74Black Duck 409Black Grouse 149Black Guillemot 228Black Kite 131Black Redstart 299Black Stork 86Black Tern 224

White-winged 433Black Vulture 123Black Wheatear 302Black Woodpecker

258Black-backed Gull,

Great 212Lesser 211

Black-belliedSandgrouse 433

Black-headed Bunting453

Black-headed Gull 206Black-necked Grebe

63Black-shouldered Kite

415Black-tailed Godwit

191Black-throated Diver

57Black-winged

Pratincole 420Black-winged Stilt 166Blackbird 311Blackcap 316Blackpoll Warbler 450Blue Rock Thrush 305Blue Tit 344Blue-winged Teal 410Bluetail, Red-flanked

440Bluethroat 297Blyth’s Pipit 438Blyth’s Reed Warbler

444Bobolink 454Bombycilla garrulus 291Bombycillidae 288Bonaparte’s Gull 429Bonasa bonasia 417Bonelli’s Eagle 129Bonelli’s Warbler 335Booted Eagle 128

INDEX

INDEX

470

Botaurus stellaris 75Brambling 381Branta

bernicla 99bernicla hrota 99bernicla nigricans 99canadensis 97leucopsis 98ruficollis 408

breeding 15Brent Goose 99Bridled Tern 432Broad-billed Sandpiper

423Brünnich’s Guillemot

433Bubulcus ibis 78Bucephala

clangula 115islandica 412

Buff-breastedSandpiper 426

Bullfinch 390Bunting,

Black-headed 453Cirl 399Corn 403Cretzschmar’s 453Lapland 402Little 396Ortolan 397Pine 453Reed 395Rock 400Rustic 452Snow 401Yellow-breasted

453buntings 394, 452Burhinidae 163, 420Burhinus

oedicnemus 167senegalensis 420

Bush Robin, Rufous439

Bustard,Great 161Little 162

bustards 154Buteo

buteo 136lagopus 135rufinus 415

Button-quail, Small 418

Buzzard 136Honey 137Long-legged 415

buzzards 120

CCalandra Lark 270Calandrella

brachydactyla 269rufescens 437

Calcarius lapponicus 402Calidris

acuminata 426alba 177alpina 178alpina alpina 178alpina arctica 178alpina schinzii 178bairdii 425canutus 176ferruginea 179fuscicollis 425maritima 182maura 425melanotos 426minuta 181minutilla 424pusilla 425ruficollis 426subminuta 424temminckii 180tenuirostris 424

calls 24Calonectris diomedea 66camera 50camouflage 19Canada Goose 97Capercaillie 148Caprimulgidae 238,

436Caprimulgiformes 247Caprimulgus

europaeus 247ruficollis 436

Cardueline finches 379Carduelis

cannabina 382carduelis 385chloris 386flammea 384flammea flammea 384flavirostris 383hornemanni 451spinus 387

Carpodacus erythrinus393

Carrion Crow 370Caspian Plover 422Caspian Tern 223Catharus minimus 440Cattle Egret 78Cepphus grylle 228Cercotrichas galactotes 439Certhia

brachydactyla 355familiaris 354familiaris familiaris 354

Certhiidae 351Cetti’s Warbler 330Cettia cetti 330Chaffinch 380Charadriidae 163, 421Charadriiformes 164Charadrius

alexandrinus 171asiatus 422dubius 169hiaticula 170leschenaultii 422mongolus 421morinellus 172semipalmatus 421vociferus 421

chats 294Chersophilus duponti

438Chiffchaff 336Chlidonias

hybridus 225leucopterus 433niger 224

Chough 366Alpine 367

Chrysolophus amherstiae 418pictus 418

Chukar 418Ciconia

ciconia 85nigra 86

Ciconiidae 84Ciconiiformes 75Cinclidae 288Cinclus

cinclus 290cinclus cinclus 290cinclus hibernicus 290

Circaetus gallicus 127

Circus aeruginosus 132cyaneus 133macrouros 415pygargus 134

Cirl Bunting 399Cisticola juncidis 327Citril Finch 388Citrine Wagtail 439Clamator glandarius 434Clangula hyemalis 114classifying birds 9cliffs 34, 40Coal Tit 341, 343coasts 32, 34, 36Coccothraustes

coccothraustes 391Coccyzus americanus 434code of conduct 51Collared Dove 231, 235Collared Flycatcher 447Collared Pratincole 168Columba

livia 232oenas 233palumbus 234

Columbidae 231Columbiformes 232Common Gull 207Common Sandpiper

184Common Scoter 112Common Tern 220conservation 52–53co-ordination 21Coot 159

Crested 419coots 154, 419Coracias garrulus 255Coraciidae 252Coraciiformes 253Cormorant 72

Pygmy 407cormorants 70, 407Corn Bunting 403Corncrake 155Corsican Nuthatch 48Corvidae 362, 449Corvus

corax 371corone 370corone cornix 370frugilegus 369monedula 368

INDEX

471

Cory’s Shearwater 66Coturnix coturnix 152Courser, Cream-

coloured 420courtship 14Crag Martin 274crags 40Crake,

Baillon’s 419Little 419Spotted 157

crakes 154, 419Crane 160

Demoiselle 420cranes 154, 420Cream-coloured

Courser 420Crested Coot 419Crested Grebe,

Great 61Crested Lark 266Crested Tern,

Lesser 432Crested Tit 345Cretzschmar’s Bunting

453Crex crex 155Crossbill 392

Parrot 451Scottish 452Two-barred 451

crossbills 379Crow,

Carrion 370Hooded 370

crows 362, 449Cuckoo 237

Great Spotted 434Yellow-billed 434

cuckoos 231, 434Cuculidae 231, 434Cuculiformes 237Cuculus canorus 237Curlew 193Curlew Sandpiper 179Cursorius cursor 420Cyanopica cyanus 449Cygnus

columbianus 92columbianus

columbianus 92cygnus 91olor 90

Cyprus Warbler 442

DDabchick 55dabbling 22Dalmatian Pelican 406Dark-eyed Junco 454Dark-throated Thrush

441Dartford Warbler 321dawn chorus 25Delichon urbica 277Demoiselle Crane 420Dendrocopos

leucotos 437major 260medius 261minor 262syriacus 437

Dendroica coronata 451striata 450

Dipper 290dippers 288display 14Diver,

Black-throated 57Great Northern 58Red-throated 56White-billed 404

divers 55, 404Dolichonyx oryzivorus

454Dotterel 172Dove,

Collared 235Rock 232Stock 233Turtle 236

doves 231Dowitcher,

Long-billed 428drumming 25Dryocopus martius 258Duck,

Black 409Ferruginous 410Harlequin 412Long-tailed 114Marbled 410Ring-necked 410Ruddy 119Tufted 110White-headed 413Wood 409

ducks 89Dunlin 178Dunnock 292duping 16Dupont’s Lark 438Dusky Thrush 441

EEagle,

Bonelli’s 129Booted 128Golden 126Imperial 413Lesser Spotted 414Short-toed 127Spanish Imperial

414Spotted 414Steppe 414White-tailed 125

Eagle Owl 238eagles 120eggs 16Egret,

Cattle 78Great White 81Little 80Western Reef 407

egrets 74, 407Egretta

alba 81garzetta 80gularis 407

Egyptian Goose 408Egyptian Vulture 124Eider 111

King 411Spectacled 411Steller’s 411

Elanus caerulescens 415Eleonora’s Falcon 416Emberiza

aureola 453caesia 453cia 400cirlus 399citrinella 398hortulana 397leucocephalus 453melanocephala 453pusilla 396rustica 452schoeniclus 395

Emberizidae 394, 452

Eremophila alpestris 271Erithacus rubecula 295estuaries 32evolution 8–9Eyebrowed Thrush 441extinction 9

FFalco

biarmicus 417cherrug 416columbarius 144eleonorae 416rusticolus 416vespertinus 416naumanni 141peregrinus 143subbuteo 142tinnunculus 140

Falcon,Eleonora’s 416Gyr 416Red-footed 416

Falconidae 120, 416Falconiformes 140falcons 120, 416Fan-tailed Warbler 327farmland 44feathers 11, 18feeding 22–23feral pigeon 232Ferruginous Duck 410Ficedula

albicollis 447hypoleuca 340hypoleuca iberiae 340parva 447semitorquata 447

Fieldfare 310Finch, Citril 388finches 379, 451Firecrest 338Flamingo, Greater 88flamingos 84flight 20–21Flycatcher,

Collared 447Pied 340Red-breasted 447Semi-collared 447Spotted 339

flycatchers 313, 447forest 46Forster’s Tern 432

INDEX

472

Franklin’s Gull 430Fratercula arctica 227Fringilla

coelebs 380montifringilla 381

Fringillidae 379, 451Fulica

atra 159cristata 419

Fulmar 64, 65Fulmarus glacialis 65

GGadwall 102Galerida cristata 266Galeridae theklae 266Galliformes 146Gallinago

gallinago 196media 428

Gallinula chloropus158

Gallinule, Purple 419gamebirds 145, 417Gannet 71gannets 70Garden Warbler 314gardens 48, 49Garganey 107Garrulus glandarius 364Gavia

adamsii 404arctica 57immer 58stellata 56

Gaviidae 55, 404Gaviiformes 56geese 89Glareola

maldivarium 421nordmanni 420pratincola 168

Glareolidae 163, 420Glaucidium passerinum

435Glaucous Gull 214Glossy Ibis 407Godwit 163

Bar-tailed 192Black-tailed 191

Goldcrest 337Golden Eagle 126Golden Oriole 361Golden Plover 174

Golden Plover cont.American 422Pacific 422

Goldeneye 115Barrow’s 412

Goldfinch 385Goosander 117Goose,

Barnacle 98Bean 94Brent 99Canada 97Egyptian 408Greylag 96Lesser White-fronted

408Pink-footed 95Red-breasted 408Snow 407White-fronted 93

Goshawk 139Grasshopper Warbler

328grassland 44Great Black-backed

Gull 201Great Black-headed

Gull 430Great Bustard 161Great Crested Grebe

61Great Grey Owl 434Great Grey Shrike 359Great Knot 424Great Northern Diver

58Great Reed Warbler

326Great shearwater 405Great Skua 202Great Snipe 428Great Spotted

Woodpecker 260Great Tit 342Great White Egret 81Greater Flamingo 88Greater Sand Plover

422Greater Yellowlegs 427Grebe,

Black-necked 63Great Crested 61Little 59Pied-billed 404

Grebe cont.Red-necked 60Slavonian 62

grebes 55, 404Green Sandpiper 186Green Woodpecker 259Greenfinch 386greenfinches 374Greenish Warbler 446Greenshank 189Grey Heron 82Grey Owl, Great 434Grey Phalarope 198Grey Plover 173Grey Shrike,

Great 359Lesser 360

Grey Wagtail 287Grey-cheeked Thrush

440Grey-headed

Woodpecker 436Greylag Goose 96Griffon Vulture 122Grosbeak,

Pine 452Rose-breasted 454

Grouse 145Black 149Hazel 417Willow 146

Gruidae 154, 420Gruiformes 155Grus grus 160Guillemot 229

Black 228Brünnich’s 433

Gull,Audouin’s 430Black-headed 206Bonaparte’s 429Common 207Franklin’s 430Glaucous 214Great Black-backed

212Great Black-headed

430Herring 209Iceland 215Ivory 431Laughing 431Lesser Black-backed

211

Gull cont.Little 213Mediterranean 208Ring-billed 429Ross’s 431Sabine’s 430Slender-billed 429Yellow-legged 210

Gull-billed Tern 219gulls 201, 429Gypaetus barbatus 413Gyps fulvus 122Gyr Falcon 416

HHaematopodidae 163Haematopus ostralegus

164Haliaeetus albicilla 125Harlequin Duck 412Harrier,

Hen 133Marsh 132Montagu’s 134Pallid 415

harriers 120hatching 16Hawfinch 391Hawk Owl 435hawks 120Hazel Grouse 417heath 42Hen Harrier 133Heron,

Grey 82Night 77Purple 83Squacco 79

herons 74Herring Gull 209Hieraaetus

fasciatus 129pennatus 128

Himantopus himantopus166

Hippolais caligata 445icterina 331languida 444olivetorum 444pallida 445polyglotta 332

hirundines 272Hirundinidae 272

INDEX

473

Hirundo daurica 276rustica 275

Histrionicus histrionicus412

Hobby 142Honey Buzzard 137Hooded Crow 362hooded gull 206, 213Hoopoe 252, 256House Martin 277House Sparrow 375Hume’s Leaf Warbler

445Hydrobates pelagicus 68Hydrobatidae 64

IIbis, Glossy 407ibises 407Iceland Gull 215Icteridae 454Icterine Warbler 331Imperial Eagle 413

Spanish 414Isabelline Shrike 449Isabelline Wheatear

440islands 34Ivory Gull 431Ixobrychus minutus 76

JJack Snipe 197Jackdaw 368Jay 364

Siberian 450Junco, Dark-eyed 454Junco hyemalis 454Jynx torquilla 263

KKentish Plover 171Kestrel 140

Lesser 141Killdeer 421King Eider 411Kingfisher 253kingfishers 252Kite,

Black 131Black-shouldered 415Red 130

kites 120

Kittiwake 201, 216kleptoparasitism 23Knot 176

Great 424

LLady Amherst’s

Pheasant 418Lagopus

lagopus 146lagopus scoticus 146mutus 147

lakes 31Lammergeier 413Lanceolated Warbler

443Laniidae 356, 449Lanius

collurio 357excubitor 359excubitor algeriensis359excubitor meridionalis

359excubitor pallidirostris

359isabellinus 449minor 360nubicus 449senator 358

Lanner 417Lapland Bunting 402Lappet-faced Vulture

413Lapwing 175

Sociable 423Spur-winged 423White-tailed 423

Laridae 201, 429Lark,

Calandra 270Crested 266Dupont’s 438Lesser Short-toed 437Short-toed 269Thekla 267

larks 264, 437Larus

argentatus 209argentatus argentatus

209atricilla 431audouinii 430cachinnans 210

Larus cont.cachinnans cachinnans

210cachinnans michahellis

210canus 207delawarensis 429fuscus 211fuscus fuscus 211fuscus graellsii 211fuscus intermedius 211genei 429glaucoides 215hyperboreus 214ichthyaetus 430marinus 212michahellis 210minutus 213melanocephalus 208philadelphia 429pipixcan 430ridibundus 206sabini 430tridactyla 216

Laughing Gull 431Leach’s Petrel 69Leaf Warbler, Hume’s

446Least Sandpiper 424lek 14Lesser Black-backed

Gull 211Lesser Crested Tern 432Lesser Grey Shrike 360Lesser Kestrel 141Lesser Sand Plover 421Lesser Scaup 411Lesser Short-toed Lark

437Lesser Spotted Eagle

414Lesser White-fronted

Goose 408Lesser Whitethroat 317Lesser Yellowlegs 427Levant Sparrowhawk

415life cycle 12–13Limicola falcinellus 423Limnodromus scolopaceus

428Limosa

lapponica 192limosa 191

Linnet 382Linnets 374Little Auk 226Little Bittern 76Little Bunting 396Little Bustard 162Little Crake 419Little Egret 80Little Grebe 59Little Gull 213Little Owl 244Little Ringed Plover

169Little Shearwater 405Little Stint 181Little Swift 436Little Tern 217Locustella

fluviatilis 443lanceolata 443luscinioides 329naevia 328

Locustella warblers 313Long-billed Dowitcher

428Long-eared Owl 242Long-legged Buzzard

415Long-tailed Duck 114Long-tailed Skua 205Long-tailed Tit 348Long-toed Stint 424Loxia

curvirostra 392leucoptera 451pytyopsittacus 451scotica 452

Lullula arborea 268Luscinia

luscinia 439megarhynchos 296svecica 297svecica cyanecula 297svecica magna 297svecica svecica 297

Lymnocryptes minimus197

MMadeiran Storm-petrel

406Magpie 363

Azure-winged 449magpies 362

INDEX

474

Mallard 101Mandarin 409Manx Shearwater 67Marbled Duck 410markings 18Marmaronetta

angustirostris 410Marmora’s Warbler

443Marsh Harrier 132Marsh Sandpiper 190marsh terns 201, 224Marsh Tit 347Marsh Warbler 325Martin,

Crag 274House 277Sand 273

martins 272Masked Shrike 449mating 15 Meadow Pipit 282mechanical sounds 25Mediterranean Gull

208Mediterranean scrub 42Mediterranean

Shearwater 405Melanitta

fusca 113nigra 112perspicillata 412

Melanocorypha calandra270

Melodious Warbler 332Merganser, Red-

breasted 118Mergus

albellus 116merganser 117serrator 118

Merlin 144Meropidae 252Merops apiaster 254migration 26–27Miliaria calandra 403Milvus

migrans 131milvus 130

Mistle Thrush 309Montagu’s Harrier 134Monticola

saxatilis 306solitarius 305

Montifringilla nivalis452

monogamy 15Moorhen 158moorland 38Morus bassanus 71Motacilla

alba 285alba alba 285cinerea 287citreola 439flava 286flava feldegg 286flava flava 286

Motacillidae 278, 438moulting 19mountains 38, 40Moustached Warbler

323Muscicapa striata 339Muscicapidae 313, 447Mute Swan 90mutual preening 15

Nnatural selection 9Naumann’s Thrush 441Neophron percnopterus

124Neornithes 8nests 16–17Netta rufina 412Night Heron 77Nightingale 296

Thrush 439nightingales 294Nightjar 247

Red-necked 436nightjars 238, 436North American

warblers 450Northern Diver,

Great 58Nucifraga

caryocatactes 365caryocatactes

macrothyncus 365Numenius

arquata 193phaeopus 194

Nuthatch 352Corsican 448Rock 449

nuthatches 351, 448

Nyctea scandiaca 435Nycticorax nycticorax 77

OOceanites oceanicus 406Oceanodroma

leucorhoa 69castro 406

Oenanthe hispanica 301hispanica hispanica 301hispanica melanoleuca

301isabellina 440leucura 302oenanthe 300oenanthe leucorhoa 300

Olive-backed Pipit 438Oriental Pratincole 421Oriole, Golden 361orioles 356Oriolidae 356Oriolus oriolus 361Orphean Warbler 442Ortolan Bunting 397Osprey 121Otididae 154Otis tarda 161Otus scops 245Ouzel, Ring 312Owl,

Barn 246Eagle 238Great Grey 434Hawk 435Little 244Long-eared 242Pygmy 435Scops 245Short-eared 243Snowy 435Tawny 239Tengmalm’s 241Ural 435

owls 238, 434Oxyura

jamaicensis 119leucocephala 413

Oystercatcher 164

PPacific Golden Plover

422Pacus canus 436

Pagophila eburnea 431pair bonding 14Palearctic 28, 29Pallas’s Warbler 447Pallid Harrier 415Pallid Swift 250Pandion haliaetus 121Pandionidae 120Panurus biarmicus 349Parakeet, Ring-necked

434Paridae 341, 448parks 48Parrot Crossbill 451parrots 434partial migrants 27Partridge,

Barbary 417Grey 151Red-legged 150Rock 417

partridges 145Parulidae 450Parus

ater 343ater ledouci 343caeruleus 344cristatus 345cinctus 448cyanus 448lugubris 448major 342montanus 346palustris 347

Passer domesticus 375domesticus italiae 376hispaniolensis 376montanus 377

Passeridae 374, 452Passeriformes 265Passerines 252Pechora Pipit 439Pectoral Sandpiper

426Pelecanidae 70, 406Pelecaniformes 71Pelecanus

crispus 406onocrotalus 406

Pelican,Dalmatian 406White 406

pelicans 70, 406

INDEX

475

Penduline Tit 341, 350Perdix perdix 151Peregrine 143Perisoreus infaustus 450Pernis apivorus 137Petrel,

Leach’s 69Storm 68

petrels 64, 405, 406Petronia petronia 378Phalacrocoracidae 70,

407Phalacrocorax

aristotelis 73aristotelis desmaresti 73carbo 72carbo sinensis 72pygmeus 407

Phalarope,Grey 198Red-necked 199Wilson’s 429

Phalaropus fulicarius 198lobatus 199tricolor 429

Phasianidae 145, 417Phasianus colchicus 153Pheasant 153

Golden 418Lady Amherst’s 418

pheasants 145Pheucticus ludovicianus

454Philomachus pugnax 200Phoenicopteridae 84Phoenicopteriformes

88Phoenicopterus ruber 88Phoenicurus

ochruros 299phoenicurus 298

Phylloscopus bonelli 335bonelli orientalis 335borealis 446collybita 336collybita tristis 336fuscatus 445humei 446inornatus 446proregulus 447sibilatrix 334swarzi 445

Phylloscopus cont.trochiloides 446trochilus 333

Pica pica 363Picidae 257, 436Piciformes 258Picoides tridactylus 437Picus

viridis 259viridis sharpei 259

Pied Flycatcher 340pied flycatchers 313Pied Wagtail 285pied woodpeckers 261,

262Pied-billed Grebe 404pigeons 231

feral 232racing 233domestic 232town 232

Pin-tailed Sandgrouse433

Pine Bunting 453Pine Grosbeak 452Pinicola enucleator 452Pink-footed Goose 95Pintail 103Pipit,

Blyth’s 438Meadow 282Olive-backed 438Pechora 439Red-throated 284Richard’s 438Rock 281Tawny 279Tree 283Water 280

pipits 278, 438Platalea leucorodia 87Plectrophenax nivalis 401Plegadis falcinellus 407Plover,

American Golden422

Caspian 422Goggle-eye 167Golden 174Greater Sand 422Grey 173Kentish 171Lesser Sand 421Little Ringed 169

Plover cont.Pacific Golden 422Ringed 170Semipalmated 421

plovers 163plumage 18–19Pluvialis

apricaria 174dominica 422fulva 422squatarola 173

Pochard 108Red-crested 412

Podiceps auritus 62cristatus 61grisegena 60nigricollis 63

Podicipedidae 55, 404Podicipediformes 59Podilymbus podiceps

404Polysticta stelleri 411Pomarine Skua 203Porphyrio porphyrio 419Porzana

parva 419porzana 157pusilla 419

Pratincole,Black-winged 420Collared 168Oriental 421

pratincoles 163probing 22, 23Procellariiformes 65Procellariidae 64, 405promiscuity 15Prunella

collaris 293modularis 292

Prunellidae 288Psittacidae 434Psittacula krameri 434Ptarmigan 147Pterocles

alchata 433orientalis 433

Pteroclididae 433Ptynoprogne rupestris 274Puffin 227Puffinus

assimilis 405gravis 405

Puffinus cont.griseus 405yelkouan 405puffinus 67

Purple Gallinule 419Purple Heron 83Purple Sandpiper 182Pygmy Cormorant 407Pygmy Owl 435Pyrrhocorax

graculus 367pyrrhocorax 366

Pyrrhula pyrrhula 390

QQuail 152

Rradio tagging 53Rail,Water 156rails 154, 156Rallidae 154, 419Rallus aquaticus 156rare species 404Raven 371Razorbill 230Recurvirostra avosetta

165Recurvirostridae 163Red Kite 130Red-backed Shrike 357Red-breasted

Flycatcher 447Red-breasted Goose

308Red-breasted

Merganser 118Red-crested Pochard

412Red-eyed Vireo 450Red-flanked Bluetail

440Red-footed Falcon 416Red-legged Partridge

150Red-necked Grebe 60Red-necked Nightjar

436Red-necked Phalarope

199Red-necked Stint 426Red-rumped Swallow

276Red-throated Diver 56

INDEX

476

Red-throated Pipit 284Redpoll 384

Arctic 451Redshank 187

Spotted 188Redstart 298

Black 299Redwing 308Reed Bunting 395Reed Warbler 324

Blyth’s 444Great 326

Reef Egret,Western407

Regulus ignicapillus 338regulus 337

Remiz pendulinus 350Remizidae 341reservoirs 31Rhodostethia rosea 431Richard’s Pipit 438Ring Ouzel 312Ring-billed Gull 429Ring-necked Duck

410Ring-necked Parakeet

434Ringed Plover 170

Little 169Riparia riparia 273River Warbler 443Robin 295

Rufous Bush 439Rock Bunting 400Rock Dove 232Rock Nuthatch 449Rock Pipit 281Rock Sparrow 378Rock Thrush 306

Blue 305rock thrushes 294Roller 255rollers 252Rook 369rooks 362Rose-breasted

Grosbeak 454Rose-coloured Starling

450Roseate Tern 222Rosefinch, Scarlet 393Ross’s Gull 431Royal Tern 431

Ruddy Duck 119Ruddy Shelduck 408Ruff 200Rufous Bush Robin

439Rüppell’s Warbler 442Rustic Bunting 452

SSabine’s Gull 430Saker 416Sand Martin 273Sand Plover,

Greater 422Lesser 421

Sanderling 177Sandgrouse 433

Black-bellied 433Pin-tailed 433

Sandpiper,Baird’s 425Broad-billed 423Buff-breasted 426Common 184Curlew 179Green 186Least 424Marsh 190Pectoral 426Purple 182Semipalmated 425Sharp-tailed 426Solitary 427Spotted 427Stilt 428Terek 424Upland 428Western 425White-rumped 425Wood 185

sandpipers 163Sandwich Tern 218Sardinian Warbler 318Savi’s Warbler 329sawbills 117, 118Saxicola

rubetra 303torquata 304torquata maura 304

Scarlet Rosefinch 393Scaup 109

Lesser 411Scolopacidae 163, 423Scolopax rusticola 195

Scops Owl 245Scoter,

Common 112Surf 412Velvet 113

Scottish Crossbill 452sea 35, 36Sedge Warbler 322Semi-collared

Flycatcher 447Semipalmated Plover

421Semipalmated

Sandpiper 425Senegal Thick-knee

420Serin 389Serinus

citrinella 388serinus 389

Shag 73Sharp-tailed Sandpiper

426Shearwater,

Cory’s 66Great 405Little 405Manx 67Mediterranean 405Sooty 405

shearwaters 64, 405Shelduck 100

Ruddy 408shelducks 89Shorelark 271Short-eared Owl 243Short-toed Eagle 127Short-toed Lark 269

Lesser 437Short-toed Treecreeper

355Shoveler 104Shrike,

Great Grey 359Isabelline 449Lesser Grey 360Masked 449Red-backed 357Woodchat 358

shrikes 356, 449Siberian Jay 450Siberian Thrush 441Siberian Tit 448Siskin 387

Sitta europaea 352neumayer 449whiteheadi 448

Sittidae 351, 448skeleton 10Skua,

Arctic 204Great 202Long-tailed 205Pomarine 203

skuas 201Skylark 265Slavonian Grebe 62Slender-billed Gull 429Small Button-quail 418Smew 116Snipe 196

Great 428Jack 197

Snow Bunting 401Snow Goose 407Snowfinch 452Snowy Owl 435Sociable Lapwing 423Solitary Sandpiper 427Somateria

fischeri 411mollissima 111spectabilis 411

Sombre Tit 448song 24Song Thrush 307 Sooty Shearwater 405Sooty Tern 432Spanish Imperial Eagle

414Spanish Sparrow 376Sparrow,

House 375Rock 378Spanish 376Tree 377White-throated 454

Sparrowhawk 138Levant 415

sparrows 374Spectacled Eider 411Spectacled Warbler 442Spoonbill 87Spotless Starling 373Spotted Crake 157Spotted Cuckoo, Great

434

INDEX

477

Spotted Eagle 414Lesser 414

Spotted Flycatcher 339Spotted Redshank 188Spotted Sandpiper 427spotted thrushes 294,

309Spotted Woodpecker,

Great 260Lesser 262Middle 261

spotted woodpeckers257

Spur-winged Lapwing423

Squacco Heron 79Starling 372

Rose-coloured 450Spotless 373

starlings 362, 450Steller’s Eider 411Steppe Eagle 414Stercorariidae 201Stercorarius

longicaudus 205parasiticus 204pomarinus 203skua 202

Sterna albifrons 217anaethetus 432bengalensis 432caspia 223dougallii 22forsteri 432fuscata 432hirundo 220maxima 431nilotica 219sandvicensis 218paradisaea 221

Sternidae 201, 431Stilt, Black-winged

166Stilt Sandpiper 428stilts 163Stint,

Little 181Long-toed 424Red-necked 426Temminck’s 180

Stock Dove 233Stone-curlew 167Stonechat 304

Stork,Black 86White 85

storks 84Storm Petrel 68Storm-petrel

Madeiran 406Wilson’s 406

Streptopelia decaocto 235turtur 236

Strigidae 238, 434Strigiformes 239Strix

aluco 239nebulosa 434uralensis 435

Sturnidae 362, 450Sturnus

roseus 450unicolor 373vulgaris 372

Subalpine Warbler 320Sulidae 70Surf Scoter 412Surnia ulula 435Swallow 275

Red-rumped 276swallows 272Swan,

Bewick’s 92Mute 90Whooper 91

swans 89Swift 249

Alpine 251Little 436Pallid 250White-rumped 436

swifts 248, 436Sylvia

atricapilla 316borin 314cantillans 320communis 319conspicillata 442curruca 317hortensis 442melanocephala 318melanothorax 442nisoria 315ruepelli 442sarda 443

Sylviidae 313, 442

Syrian Woodpecker 437syrinx 24

TTachybaptus ruficollis 59Tadorna

ferruginea 408tadorna 100

tail shape 20Tarsiger cyanurus 440Tawny Owl 239Tawny Pipit 279Teal 106

Blue-winged 410telescope 50, 51Temminck’s Stint 180Tengmalm’s Owl 241Terek Sandpiper 424Tern,

Arctic 221Black 224Bridled 432Caspian 223Common 220Forster’s 432Gull-billed 219Lesser Crested 432Little 217Roseate 222Royal 431Sandwich 218Sooty 432Whiskered 225White-winged Black

433terns 201, 431Tetrao

tetrix 149urogallus 148

Tetraonidae 145, 417Tetrax tetrax 162Thekla Lark 267Thick-knee, Senegal

420Three-toed

Woodpecker 437Threskiornithidae 84,

407Thrush,

Blue Rock 305Dark-throated 441Dusky 441Eyebrowed 441Grey-cheeked 440

Thrush cont.Mistle 309Rock 306 Siberian 441Song 307White’s 440

Thrush Nightingale 439thrushes 294, 439Tichodroma muraria 353Tichodromadidae 351Timaliidae 341Tit,

Azure 448Bearded 349Blue 344Coal 343Crested 345Great 342Long-tailed 348Marsh 347Penduline 350Siberian 448Sombre 448Willow 346

titmice 341tits and allies 341, 448Torgos tracheliotus 413town pigeon 232towns 48Tree Pipit 283Tree Sparrow 377Treecreeper 354

Short-toed 355treecreepers 351Tringa

erythropus 188flavipes 427glareola 185melanoleuca 427nebularia 189ochropus 186solitaria 427stagnatilis 190totanus 187

tripod 51Troglodytes

troglodytes 289troglodytes zetlandicus

289Troglodytidae 288tubenose 64, 65Tufted Duck 110tundra 36Turdidae 294, 439

INDEX

478

Turdus iliacus 308merula 311naumanni 441obscurus 441philomelos 307pilaris 310ruficollis 441torquatus 312viscivorus 309

Turnix sylvatica 418Turnstone 183Turtle Dove 236Twite 383Two-barred Crossbill

451Tyringites subruficollis 426Tyto

alba 246alba guttata 246

Tytonidae 238

Uupending 22Upland Sandpiper 428Upupa epops 256Upupidae 252Ural Owl 435Uria

aalge 229lomvia 433

Vvagrants 455Vanellus

gregarius 423leucurus 423spinosus 423vanellus 175

Velvet Scoter 113Vireo, Red-eyed 450Vireo olivaceus 450Vireonidae 450Vulture,

Black 123Egyptian 124Griffon 122Lappet-faced 413

vultures 120

Wwaders 163Wagtail

Citrine 439

Wagtail cont.Grey 287Pied 285White 278Yellow 286

wagtails 278Wallcreeper 353Warbler,

Aquatic 443Arctic 446Barred 315Blackpoll 450Blyth’s Reed 444Bonelli’s 335Booted 445Cetti’s 330Cyprus 442Dartford 321Dusky 445Fan-tailed 327Garden 314Grasshopper 328Great Reed 326Greenish 446Hume’s Leaf 446Icterine 331Lanceolated 443Marmora’s 443Marsh 325Melodious 332Moustached 323Olivaceous 445Olive-tree 444Orphean 442Paddyfield 444Pallas’s 447Radde’s 445Reed 324River 443Rüppell’s 442Sardinian 318Savi’s 329Sedge 322Spectacled 442Subalpine 320Upcher’s 444Willow 333Wood 334Yellow-browed 446Yellow-rumped 451

warblers and allies 313,442

Water Pipit 280Water Rail 156

Waxwing 291waxwings 288Western Palearctic

28–29Western Reef Egret

407Western Sandpiper 425wetlands 30–31Wheatear 300

Black 302Black-eared 301Isabelline 440

wheatears 294Whimbrel 194Whinchat 303Whiskered Tern 225White Egret, Great 81White Pelican 406White Stork 85White Wagtail 285White’s Thrush 440White-backed

Woodpecker 437White-billed Diver 404White-fronted

Goose 93Lesser 408

White-headed Duck413

white-headed gulls 211White-rumped

Sandpiper 425White-rumped Swift

436White-tailed Eagle 125White-tailed Lapwing

423White-throated

Sparrow 454Whitethroat 319

Lesser 317Whooper Swan 91Wigeon 105

American 409wildfowl 89, 407Willow Grouse 146Willow Tit 346Willow Warbler 333Wilson’s Phalarope 429Wilson’s Storm-petrel

406wing shape 20Wood Duck 409Wood Sandpiper 185

Wood Warbler 334Woodchat Shrike 358Woodcock 195woodland 46Woodlark 264, 268Woodpecker,

Black 258Great Spotted 260Green 259Grey-headed 436Lesser Spotted 262Middle Spotted 261Syrian 437Three-toed 437White-backed 437

woodpeckers 257Woodpigeon 234Wren 289wrens 288Wryneck 257, 263

XXenus cinereus 424

YYellow Wagtail 286Yellow-billed Cuckoo

434Yellow-breasted

Bunting 453Yellow-browed Warbler

446Yellow-legged Gull 210Yellow-rumped Warbler

451Yellowhammer 398Yellowlegs,

Greater 427Lesser 427

ZZitting Cisticola see

Fan-tailed Warbler 327

Zonotrichia albicollis454

Zoothera dauma 440sibrica 441

479

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSTHE AUTHOR would like to thank: the team at DorlingKindersley for their hard work and patience; Marcella for herencouragement and forbearance at home; Chris Gomersall forhis dedication in the pursuit of photographs; and RichardThewlis for the research on the maps.

DORLING KINDERSLEY would like to thank: Sean O’Connor,Rachel Gibson, Kim Bryan, Simon Maugham, Peter Frances,and Rick Morris for getting the project started; Carolyn Clerkinfor compiling the acknowledgments.The publisher would like to thank the following for their kindpermission to reproduce their photographs:a-above; c-centre; b-below; l-left; r-right; t-top.

Aquila Wildlife Images: Darren Frost 419tl; Hanne and JensErikson 126tr; Kevin Carlson 474br; M Barnett 474tl; MikeWilkes 386tr; Paul Harris 437tr;Wayne Lankinen 409bl, 409br,474bl.Ardea London Ltd: Chris Knights 384cb; Hans D.Dossenbach 248tr; John Daniels 194tc; Peter Steyn 405tr, 418tr;Uno Berggren 241tc.BBC Natural History Unit: Dietmar Hill 238tr; DietmarNill 361cr; Elio Della Ferrera 122cra; Hans Christoph Kappel238br; Jose B Ruiz 238cr; Klaus Nigge 122crb; Rico & Ruiz327tr, 373tr, 436tl;Warwick Sloss 221tc.Richard Brooks: 355crb, 417br.Laurie Campbell Photography: 257bl, 275cbl, 288bc, 362bl.R.J. Chandler: 58cra, 152tr, 171tr, 171tr, 173cra, 219tc, 292cla,382cla, 421tl, 423tl, 424tl, 424bl, 425tl, 426tl, 437br.Robin Chittenden: 11br, 18br, 117tr, 207cla, 250cca, 300ccb,336crb, 441tr, 446tl, 451tr, 452tr, 453br Corbis: Eric and David Hosking 311tcr.David Cottridge: 34br, 64crb, 68cra, 68crb, 80tc, 88cr, 97tc,136ca, 149cl, 166tc, 168tr, 171tc, 179tc, 181cla, 186tr, 202cb,210tr, 214cr, 229tr, 250tr, 252tr, 259cla, 261ccr, 263tr, 276cra,279cbr, 280tr, 281tc, 283tc, 283tr, 296tc, 297cra, 297bcr, 299tla,300tc, 302ccb, 306tr, 315cra, 315ccb, 318tc, 319tc, 331tr, 335cr,356tl, 376ccb, 389ccb, 397tc, 403tr, 434tr, 440bl, 442tr, 443tl,444bl, 444br, 448br, 450br, 453tr.Göran Ekström: 251c, 281bcr, 446br.Hanne and Jens Eriksen: 107cra, 120tr, 129crb, 157cla, 198tr,199cra, 280cb, 306tc, 360tr, 384tr, 396tr, 397crb, 413bl, 413br,420bl, 423tr, 423br, 424br, 425tr, 428bl, 430tr, 432tl, 435tr, 438tr,440tr, 447br, 449tr, 450tr.FLPA – Images of nature: 94bcl, 97cr, 160cr, 166cla, 210tc,258tr, 267c, 315tr, 317cra, 322br, 348ca, 375bcr, 388tr, 396ccb,435tl; E & D Hosking 405br; E Coppola/A Petretti/Panda416tr; Foto Natura Stock 66cra; Fritz Polking 240tc; H Hautala436br; Hans Dieter Brandl 262cla, 437tl; John Holmes 441br;John Watkins 118tc; Lee Rue 106cbr; M Melodia/Panda 66tr;Martin B Withers/ FLPA 235cla; P Harris/Panda Photo 367cr;Panda Photo 66tc, 200cr; Peter Steyn 436tr; R Wilmshurst103ca; Richard Brooks 73cl, 274tr, 305tc, 305tr, 320ccb, 330ccb,399cra; Robin Chittenden 389tr; Roger Tidman/FLPA 86cl; SC Brown 225ccb; Silvestre 417tr; Silvestria 294br; Silvestris323tc;Tony Hamblin 115crb;W S Clark 129tc, 415br;WWisniewski 62cl;Yossi Eshbol 72c, 76tr, 417bl.Bob Glover: 210cbl, 211cla, 212tc, 213tr, 217tc, 217ccb, 233cr,233cb, 274clb, 281cb, 314ccb, 317cb, 379cla, 382crb, 394tr.Chris Gomersall Photography: 1, 4, 5, 8tr, 9bcla, 10cr, 18tc,18trb, 18cl, 18cr, 21cl, 22cr, 22br, 23cr, 25tl, 26ca, 28cra, 29crb,32cr, 35ca, 36cl, 39cr, 41clb, 45bl, 51tcr, 51c, 52tr, 54c, 56crb, 57cb,58tr, 58crb, 61cr, 64bc, 64cca, 65c, 67tr, 67ca, 70bl, 71crb, 74cra,75tc, 75c, 77cr, 81c, 81cr, 82tc, 82bc, 85tr, 85cr, 89tr, 89bc, 90c,91crb, 91ccb, 97tr, 97cl, 98cr, 98bcr, 99clb, 100cr, 100bl, 101ca,101c, 102cr, 105cb, 108cla, 108cra, 108crb, 110cra, 110crb, 111crb,

115clb, 119cr, 120bc, 121tc, 121tr, 121cra, 122cr, 125ca, 125cb,126tc, 126cb, 130tc, 130crb, 141cb, 141crb, 144tr, 144crb, 145tr,145cra, 145bc, 146crb, 147tr, 147crb, 148tr, 148bc, 149c, 150tr,151c, 154cla, 154cra, 154bc, 155cr, 158tc, 158cra, 159crb, 161tr,161cra, 161bc, 163cra, 163cl, 163br, 164tr, 164crb, 165cra, 167tr,167c, 174bc, 175cra, 176crb, 182bcr, 183ccb, 184tc, 184cr, 185cr,186crb, 187tr, 187cra, 187tcr, 189tr, 189cra, 189crb, 191tc, 191cla,192cla, 193cla, 193ccb, 196tr, 201cra, 201cl, 201br, 206tc, 209tr,214tr, 216ccb, 218cra, 221tr, 222cra, 222cbr, 227cca, 227ccb,228cb, 229tc, 229crb, 229trb, 230tr, 231cra, 232tr, 234c, 235c,242tc, 242ccb, 243tc, 248bc, 249ccb, 250ccb, 253cra, 256tr, 256cra,259tr, 268ccb, 269tr, 270tc, 270tr, 270ccb, 272bc, 275tc, 275cra,283cb, 285tr, 288clb, 288crb, 289cla, 290br, 291tr, 291cla, 292ccb,294cra, 294clb, 295tc, 295ccr, 296cra, 296cr, 299tc, 299tr, 303tc,307tc, 308tr, 309ccb, 313cla, 313cra, 321ccb, 322tr, 322ccb, 324cb,344ccb, 345ccb, 362tc, 362cr, 363tr, 364crb, 366tc, 369tc, 369cbr,370tr, 370ccb, 371tcl, 372tc, 372cra, 374cr, 375tc, 375cra, 375ccb,378tr, 378ccb, 379bc, 380cb, 386ccb, 387crb, 387cca, 394crb,398tc, 398ccr, 399tc, 399tr, 399crb, 403cra, 405tl, 406bl, 413tl,419bl, 429br, 431br, 432tr, 434tl.Mark Hamblin: 9bca, 56tr, 72tc, 82cr, 91cra, 99c, 103tc, 104ca,109ca, 113tc, 114cr, 115crb, 138tr, 159ca, 159cr, 165tc, 170cra,170cra, 173c, 178tc, 184tr, 237tr, 239tr, 244tr, 246tr, 247cra,254tc, 254cbr, 257br, 260tr, 261tr, 261cca, 278bc, 286tc, 288tr,292tr, 298cla, 300cal, 304tr, 309cla, 339crb, 339, 341bc, 344tc,345tc, 346bcrtr, 364tc, 370cr, 380cra, 383cla, 390tc, 390tr,390cla, 395tr, 395cra, 398cra.John Hesseltine: 43bl.Eugène Hûttenmoser: 351bc, 352tr, 352cla, 353bl.Imagestate Ltd: 22bl.Rob Jordan: 51tcl, 55bc, 374bc.Steve Knell: 226crb.Chris Knights: 24tr, 51tc, 92cr, 93cr, 118crb, 167tc, 167cr,244tc, 273ccb, 310cb, 356br, 374cl, 381crb, 385crb.Mike Lane: 8ra, 9tcb, 9bcl, 12bl, 13bl, 16tr, 19tc, 24c, 34tl,55cca, 57ca, 59ca, 60tr, 61tr, 61cl, 61bc, 62tr, 68cca, 71tr, 73tc,73crb, 89cra, 93tc, 94tr, 95tc, 96c, 102c, 106tr, 109tr, 110tr,114tc, 119tc, 132cr, 132crb, 136tr, 146cra, 147cla, 147ca, 152tc,153tc, 155tc, 156tr, 159c, 164tc, 169tr, 170tc, 170tc, 171cra,171cra, 171crb, 171crb, 174tr, 175tr, 177tr, 177ca, 182tr, 191tr,194tr, 200tr, 205tc, 205tr, 205crb, 206cla, 207c, 220tr, 222tr,227tr, 228tr, 252ccl, 265tr, 269tc, 273tc, 278tr, 285crb, 287tr,297tc, 302tr, 303cca, 304tc, 307tr, 310tr, 310cla, 311tr, 311cla,313bl, 316ccr, 318cra, 321cla, 322tc, 325tc, 326tr, 326ca, 326cr,328tr, 328cb, 329tr, 329cr, 330tr, 334tc, 335ccb, 340tr, 347tr,348tr, 352ca, 358cla, 371tr, 376tc, 381tc, 381cra, 395tc, 402cra,404br, 412br, 416tl, 421bl, 421br, 426bl, 429bl, 430tl, 432br,433tl, 434bl, 434br, 439bl, 443tr, 443bl, 449br.Gordon Langsbury: 57cr, 71cra, 78tc, 78cr, 79cr, 149cr,188crb, 223cca, 367tr, 402tr, 407tr, 407bl, 408tl, 408br, 415tr,415bl, 420tr, 421tr, 427br, 428tl, 428tr.Henry Lehto: 160tc, 388cla, 446tr.Tim Loseby: 80tr, 98tc, 103cb, 112crb, 115tr, 190crb, 198crb,215tr, 279ca, 285tc, 303cla, 315cla, 339, 378cla, 384tc, 388ccb,393tc, 393cla, 393ccb, 397cra, 400cla, 400ccb, 444tr, 452br.George McCarthy: 9bra, 9bc, 73tr, 76cr, 76cr, 77tc, 77cl, 78tr,79tr, 79cla, 81tc, 88bl, 100cra, 111tr, 111ca, 135tc, 146cb, 153tr,153cra, 157tr, 157tr, 183tr, 188tr, 190cla, 192tr, 204tr, 211crb,221cla, 225tr, 245tr, 262tc, 277ccb, 286bcra, 287ca, 349tr, 352tr,357tc, 357tr, 409tl, 418tl, 425br, 427tr, 439br, 442bl, 448bl.Anthony McGeehan: 35crb, 66crb, 67crb, 405bl.Juan Martin Simon: 414tl.Natural History Museum: 8bl, 9bl, 16cla, 16ca, 16cca, 16cr,16cl, 16c, 16cc, 16bl, 16bc, 16br.Natural Picture Library: Rico & Ruiz 9tr.Philip Newman: 133cl.

480

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

N.H.P.A.: 338cb; Bill Coster 143tc; Dave Watts 2–3; Nigel JDennis 223cla; Ralph and Daphne Keller 437br; Roger Tidman69tr.Oxford Scientific Films: Chris Knights 150cb; Mike Brown305cla; Paolo Fioratti 256crJari Peltomaki: 241crb, 258c.Benjam Pöntinen: 448tl.René Pop: 230tc, 446bl, 449bl.Mike Read: 92tr, 175crb, 452tl.RSPB Images: Andy Hay 14tr, 15cl, 33cl, 39tl, 41tl, 41br,42tl,43tr, 44b, 45tl, 50tlb, 50cra, 50crb, 51br, 52cba, 53tr, 53bl, 175tcl,196crb, 377tr, 377crb; Barry Hughes 17tr, 37cb, 170crb, 170bcl,407tl; Bill Paton 17br, 25cr, 88tr, 348cb, 368crb; Bob Glover14ac, 19bl, 21c, 22cl, 47cr, 47bla, 47bc, 48cl, 49tr, 49cc, 52cla,138crb, 142tc, 151cb, 173tc, 183cr, 187crb, 192crb, 236crb, 268tl,349cr, 372crb, 403ccb; Carlos Sanchez Alonso 30tr, 31crb, 40b,44crb, 86cb, 122tr, 130tr, 131cb, 134cra, 142tr, 160tr, 161cb,240ccb, 245tc, 299bc, 358cbr; Chris Gomersall 17bl, 19bc, 20bl,20bc, 20br, 21bl, 21bc, 21br, 27tr, 27cra, 30ca, 30cc, 30bl, 30bc,33tl, 33tr, 35tr, 35tcb, 35cr, 38br, 44tr, 46b, 48tc, 49cr, 51bla, 53c,104cr, 125tr, 143crb, 165crb, 186cla, 191crb, 221cb, 237tcr; ChrisKnights 13crb, 15cr, 29br, 32b, 33crb, 36crb, 44cra, 48cr, 50tr,52bl, 146cla, 148c, 150bcr, 150ccr, 193cca, 233cla, 285ccr, 291tc,325tr, 361ca, 379tr, 392tr, 393bcr, 416bl; Colin Carver 28crb,38bl; David Broadbent 46tr; David Hosking 75cr; David Kjaer28tr, 138cra, 144tc, 204ccb, 242cra, 266cra, 303ccb, 341cla,344cra, 383tr, 401crb; David Tipling 21tl, 52br, 152cr, 200tc;Dusan Boucny 17cb, 37clb, 360cr, 435br; Eric Woods 25bl;Ernie Janes 31tr, 177crb; George McCarthy 14cl, 15ca, 17cr,35bl, 47tl, 81bc, 185tr; Gerald Downey 31cl, 37cla, 47tr, 135cb,286cra, 398tr; Gordon Langsbury 27br, 33cr, 41cl, 140cb, 188tc,282ccb, 295tr; Jan Halady 312cb; Jan Sevcik 23cra, 139ccb,224cca, 247tr, 398ccl; John Lawton Roberts 254tc, 259c, 340cb;Leslie J Borg 78ccb; Malcolm Hunt 26bl, 179crb, 317cla, 337tr,406tl; Mark Hamblin 23tr, 28cla, 34tr, 38cr, 49bl, 133cra, 138tc,260c, 290bc, 292tc, 308crb, 312tr, 342cra, 342crb, 346c, 364tr,383tc, 386cla, 390crb; Marianne Wilding 31clb; Maurice Walker16cr, 237cb, 342bcl, 343tr, 343tr; Michael Gore 40cr, 78cca,87clb, 305ccb, 355tc; Mike Lane 25tr, 25br, 37tr, 37crb, 40ca,65cr, 87cla, 135tr, 136cr, 168crb, 178crb, 194cr, 255tc, 264tr,297cb, 324cla, 369tr, 387cla, 393tr; Mike McKavett 289cr; MikeRead 26cl, 166crb; Mike Richards 43cla, 46cr, 247crb; PaulDoherty 137tr; Peter Perfect 21ca, 363bl; Philip Newman 14bl,49cla, 307ccr, 319ccb; Ray Kennedy 48b; Raymond Franklin90br; Richard Brooks 10bl, 26br, 27crb, 36cra, 151cla, 260tc,284cra, 311tcl, 350tc, 366ccr, 372cla, 382tr, 391ccb; RichardRevels 23bc, 32cla; Robert Horne 347cb; Robert Smith 254bc,305cbl, 306crb; Roger Tidman 26cbr, 28bl, 28br, 32tr, 39tr, 42tr,43clb, 44cb; Roger Wilmshurst 14br, 17cla, 18tr, 21tr, 24b, 33cla,37cra, 39crb, 45cra, 47cla, 62crb, 153cr, 158c, 309tc, 312tc;Stanley Porter 195cr; Steve Austin 15br, 26tr, 32cl (inset), 34bl,38tr, 39tr, 39cla, 42cl, 51tr, 147trb, 172cr, 172bcr, 226tr; SteveKnell 24cr,36tr, 46cl, 199bc, 239tc, 333ccb, 340tc, 392tc;TonyHamblin 18ccl, 148cla, 337ccb.Carlos Sanchez Alonso: 267tr, 333tc, 350cla.Chris Schenk: 430bl, 431bl.Science Photo Library: Andrew Syred 11cc.K.Taylor: 227cr.Richard Tibbits: 11bla, 11ba, 24ca.Roger Tidman: 8br, 9tlb, 9br, 11tl, 11tr, 12cra, 18bl, 18bc, 20tr,23cl, 39cl, 45cb, 49br, 51cr, 53br, 55tr, 56cra, 59cr, 62cr, 71tc,76tc, 77tr, 79cb, 82tr, 83tcl, 84cla, 85cr, 86tr, 86cr, 88cr, 90tc,90tr, 90cb, 91cla, 91tcr, 95cra, 95crb, 96bl, 98tr, 99tr, 100tr,101ca, 103cr, 106cra, 106ccb, 112tc, 112c, 115tc, 115tr, 116ca,117ca, 119ca, 123tr, 124tr, 124crb, 127tr, 127cr, 128tr, 129tr,130cla, 131tc, 131cra, 132tc, 132ca, 134tc, 134tr, 134bcr, 139tc,140tc, 141tc, 141cra, 141br, 162tc, 162tr, 162cr, 164cra, 165cl,166cra, 172tr, 172cl, 173cl, 174cl, 175bl, 176tc, 179tr, 179cb,180ca, 180bcr, 181tr, 182cla, 182cra, 183cla, 188cla, 192tr, 193tc,

195tr, 196cla, 197tr, 197crb, 198tc, 198ca, 199tr, 200cra, 203tr,203cra, 203bcr, 206cra, 208tr, 208cla, 210cbr, 212tcl, 217tr,217cla, 218tc, 218ccb, 219cra, 219ccr, 220cb, 223tr, 223ccb,225ccr, 226ca, 228tc, 232cb, 233tr, 234tr, 235tr, 236cla, 237cla,251tr, 254cra, 255tr, 259bl, 265cbr, 267cla, 269ccb, 271tc, 273tr,276tr, 276crb, 277tc, 277tr, 277cra, 284cla, 284crb, 286bcr,291bc, 293tr, 293bc, 296tr, 298tc, 300tr, 301tc, 301cca, 309tr,314tr, 316tr, 316cra, 319tr, 320tr, 320cla, 324tr, 335tr, 336tc,336cra, 340cla, 342tr, 344tr, 352bc, 358tc, 358tr, 359tc, 361tr,364tr, 365tr, 372tcl, 373tc, 373cla, 373crb, 373bcl, 375tr, 376tr,376cla, 380tc, 383crb, 386tc, 389tc, 389cra, 391tc, 391tr, 391cla,392cla, 392ccb, 394bl, 400tc, 401tc, 401tr, 403tc, 406br, 407bl,408bl, 409tr, 410tr, 411tr, 411bl, 412bl, 413tr, 415tl, 417tl, 418br,419tr, 423bl, 424tr, 425bl, 428br, 431tr, 438tl, 442tl, 443br, 445tl,447tl, 449tl, 451br, 452bl.Ray Tipper: 87cl, 157crb, 180tr, 285crb, 290cla, 318ccb,332ccb, 419br, 422tl, 422tr, 422bl.Colin Varndell: 59tr, 72cra, 143cla, 158tr, 169cb, 321tr, 336ccb,343cca, 354crb.Halli Verrinder: 11bl, 11b.Roger Wilmshurst: 8cr, 8crb, 28clb, 65tr, 102tc, 104tc, 105tr,107cla, 108tc, 142c, 143tr, 151tr, 156crb, 175tcr, 179cla, 193tr,204cca, 207tr, 208trb, 211tc, 216cra, 229cbl, 253tc, 253cra, 262tr,266c, 268tr, 281tr, 298tr, 300cbl, 301tr, 304cla, 319cla, 368tr,371crb, 382tc, 385tc, 410bl, 447bl, 453tl, 453bl.Windrush Photos: Alan Petty 156cla, 234tc;Andy Harmer275cbr;Arnoud van den Berg 69cra, 94cb, 388tc, 404bl;ArthurMorris 73bl, 218tr, 222tc, 412tl, 435bl, 450bl, 474tr; BarryHughes 114crb, 170tr; Chris Schenck 70tr, 114cra, 146tr; DavidCottridge 42bl; David Tipling 15tr, 18cc, 19tr, 23br, 36b, 57tr,60cl, 69cra, 74bc, 82bl, 83cr, 87c, 92tc, 96tr, 96cr, 98cla, 99cra,99crb, 101tr, 105cr, 109cra, 109cr, 114cl, 117tc, 119tr, 142cr, 159tr,160cl, 174tc, 178cra, 181clb, 185tc, 199cla, 200cla, 202tr, 209tc,209ca, 211tr, 212cra, 212tr, 213cra, 214tc, 214ca, 216trb, 232cla,236tr, 241tr, 243c, 255tc, 257tr, 260cr, 263tc, 263cbr, 264bc, 266tc,271tr, 279tr, 284tr, 286c, 295cra, 301cbr, 327c, 328tc, 334ccb,341tr, 349tc, 365bcl, 366tr, 367ccl, 380tr, 381tr, 386cca, 387tr,396cca, 406tr, 408tr, 410tl, 410br, 411br, 412tr, 414tr, 414bl, 419bl,420tl, 422br, 429tl, 437bl, 438bl, 438br, 439tr, 441tl, 445bl, 445br,447tr, 450tl; George McCarthy 16cl; Göran Ekström 113crb,128crb, 360tc, 363bcr, 436bl; Gordon Langsbury 13cr; Ian Fisher73cra; J Hollis 359tr; Jari Peltomaki 38ca, 350ccb; Julian Bhalerao229cb, 414tr; Kevin Carlson 13ca, 17ca, 162c, 349cla, 400tr; PaulDoherty 21r, 137cl, 137bcr, 368cra; Pentti Johansson 13tl, 25cb,60crb, 258tc, 365crb; Peter Cairns 345tr; Ray Tipper 43tl; R. H.de Heer 117crb; Richard Brooks 40tr, 80cr, 180tc, 274ccr, 298cb,359cra, 420br; Roger Tidman 43crb; Roger Wilmhurst 13br;TomEnnis 56cl, 177cra, 215cb, 426tr, 426br.Steve Young: 12c, 13cb, 18bcl, 19rc, 57cl, 59tc, 60cra, 67tc, 68tr,69cla, 69crb, 72tr, 72, 75bcr, 87tr, 93tr, 100tcl, 102tr, 104tr, 105cl,106tc, 107tc, 107tr, 108tr, 108cr, 109tc, 109cr, 110tc, 111tc, 111cr,114tr, 115ca, 115cra, 118tr, 118ca, 169cla, 176tr, 176cla, 178cla,190tr, 203cla, 205cra, 206tr, 206cr, 207ca, 207cl, 209cr, 209ccr,211ca, 212crb, 212trb, 213tc, 213cla, 213ccb, 215tc, 216tr, 220cla,220cra, 224tr, 224cla, 224ccb, 271crb, 276tc, 285cla, 286tr, 287tc,289tr, 297tr, 301cla, 303tr, 304ccb, 315tc, 317tc, 325cb, 330cca,332tc, 337tc, 350tr, 357cb, 359ccr, 363ca, 395cb, 401cca, 402tc,402c, 411tl, 427tl, 427bl, 429tr, 430br, 431tl, 440, 441bl, 442br,444tl, 445tr, 451tl, 451bl.

Front jacket:Woodfall Wild ImagesBack jacket: EA JonesInside flap: Mike Lane

All other images © Dorling Kindersley.For further information see: www.dkimages.com