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Kostas E. Sillignakis – www.sillignakis.com

“Rural Tourism: An opportunity for sustainable development of rural areas” By Kostas E. Sillignakis INTRODUCTION

The declining fortunes of the primary sector in advanced economies, confronting

the impacts of globalization, and the efforts of third world nations to gain a

foothold on the ladder of economic and social development, have served to focus

increasing attention on rural tourism.

This report has as main objective:

• To clearly identify the concept and the role of rural tourism.

TOURISM

Tourism is usually viewed as being multidimensional, possessing physical,

social, cultural, economic and political characteristics. “Definitions of tourism

share a range of common elements” (Dowling 2001, p24). However, this report

will adapt the approach of Mathieson and Wall (1982) that tourism is the

temporary movement of people to destinations out of their normal home and

workplace, the activities undertaken during the stay, and the facilities created to

cater for their needs.

Tourism is the fastest growing industry in the world. According to the World

Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) tourism is the world’s largest industry

generating 12% of the global gross national product and it employs around 200

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million people worldwide (WTTC, 1995). The current growth rate is 4%, but it is

the natural areas tourism which is the most rapidly growing segment of tourism

and the WTO estimates it generates approximately 20% of all international travel

expenditures (WTO, 1998b).

Tourism in the 21st century will be the biggest industry of the world. Tourist

arrivals are estimated to reach 1 billion by 2010 and 1,6 by 2020, and people will

holiday more often, maybe two to four times per year (Pearce, 1995). Tourist

arrivals are predicted to grow by an average 4,3% a year over the next two

decades, while receipts from international tourism will climb by 6,7% a year

(WTO, 1999). Along with this great growth, the tourism industry will also have to

take on more responsibility for its wide impacts, on the economy, on the

environment, on societies and on cultural sites (Dowling 2001).

TYPES OF TOURISM

Tourism is synthesized from mass and alternative tourism. Mass tourism is

characterized by large numbers of people seeking relevant to their culture

holidays in popular resort destinations. Alternative tourism is sometimes referred

to as “special interest tourism” or “responsible tourism” and its usually taken to

mean alternative forms of tourism which give emphasis on the contact and

understanding of inhabitants’ way of living and the local natural environment

(Smith & Eadington, 1992). As to the specific forms of alternative tourism,

Mieczkowski (1995) identifies such forms as cultural, educational, scientific,

adventure, agri-tourism, with rural, ranch and farm subsets. (Figure 1.1)

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TOURISM

MASS TOURISM (conventional, standard,

Large-scale tourism)

ALTERNATIVE

TOURISM

Agri-Tourism (Rural, Farm, Ranch)

Nature Tourism OR Ecotourism

Cultural Educational Scientific Adventure

Figure 1.1 (Mieczkowski, 1995: 459) The development of the environmental movement in the 1980s helped to the

development and the increasement of the availability and the range of holiday

types which was more environmentally friendly than these which was associated

with Mass tourism. Alternative tourism can be broadly defined “as forms of

tourism that is made to be friendly to the environment and to respect social and

cultural values of the communities, and which allow both hosts and guests to

enjoy positive and worthwhile interaction and shared experiences” (Wearing &

Neil, 2000, p38).

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Cater et al. (1994) notes that alternative tourism comprises small scale, locally

owned activities. She suggests that these contrasts with mass tourism, which is

often characterized by large-scale multinational concerns, which repatriate the

profits to offshore countries. Other characteristics of alternative tourism include

its minimal negative environmental and social impacts, and also help to develop

other sectors of the local economy as agriculture. Finally, alternative tourism also

fosters the involvement of local people in the decision making process and

includes them in the tourism development process. Using these criteria,

alternative tourism exceed purely a concern for the physical environment that

typifies green tourism, to include economic, social and cultural considerations.

“Thus alternative tourism can be viewed as being synonymous with the concept

of sustainable tourism development” (Holden, 2000, p137).

SUSTAINABILITY AND CARRYING CAPACITY

“The detraditionalisation associated with modernity is also marked by a growing

reflexivity both at individual and institutional levels” (Urry, 1995, p87). As Urry

(1995) points out, one of the most important consequences of this reflexivity is an

increased concern for the environment, and a growing awareness of the links

between the local and the global environment. In the shift from an “industrial to a

“risk” society (Eagles 1992), the need for development to be “sustainable”

becomes paramount. Local communities become important in terms of actions

taken to pretend their own natural environment, and also form part of wider

alliances to preserve the environment globally (Richards & Hall, 2000). Place-

based communities have become more interested to the concept of

sustainability, which integrates environmental, economic, political, cultural and

social considerations. In this way there is recognition that to be sustainable, the

preservation of the “natural” environment must be grounded in the communities

and societies, which exploit and depend upon it (Richards & Hall, 2000).

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“The concept of sustainable development results from the observation that

current generations are imposing too great of a demand upon the natural

environment to allow it to continue to reproduce and maintain itself at its previous

level of stability” (Butler et al, 1998, p557). The principle of sustainable

development has been applied to tourism. Sustainable tourism therefore seeks to

sustain the quantity, quality and productivity of both human and natural resource

systems over time, while respecting and accommodating the dynamics of such

systems (Reid, 1991). Sustainable tourism is developed and managed together

with the principles of sustainable development (Hunter and Green, 1995). These

principles of sustainable development are based on the theory of carrying

capacity (Butler et al, 1998). Although it is an ecology term, carrying capacity has

been applied to humans and, more specifically to tourists. It has been defined for

this purpose as “the maximum number of people who can use a site without an

unacceptable alteration in the physical environment and without an unacceptable

decline in the quality of the experience gained by visitors” (Mathieson and Wall,

1982, p168). This definition says that tourism carrying capacity is concerned with

only two components, the quality of the environment and the quality of the

recreation experience (Richards and Hall, 2000). Pritchard (1992), in clarifying

their understanding of carrying capacity, add to Mathieson’s and Wall’s definition

by stating that carrying capacity is also concerned with the social and

psychological capacity of the physical setting to support tourist activity and

development. In addition McIntyre and Hetherington (1991) include the ability of

the local community, economy and culture to support tourist activity.

CONSERVATION

Conservation as a policy is a long-established approach to environmental

protection. In a general sense such a policy may be aiming to achieve the

sustainable management of renewable resources such as soil, forests and

fisheries. More specifically, conservation policies involve the designation of

protected status for landscapes, habitats or individual species; as more of these

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resources are lost or threatened, the importance of conservation is increased

(Tribe et al., 2000).

RURAL TOURISM

Rural tourism is among the most polymorphous of all forms of Special Interest

Tourism (SIT). The diversity of attractions included within rural tourism embrace:

Indigenous and European heritage sites

• Aspects of culture (agriculture)

• Industrial tourism (farm practices)

• Educetioanl tourism

• Special events

• Ecological attractions

• Adventure tourism

• Wine tourism

Such diversity represents major opportunities for rural areas that have turned to

tourism as a means of supplementing diminished incomes (Douglas, 2001).

DEFINITIONS OF RURAL TOURISM

Geographic and demographic definitions: “A multi-faced activity that takes place in an environment outside heavily

urbanized areas. It is an industry sector characterized by small scale tourism

business, set in areas where land use id dominated by agricultural pursuits,

forestry or natural areas” (Department of Tourism, 1994: 3)

Product-related definitions:

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“The Rural Tourism product could be segmented to include such product

components as rural attractions, rural adventure tours, nature based tours,

ecotourism tours, country towns, rural resorts and country-style accommodation,

and farm holidays, together with festivals, events and agricultural education”

(Department of Tourism, 1994:4).

Tourist experience-related definitions: “Rural Tourism should be seen as offering a different range of experience to

those offered in big cities” and that “the emphasis in rural tourism is on the

tourist’s experience of the products and activities of the area” (Department of

Tourism, 1994: 3).

Consequently, rural tourism in its purest form should be:

1. Located in rural areas.

2. Functionally rural – built upon the rural world’s special features of small-

scale enterprise, open space, contact with nature and the natural world,

heritage, “traditional” societies and “traditional” practises.

3. Rural in scale – both in terms of buildings and settlements – and,

therefore, usually small-scale.

4. Traditional in character, growing slowly and organically, and connected

with local families. It will often be very largely controlled locally and

developed for the long term good of the area.

5. Of many different kinds, representing the complex pattern of rural

environment, economy, history and location.

(Lane 1994: 14)

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THE IMPACT OF RURAL TOURISM

Social and Cultural

The most influential statement on the social and cultural impacts is Bouqeut and

Winter’s (1987) diverse anthology of studies on the conflict and political debates

associated with rural tourism. They consider the relationship between tourism,

politics and the issue of policies to control and direct tourism and recreation in

the countryside in the postwar period.

In contrast, Neate (1987) considers farm-based tourism in the Scilly Isles in

relation to attempts to diversify the economic base of family owned farms in the

climate of declining profitability in agriculture.

Vincent (1987) argues that rural tourism development requires that close-knit

communities adapt to the incursion of capitalism in the expansion of tourism,

where family independence, traditional values and cultural traditions may be

adversely affected.

The role of women in rural tourism has also belatedly attracted interest as a

highly seasonal and unstable economic activity, since tourism is one of the few

opportunities taken up by women but also contributes to the marginal status of

women in the rural workforce.

Increasingly, native people are becoming involved in tourism to help meet their

own goals of independence and cultural survival, yet tourism development

carries specials risks for them. There are also special problems related to

obtaining financing for projects, training with cultural sensitivity, attitudes towards

work and service, and making decisions communally (Smith, 1997).

In communities with low economic activity and low tourism development there will

be high hopes and expectations of tourism (Johnson et al., 1994). It has also be

notedthat long term residents of rural areas are much more likely to support

growth and change than newcomers, usually because the newcomers moved

there for amenities which they do not want changed (Getz, 1994).

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The Economic impact

The economic impact of rural tourism has been a fruitful area for research among

a range of social scientists, often emphasizing or challenging the role of tourism

as a panacea for all the economic and social ills of the countryside (Getz, 1981).

But Butler and Clark rightly acknowledge, tourism in rural areas is not necessarily

the magic solution to rural development, given its:

“Income leakages, volatility, declining multiplier, low pay, imported labor and the

conservatism of investors. The least favored circumstance in which to promote

tourism is when the rural economy is already weak, since tourism will create

highly unbalanced income and employment distributions. It is better supplement

for a thriving and diverse economy than as a mainstay of rural development“

(Butler and Clark, 1992: 175).

The environmental effect

In a rural context, the growing pressure emerging from the development-

intensive nature of tourism and the expansion of Mass tourism has posed many

new pressures as “new tourism” discovers the qualities of rural environments. In

fact, the construction of theme parks in rural environments, second homes

(Gartner, 1987), timeshare, conference centers, holiday villages have all

contributed to the insatiable tourism appetite for rural environments.

A number of recent special issues of journals have also focused on sustainability

and rural tourism. However, it is apparent that tourism in rural context displays

many of the features of the symbolic relationship, which exists between tourism

and the environment. For these reason it is appropriate to consider the tourism

resource base, emphasizing supply and demand features in relation to the

business aspects of Rural tourism (Page and Getz, 1997).

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Overall Primary producers and rural communities have increasingly turned to tourism as

an alternative means of achieving sustainable economic growth and

development through restructuring, and greater diversification, of economic

activity. Hall (1998) for example, has observed “tourism has emerged as one of

the central means by which rural areas can adjust themselves economically,

socially and politically to the new global environment”. Hall (1998) perceive that

expansion of tourism in rural areas as designed to:

• Sustain and create local incomes, employment and growth

• Contribute to the costs of providing economic and social infrastructure

• Encourage the development of other industrial sectors

• Contribute to local resident amenities and services

• Contribute to the conservation of environmental and cultural resources

RURAL TOURIST PROFILE

Tourist commission gives these characteristics to rural tourists:

1. Better educated

2. More discerning in their demands

3. More interest in “green” issues

4. More health conscious

5. Greater interest in specialty food (Tourist Commission, 1995)

“ Identifying and segmenting the rural tourism market is probably the least

researched and understood process in the rural tourism system” (Page and Getz,

1997: 17)

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Also, “The true dimensions of the rural tourism market are difficult to assess

because of the nature of statistical definitions” (O’Hollaran, 2000: 129)

MOTIVES OF THE RURAL TOURIST

O’Halloran (2002) provides important insights into the motives of those visiting

rural destinations that may well reflect those of domestic visitors. Visiting friends

and relatives in the region and “word of mouth recommendation” accounted for

almost 50% of the responses analysed. About 12% of those surveyed had an

interest in visiting rural areas with a slightly smaller percentage listing nature-

based activities as their reason for visiting. In terms of future growth potential, a

number of O’Halloran’s respondents reported being on a return visit. However,

for these and other rural visitors improvements in shopping facilities and

merchandise would enhance their visit (O’Halloran, 2000).

“A motivating factor for tourists to visit rural areas is to experience, or at least

view, what is still thought of as the “rural idyll” (Beeton 1999: 28)”.

CONCLUSIONS

Rural tourism could be a strategy for sustainable development for rural areas and

also could be a tool for product differentiation for area that are at stagnation

stage of the Destination Life Cycle model of Butler (1986). Although, Tourist

commission advises that:

1. Not all areas are suitable for development

2. Not all communities wish to be developed or are suitable for development

3. Not all forms of tourism activity are acceptable in every location

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4. There may have to be employed to prevent or repair environmental

damage caused by visitor pressure

Rural tourism is a good opportunity for agricultural based communities but the

setting of objectives and the final tourism development plan needs caution. For

better results the whole range of the stakeholders have to participate in the

planning stage. Slow and stable steps needs for this kind of planning in order

conflicts and mistakes to be avoided.

REFERENCES

1. Beeton S., (1999), “Rural tourism policy”, Flagstaff, Arizona 2. Butler R., Hall M., Jenkins J., (1998) “Tourism and recreation in rural

areas”, Wiley, Chichester 3. Cater E., Lowman G., (1994), “Ecotourism: A sustainable option?” Wiley,

Sussex 4. Douglas N, Derrett R., (2001), “Special Interest Tourism”, Wiley, London 5. Dowling R., Moore S.A., Newsome D., (2001) “Natural area tourism,

ecology impacts and management”, Channel View, New York 6. Eagles P., (1992), “The planning and management of environmentally

sensitive areas”, Longman, London 7. Gartner W.C., (1987) “Environmental impacts of recreational home

developments”, Annals of tourism research, Volume 10. No.2 8. Hall D., Brown F., (2000) “Tourism in peripheral areas”, Channel View,

Clevedon 9. Holden A., (2000), “Environment and tourism”, Routledge, London 10. Lane B., (1994), “What is rural tourism”, Journal of sustainable tourism

Volume 2, No.7 11. Mathieson A., Wall G., (1992), “Tourism: economic, physical and social

impacts”, Longman, London 12. Mieczkowski Z., (1995), “Environmental issues of tourism and recreation”

University press of America, Maryland 13. Neate S., (1987), “The role of tourism in sustaining farm structures”,

Aldershot, Avenbury 14. O’Halloran M., (2000), “Rural tourism in Australia”, school of tourism and

hospitality, La Trobe University 15. Page J., Getz D., (1997), “The business of Rural tourism”, Thomson

Business Express, London

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16. Pearce D., (1995), “Tourism today”, Longman, Essex 17. Prichard W., (1992), “Changing the essence, the art of creating and

leading fundamental change in organizations”, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco

18. Reid D., (1991), “Sustainable development, an introductory guide”, Earthscan, London

19. Richards G., Hall D., (2000), “Tourism and sustainable community development”, Routledge, New York

20. Smith V., Eadington W., (1992), “Tourism alternatives, potentials and problems in the development of tourism”, Wiley, Chichester

21. Smith V., Wilde P., (1977), “The multiplier impact of tourism in Tasmania”, Sorret, Melburne

22. Tribe J., Font X., Griffiths N., Vickery R., Yale K., (2000) “Environmental management for rural tourism and recreation”, Cassell, London

23. Urry, (1995), “Consuming places”, Routledge, London 24. Vincent J.A., (1980), “The political economy of alpine development”,

Sociologia ruralis 20 (3-4) 25. Wearing S., Neil J., (1999), “Ecotourism: impacts, potentials and

possibilities”, Butterworth-Heinemann, London 26. Winter M., (1987), “Conflict and practise in rural tourism”, Ecos: a review

for conservation 5(3): 10-15

rural tourism finall all

Documents

support tourist activity

special interest tourism

rural tourism market

carrying capacity

tourist arrivals

rural areas

rural environments

natural environment