Russia 1

Russia

Russian FederationРоссийская ФедерацияRossiyskaya Federatsiya

Anthem: Государственный гимн Российской Федерации  (Russian)Gosudarstvenny gimn Rossiyskoy Federatsii  (transliteration)

State Anthem of the Russian Federation

Capital(and largest city)

Moscow55°45′N 37°37′E

Official language(s)Russian official throughout the country; 27 others co-officialin various regions

Ethnic groups Russians 79.8%, Tatars 3.8%, Ukrainians 2%, Bashkirs 1.2%,Chuvash 1.1%, Chechen 0.9%, Armenians 0.8%, other –10.4%

Demonym Russian

Government Federal semi-presidential republic

 -  President Dmitry Medvedev

 -  Prime Minister Vladimir Putin (Independent, but leader of UR)

 -  Chairman of the Federation Council Sergey Mironov (FR)

 -  Chairman of the State Duma Boris Gryzlov (UR)

Legislature Federal Assembly

 -  Upper House Federation Council

 -  Lower House State Duma

Formation

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 -  Rurik Dynasty 862 

 -  Kievan Rus' 882 

 -  Vladimir-Suzdal Rus' 1169 

 -  Grand Duchy of Moscow 1283 

 -  Tsardom of Russia 1547 

 -  Russian Empire 1721 

 -  Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic 7 November 1917 

 -  Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 10 December 1922 

 -  Russian Federation 26 December 1991 

Area

 -  Total 17,075,400 km2 (1st)6,592,800 sq mi

 -  Water (%) 13[1] (including swamps)

Population

 -  2010 estimate 141,927,297[2]  (9th)

 -  2002 census 145,166,731[3]

 -  Density 8.3/km2 (217th)21.5/sq mi

GDP (PPP) 2009 estimate

 -  Total $2.109 trillion[4]

 -  Per capita $14,919[4]

GDP (nominal) 2009 estimate

 -  Total $1.229 trillion[4]

 -  Per capita $8,693[4]

HDI (2007) ▲ 0.817[5]  (high) (71st)

Currency Ruble (RUB)

Time zone (UTC+2 to +11 (exc. +4))

 -  Summer (DST)  (UTC+3 to +12 (exc. +5))

Drives on the right

Internet TLD .ru, .su, .рф2

Calling code +7

1 The Russian Federation is one of the successors to earlier forms of continuous statehood, starting from the 9th Century ADwhen Rurik, a Viking warrior, was chosen as the ruler of Novgorod, a point traditionally taken as the beginning of Russianstatehood.

2 The .рф top-level domain is available for use in the Russian Federation since May 2010 and only accepts domains whichuse the Cyrillic alphabet[6] (e. g. http:/ / правительство. рф).

Russia (pronounced /ˈrʌʃə/ ( listen); Russian: Россия, tr. Rossiya, pronounced [rɐˈsʲijə]  ( listen)), also officially known as the Russian Federation[7] [8] (Russian: Российская Федерация, tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya,

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pronounced [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈraʦəjə]  ( listen)), is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidentialrepublic, comprising 83 federal subjects. Russia shares borders with the following countries (from northwest tosoutheast): Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both via Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine,Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, and North Korea. It also has maritime borders with Japan (bythe Sea of Okhotsk) and the United States (by the Bering Strait).At 17075400 square kilometres (6592800 sq mi), Russia is by far the largest country in the world, covering morethan a ninth of the Earth's land area. Russia is also the ninth most populous nation in the world with 142 millionpeople.[1] It extends across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning 9 time zones and incorporatinga wide range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energyresources,[9] and is considered an energy superpower.[10] [11] [12] It has the world's largest forest reserves and itslakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's fresh water.[13]

The nation's history began with that of the East Slavs, who emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the3rd and 8th centuries AD.[14] Founded and ruled by a noble Viking warrior class and their descendants, the first EastSlavic state, Kievan Rus', arose in the 9th century and adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire in988,[15] beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the nextmillennium.[15] Kievan Rus' ultimately disintegrated and the lands were divided into many small feudal states. Themost powerful successor state to Kievan Rus' was Moscow, which served as the main force in the Russianreunification process and independence struggle against the Golden Horde. Moscow gradually reunified thesurrounding Russian principalities and came to dominate the cultural and political legacy of Kievan Rus'. By the18th century, the nation had greatly expanded through conquest, annexation, and exploration to become the RussianEmpire, which was the third largest empire in history, stretching from Poland in Europe to Alaska in North America.Russia established worldwide power and influence from the times of the Russian Empire to being the largest andleading constituent of the Soviet Union, the world's first constitutionally socialist state and a recognizedsuperpower,[16] that played a decisive role in the allied victory in World War II.[17] [18] [19] The Soviet era saw someof the greatest technology achievements of the nation, such as the world's first human spaceflight. The RussianFederation was founded following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, but is recognized as the continuinglegal personality of the Soviet state.[20] Russia has the world's 12th largest economy by nominal GDP or the seventhlargest by purchasing power parity, with the fifth largest nominal military budget. It is one of the five recognizednuclear weapons states and possesses the world's largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction.[21] Russia is agreat power and a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, a member of the G8, G20, the Councilof Europe, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization and the EurasianEconomic Community, the OSCE, and is the leading member of the Commonwealth of Independent States.

EtymologyThe country´s original name was Русь (Rus'), a medieval state populated mostly by the Early East Slavs. However,this proper name became more prominent in the later history and the country typically was called by its inhabitants"Руськая Земля" (ruskaya zemlya) which could be translated as "Russian Land" or "Land of Rus'". The differencebetween the two terms would be like the difference between, for example, "Germany" and "German Land" or "Landof Germans". In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus' bymodern historiography.An old Latin version of the name Rus' was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus' thatwere adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия (Rossiya), comes from the Greek versionof Rus', spelled Ρωσία [rosˈia], which was the denomination of Kievan Rus in the Byzantine Empire.

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GeographyRussia is the largest country in the world; its total area is 17075400 square kilometres (6592800 sq mi). The countrycontains 23 UNESCO World Heritage Sites,[22] 40 UNESCO Biosphere reserves,[23] 40 National Parks and 101nature reserves. Russia has a wide natural resource base, including major deposits of timber, petroleum, natural gas,coal, ores and other mineral resources.

Topography

Topography of Russia.

The two widest separated points in Russiaare about 8000 km (4971 mi) apart along ageodesic line. These points are: theboundary with Poland on a 60 km (37 mi)long spit of land separating the Gulf ofGdańsk from the Vistula Lagoon; and thefarthest southeast of the Kuril Islands, a fewmiles off Hokkaidō Island, Japan. Thepoints which are furthest separated inlongitude are 6600 km (4101 mi) apartalong a geodesic. These points are: in thewest, the same spit; in the east, the BigDiomede Island (Ostrov Ratmanova). TheRussian Federation spans 9 time zones.With access to three of the world's oceans — the Atlantic, Arctic, and Pacific — Russian fishing fleets are a majorcontributor to the world's fish supply.[24] The Caspian is the source of what is considered one of the finest caviar inthe world.

Central Russian Upland near Zaraysk, MoscowOblast.

Most of Russia consists of vast stretches of plains that arepredominantly steppe to the south and heavily forested to the north,with tundra along the northern coast. Russia possesses 10% of theworld's arable land.[25] Mountain ranges are found along the southernborders, such as the Caucasus (containing Mount Elbrus, which at5642 m (18510 ft) is the highest point in both Russia and Europe) andthe Altai (containing Mount Belukha, which at the 4506 m (14783 ft) isthe highest point of Asian Russia); and in the eastern parts, such as theVerkhoyansk Range or the volcanoes on Kamchatka. The UralMountains, rich in mineral resources, form a north-south range thatdivides Europe and Asia. Russia has an extensive coastline of over37000 km (22991 mi) along the Arctic and Pacific Oceans, as well as

along the Baltic Sea, Sea of Azov, Black and Caspian seas.[26]

The Barents Sea, White Sea, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, East Siberian Sea, Chukchi Sea, Bering Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, andthe Sea of Japan are linked to Russia via the Arctic and Pacific oceans. Russia's major islands and archipelagosinclude: Novaya Zemlya, the Franz Josef Land, the Severnaya Zemlya, the New Siberian Islands, Wrangel Island,the Kuril Islands, and Sakhalin. The Diomede Islands (one

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Mount Elbrus, the highest point of the Caucasus,Russia and Europe.

The plains of Western Siberia, Vasyugan River,Tomsk Oblast.

controlled by Russia, the other by the United States) are just 3 km(1.9 mi) apart, and Kunashir Island is about 20 km (12.4 mi) fromHokkaidō.

Russia has thousands of rivers and inland bodies of water providing itwith one of the world's largest surface water resources. The largest andmost prominent of Russia's bodies of fresh water is Lake Baikal, theworld's deepest, purest, oldest and most capacious freshwater lake.[27]

Lake Baikal alone contains over one fifth of the world's fresh surfacewater.[28] Other major lakes include Lake Ladoga and Lake Onega,two of the largest lakes in Europe. Russia is second only to Brazil involume of total renewable water resources. Of the country's 100,000rivers,[29] the Volga is the most famous, not only because it is thelongest river in Europe, but also because of its major role in Russianhistory.[26]

The Brown bear is a symbol of Russia.

Taiga forest in winter, Arkhangelsk Oblast.

Climate

The climate of the Russian Federation formed under the influence ofseveral determining factors. The enormous size of the country and theremoteness of many areas from the sea result in the dominance of thehumid continental and subarctic climate, which is prevalent inEuropean and Asian Russia except for the tundra and the extremesoutheast. Mountains in the south obstruct the flow of warm air massesfrom the Indian Ocean, while the plain of the west and north makes thecountry open to Arctic and Atlantic influences.[30]

Throughout much of the territory there are only two distinct seasons —winter and summer; spring and autumn are usually brief periods ofchange between extremely low temperatures and extremely high.[30]

The coldest month is January (February on the shores of the sea), thewarmest usually is July. Great ranges of temperature are typical. Inwinter, temperatures get colder both from south to north and from westto east. Summers can be quite hot, even in Siberia. A small part ofBlack Sea coast around Sochi has a subtropical climate.[31] Thecontinental interiors are the driest areas.

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The Amur Tiger's natural habitat isconfined to the Russian Far East.

A birch forest in Siberia, Novosibirsk Oblast.Birch is a national tree of Russia.

Flora and fauna

From north to south the East European Plain, also known as RussianPlain, is clad sequentially in Arctic tundra, coniferous forest (taiga),mixed and broad-leaf forests, grassland (steppe), and semi-desert(fringing the Caspian Sea), as the changes in vegetation reflect thechanges in climate. Siberia supports a similar sequence but largely istaiga. Russia has the world's largest forest reserves,[13] known as "thelungs of Europe",[32] second only to the Amazon Rainforest in theamount of carbon dioxide it absorbs.

There are 266 mammal species and 780 bird species in Russia. A totalof 415 animal species have been included in the Red Data Book of theRussian Federation as of 1997[33] and are now protected.

History

Early periods

Kurgan hypothesis: South Russia as the urheimatof Indo-European peoples.

One of the first modern human bones of 35,000 years old were foundin Kostenki on the Don River banks. In prehistoric times, the vaststeppes of Southern Russia were home to tribes of nomadicpastoralists. In classical antiquity, the Pontic Steppe was known asScythia.[34]

Remnants of these steppe civilizations were discovered in such placesas Ipatovo,[34] Sintashta,[35] Arkaim,[36] and Pazyryk,[37] which bearthe earliest known traces of mounted warfare, a key feature in nomadicway of life. In the latter part of the 8th century BCE, Greek tradersbrought classical civilization to the trade emporiums in Tanais andPhanagoria.[38]

Between the third and sixth centuries AD, the Bosporan Kingdom, a Hellenistic polity which succeeded the Greekcolonies,[39] was overwhelmed by successive waves of nomadic invasions,[40] led by warlike tribes, such as the Hunsand Turkic Avars. A Turkic people, the Khazars, ruled the lower Volga basin steppes between the Caspian and BlackSeas until the 8th century.[41]

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An approximate map of the cultures inEuropean Russia at the arrival of the

Varangians.

Kievan Rus' in the 11th century.

Alexander Nevsky by Pavel Korin on the1967 Soviet postage stamp.

The ancestors of modern Russians are the Slavic tribes, whose originalhome is thought by some scholars to have been the wooded areas of thePinsk Marshes.[42] The Early East Slavs gradually settled Western Russia intwo waves: one moving from Kiev toward present-day Suzdal and Muromand another from Polotsk toward Novgorod and Rostov.[43] From the 7thcentury onwards, the East Slavs constituted the bulk of the population inWestern Russia[43] and slowly but peacefully assimilated the nativeFinno-Ugric tribes, including the Merya,[44] the Muromians,[45] and theMeshchera.[46]

Kievan Rus'

The 9th century saw the establishment of Kievan Rus', a predecessor stateto Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Scandinavian Norsemen, called "Vikings"in Western Europe and "Varangians" in the East,[47] combined piracy andtrade in their roamings over much of Europe. In the mid-9th century, theyventured along the waterways extending from the eastern Baltic to theBlack and Caspian Seas.[48]

According to the earliest Russian chronicle, a Varangian from Rus' people,named Rurik, was elected ruler of Novgorod in 862. His successor Oleg theProphet moved south and conquered Kiev in 882,[49] which had beenpreviously dominated by the Khazars;[50] so the state of Kievan Rus'started. Oleg, Rurik's son Igor and Igor's son Svyatoslav subsequentlysubdued all East Slavic tribes to Kievan rule, destroyed the Khazarkhaganate and launched several military expeditions to Byzantium.

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The Baptism of Kievans, a painting by KlavdiyLebedev.

In the 10th to 11th centuries Kievan Rus' became one of the largest andmost prosperous states in Europe.[51] The reigns of Vladimir the Great(980–1015) and his son Yaroslav I the Wise (1019–1054) constitutethe Golden Age of Kiev, which saw the acceptance of OrthodoxChristianity from Byzantium and the creation of the first East Slavicwritten legal code, the Russkaya Pravda.

In the 11th and 12th centuries, constant incursions by nomadic Turkictribes, such as the Kipchaks and the Pechenegs, caused a massivemigration of Slavic populations to the safer, heavily forested regions ofthe north, particularly to the area known as Zalesye.[52] The age offeudalism and decentralization had come, marked by constantin-fighting between members of the princely family that ruled Kievan Rus' collectively. Kiev's dominance waned, tothe benefit of Vladimir-Suzdal in the north-east, Novgorod in the north-west and Galicia-Volhynia in the south-west.

Ultimately Kievan Rus' disintegrated, with the final blow being the Mongol invasion of 1237–1240,[53] that resultedin the destruction of Kiev[54] and the death of about half the population of Rus'.[55] The invaders, later known asTatars, formed the state of the Golden Horde, which pillaged the Russian principalities and ruled the southern andcentral expanses of Russia for over three centuries, impeding the country's economic and social development.[56]

Galicia-Volhynia was eventually assimilated by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, while the Mongol-dominatedVladimir-Suzdal and the independent Novgorod Republic, two regions on the periphery of Kiev, established thebasis for the modern Russian nation.[15] The Novgorod Republic together with Pskov retained some degree ofautonomy during the time of the Mongol yoke and were largely spared the atrocities that affected the rest of thecountry. Led by Alexander Nevsky, Novgorodians repelled the invading Swedes in the Battle of the Neva in 1240, aswell as the Germanic crusaders in the Battle of the Ice in 1242, breaking their attempts to colonize the Northern Rus'.

Grand Duchy of Moscow

Sergius of Radonezh blessing Dmitri Donskoi inTroitse-Sergieva Lavra, before the Battle of Kulikovo. A

painting by Ernest Lissner.

The most powerful successor state to Kievan Rus' was theGrand Duchy of Moscow ("Moscovy" in the Westernchronicles), initially a part of Vladimir-Suzdal. While stillunder the domain of the Mongol-Tatars and with theirconnivance, Moscow began to assert its influence in WesternRussia in the early 14th century.

Those were hard times, with frequent Mongol-Tatar raids andagriculture suffering from the beginning of the Little Ice Age.Like in the rest of Europe, plagues hit Russia somewhere onceevery five or six years from 1350 to 1490. However, due tothe lower population density and better hygiene (widespreadpracticing of banya),[57] the population loss caused by plagueswasn't so severe as in the Western Europe, and the pre-Plague

populations seem to have been reached in Russia as early as 1500.[58]

Assisted by the Russian Orthodox Church and Saint Sergius of Radonezh's spiritual revival, under the leadership ofPrince Dmitri Donskoy of Moscow, the united army of Russian

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The Dormition Cathedral in MoscowKremlin. Built in the 15th century by an

Italian architect, it became the site ofcoronation of Russian Tsars and Emperors.

principalities inflicted a milestone defeat on the Mongol-Tatars in the Battleof Kulikovo (1380). Moscow gradually absorbed the surroundingprincipalities, including eventually the strong rivals, such as Tver andNovgorod, and thus became the main leading force in the process ofRussia's reunification and expansion.

Ivan III (Ivan the Great) finally threw off the control of the Golden Horde,consolidated the whole of Central and Northern Rus' under Moscow'sdominion, and was the first to take the title "grand duke of all theRussias".[59] After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Moscow claimedsuccession to the legacy of the Eastern Roman Empire. Ivan III marriedSophia Palaiologina, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor ConstantineXI, and made the Byzantine double-headed eagle his own, and eventuallyRussian, coat-of-arms.

Tsardom of Russia

Portrait of Ivan IV by ViktorVasnetsov, 1897

In development of the Third Rome ideas, the Grand Duke Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible)was officially crowned the first Tsar ("Caesar") of Russia in 1547. The Tsarpromulgated a new code of laws (Sudebnik of 1550), established the first Russianfeudal representative body (Zemsky Sobor) and introduced local self-management intothe rural regions.[60] [61]

During his long reign, Ivan IV nearly doubled the already large Russian territory byannexing the three Tatar khanates (parts of disintegrated Golden Horde): Kazan andAstrakhan along the Volga River, and Sibirean Khanate in South Western Siberia. Thusby the end of the 16th century Russia was transformed into a multiethnic,multiconfessional and transcontinental state.

In contrast to these great achievements in the East, Ivan IV's policy in the West broughtquite disastrous results. The Russian state was weakened by the long and unsuccessful Livonian War against thecoalition of Poland, Lithuania, and Sweden for access to the Baltic coast and sea trade.[62] At the same time Tatars ofthe Crimean Khanate, the only remaining successor to the Golden Horde, continued to invade Southern Russia in aseries of slave raids,[63] and were even able to burn down Moscow in 1571.[64]

The death of Ivan's sons marked the end of the ancient Rurikid Dynasty in 1598, and in combination with the famineof 1601–1603[65] led to the civil war, the rule of pretenders and foreign intervention during the Time of Troubles inthe early 1600s.[66] Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth occupied parts of Russia, including Moscow. In 1612 thePoles were forced to retreat by the Russian volunteer corps, led by two national heroes, merchant Kuzma Minin andPrince

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Monument to Minin and Pozharsky(1804–1816) in front of Saint Basil's

Cathedral

Dmitry Pozharsky. A new dynasty, the Romanovs, acceded the throne in 1613by the decision of Zemsky Sobor, and Russia started its gradual recovery fromthe crisis.

Yermak's Conquest of Siberia by Vasily Surikov.

Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17thcentury, which was the age of Cossacks. Cossacks werewarriors organized into military communities,resembling pirates and pioneers of the New World. In1648, the peasants of Ukraine joined the ZaporozhianCossacks in rebellion against Polish-LithuanianCommonwealth during the Khmelnytsky Uprising,because of the social and religious oppression theysuffered under Polish rule. In 1654 the Ukrainianleader, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, offered to place Ukraineunder the protection of the Russian Tsar, Aleksey I. Aleksey's acceptance of this offer led to a protracted warbetween Poland and Russia. Finally, Ukraine was split along the river Dnieper, leaving the western part (orRight-bank Ukraine) under Polish rule and eastern part (Left-bank Ukraine and Kiev) under Russian. Soon after that,in 1670–71 the Don Cossacks led by Stenka Razin initiated a major Cossack and peasant uprising in the Volgaregion, but the Tsar's troops were successful in defeating the rebels.

In the east, the rapid Russian exploration and colonisation of the huge territories of Siberia was led mostly byCossacks hunting for valuable furs and ivory. Russian explorers pushed eastward primarily along the Siberian riverroutes, and by the mid-17th century there were Russian settlements in the Eastern Siberia, on the Chukchi Peninsula,along the Amur River, and on the Pacific coast. In 1648 the Bering Strait between Asia and North America waspassed for the first time by the expedition of Fedot Popov and Semyon Dezhnev.

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Imperial Russia

Peter the Great officiallyproclaimed the existence ofthe Russian Empire in 1721.

A portrait by HippolyteDelaroche.

Cathrine II the Great ruled Russiaduring the Age of Enlightenment. A

portrait by Dmitry Levitzky.

Under Peter I (Peter the Great), Russia was proclaimed an Empire in 1721 andbecame recognized as a world power. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeatedSweden in the Great Northern War, forcing it to cede West Karelia and Ingria(two regions lost by Russia in the Time of Troubles),[67] as well as Estland andLivland, securing Russia's access to the sea and sea trade.[68] On the Baltic SeaPeter founded a new capital called Saint Petersburg, later known as Russia'sWindow to Europe. Peter's reforms brought considerable Western Europeancultural influences to Russia.

The reign of Peter I's daughter Elisabeth in 1741–1762 saw Russia'sparticipation in the Seven Years War (1756–1763), sometimes called the firstactual World War. During this conflict Russia was able to annex Eastern Prussiafor a while, and even take Berlin once, however upon Elisabeth's death all theseconquests were returned to Kingdom of Prussia by pro-Prussian Peter III ofRussia.

Catherine II (Catherine the Great), who ruled from 1762 to 1796, continued theefforts to establish Russia as one of the Great Powers of Europe. She extendedRussian political control over the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth andincorporated most of the Commonwealth territories into Russia during thePartitions of Poland, pushing the Russian frontier westward into Central Europe.

In the south, after successful Russo-Turkish Wars against the Ottoman Empire,Cathrine advanced Russia's boundary to the Black Sea, defeating the Crimeankhanate. As a result of victories over the Ottomans, by the early 19th centuryRussia also had made significant territorial gains in Transcaucasia. Thiscontinued with Alexander I's (1801–1825) wresting of Finland from theweakened kingdom of Sweden in 1809 and of Bessarabia from the Ottomans in1812.

At the same time, in the second half of the 18th century and in the first half ofthe 19th, Russians colonised Alaska and even founded some settlements in California, like Fort Ross. In 1803–1806the first Russian circumnavigation was made, followed during the 19th century by the other notable Russian seaexploration voyages. In 1820 the Russian expedition discovered the Antarctic continent.

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March of Suvorov through the Alps by VasilySurikov. A scene from Generalissimo

Suvorov's Italian and Swiss expedition.

Napoleon's withdrawal from Russia, a painting byAdolph Northen.

In several coalition alliances with various European countries, Russiafought against Napoleon's France. Napoleon's invasion of Russia at theheight of his power in 1812 failed miserably as the obstinate Russianresistance in combination with the bitterly cold Russian winter dealthim a disastrous defeat, in which more than 95% of his invading forceperished.[69] Led by Mikhail Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly, theRussian army ousted Napoleon from the country and drove throughEurope as a part of the Sixth Coalition, finally entering Paris.

Tsar Alexander I headed Russia's delegation at the Congress of Viennathat defined the map of post-Napoleonic Europe. The officers of theNapoleonic Wars brought ideas of liberalism back to Russia with themand even attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during the abortiveDecembrist revolt of 1825, which was followed by several decades ofpolitical repression.

The prevalence of serfdom and the conservative policies of Nicolas I(1825–1855) impeded the development of Russia in the mid-nineteenthcentury, when a zenith period of Russia's power and influence inEurope was disrupted by defeat in the Crimean War. Nicholas'ssuccessor Alexander II (1855–1881) enacted significant reforms,including the abolition of serfdom in 1861; these Great Reformsspurred industrialization and modernized the Russian army, which hadsuccessfully liberated Bulgaria from Ottoman rule in 1877–1878Russo-Turkish War.

Between 1850 and 1900, Russia's population doubled, but it remainedchiefly rural.[70] Eleven major famines scourged Russia between 1845and 1922, one of the worst being the famine of 1891–2.[71]

Many socio-economic conflicts were aggravated during Alexander III’sreign (1881–1894) and under his son, Nicholas II (1894–1917). Harsh

conditions in factories created mass support for the revolutionary socialist movement. In January 1905, strikingworkers peaceably demonstrated for reforms in Saint Petersburg but were fired upon by troops, killing and woundinghundreds. This event, known as "Bloody Sunday", along with the abject failure of the Tsar's military forces in theinitially popular Russo-Japanese War, ignited the Russian Revolution of 1905.

Although the uprising was put down and Nicholas II retained much of his power, he was forced to concede majorreforms, including granting the freedoms of speech and assembly, the legalization of political parties and the creationof an elected legislative assembly, the Duma; however, the hopes for basic improvements in the lives of industrialworkers were mainly unfulfilled.

The Russian Empire in 1866 and its spheres ofinfluence.

In 1914 Russia entered World War I in response to Austria'sdeclaration of war on Russia's ally Serbia, and fought acrossmultiple fronts while isolated from its Triple Entente allies. TheRussian army achieved such successes as the Brusilov Offensivein 1916, destroying the military of Austria-Hungary almostcompletely.

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Bolshevik by Boris Kustodiev, a visual representationof the Russian Revolution.

However, the already-existing public distrust of the regime wasdeepened by the rising costs of war, casualties (Russia suffered thehighest number of both military and civilian deaths of the EntentePowers), and rumors of corruption and treason, leading to theoutbreak of the Russian Revolution of 1917, carried out in twomajor acts.

A series of uprisings were organized by workers and peasantsthroughout the country, as well as by soldiers in the Russian army,who were mainly of peasant origin; many of them were led bydemocratically elected councils called Soviets. This firstrevolution, or February Revolution, overthrew the Russianmonarchy, which was replaced by a shaky coalition of politicalparties that declared itself the Provisional Government.

The abdication of Nicholas II marked the end of imperial rule in Russia; the last Tsar and his family were imprisonedand later executed during the Civil War. While initially receiving the support of the Soviets, the ProvisionalGovernment proved unable to resolve many problems which had led to the February Revolution. The secondrevolution, the October Revolution, led by Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Governmentand created the world’s first socialist state.

Soviet Russia

Vladimir Lenin, leader of theBolsheviks and founder of the

USSR.

Following the October Revolution, a civil war broke out between the new regimeand the counter-revolutionary White movement, while the Treaty of Brest-Litovskconcluded hostilities with the Central Powers in World War I. Russia lost itsUkrainian, Polish, Baltic, and Finnish territories by signing the treaty.

The Allied powers launched a military intervention in support of anti-Communistforces and both the Bolsheviks and White movement carried out campaigns ofdeportations and executions against each other, known respectively as the RedTerror and White Terror. By the end of the Russian Civil War the Russian economyand infrastructure were heavily damaged. Millions were displaced,[72] and someeventually fled Russia.[73] During the same period, the famine of 1921 claimed 5million victims.[74]

The Russian SFSR together with three other Soviet republics formed the SovietUnion on 30 December 1922. Out of the 15 republics that later constituted theSoviet Union, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, the largest republic

in terms of size and making up over half of the total USSR population, dominated the Soviet Union for its entire69-year history; the USSR was often referred to, though incorrectly, as "Russia" and its people as "Russians".

Following Lenin's death in 1924, Joseph Stalin, an elected General Secretary of the Communist Party, managed toput down all opposition groups within the party and consolidate much power in his hands. Leon Trotsky, the mainproponent of the world revolution, was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929, and Stalin's idea of socialism in onecountry became the primary line. In 1930s a

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Worker and Kolkhoz Woman, a giantsculpture by Vera Mukhina atop theSoviet pavilion at 1937 World's Fair

in Paris.

number of open political trials gained much attention in the USSR and the world.The continued internal struggle in the Bolshevik party culminated in the GreatPurge, a period of mass repressions in 1937–38, in which hundreds of thousandsof people were executed, including experienced military leadership.[75]

Since the end of 1920s, the government launched a planned economy, rapidindustrialization of the largely rural country, and collectivization of itsagriculture. Millions of citizens were relocated during the dekulakizationcampaign that accompanied the collectivization. Millions of people passedthrough the Gulag from 1929 to 1953,[76] with millions more being deported andexiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union.[77] The temporary transitionaldisorganisation of the country's agriculture, combined with the harsh statepolicies and a drought, led to the famine of 1932–1933.[78] However, thoughwith a heavy price, the Soviet Union was transformed from an agrarian economyto a major industrial powerhouse in a short span of time.

The 1939 poster depicting the fastmovement of the USSR from socialism tocommunism, with Joseph Stalin as a driver

of the Soviet locomotive.

In 1933, in Germany, Hitler and his Nazi party came to power, beingoutspoken enemies of communism and proponents of external aggressionand German expansion. Very soon the Soviet foreign policy changeddramatically, completely dropping the idea of seeking the world revolution(the very mention of it was eradicated from the new 1936 SovietConstitution). The USSR entered the League of Nations, and Sovietdiplomacy tried to establish counter-Nazism security pacts with majorEuropean countries, but these attempts mostly failed.

The Appeasement policy of Great Britain and France towards Hitler'sannexions of Ruhr, Austria and finally of Czechoslovakia (following theMunich agreement of 1938) enlarged the might of Nazi Germany and put athreat of war to the Soviet Union. Around the same time the German Reichallied with the Empire of Japan, a rival of the USSR on the Far East and anopen enemy in the Soviet–Japanese Border Wars in 1938–1939.

In August 1939, after another failure of talks with Britain and France, theSoviet government agreed to conclude the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact withGermany, pledging non-aggression between the two countries and dividingtheir spheres of influence in Eastern Europe. This allowed Hitler to finallystart World War II and to conquer Poland, France and other countries

acting on single front. At the same time the USSR was able to regain some of the former territories of the RussianEmpire in Eastern Europe (see Soviet invasion of Poland and Winter War), and to gain one and a half more years forbuilding up the Soviet military.

On 22 June 1941, Nazi Germany broke the non-aggression treaty and invaded the Soviet Union with the largest andmost powerful invasion force in human history,[79] opening the largest theater of the Second World War. Althoughthe German army had considerable success early on, their onslaught was halted in the Battle of Moscow.

Russia 15

Stalingrad, 1942. The vast majority of the fighting in World War II tookplace on the Eastern Front.[17] Nazi Germany suffered 80% to 93% of its

casualties there.[18] [19]

Subsequently the Germans were dealt majordefeats first at the Battle of Stalingrad in the winterof 1942–1943,[80] and then in the Battle of Kurskin the summer of 1943. Another German failurewas the battle of Leningrad, in which the city wasfully blockaded on land between 1941–44 byGerman and Finnish forces, suffering starvationand more than a million deaths, but neversurrendering.[81]

Under Stalin's administration and the leadership ofsuch prominent commanders as Georgy Zhukovand Konstantin Rokossovsky, Soviet forces drovethrough Eastern Europe in 1944–45 and capturedBerlin in May 1945. After marking this by theMoscow Victory Parade of 1945, the Soviet Armyousted Japanese from China's Manchukuo andNorth Korea, contributing to the allied victory over Japan.

The Moscow Victory Parade of 1945 was the firstmajor Soviet event recorded on color film.

1941–1945 period of World War II is known in Russia as GreatPatriotic War. In this conflict, which included many of the mostlethal battle operations in human history, Soviet military andcivilian deaths were 10.6 million and 15.9 million respectively,[82]

accounting for about a third of all World War II casualties. TheSoviet economy and infrastructure suffered massivedevastation[83] but the Soviet Union emerged as an acknowledgedsuperpower.

The Red Army occupied Eastern Europe after the war, includingthe eastern half of Germany. Dependent socialist governmentswere installed in these satellite states. The USSR maintainedcontrol over these nations by many means, sometimes by military

force, as in the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. Becoming the world's second nuclear weapons power, the USSRestablished the Warsaw Pact alliance and entered into a struggle for global dominance with the United States, whichbecame known as the Cold War.

The Soviet Union exported its Communist ideology to newly formed independent allies, the People's Republic ofChina and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, while also helping these countries in industrialization anddevelopment. Subsequently the ideas of Communism gained ground in Cuba and many other countries.After Stalin's death and a short period of collective leadership, a new leader Nikita Khrushchev denounced the cult ofStalin's personality and started the process of de-Stalinization. Gulag labor camps were abolished and a great manyof prisoners released;[84] the general easement of repressive policies became known later as Khruschev thaw.

Russia 16

First human in space, YuriGagarin.

In 1957 the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, thusstarting the Space Age, and the Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the firsthuman to orbit the Earth aboard Vostok 1 manned spacecraft on 12 April 1961.Tensions with the United States heightened when the two rivals clashed over thedeployment of the U.S. Jupiter missiles in Turkey and Soviet missiles in Cuba.

Ostankino TV Tower in Moscow, completed in1967 on the 50th anniversary of the Octoberrevolution. 540 metre high, it was the world's

tallest free-standing structure at that time.

Following the ousting of Khrushchev, another period of collective ruleensued, until Leonid Brezhnev established himself in the early 1970sas the pre-eminent figure in Soviet politics. Brezhnev's rule oversaweconomic stagnation, since the reforms, attempted by the PrimeMinister Alexey Kosygin, were stifled. Those reforms (see Kosyginreform) had been aimed into shifting the emphasis of the Sovieteconomy from heavy industry and military production to light industryand the production of consumer goods. However that would meansignificant decentralization of economy and implementingcapitalist-like elements, and the Communist leadership wouldn't acceptthis.

In 1979 the Soviet forces entered Afghanistan at the request of theexisting communist government. The subsequent occupation drainedeconomic resources and dragged on without achieving meaningfulpolitical results. Ultimately Soviet forces were withdrawn fromAfghanistan in 1989 because of international opposition, persistentanti-Soviet guerilla warfare (enhanced by the U.S.), and a lack ofsupport from Soviet citizens. Tensions rose between the U.S. andSoviet Union in the early 1980s, fueled by anti-Soviet rhetoric in theU.S., the ongoing Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, the SDI proposal, and the controversial downing in 1983 ofKorean Air Lines Flight 007 by the Soviets west of Sakhalin near Moneron Island.

Prior to 1991, the Soviet economy was the second largest in the world,[85] but during its last years it was afflicted byshortages of goods in grocery stores, huge budget deficits and explosive growth in money supply leading toinflation.[86] From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the policies of glasnost(openness) and perestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to modernize the country and make it more democratic.However, this unexpectedly led to the rise of nationalist movements and dissolution of the Soviet Union.

In August 1991, an unsuccessful military coup, directed against Gorbachev and aimed at preserving the SovietUnion, instead led to its collapse. In Russian SFSR, Boris Yeltsin came to power and declared the end of socialistrule. The USSR splintered into fifteen independent republics and was officially dissolved in December 1991. BorisYeltsin was elected the President of Russia in June 1991, in the first direct presidential election in Russian history.

Russia 17

Russian Federation

5 Russian rubles banknote of 1997, with Millennium ofRussia monument and St. Sophia Cathedral on theobverse, while Novgorod Kremlin on the reverse.

During and after the disintegration of the USSR, whenwide-ranging reforms including privatisation and market andtrade liberalization were being undertaken,[87] the Russianeconomy went through a major crisis. The period wascharacterized by deep contraction of output, with GDP decliningby roughly 50% between 1990 and the end of 1995 and industrialoutput declining by over 50%.[87] [88]

In October 1991, Yeltsin announced that Russia would proceedwith radical, market-oriented reform along the lines of "shocktherapy", as recommended by the United States and InternationalMonetary Fund.[89] [90] Price controls were abolished,privatization was started. Millions plunged into poverty, from1.5% of the population living in poverty in the late Soviet era, to39%–49% by mid-1993.[91]

Delays in wage payment became a chronic problem with millionsbeing paid months, even years late. Russia took up theresponsibility for settling the USSR's external debts, even though its population made up just half of the populationof the USSR at the time of its dissolution.[92] The privatization process largely shifted control of enterprises fromstate agencies to groups of individuals with inside connections in the Government and the mafia. Corruption becamean everyday rule of life. Many of the newly rich mobsters and businesspeople took billions in cash and assets outsideof the country in an enormous capital flight.[93] The depression of state and economy led to the collapse of socialservices; the birth rate plummeted while the death rate skyrocketed. The early and mid-1990s saw extremelawlessness, rise of criminal gangs and violent crime.[94]

Moscow International Business Center under construction.

The 1990s were plagued by armed conflicts inthe Northern Caucasus, both ethnic conflictsbetween local groups and separatist Islamistinsurrections against federal power. Since theChechen separatists had declared independencein the early 1990s, an intermittent guerrilla warwas fought between the rebel groups and theRussian military. Terrorist attacks againstcivilians carried out by separatists, most notablythe Moscow theater hostage crisis and Beslanschool siege, caused hundreds of deaths anddrew worldwide attention.

High budget deficits and the 1997 AsianFinancial Crisis caused the financial crisis of1998[95] and resulted in further GDP decline.[87]

On 31 December 1999 President Yeltsin resigned, handing the post to the recently appointed Prime Minister,Vladimir Putin, who then won the 2000 presidential election.

Putin suppressed the Chechen insurgency, although sporadic violence still occurs throughout the Northern Caucasus. High oil prices and initially weak currency followed by increasing domestic demand, consumption and investments has helped the economy grow for nine straight years, improving the standard of living and increasing Russia's influence on the world stage.[26] While many reforms made during the Putin presidency have been generally

Russia 18

criticized by Western nations as un-democratic,[96] Putin's leadership over the return of order, stability, and progresshas won him widespread popularity in Russia.[97] On 2 March 2008, Dmitry Medvedev was elected President ofRussia, whilst Putin became Prime Minister.

Government and politics

Entrance to the Kremlin Senate, part of theMoscow Kremlin and the working residence of

the Russian president.

The White House, the seat of the RussianGovernment, Moscow.

According to the Constitution, which was adopted by nationalreferendum on 12 December 1993 following the 1993 Russianconstitutional crisis, Russia is a federation and formally asemi-presidential republic, wherein the President is the head of state[98]

and the Prime Minister is the head of government. The RussianFederation is fundamentally structured as a representative democracy.Executive power is exercised by the government.[99]

Legislative power is vested in the two chambers of the FederalAssembly.[100] The government is regulated by a system of checks andbalances defined by the Constitution of the Russian Federation, whichserves as the country's supreme legal document and as a social contractfor the people of the Russian Federation. The federal government iscomposed of three branches:

• Legislative: The bicameral Federal Assembly, made up of the StateDuma and the Federation Council adopts federal law, declares war,approves treaties, has the power of the purse, and has power ofimpeachment, by which it can remove the President.

• Executive: The president is the commander-in-chief of the military,can veto legislative bills before they become law, and appoints theCabinet and other officers, who administer and enforce federal lawsand policies.

• Judiciary: The Constitutional Court, Supreme Court, Supreme Courtof Arbitration and lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed

by the Federation Council on the recommendation of the president, interpret laws and can overturn laws theydeem unconstitutional.

The building of the Russian State Dumaon Manege Square in Moscow.

According to the Constitution, the justice in the court is based on the equalityof all citizens,[101] judges are independent and subject only to the law,[102]

trials are to be open and the accused is guaranteed a defense.[103] Since 1996,Russia has instituted a moratorium on the death penalty, although capitalpunishment has not been abolished by law.

The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term (eligible for asecond term but constitutionally barred for a third consecutive term);[104]

election last held in 2008. Ministries of the government are composed of thepremier and his deputies, ministers, and selected other individuals; all areappointed by the president on the recommendation of the Prime Minister(whereas the appointment of the latter requires the consent of the StateDuma). The national legislature is the Federal Assembly, which consists oftwo chambers; the 450-member State Duma[105] and the 176-member

Russia 19

The Bronze Horseman monument infront of the Constitutional Court of

Russia in Saint Petersburg.

Federation Council. Leading political parties in Russia include United Russia,the Communist Party, the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia, and FairRussia.

Human rights

The rights and liberties of the citizens of the Russian Federation are grantedby Chapter 2 of the Constitution. Russia is a signatory to the UniversalDeclaration of Human Rights and has also ratified a number of otherinternational human rights instruments.

In 2004, Alvaro Gil-Robles, the first Commissioner for Human Rights of theCouncil of Europe, said that "the fledgling Russian democracy is still, ofcourse, far from perfect, but its existence and its successes cannot bedenied."[106]

However, some leading international democracy and human rightsorganizations consider Russia to have not enough democratic attributes and toallow few political rights and civil liberties to its citizens.[107] [108] [109]

US-funded international organization Freedom House ranks Russia as "notfree", citing "carefully engineered elections" and "absence" of debate.[110] Amnesty International accuses Russia ofcommitting wide ranging human rights abuses, including granting impunity for murderers of human rights activists,imprisoning political dissidents and operating a system of arbitrary arrest.[107] Human Rights Watch claims Russiacommits grave human rights violations in Chechnya and allows the systematic abuse of migrant workers.[108] Pressfreedom in Russia is considered amongst the lowest in the world by press freedom organization Reporters WithoutBorders and is ranked 141st in their annual survey, on the basis that the Russian authorities "black list" figures thatare critical of the government, practice "official harassment", and "gag" potential dissidents.[111]

Russian authorities dismiss these claims and especially criticise Freedom House. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs ofRussia has called the 2006 Freedom in the World Report "prefabricated";[112] the ministry also claims that suchorganizations as Freedom House and Human Rights Watch use the same scheme of voluntary extrapolation of"isolated facts that of course can be found in any country" into "dominant tendencies". The chairwoman of the CivilSociety Institution and Human Rights Council at the President of Russia Ella Pamfilova also criticized the FreedomHouse views on Russia as "ridiculous, absurd and far-fetched"[113] .

Foreign relations

Leaders of the BRIC nations in 2008: (l-r)Manmohan Singh of India, Dmitry Medvedev ofRussia, Hu Jintao of China and Luiz Inácio Lula

da Silva of Brazil.

The Russian Federation is recognized in international law as successorstate of the former Soviet Union.[20] Russia continues to implement theinternational commitments of the USSR, and has assumed the USSR'spermanent seat on the UN Security Council, membership in otherinternational organizations, the rights and obligations underinternational treaties and property and debts. Russia has a multifacetedforeign policy. As of 2009, it maintains diplomatic relations with 191countries and has 144 embassies.[114] The foreign policy is determinedby the President of Russia and implemented by the Ministry of ForeignAffairs.[115]

Russia 20

As one of five permanent members of the UN Security Council, Russia plays a major role in maintaininginternational peace and security. The country participates in the Quartet on the Middle East and the Six-party talkswith North Korea. Russia is a member of the Group of Eight (G8) industrialized nations, the Council of Europe,OSCE and APEC. Russia usually takes a leading role in regional organizations such as the CIS, EurAsEC, CSTO,and the SCO. Former President Vladimir Putin had advocated a strategic partnership with close integration in variousdimensions including establishment of four common spaces between Russia and the EU.[116] Since the collapse ofthe Soviet Union, Russia has developed a friendlier, albeit volatile relationship with NATO. The NATO-RussiaCouncil was established in 2002 to allow the 26 Allies and Russia to work together as equal partners to pursueopportunities for joint collaboration.[117]

Military

Russian Knights and Swifts military aerobatic teams in arhombus formation

Russia assumed control of Soviet assets abroad and most ofthe Soviet Union's production facilities and defenseindustries.[118] The Russian military is divided into theGround Forces, Navy, and Air Force. There are also threeindependent arms of service: Strategic Rocket Forces,Military Space Forces, and the Airborne Troops. In 2006, themilitary had 1.037 million personnel on active duty.[119]

The Admiral Kuznetsov, the Russian Navy's aircraft carrier.

Russia has the largest stockpile of nuclear weapons in theworld. It has the second largest fleet of ballistic missilesubmarines and is the only country apart from the U.S. with amodern strategic bomber force.[21] Russia's tank force is thelargest in the world, its surface navy and air force are amongthe strongest.

The country has a large and fully indigenous arms industry,producing most of its own military equipment with only fewtypes of weapons imported. Russia is the world's top supplierof arms, a spot it has held since 2001, accounting for around30% of worldwide weapons sales[120] and exporting weaponsto about 80 countries.[121]

It is mandatory for all male citizens aged 18–27 to be drafted for a year of service in Armed Forces; the governmentplans to increase the proportion of contract servicemen to 70% by 2010.[26] Defense expenditure has quadrupled overthe past six years.[122] According to Stockholm International Peace Research Institute estimates, official governmentmilitary spending for 2008 was $58 billion, the fifth largest in the world,[123] though various sources, including USintelligence,[124] and the International Institute for Strategic Studies,[119] have estimated Russia’s militaryexpenditures to be considerably higher.[125] Currently, the military is undergoing a major equipment upgrade worthabout $200 billion between 2006 and 2015.[126] Defense Minister Anatoliy Serdyukov[127] supervises the majorreforms aimed to transform a mass mobilization army into a smaller force of contract soldiers.[128]

Russia 21

Subdivisions

Map of the federal subjects of the Russian Federation.

Federal subjectsThe Russian Federation comprises 83 federal subjects.[129] These subjects have equal representation—two delegateseach—in the Federation Council.[130] However, they differ in the degree of autonomy they enjoy.• 46 oblasts (provinces): most common type of federal subjects, with federally appointed governor and locally

elected legislature.• 21 republics: nominally autonomous; each has its own constitution, president, and parliament. Republics are

allowed to establish their own official language alongside Russian but are represented by the federal governmentin international affairs. Republics are meant to be home to specific ethnic minorities.

• 9 krais (territories): essentially the same as oblasts. The "territory" designation is historic, originally given tofrontier regions and later also to administrative divisions that comprised autonomous okrugs or autonomousoblasts.

• 4 autonomous okrugs (autonomous districts): originally autonomous entities within oblasts and krais created forethnic minorities, their status was elevated to that of federal subjects in the 1990s. With the exception ofChukotka Autonomous Okrug, all autonomous okrugs are still administratively subordinated to a krai or an oblastof which they are a part.

• 1 autonomous oblast (the Jewish Autonomous Oblast): originally autonomous oblasts were administrative unitssubordinated to krais. In 1990, all of them except the Jewish AO were elevated in status to that of a republic.

• 2 federal cities (Moscow and St. Petersburg): major cities that function as separate regions.Federal districtsFederal subjects are grouped into 8 federal districts, each administered by an envoy appointed by the President of Russia.[131] Unlike the federal subjects, the federal districts are not a subnational level of government, but are a level

Russia 22

of administration of the federal government. Federal districts' envoys serve as liaisons between the federal subjectsand the federal government and are primarily responsible for overseeing the compliance of the federal subjects withthe federal laws.

Demographics

Ethnic composition (2002)[132]

Russians 79.8%

Tatars 3.8%

Ukrainians 2.0%

Bashkirs 1.2%

Chuvash 1.1%

Chechen 0.9%

Armenians 0.8%

Other/unspecified 10.4%

Population (in millions) 1950–1991 of RussianSFSR in USSR, 1991 – 1 January 2010 of

Russian Federation.[133]

Ethnic Russians comprise 79.8% of the population; however theRussian Federation is also home to several sizeable minorities. In total,160 different other ethnic groups and indigenous peoples live within itsborders.[134] Though Russia's population is comparatively large, itsdensity is low because of the country's enormous size.[135] Populationis densest in European Russia, near the Ural Mountains, and insouthwest Siberia. 73% of the population lives in urban areas while27% in rural ones.[136] The population of Russia is 141,927,297 as of 1January 2010.[2]

In 2008, the population declined by 121,400 people, or by −0.085% (in2007 – by 212,000, or 0.15% and in 2006 – by 532,600 people, or0.37%). In 2008 migration continued to grow by a pace of 2.7% with 281,615 migrants arriving to the RussianFederation, of which 95% came from CIS countries, the vast majority being Russians or Russian speakers.[133] [137]

The number of Russian emigrants declined by 16% to 39,508, of which 66% went to other CIS countries. There arealso an estimated 10 million illegal immigrants from the ex-Soviet states in Russia.[138] Roughly 116 million ethnicRussians live in Russia[139] and about 20 million more live in other former republics of the Soviet Union,[140] mostlyin Ukraine and Kazakhstan.[141] [142]

The population of Russia peaked at 148,689,000 in 1991, just before the breakup of the Soviet Union. It began toexperience a rapid decline starting in the mid-90s.[143] The decline has slowed to near stagnation in recent years dueto reduced death rates, increased birth rates and increased immigration. The number of deaths during 2008 was363,500 greater than the number of births. This is down from 477,700 in 2007, and 687,100 in 2006.[133] [137]

According to data published by the Russian Federal State Statistics Service, the mortality rate in Russia declined 4%in 2007, as compared to 2006, reaching some 2 million deaths, while the birth rate grew 8.3% year-on-year to anestimated 1.6 million live births.[144]

The primary causes of Russia's population decrease are a high death rate and low birth rate. While Russia's birth-rate is comparable to that of other European countries (12.1 births per 1000 people in 2008[133] compared to the European Union average of 9.90 per 1000)[145] its population is declining at a greater rate than many due to a substantially higher death rate (in 2008, Russia's death rate was 14.5 per 1000 people[133] compared to the European

Russia 23

Union average of 10.28 per 1000).[146] However, the Russian Ministry of Health and Social Affairs predicts that by2011, the death rate will equal the birth rate due to increases in fertility and decline in mortality.[147]

Moscow

SaintPetersburg

Novosibirsk

Yekaterinburg

Rank Core City Federal Subject Pop.

NizhnyNovgorod

Samara

Kazan

Omsk

1 Moscow Moscow 10,508,971

2 Saint Petersburg Saint Petersburg 4,600,310

3 Novosibirsk Novosibirsk 1,397,191

4 Yekaterinburg Sverdlovsk 1,332,264

5 Nizhny Novgorod NizhnyNovgorod

1,272,527

6 Samara Samara 1,134,716

7 Kazan Tatarstan 1,130,170

8 Omsk Omsk 1,129,120

9 Chelyabinsk Chelyabinsk 1,093,699

10 Rostov-on-Don Rostov 1,048,991

11 Ufa Bashkortostan 1,024,842

12 Perm Perm 985,794

13 Volgograd Volgograd 981,909

14 Krasnoyarsk Krasnoyarsk 947,801

15 Voronezh Voronezh 843,496

16 Saratov Saratov 830,953

17 Tolyatti Samara 720,346

18 Krasnodar Krasnodar 710,686

19 Izhevsk Udmurtia 611,043

20 Yaroslavl Yaroslavl 606,336

Rosstat (2009)[148]

Language

Countries where the Russian language is spoken.

Russia's 160 ethnic groups speak some 100languages.[14] According to the 2002 census, 142.6million people speak Russian, followed by Tatar with5.3 million and Ukrainian with 1.8 millionspeakers.[149] Russian is the only official statelanguage, but the Constitution gives the individualrepublics the right to make their native languageco-official next to Russian.[150]

Despite its wide dispersal, the Russian language ishomogeneous throughout Russia. Russian is the mostgeographically widespread language of Eurasia and themost widely spoken Slavic language.[151] Russian

Russia 24

belongs to the Indo-European language family and is one of the living members of the East Slavic languages; theothers being Belarusian and Ukrainian (and possibly Rusyn). Written examples of Old East Slavic (Old Russian) areattested from the 10th century onwards.[152]

Over a quarter of the world's scientific literature is published in Russian. Russian is also applied as a means ofcoding and storage of universal knowledge—60–70% of all world information is published in the English andRussian languages.[153] The language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations.

Religion

A symbol of Russia's religiousrenaissance, Cathedral of Christ theSaviour, demolished in the Soviettimes and rebuilt from 1990–2000

Christianity, Islam, Buddhism and Judaism are Russia’s traditional religions,deemed part of Russia's "historical heritage" in a law passed in 1997.[154]

Estimates of believers widely fluctuate among sources, and some reports put thenumber of non-believers in Russia at 16–48% of the population.[155] RussianOrthodoxy is the dominant religion in Russia.[156] 95% of the registeredOrthodox parishes belong to the Russian Orthodox Church while there are anumber of smaller Orthodox Churches.[157] However, the vast majority ofOrthodox believers do not attend church on a regular basis. Nonetheless, thechurch is widely respected by both believers and nonbelievers, who see it as asymbol of Russian heritage and culture.[158] Smaller Christian denominationssuch as Roman Catholics, Armenian Gregorians, and various Protestants exist.

The ancestors of many of today’s Russians adopted Orthodox Christianity in the10th century.[158] The 2007 International Religious Freedom Report published bythe US Department of State said that approximately 100 million citizens considerthemselves Russian Orthodox Christians.[159] According to a poll by the Russian

Public Opinion Research Center, 63% of respondents considered themselves Russian Orthodox, 6% of respondentsconsidered themselves Muslim and less than 1% considered themselves either Buddhist, Catholic, Protestant orJewish. Another 12% said they believe in God, but did not practice any religion, and 16% said they arenon-believers.[160]

All Religions Temple in amulticultural city of Kazan.

It is estimated that Russia is home to some 15–20 million Muslims.[161] [162]

However, the Islamic scholar and human rights activist Roman Silantyev hasclaimed that there are only 7 to 9 million people who adhere to the Islamicreligion in Russia.[163] Russia also has an estimated 3 million to 4 millionMuslim migrants from the ex-Soviet states.[164] Most Muslims live in theVolga-Ural region, as well as in the North Caucasus, Moscow,[165] SaintPetersburg and western Siberia.[166]

Buddhism is traditional for three regions of the Russian Federation: Buryatia,Tuva, and Kalmykia.[167] Some residents of the Siberian and Far Eastern regions,Yakutia, Chukotka, etc., practice shamanist, pantheistic, and pagan rites, along with the major religions. Inductioninto religion takes place primarily along ethnic lines. Slavs are overwhelmingly Orthodox Christian. Turkic speakersare predominantly Muslim, although several Turkic groups in Russia are not.[168]

Russia 25

HealthThe Russian Constitution guarantees free, universal health care for all citizens.[169] In practice, however, free healthcare is partially restricted due to propiska regime.[170] [171] While Russia has more physicians, hospitals, and healthcare workers than almost any other country in the world on a per capita basis,[172] [173] since the collapse of theSoviet Union the health of the Russian population has declined considerably as a result of social, economic, andlifestyle changes.[174] As of 2007, the average life expectancy in Russia is 61.5 years for males and 73.9 years forfemales.[175] The combined average Russian life expectancy of 67.7 years at birth is 10.8 years shorter than theoverall figure in the European Union.[176]

The biggest factor contributing to this relatively low life expectancy for males is a high mortality rate amongworking-age males from preventable causes (e.g., alcohol poisoning, stress, smoking, traffic accidents, violentcrimes). Mortality among Russian men rose by 60% since 1991, four to five times higher than in Europe.[177] As aresult of the large difference in life expectancy between men and women and because of the lasting effect of WorldWar II, where Russia lost more men than any other nation in the world, the gender imbalance remains to this day andthere are 0.859 males to every female.[26]

A mobile clinic used to provide health care topeople at remote railway stations.

Heart diseases account for 56.7% of total deaths, with about 30%involving people still of working age. A study blamed alcohol for morethan half the deaths (52%) among Russians aged 15 to 54 from 1990 to2001. For the same demographic, this compares to 4% of deaths for therest of the world.[178] About 16 million Russians suffer fromcardiovascular diseases, placing Russia second in the world, afterUkraine, in this respect.[177] Death rates from homicide, suicide, andcancer are also especially high.[179] 52% of men and 15% of womensmoke, more than 260,000 lives believed to be lost each year as a resultof tobacco use.[180]

HIV/AIDS, virtually non-existent in the Soviet era, rapidly spreadfollowing the collapse, mainly through the explosive growth of intravenous drug use.[181] According to officialstatistics, there are currently more than 364,000 people in Russia registered with HIV, but independent experts placethe number significantly higher.[182] In increasing efforts to combat the disease, the government increased spendingon HIV control measures 20-fold in 2006, and the 2007 budget doubled that of 2006.[183] Since the Soviet collapse,there has also been a dramatic rise in both cases of and deaths from tuberculosis, with the disease being particularlywidespread amongst prison inmates.[184]

In an effort to stem Russia's demographic crisis, the government is implementing a number of programs designed toincrease the birth rate and attract more migrants to alleviate the problem. The government has doubled monthly childsupport payments and offered a one-time payment of 250,000 Rubles (around US$10,000) to women who had asecond child since 2007.[185] In 2007, Russia saw the highest birth rate since the collapse of the USSR.[186] The FirstDeputy PM also said about 20 billion rubles (about US$1 billion) will be invested in new prenatal centers in Russiain 2008–2009. Immigration is increasingly seen by the United Nations as necessary to sustain the country'spopulation.[187]

Russia 26

Education

Moscow State University.

A school in Moscow.

Russia has a free education system guaranteed to all citizens by theConstitution,[188] and has a literacy rate of 99.4%.[26] Entry to highereducation is highly competitive.[189] As a result of great emphasis onscience and technology in education, Russian medical, mathematical,scientific, and space and aviation research is generally of a highorder.[190] [191]

Before 1990 the course of school training in Soviet Union was10-years, but at the end of 1990 the 11-year course has been officiallyentered. Education in state-owned secondary schools is free; firsttertiary (university level) education is free with reservations: asubstantial share of students is enrolled for full pay (many stateinstitutions started to open commercial positions in the last years[192] ).In 2004 state spending for education amounted to 3.6% of GDP, or13% of consolidated state budget.[193]

The Government allocates funding to pay the tuition fees within anestablished quota, or number of students for each state institution. Thisis considered crucial because it provides access to higher education toall skilled students, as opposed to only those who can afford it. Inaddition, students are paid a small stipend and provided with freehousing. Apart from state higher education institutions, many private

ones have emerged to address the need for a skilled work-force for high-tech and emerging industries and economicsectors.[194]

Economy

Russian economy since the end of the Soviet Union.

The economic crisis that struck allpost-Soviet countries in the 1990s wasnearly twice as intense as the GreatDepression in the countries of WesternEurope and the United States in the1930s.[195] [196] Even before thefinancial crisis of 1998, Russia's GDPwas half of what it had been in theearly 1990s.[196] Since the turn of thecentury, rising oil prices, increasedforeign investment, higher domesticconsumption and greater politicalstability have bolstered economicgrowth in Russia.[197]

The country ended 2007 with its ninth straight year of growth, averaging 7% annually since 1998. In 2007, Russia'sGDP was $2.076 trillion (est. PPP), the 6th largest in the world, with GDP growing 8.1% from the previous year.Growth was primarily driven by non-traded services and goods for the domestic market, as opposed to oil or mineralextraction and exports.[26]

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The average salary in Russia was $640 per month in early 2008, up from $80 in 2000.[198] Approximately 14% ofRussians lived below the national poverty line in 2007,[199] significantly down from 40% in 1998 at the worst of thepost-Soviet collapse.[91] Unemployment in Russia was at 6% in 2007, down from about 12.4% in 1999.[200] [201]

Oil, natural gas, metals, and timber account for more than 80% of Russian exports abroad.[26] Since 2003, however,exports of natural resources started decreasing in economic importance as the internal market strengthenedconsiderably. Despite higher energy prices, oil and gas only contribute to 5.7% of Russia's GDP and the governmentpredicts this will drop to 3.7% by 2011.[202] Russia is also considered well ahead of most other resource-richcountries in its economic development, with a long tradition of education, science, and industry.[203] The country hasmore higher education graduates than any other country in Europe.[204]

A Rosneft petrol station. Russia is the world'sleading natural gas exporter and the second

leading oil exporter.

A simpler, more streamlined tax code adopted in 2001 reduced the taxburden on people, and dramatically increased state revenue.[205] Russiahas a flat personal income tax rate of 13 percent. This ranks it as thecountry with the second most attractive personal tax system for singlemanagers in the world after the United Arab Emirates.[206] [207]

Regional product per capita as of 2007 (darker ishigher).

The federal budget has run surpluses since 2001 and ended 2007 with asurplus of 6% of GDP. Over the past several years, Russia has used oilrevenues from its Stabilization Fund of the Russian Federation toprepay most of its formerly massive debts,[208] leaving it with one ofthe lowest foreign debts among major economies.

Oil export earnings have allowed Russia to increase its foreign reservesfrom $12 billion in 1999 to $597.3 billion on 1 August 2008, the thirdlargest reserves in the world.[209]

The economic development of the country though has been uneven geographically with the Moscow regioncontributing a disproportionately high amount of the country's GDP.[210] Much of Russia, especially indigenous andrural communities in Siberia, lags significantly behind. Nevertheless, the middle class has grown from just 8 millionpersons in 2000 to 55 million persons in 2006.[211] Over the last five years, fixed capital investments have averagedreal gains greater than 10% per year and personal incomes have achieved real gains more than 12% per year.Despite the country's strong economic performance since 1999, however, the World Bank lists several challengesfacing the Russian economy including its diversification, encouraging the growth of small and medium enterprises,building human capital and improving corporate governance.[212] Another problem is modernisation ofinfrastructure, ageing and inadequate after years of being neglected;[213] the government has said $1 trillion will beinvested in development of infrastructure by 2020.[214]

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Agriculture

Rye Fields, by Ivan Shishkin. Russia is the world's topproducer of rye, barley, buckwheat, oats and sunflowerseed, and one of the largest producers and exporters of

wheat.

A reindeer sled in Arkhangelsk. Russia ownsabout two-thirds of the world's livestock of

domesticated reindeer.[215]

The total area of cultivated land in Russia was estimated as1,237,294 km2 in 2005, the fourth largest in the world.[216] Unlikemost other countries, Russia has large reserves of unused arableland, in part due to the drop in agricultural production during theeconomy crisis of 1990s, when the area planted to grains droppedby 25%. This was accompanied by a severe decline of livestockinventories.

In 1999–2009, however, Russia's agriculture demonstrated steadygrowth,[217] and the country turned from a grain importer to thethird largest grain exporter after EU and U. S. in 2009.[218] Theproduction of meat has grown from 6,813,000 tonnes in 1999 to9,331,000 tonnes in 2008, and continues to grow.[219]

This restoration of agriculture was supported by successful farmcredit policy of the government, helping both individual farmersand large privatized corporate farms, that once were Sovietkolkhozes and still own the significant share of agricultural land.While large individual farms and corporate farms concentratemainly on the production of grain (including for export), as well ashusbandry products, small private household plots produce most ofthe country's yield of potatoes, vegetables and fruits.

Energy

Russia is a key oil and gas supplier to much ofEurope.

Russia is known as an energy superpower. The country has the world'slargest natural gas reserves, the 8th largest oil reserves, and the secondlargest coal reserves. Russia is the world's leading natural gas exporterand leading natural gas producer, while also the second largest oilexporter and largest oil producer, though Russia interchanges the latterstatus with Saudi Arabia from time to time.

Russia is the 4th largest electricity generator in the world and the 5thlargest renewable energy producer, the latter due to the well-developedhydroelectricity production in the country. Large cascades ofhydropower plants are built in European Russia along big rivers likeVolga. The Asian part of Russia also features a number of majorhydropower stations, however the gigantic hydroelectric potential ofSiberia and the Russian Far East largely remains unexploited.

Russia was the first country to develop civilian nuclear reactor and tointroduce the first nuclear power plant. Currently, Russia is the 4thlargest nuclear energy producer. Rosatom Nuclear Energy State

Russia 29

Corporation manages all the nuclear plants in Russia. Nuclear energy is rapidly developing in Russia, with the aim ofincreasing the total share of nuclear energy from current 16.9% to 23% by 2020. The Russian government plans toallocate 127 billion rubles ($5.42 billion) to a federal program dedicated to the next generation of nuclear energytechnology. About 1 trillion rubles ($42.7 billion) is to be allocated from the federal budget to nuclear power andindustry development before 2015.[220] Russia remains among the world leaders in nuclear technology and is amember of ITER international fusion reactor project.

Science and technology

The original headquarters of the Russian Academy ofSciences, the Kunstkamera building in St. Petersburg.

Mikhail Lomonosov, Russian polymathscientist, inventor, poet and artist, thefounder of Moscow State University.

At the start of the 18th century the reforms of Peter the Great (thefounder of Russian Academy of Sciences and Saint PetersburgState University) and the work of such champions as polymathMikhail Lomonosov (the founder of Moscow State University)gave a great boost for development of science and innovation inRussia.

In the 19th and 20th centuries the country produced a largenumber of great scientists and inventors.

In mathematics Nikolai Lobachevsky, a Copernicus of Geometry,founded the non-Euclidean geometry. At least after suchprominent scientist as Chebyshev the Russian mathematical schoolbecame one of the most influential ones in the world and wasrepresented by numerous figures greatly contributing to differentfields of mathematics, physics and computing sciences.[221]

Chebyshev's students included Aleksandr Lyapunov who foundedthe modern stability theory (lately deeply developed by suchscientists as Aleksandr Andronov and Vladimir Arnold), andAndrey Markov who developed the theory of Markov chains,playing a central role in information sciences and modern appliedmathematics. Nikolai Zhukovsky was a founding father of themodern aero- and hydrodynamics. Andrei Kolmogorov, a leadingmathematician of the 20th century, developed the modern theoryof probability and made other major contributions to broadestrange of mathematical branches, including turbulence, topologyand information theory. Israel Gelfand is credited with manyimportant discoveries in mathematical physics and appliedsciences. Sergei Sobolev developed a theory of Sobolev spacewhich played an extremely important role in formation of modern

mathematical views and introduced a notion of distributions generalyzing ideas of Newton and Leibniz. YevgrafFyodorov was a founder of modern crystallography. Nicolai Vasiliev was a forerunner of paraconsistent andmulti-valued logics. Such mathematicians as Pavel Alexandrov, Lev Pontryagin, Andrey Tychonoff, and manyothers made fundamental contributions to different fields of mathematics. Nine Soviet/Russian mathematicians wereawarded with Fields Medal, a most prestigious award in mathematics. Recently Grigori Perelman was offered thefirst ever Clay Millennium Prize Problems award for his final proof of the Poincaré conjecture in 2002.[222]

Russia 30

A sculpture in honor of Dmitry Mendeleev andhis Periodic table in Slovakia.

In chemistry Dmitry Mendeleev invented the Periodic table, that is themain framework of the modern chemistry, while Aleksandr Butlerovwas one of the creators of the theory of chemical structure, playing acentral role in organic chemistry. Nikolay Semyonov made majorcontributions to explanation of the mechanism of chemicaltransformation (1956 Nobel Prize in Chemistry).

Modern headquarters of the Russian Academy ofSciences in Moscow.

The Russian physics school began to develop after Lomonosov.During the period of origin of electrodynamics Vasily Petrovdiscovered the electric arc effect in 1802 and Heinrich Lenzdiscovered an important law named in his honor. Nikolay Umovdiscovered a fundamental concept of Umov-Poynting vector andwas the first scientist to indicate interrelation between mass andenergy proposing the formula as early as in1873.[223] Alexander Popov was among the inventors of radio.Russian/Soviet physics in the 20th century was one of leadingones in the world. Nikolay Bogolyubov suggested a triplet quarkmodel, introduced a new quantum degree of freedom (later calledas color charge) for quarks[224] and formulated a microscopic theory of superconductivity.[225] Lev Landau madefundamental contributions to many areas of theoretical physics. Nikolai Basov and Alexander Prokhorov wereco-inventors of lasers and masers. Igor Tamm, Andrei Sakharov and Lev Artsimovich developed the idea of tokamakfor controlled nuclear fusion and created its first prototype, which finally led to the modern ITER project. YevgenyZavoisky discovered electron paramagnetic resonance playing important role in studying chemical species.

In biology Dmitry Ivanovsky was the first scientist to discover viruses (1892).[226] Ivan Pavlov is widely known forfirst describing the phenomenon of classical conditioning. Ilya Mechnikov was a pioneer in investigations of theimmune system (1908, Nobel Prize in Medicine).In computing sciences the first ternary computer Setun was developed by Nikolay Brusentsov, together with SergeiSobolev, in 1958 and Sergei Lebedev developed one of the first universally programmable computers in continentalEurope in 1950, MESM.

Russia 31

Shukhov Tower in Moscow.

Nikolay Benardos introduced the arc welding, further developed byNikolay Slavyanov, Konstantin Khrenov and other Russian engineers.Gleb Kotelnikov invented the knapsack parachute, while EvgeniyChertovsky introduced the pressure suit. Pavel Yablochkov andAlexander Lodygin were pioneers of electric street lighting, andMikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky invented the three-phase electric powersystem, widely used today.

Soyuz TMA-2 is launched from Baikonur,Kazakhstan carrying one of the first resident

crews to the International Space Station.

Many famous Russian scientists and inventors were émigrés, like IgorSikorsky, credited with invention of first helicopters, and VladimirZworykin, often called the father of TV, chemist Ilya Prigogine, notedfor his work on dissipative structures and complex systems (1977Nobel Prize for Chemistry), economists Simon Kuznets (1971 NobelPrize) and Wassily Leontief (1973 Nobel Prize), physicist GeorgiyGamov (an author of the Big Bang theory) and social scientist PitirimSorokin who played an important role in development of sociology inthe USA. Many foreigners worked in Russia for a long time, likeLeonard Euler and Alfred Nobel.

The greatest Russian successes are in the field of space technology andspace exploration. Konstantin Tsiolkovsky was the father of theoreticalaustronautics.[227] His works had inspired leading Soviet rocketengineers such as Sergey Korolyov, Valentin Glushko and many othersthat contributed to the success of the Soviet space program at earlystages of the Space Race and beyond.

In 1957 the first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, waslaunched; in 1961 on 12 April the first human trip into space wassuccessfully made by Yury Gagarin; and many other Soviet andRussian space exploration records ensued, including the firstspacewalk performed by Alexey Leonov, the first space exploration rover Lunokhod-1 and the first space stationSalyut 1. Nowadays Russia is the largest satellite launcher[228] [229] and the only provider of transport for spacetourism services.

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AK-47, the most widely used type of assault riflein the world.

Other technologies, where Russia historically leads, include nucleartechnology, aircraft production and arms industry.

The creation of the first nuclear power plant along with the firstnuclear reactors for submarines and surface ships was directed by IgorKurchatov. NS Lenin was the world's first nuclear powered surfaceship as well as the first nuclear powered civilian vessel, and NS Arktikabecame the first surface ship to reach the North Pole.

The history of the Russian aircraft eingineering originated from apioneer of aviation Alexander Mozhaysky who made his first attempt

to fly by his own design aircraft (monoplane) as early as in 1881. In the 20th century a number of prominent Sovietaerospace engineers, inspired by the theoretical works of Nikolai Zhukovsky, supervised the creation of manydozens of models of military and civilian aircraft and founded a number of KBs (Construction Bureaus) that nowconstitute the bulk of Russian United Aircraft Corporation.

Famous Russian airplanes include the first supersonic passenger jet Tupolev Tu-144 by Alexei Tupolev, MiG fighteraircraft series by Artem Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich, and Su series by Pavel Sukhoi and his followers. MiG-15 isthe world's most produced jet aircraft in history, while MiG-21 is the most produced supersonic aircraft. DuringWorld War II era Bereznyak-Isayev BI-1 was introduced as the first rocket-powered fighter aircraft, and Ilyushin Il-2bomber became the most produced military aircraft in history. Polikarpov Po-2 Kukuruznik is the world's mostproduced biplane, and Mil Mi-8 is the most produced helicopter.

T-90 Russian tank in the Indian Army service.

Famous Russian battle tanks include T-34, the best tank design ofWorld War II,[230] and further tanks of T-series, including the mostproduced tank in history, T-54/55,[231] the first fully gas turbine tankT-80 and the most modern Russian tank T-90. The AK-47 and AK-74by Mikhail Kalashnikov constitute the most widely used type of assaultrifle throughout the world — so much so that more AK-type rifles havebeen manufactured than all other assault rifles combined.[232] [233]

With these and other weapons Russia for a long time has been amongthe world's top suppliers of arms, accounting for around 30% ofworldwide weapons sales[120] and exporting weapons to about 80countries.[121]

The Sukhoi Superjet 100 is the latest civilianproduct of the Russian aircraft industry.

With such technological achievements, however, since the time ofBrezhnev stagnation Russia was lagging significantly behind the Westin a number of technologies, especially those concerning energyconservation and consumer goods production. The crisis of 1990-s ledto the drastic reduction of the state support for science. Many Russianscientists and university graduates left Russia for Europe or UnitedStates; this migration is known as a brain drain.

In 2000-s, on the wave of a new economic boom, the situation in theRussian science and technology has improved, and the governmentlaunched a campaign aimed into modernisation and innovation.

Russia's President Dmitry Medvedev formulated top 5 priorities for the country's technological development: energyefficiency, IT (including both common products and the products combined with space technology), nuclear energyand pharmaceuticals.[234] Some progress already has been achieved, with Russia's having nearly completedGLONASS, the only global satellite navigation system apart from American GPS, and Russia's being the onlycountry constructing mobile nuclear plants.

Russia 33

Transportation

The marker for kilometre 9288, at the end of theTrans-Siberian Railway in Vladivostok.

Railway transport in Russia is mostly under the control of the state-runRussian Railways monopoly. The company accounts for over 3.6% ofRussia’s GDP and handles 39% of the total of Russia’s freight traffic(including pipelines) and more than 42% of passenger traffic.[235] Thetotal length of common-used railway tracks exceeeds 85,500 km,[235]

second only to the United States. Over 44,000 km of tracks areelectrified,[236] which is the largest number in the world, andadditionally there are more than 30,000 km of industrial non-commoncarrier lines. Railways in Russia, unlike in the most of the world, usebroad gauge of 1520 mm (4 ft 115⁄6 in), with the exception of 957 kmon Sakhalin Island using narrow gauge of 1067 mm (3 ft 6 in). Themost renown railroad in Russia is Trans-Siberian Railway or Transsib,spanning a record 7 time zones and serving the longest singlecontinuous services in the world, Moscow-Vladivostok (9,259 km,5,753 mi), Moscow–Pyongyang (10,267 km, 6,380 mi)[237] andKiev–Vladivostok (11,085 km, 6,888 mi).[238]

As of 2006 Russia had 933,000 km of roads, of which 755,000 werepaved.[239] Some of these make up the Russian federal motorwaysystem. With a large land area the road density is the lowest of all the G8 and BRIC countries.[240] A Russian sayingstates that There are two main problems in Russia: fools and roads, however this very lack of roads was of muchhelp to Russians in the times of Napoleon's and Hitler's invasions.

Yamal, one of Russia's nuclear icebreakers(Gallery [241]).

102,000 km of inland waterways in Russia mostly go by natural riversor lakes. In the European part of the country the network of channelsconnects the basins of major rivers. Russia's capital, Moscow, issometimes called "the port of the five seas", due to its waterwayconnections to the Baltic, White, Caspian, Azov and Black seas.

Major sea ports of Russia include Rostov-on-Don on the Azov Sea,Novorossiysk on the Black Sea, Astrakhan and Makhachkala on theCaspian Sea, Kaliningrad and St. Petersburg on the Baltic Sea,Arkhangelsk on the White Sea, Murmansk on the Barents Sea,Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky and Vladivostok on the Pacific Ocean. In

2008 Russia owned 1448 merchant marine ships. Russia is the only country to have nuclear icebreaker fleet, which isa great advantage in the economic exploitation of Arctic continental shelf of Russia and the development of sea tradethrough the Northern Sea Route between Europe and East Asia.

There are 74,285 km of oil pipelines in Russia, 13,658 km of pipelines for refined products, 158,767 km of naturalgas pipelines[242] By total length of pipelines Russia is second only to the United States. Currently, many newpipeline projects are being realized, including Nord Stream and South Stream natural gas pipelines to Europe, andESPO oil pipeline to Russian Far East and China.

Russia 34

Exquisite decoration of Moscow Metro, hereshown at Arbatskaya station

Russia has 1216 airports,[243] the busiest being Sheremetyevo,Domodedovo, and Vnukovo in Moscow and Pulkovo in SaintPetersburg. The total length of airlines in Russia exceeds600,000 km.[244] In the remote regions of the Russian North andSiberia the transportation by air (usually by helicopters) is vital, and insome months of the year it is the only transport link to the rest of thecountry.

Typically, major Russian cities have well-developed and diversesystems of public transport, with the most common varieties ofexploited vehicles being bus, trolleybus and tram. Seven Russian cities,namely Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Nizhny Novgorod, Novosibirsk, Samara, Yekaterinburg and Kazan, haveundeground metros, while Volgograd features a metrotram. Total length of metros in Russia is 465.4 km. MoscowMetro and Saint Petersburg Metro are the oldest in Russia, opened in 1935 and 1955 respectively. These two areamong the fastest and busiest metro systems in the world, and are famous for rich decorations and unique designs oftheir stations, which is a common tradition for Russian metros and railways.

Culture

Kuban Cossack Choir performing in the nationalcostumes.

Folk culture and cuisine

There are over 160 different ethnic groups and indigenous peoplesin Russia. Ethnic Russians with their Slavic Orthodox culture,Tatars and Bashkirs with their Turkic Muslim culture, Buddhistnomadic Buryats and Kalmyks, Shamanistic peoples of the FarNorth and Siberia, highlanders of the Northern Caucasus,Finno-Ugric peoples of the Russian North West and Volga Regionall contribute to diverse and rich culture of Russia. The ethnicculture is preserved in various museums and ethno-parks,reproduced in cuisine, architecture, cinema and arts, anddeveloped by folk bands, dance ensembles and choirs.

Woodcraft Russian architecture, widely associated with the ethnic culture, is at best represented in wooden churches.Russian traditional wooden dwelling is izba, while the early type of fortified settlements is known as kremlin.Handicraft, like Dymkovo toy, khokhloma, gzhel, Zhostovo painting, pisanka and palekh, is also associated with thefolk culture. Ethnic Russian clothes include kaftan, kosovorotka and ushanka for men, sarafan and kokoshnik forwomen, with lapti and valenki as common shoes. The Cossacks of Southern Russia have a separate brand of culturewithin ethnic Russian, their clothes including burka and papaha, which they share with the peoples of the NorthernCaucasus.

Preparation of pelmeni, a common Russian dish of Tatar origin (the word itself is fromKomi and Mansi languages). Khokhloma handicraft is seen on the background.

Russian cuisine widely uses fish,poultry, mushrooms, berries, andhoney. Crops of rye, wheat, barley, andmillet provide the ingredients for aplethora of breads, pancakes, cereals,kvass, beer, and vodka. Black bread isrelatively more popular in Russia ifcompared with the rest of the world.Flavourful soups and stews include shchi, borsch, ukha, solyanka and okroshka.

Russia 35

Smetana (a heavy sour cream) is often added to soups and salads. Pirozhki, blini and syrniki are native types ofpancakes. Cutlets (like Chicken Kiev), pelmeni and shashlyk are popular meat dishes, the last two being of Tatar andCaucasus origin respectively. Popular salads include Russian salad, vinaigrette and Dressed Herring.Russians have many traditions, most prominent being the washing in banya, a hot steam bath somewhat similar tosauna. Old Russian folklore takes its roots in the pagan beliefs of ancient Slavs and now is represented in the Russianfairy tales. Epic Russian bylinas are another important part of Slavic mythology. The oldest bylinas of Kievan cyclewere actually recorded mostly in the Russian North, especially in Karelia, where most of the Finnish national epicKalevala was recorded as well.

Russian Venus by Boris Kustodiev, shows a girlwith birch twigs in a rural banya.

Bogatyrs by Viktor Vasnetsov. The three epic heroes ofRussian mythology: (l-r) Dobrynya Nikitich, Ilya

Muromets and Alyosha Popovich.

Russia's large number of ethnic groups have distinctive traditionsof folk music. Typical ethnic Russian musical instruments aregusli, balalaika, zhaleika and garmoshka. Folk music had greatinfluence on the Russian classical composers, and in modern timesit is a source of inspiration for a number of popular folk bands,most prominent being Melnitsa. Russian folk songs, as well aspatriotic songs of the Soviet era, constitute the bulk of repertoireof the world-renown Red Army choir and other popular Russianensembles.

Many Russian fairy tales and bylinas were adaptated for animationfilms, or for feature movies by the prominent directors likeAleksandr Ptushko (Ilya Muromets, Sadko) and Aleksandr Rou(Morozko, Vasilisa the Beautiful). Some Russian poets, includingPyotr Yershov and Leonid Filatov, made a number of well-knownpoetical interpretations of the classical Russian fairy tales, and insome cases, like that of Alexander Pushkin, also created fullyoriginal fairy tale poems of great popularity.

Architecture

Russian architecture began with the woodcraft buildings of ancientSlavs. Since Christianization of Kievan Rus' for several agesRussian architecture was influenced predominantly by theByzantine architecture, until the Fall of Constantinople. Apartfrom fortifications (kremlins), the main stone buildings of ancientRus' were Orthodox churches, with their many domes, often gildedor brightly painted. Aristotle Fioravanti and other Italian architectsbrought Renaissance trends into Russia.

The 16th century saw the development of unique tent-like churches culminating in Saint Basil's Cathedral. By thattime the onion dome design was also fully developed. In the 17th century, the "fiery style" of ornamentationflourished in Moscow and Yaroslavl, gradually paving the way for the Naryshkin baroque of the 1690s. After Peterthe Great reforms had made Russia much closer to Western culture, the change of the architectural styles in Russiagenerally followed that of Western Europe.

Russia 36

Wooden churches of Kizhi, a UNESCO WorldHeritage Site.

Triumph Palace, Europe's tallest residentialbuilding, is a modern realisation of Stalin Empire

Style skyscrapers' design.

The 18th-century taste for rococo architecture led to the splendidworks of Bartolomeo Rastrelli and his followers. During the reign ofCatherine the Great and her grandson Alexander I, the city of SaintPetersburg was transformed into an outdoor museum of Neoclassicalarchitecture.

The second half of the 19th century was dominated by the Byzantineand Russian Revival style (this corresponds to Gothic Revival inWestern Europe). Prevalent styles of the 20th century were the ArtNouveau (Fyodor Shekhtel), Constructivism (Aleksey Shchusev andKonstantin Melnikov), and the Stalin Empire style (Boris Iofan).

After Stalin's death a new Soviet leader, Nikita Khruschev, condemnedthe "excesses" of the former architectural styles, and in the late Sovietera the architecture of the country was dominated by plainfunctionalism. This helped somewhat to resolve the housing problem,but created a large quantity of buildings of low architectural quality,much in contrast with the previous bright architecture. After the end ofthe Soviet Union the situation improved. Many churches demolished inSoviet times were rebuilt, and this process continues along with therestoration of various historical buildings destroyed in World War II.As for the original architecture, there is no longer any common style inmodern Russia, though International style has a great influence.

Visual arts

The Trinity icon by Andrei Rublev.

Early Russian painting focused on icon painting and vibrant frescosinherited by Russians from Byzantium. As Moscow rose to power,Theophanes the Greek and Andrei Rublev became vital namesassociated with the beginning of a distinctly Russian art.

The Russian Academy of Arts was created in 1757, aimed to giveRussian artists an international role and status. Notable portrait paintersfrom the Academy include Ivan Argunov, Fyodor Rokotov, DmitryLevitzky, and Vladimir Borovikovsky. In the early 19th century, whenneoclassicism and romantism flourished, famous academic artistsfocused on mythological and Biblical themes, like Karl Briullov andAlexander Ivanov.

Russia 37

Rus': The Soul of the People by Mikhail Nesterov, symbolic of Russia'shistorical spiritual quest.

Realism came into dominance in the 19thcentury. The realists captured Russian identity inlandscapes of wide rivers, forests, and birchclearings, as well as vigorous genre scenes androbust portraits of their contemporaries. Otherartists focused on social criticism, showing theconditions of the poor and caricaturing authority;critical realism flourished under the reign ofAlexander II, with some artists making the circleof human suffering their main theme. Othersfocused on depicting dramatic moments inRussian history.

The Peredvizhniki (wanderers) group of artists broke with Russian Academy and initiated a school of art liberatedfrom Academic restrictions. Leading realists include Ivan Shishkin, Arkhip Kuindzhi, Ivan Kramskoi, VasilyPolenov, Isaac Levitan, Vasily Surikov, Viktor Vasnetsov, and Ilya Repin.

By the turn of the 20th century and on, many Russian artists developed their own vividly unique styles, neitherrealist nor avante-garde. These include Boris Kustodiev, Kuzma Petrov-Vodkin, Mikhail Vrubel and NicholasRoerich.

The Amber Room. German-Russian masterpiece,looted by Nazi Germany in World War II and

restored in 2003.

The Russian avant-garde is an umbrella term used to define the large,influential wave of modernist art that flourished in Russia fromapproximately 1890 to 1930. The term covers many separate, butinextricably related, art movements that occurred at the time; namelyneo-primitivism, suprematism, constructivism, rayonism, and futurism.Notable artists from this era include El Lissitzky, Kazimir Malevich,Wassily Kandinsky, Vladimir Tatlin, Alexander Rodchenko, and MarcChagall. The Russian avant-garde reached its creative and popularheight in the period between the Russian Revolution of 1917 and 1932,at which point the revolutionary ideas of the avant-garde clashed withthe newly emerged conservative direction of socialist realism.

In the Soviet era many artists combined innovation with socialistrealism including Ernst Neizvestny, Ilya Kabakov, Mikhail Shemyakin, Erik Bulatov, and Vera Mukhina. Theyemployed techniques as varied as primitivism, hyperrealism, grotesque, and abstraction. Soviet artists producedworks that were furiously patriotic and anti-fascist in the 1940s. After the Great Patriotic War Soviet sculptors mademultiple monuments to the war dead, marked by a great restrained solemnity.

In the 20th century many Russian artists made their careers in Western Europe, forced to emigrate by the Revolution.Wassily Kandinsky, Marc Chagall, Naum Gabo and others spread their work, ideas, and the impact of Russian artglobally.

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Classical music and ballet

Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky(1840–1893), composer, theauthor of the world's mostfamous works of ballet:

Swan Lake, The Nutcracker,and Sleeping Beauty.

A scene from The Nutcracker ballet.

Music in 19th century Russia was defined by the tension between classicalcomposer Mikhail Glinka along with his followers, who embraced Russiannational identity and added religious and folk elements to their compositions,and the Russian Musical Society led by composers Anton and NikolayRubinstein, which was musically conservative. The later Romantic tradition ofTchaikovsky, one of the greatest composers of the Romantic era, whose musichas come to be known and loved for its distinctly Russian character as well asits rich harmonies and stirring melodies, was brought into the 20th century bySergei Rachmaninoff, one of the last great champions of the Romantic style ofEuropean classical music.[245]

World-renowned composers of the 20th century included Scriabin, Stravinsky,Rachmaninoff, Prokofiev, Shostakovich and Sviridov. During most of theSoviet Era, music was highly scrutinized and kept within a conservative,accessible idiom in conformity with the policy of socialist realism.

Soviet and Russian conservatories have turned out generations ofworld-renowned soloists. Among the best known are violinists David Oistrakhand Gidon Kremer; cellist Mstislav Rostropovich; pianists Vladimir Horowitz,Sviatoslav Richter, and Emil Gilels; and vocalists Fyodor Shalyapin, GalinaVishnevskaya, Anna Netrebko and Dmitry Hvorostovsky.[246]

During the early 20th century, Russian ballet dancers Anna Pavlova and VaslavNijinsky rose to fame, and impresario Sergei Diaghilev and his Ballets Russes'travels abroad profoundly influenced the development of dance worldwide.[247]

Soviet ballet preserved the perfected 19th century traditions,[248] and the SovietUnion's choreography schools produced one internationally famous star afteranother, including Maya Plisetskaya, Rudolf Nureyev, and MikhailBaryshnikov. The Bolshoi Ballet in Moscow and the Mariinsky in SaintPetersburg remain famous throughout the world.[249]

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Literature and philosophy

Alexander Pushkin(1799–1837), the greatest

Russian poet and founder ofmodern Russian literature.The author of Ruslan and

Ludmila and EugeneOnegin.

Fyodor Dostoyevsky(1821–1881), writer, one ofthe greatest psychologists inworld literature.[250] The

author of Crime andPunishment and TheBrothers Karamazov.

Anton Chekhov(1860–1904) is famous forhis plays and short stories.The author of The Seagulland The Cherry Orchard.

Russian literature is considered to be among the most influential and developed in theworld, contributing many of the world's most famous literary works.[251] Russia'sliterary history dates back to the 10th century; in the 18th century its development wasboosted by the works of Mikhail Lomonosov and Denis Fonvizin, and by the early 19thcentury a modern native tradition had emerged, producing some of the greatest writersof all time. This period and the Golden Age of Russian Poetry began with AlexanderPushkin, considered to be the founder of modern Russian literature and often describedas the "Russian Shakespeare".[252]

It continued in the 19th century with the poetry of Mikhail Lermontov and NikolayNekrasov, dramas of Aleksandr Ostrovsky and Anton Chekhov, and the prose ofNikolai Gogol, Ivan Turgenev, Leo Tolstoy, Fyodor Dostoevsky, MikhailSaltykov-Shchedrin, Ivan Goncharov, Aleksey Pisemsky and Nikolai Leskov. Tolstoyand Dostoevsky in particular were titanic figures to the point that many literary criticshave described one or the other as the greatest novelist ever.[253] [254]

By the 1880s Russian literature had begun to change. The age of the great novelists wasover and short fiction and poetry became the dominant genres of Russian literature forthe next several decades which became known as the Silver Age of Russian Poetry.Previously dominated by realism, Russian literature came under strong influence ofSymbolism in the years between 1893 and 1914. Leading writers of this age includeValery Bryusov, Andrei Bely, Vyacheslav Ivanov, Aleksandr Blok, Nikolay Gumilev,Dmitry Merezhkovsky, Fyodor Sologub, Anna Akhmatova, Osip Mandelstam, MarinaTsvetaeva, Leonid Andreyev, Ivan Bunin, and Maxim Gorky.

Some Russian writers, like Tolstoy and Dostoyevsky, are known also as philosophers,while many more authors are known primarily for their philosophical works. Russianphilosophy blossomed since the 19th century, when it was defined initially by theopposition of Westernizers, advocating Russia's following the Western political andeconomical models, and Slavophiles, insisting on developing Russia as uniquecivilization.

The latter group includes Nikolai Danilevsky and Konstantin Leontiev, the earlyfounders of eurasianism. In its further development, Russian philosophy was alwaysmarked by deep connection to literature and interest in creativity, society, politics andnationalism; cosmos and religion were other primary subjects. Notable philosopheres ofthe late 19th and early 20th centuries include Vladimir Solovyev, Sergei Bulgakov,Pavel Florensky and Vladimir Vernadsky. In the 20th century Russian philosophybecame dominated by Marxism.

Following the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the ensuing civil war, Russian culturallife was left in chaos. Some prominent writers and philosophers, like Ivan Bunin,Vladimir Nabokov, Lev Shestov, Isaiah Berlin, Alexandre Kojève left the country,while a new generation of talented writers joined together in different organizationswith the aim of creating a new and distinctive working-class culture appropriate for thenew state, the Soviet Union.

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Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910),novelist and philosopher.The author of War and

Peace and Anna Karenina.

Throughout the 1920s writers enjoyed broad tolerance. In the 1930s censorship overliterature was tightened in line with Joseph Stalin's policy of socialist realism. After hisdeath the restrictions on literature were eased, and by the 1970s and 1980s, writers wereincreasingly ignoring the official guidelines. The leading authors of the Soviet eraincluded Yevgeny Zamiatin, Isaac Babel, Vladimir Mayakovsky, Ilf and Petrov, YuryOlesha, Mikhail Bulgakov, Boris Pasternak, Mikhail Sholokhov, AleksandrSolzhenitsyn, Yevgeny Yevtushenko, and Andrey Voznesensky.

Cinema, animation and media

The world's oldest film school, the RussianState Institute of Cinematography in Moscow.

While in the industrialized nations of the West, motion pictures had firstbeen accepted as a form of cheap recreation and leisure for the workingclass, Russian filmmaking came to prominence following the 1917revolution when it explored editing as the primary mode of cinematicexpression.[255] Russian and later Soviet cinema was a hotbed ofinvention in the period immediately following the 1917, resulting inworld-renowned films such as Battleship Potemkin.[256] Soviet-erafilmmakers, most notably Sergei Eisenstein and Andrei Tarkovsky,would become some of the world's most innovative and influentialdirectors.

Eisenstein was a student of filmmaker and theorist Lev Kuleshov, whodeveloped the groundbreaking Soviet montage theory of film editing at the world's first film school, the All-UnionInstitute of Cinematography. Dziga Vertov, whose kino-glaz (“film-eye”) theory—that the camera, like the humaneye, is best used to explore real life—had a huge impact on the development of documentary film making andcinema realism. In 1932, Stalin made socialist realism the state policy; this somewhat limited creativity, howevermany Soviet films in this style were artistically successful, like Chapaev, The Cranes Are Flying, and Ballad of aSoldier.[256]

1960s and 1970s saw a greater variety of artistic styles in the Soviet cinema. Eldar Ryazanov's and Leonid Gaidai'scomedies of that time were immensely popular, with many of the catch phrases still in use today. In 1961–1968Sergey Bondarchuk directed an Oscar-winning film adaptation of Tolstoy's epic War and Peace, which was the mostexpensive film ever made.[257] In 1969, Vladimir Motyl's White Sun of the Desert was released, a very popular filmin a genre known as 'osterns'; the film is traditionally watched by cosmonauts before any trip into space.[258]

Russia 41

The famous Odessa Steps scene from the TheBattleship Potemkin, 1925.

Russia also has a long and rich tradition of animation, whichstarted already in the late Russian Empire times. Most of Russia'scartoon production for cinema and television was created duringSoviet times, when Soyuzmultfilm studio was the largestanimation producer. Soviet animators developed a great andunmatched variety of pioneering techniques and aesthetic styles,with prominent directors including Ivan Ivanov-Vano, FyodorKhitruk and Aleksandr Tatarskiy. Soviet cartoons are still a sourcefor many popular catch phrases, while such cartoon heroes asRussian-style Winnie-the-Pooh, cute little Cheburashka, Wolf andHare from Nu, Pogodi! being iconic images in Russia and many surrounding countries.

The late 1980s and 1990s were a period of crisis in Russian cinema and animation. Although Russian filmmakersbecame free to express themselves, state subsidies were drastically reduced, resulting in fewer films produced. Theearly years of the 21st century have brought increased viewership and subsequent prosperity to the industry on theback of the economy's rapid development, and production levels are already higher than in Britain and Germany.[259]

Russia's total box-office revenue in 2007 was $565 million, up 37% from the previous year[260] (by comparison, in1996 revenues stood at $6 million).[259] Russian cinema continues to receive international recognition. Russian Ark(2002) was the first feature film ever to be shot in a single take. The traditions of Soviet animation were developed inthe past decade by such directors as Aleksandr Petrov and studios like Melnitsa.

Russia was among the first countries to introduce radio and television. Due to the enormous size of the countryRussia leads in the number of TV broadcast stations and repeaters. There were few channels in the Soviet time, butin the past two decades many new state-run and private-owned radio stations and TV channels appeared. In 2005 astate-run English language Russia Today TV started broadcasting, and its Arabic version Rusiya Al-Yaum waslaunched in 2007.

Modern culture

Heavy metal band Aria is one of the leadingRussian rock performers.

Since the late Soviet times Russia has experienced another wave ofWestern cultural influence, which led to the development of manypreviously unknown phenomena in the Russian culture. Russia easilyhas adopted a number of cultural techniques, while providing its owncontent.

The most vivid example, perhaps, is the Russian rock music, whichtakes its roots both in the Western rock and roll and heavy metal, andin traditions of the Russian bards of Soviet era, like Vladimir Vysotskyand Bulat Okudzhava. Saint-Petersburg (former Leningrad),Yekaterinburg and Omsk became the main centers of development ofthe rock music. Popular Russian rock groups include MashinaVremeni, DDT, Aquarium, Alisa, Kino, Nautilus Pompilius, Aria,Grazhdanskaya Oborona, Splean and Korol i Shut.

At the same time Russian pop music developed from what was known in the Soviet times as estrada into full-fledgedindustry, with some performers gaining international recognition, like t.A.T.u. in the West or Vitas in China. Lubehis a very popular and unique group, harmoniously combining the elements of Western rock and roll, traditionalRussian folk music and military bard music, featuring a number of rock attributes but often performing on the popscenes.

Russia 42

In the past decades many new sporting activities came into Russia, including cheerleading, auto racing,snowboarding and skateboarding. Many subcultures became popular among Russian youth, like rappers, Goths,Emo, Anime fans and Live action role-playing gamers. Russian Internet, or Runet, has seen a rapid development inthe last years and the rise of a variety of Internet subcultures.

Sports

Bear cub Misha, the mascot,at the closing ceremony of1980 Summer Olympics.

Maria Sharapova, the world's highest paid femaleathlete.[261]

Russians have been successful at a number of sports and consistentlyfinish in the top rankings at the Olympic Games and in otherinternational competitions. Combining the total medals of SovietUnion and Russia, the country is second among all nations by numberof gold medals both at the Summer Olympics and at the WinterOlympics .

During the Soviet era, the national Olympic team placed first in thetotal number of medals won at 14 of its 18 appearances; with theseperformances, the USSR was the dominant Olympic power of its era.Since the 1952 Olympic Games, Soviet and later Russian athletes havealways been in the top three for the number of gold medals collected atthe Summer Olympics.

Soviet gymnasts, track-and-field athletes, weight lifters, wrestlers,boxers, fencers, shooters, chess players, cross country skiers,biathletes, speed skaters and figure skaters were consistently amongthe best in the world, along with Soviet basketball, handball, volleyballand ice hockey players. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russianathletes have continued to dominate international competitions. The1980 Summer Olympic Games were held in Moscow while the 2014Winter Olympics will be hosted by Sochi.

As the Soviet Union, Russia was traditionally very strong in basketball,winning various Olympic tournaments, World Championships andEurobasket. As of 2009 they have various players in the NBA, notablyUtah Jazz forward Andrei Kirilenko, and are considered as aworldwide basketball force. In 2007, Russia defeated world championsSpain to win Eurobasket 2007. Russian basketball clubs such as PBCCSKA Moscow (2006 and 2008 Euroleague Champions) have also hadgreat success in European competitions such as the Euroleague and theULEB Cup.

Russia 43

Russia's president Dmitry Medvedev with Russiamen's national ice hockey team.

Although ice hockey was only introduced during the Soviet era, thenational team soon dominated the sport internationally, winning gold atalmost all the Olympics and World Championships they contested.Russian players Valery Kharlamov, Sergey Makarov, VyacheslavFetisov and Vladislav Tretiak hold 4 of 6 positions in the IIHF Team ofthe Century.[262] As with some other sports, the Russian ice hockeyprogramme suffered after the breakup of the Soviet Union with Russiaenduring a 15 year gold medal drought. At that time many prominentRussian players made their career in the NHL.

In recent years Russia has reemerged as a hockey superpower, winningback to back gold medals in the 2008 and 2009 World Championships, and overtaking team Canada as the topranked ice hockey team in the world.[263] The KHL (Kontinental Hockey League) was founded in 2008 as asuccessor to the Russian Superleague. It is seen as a rival to the NHL and is ranked the top hockey league in Europeas of 2009.[264] Bandy, known in Russian as "hockey with a ball", is another traditionally popular ice sport, withnational league games averaging around 3500 spectators.[265] The Soviet Union won all the Bandy WorldChampionships from 1957 to 1979.

During the Soviet period, Russia was also a competitive footballing nation. Despite having fantastic players, theUSSR never really managed to assert itself as one of the major forces of international football, although its teamswon various championships (such as Euro 1960) and reached numerous finals (such as Euro 1988). Along with icehockey and basketball, football is one of the most popular sports in modern Russia. In recent years, Russian football,which downgraded in 1990-s, has experienced a revival. Russian clubs (such as CSKA Moscow, Zenit St Petersburg,Lokomotiv Moscow, and Spartak Moscow) are becoming increasingly successful on the European stage (CSKA andZenit winning the UEFA Cup in 2005 and 2008 respectively). The Russian national football team reached thesemi-finals of Euro 2008, losing only to eventual champions Spain.Soviet Union dominated the sport of gymnastics for many years, with such athletes as Larisa Latynina, who currentlyholds a record of most Olympic medals won per person and most gold Olympic medals won by a woman. Today,Russia is leading in rhythmic gymnastics with such stars as Alina Kabayeva, Irina Tschaschina and YevgeniyaKanayeva. Russian synchronized swimming is the best in the world, with almost all gold medals having been sweptby Russians at Olympics and World Championships for more than a decade.Figure skating is another popular sport in Russia; in the 1960s, the Soviet Union rose to become a dominant power infigure skating, especially in pair skating and ice dancing, and at every Winter Olympics from 1964 until 2006, aSoviet or Russian pair has won gold, often considered the longest winning streak in modern sports history. Since theend of the Soviet era, tennis has grown in popularity and Russia has produced a number of famous tennis players.Chess is also a widely popular pastime; from 1927, Soviet and Russian chess grandmasters have held the worldchampionship almost continuously.

Russia 44

National holidays and symbols

Ded Moroz (Russian Santa) at his residencein Veliky Ustyug.

2005 Victory Day (9 May) parade on Moscow's RedSquare.

There are seven public holidays in Russia. The New Year is thefirst in calendar and in popularity. Russian New Year traditionsresemble those of the Western Christmas, with New Year Treesand gifts, and Ded Moroz (Father Frost) playing the same role asSanta. Rozhdestvo (Orthodox Christmas) falls on 7 January,because Russian Orthodox Church still follows the Julian (oldstyle) calendar and all Orthodox holidays are 13 days afterCatholic ones. Another two major Christian holidays are Paskha(Easter) and Troitsa (Trinity), but there is no need to recognizethem as public holidays since they are always celebrated onSunday. Kurban Bayram and Uraza Bayram are widely celebratedby Russian Muslims.

Further Russian public holidays include Defender of theFatherland Day (23 February), which honors Russian men,especially those serving in the army; International Women's Day(8 March), which combines the traditions of Mother's Day andValentine's Day; International Workers' Day (1 May), nowrenamed Spring and Labor Day; Victory Day (9 May); Russia Day(12 June); and Unity Day (4 November), commemorating thepopular uprising which expelled the Polish-Lithuanian occupationforce from Moscow in 1612. The latter is a replacement for the oldSoviet holiday celebrating October Revolution of 1917 (again, itwas falling on November because of the difference of calendars).Fireworks and outdoor concerts are common features of allRussian public holidays.

Victory Day is the second popular holiday in Russia, it commemorates the victory over Nazi Germany in World WarII and is widely celebrated throughout the country. A huge military parade, hosted by the President of the RussianFederation, is annually organized in Moscow on Red Square. Similar parades are organized in all major Russiancities and the cities with the status Hero city or City of Military Glory.

Other popular holidays, which are not public, include Old New Year (New Year according to Julian Calendar on 14January), Tatiana Day (day of Russian students on 25 January), Maslenitsa (an old pagan holiday a week before theGreat Lent), Cosmonautics Day (a day of Yury Gagarin's first ever human trip into space on 12 April), Ivan KupalaDay (another pagan Slavic holiday on 7 July) and Peter and Fevronia Day (taking place on 8 July and being theRussian analogue of Valentine's Day, which focuses, however, on the family love and fidelity). On different days inJune there are major celebrations of the end of the school year, when graduates from schools and universitiestraditionally swim in the city fountains; the local varieties of these public events include Scarlet Sails tradition inSaint Petersburg.

Russia 45

Russian football fans with a gigantic Go Russia!banner, featuring Russian Bear on the background of

Russian flag.

Scarlet Sails celebration on the Neva river in Saint Petersburg.

State symbols of Russia include the Byzantinedouble-headed eagle, combined with St. George ofMoscow in the Russian coat of arms; these symbols datefrom the Grand Duchy of Moscow time. Russian flagappeared in the late Tsardom of Russia period andbecame widely used since Russian Empire times. Russiananthem shares its music with the Soviet Anthem, thoughnot the lyrics (many Russians of older generations justdon't know the new lyrics and sing the old ones).

The Russian imperial motto God is with us and the Sovietmotto Proletarians of all countries, unite! are nowobsolete and no new motto has been officially introducedto replace them. The hammer and sickle and the fullSoviet coat of arms are still widely seen in Russian citiesas a part of old architectural decorations. The Soviet RedStars are also encountered, often on military equipmentand war memorials. The Red Banner continues to behonored, especially the Banner of Victory of 1945.

Matryoshka doll is a recognizable symbol of Russia,while the towers of Moscow Kremlin and Saint Basil'sCathedral in Moscow are main Russia's architecturalsymbols. Cheburashka is a mascot of Russian nationalOlympic team. Mary, Saint Nicholas, Saint Andrew,Saint George, Saint Alexander Nevsky, Saint Sergius ofRadonezh and Saint Seraphim of Sarov are Russia's

patron saints.

Chamomile is a flower that Russians often associate with their Motherland, while birch is a national tree. Russianbear is an animal symbol and national personification of Russia, though this image has Western origin and Russiansthemselves have accepted it fairly recently. The native Russian national personification is Mother Russia, sometimescalled Mother Motherland.

Tourism

Grand Cascade in Peterhof, nicknamed RussianVersaille, a popular tourist destination in Saint

Petersburg.

Tourism in Russia has seen rapid growth since the late Soviettimes, first inner tourism and then international tourism as well.Rich cultural heritage and great natural variety place Russiaamong the most popular tourist destinations in the world. Thecountry contains 23 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, while manymore are on UNESCO's tentative lists.[266] Major tourist routes inRussia include a travel around the Golden Ring of ancient cities,cruises on the big rivers like Volga, and long journeys on thefamous Trans-Siberian Railway.

Most popular tourist destinations in Russia are Moscow and SaintPetersburg, the current and the former capitals of the country and

Russia 46

Seaside arbour in Sochi, a subtropicalRussian resort city and the capital of

2014 Winter Olympics.

great cultural centers, recognized as World Cities. Moscow and Saint Petersburgfeature such world-renown museums as Tretyakov Gallery and Hermitage,famous theaters like Bolshoi and Mariinsky, ornate churches like Saint Basil'sCathedral, Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, Saint Isaac's Cathedral and Churchof the Savior on Blood, impressive fortifications like Moscow Kremlin andPeter and Paul Fortress, beautiful squares like Red Square and Palace Square,and busy streets like Tverskaya and Nevsky Prospect.

Rich palaces and parks of extreme beauty are found in the former imperialresidences in suburbs of Moscow (Kolomenskoye, Tsaritsyno) and SaintPetersburg (Peterhof, Strelna, Oranienbaum, Gatchina, Pavlovsk, TsarskoyeSelo). Moscow contains a great variety of impressive Soviet era buildings alongwith modern scyscrapers, while Saint Petersburg, nicknamed Venice of theNorth, boasts of its classical architecture, many rivers, channels and bridges.

Kazan Kremlin, as well as Kazan in the whole, attracts by a rare combination of ChristianOrthodox and Muslim styles

Kazan, the capital of Tatarstan, showsa unique mix of Christian Russian andMuslim Tatar cultures. The city hasregistered a brand The Third Capital ofRussia, though a number of othermajor Russian cities compete for thisstatus, like Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburgand Nizhny Novgorod, all being majorcultural centers with rich history andprominent architecture.

Veliky Novgorod, Pskov and the cities of Golden Ring (Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Kostroma and others) have at bestpreserved the architecture and the spirit of ancient and medieval Rus', and also are among the main touristdestinations. Many old fortifications (typically Kremlins), monasteries and churches are scattered throughout Russia,forming its unique cultural landscape both in big cities and in remote areas.

Mount Belukha, the highest point of Altai and Siberia,a popular alpinist site.

Typical Russian souvenirs include matryoshka doll and otherhandicraft, samovars for water heating, ushanka and papaha warmhats, fur clothes and other stuff. Russian vodka and caviar areamong the food that attracts foreigners, along with honey, blini,pelmeni, borsch and other products and dishes. Diverse regionsand ethnic cultures of Russia offer many more different food andsouvenirs, and show a great variety of traditions, like Russianbanya, Tatar Sabantuy, or Siberian shamanist rituals.

Russia 47

Matryoshka doll taken apart

The warm subtropical Black Sea coast of Russia is the site for anumber of popular sea resorts, like Sochi, known for its beaches andwonderful nature. The mountains of the Northern Caucasus containpopular ski resorts, including Dombay.

The most famous natural tourist destination in Russia is lake Baikal,named the Blue Eye of Siberia. This unique lake, oldest and deepest inthe world, has crystal-clean waters and is surrounded by taiga-coveredmountains. Other popular natural destinations include Kamchatka withits volcanoes and geysers, Karelia with its many lakes and graniterocks, Altai with its snowy mountains and Tyva with its wild steppes.

See also• Intermediate Region• List of Russia-related topics• List of statistically superlative countries• Timeline of Russian history• Timeline of Russian inventions and technology records

External linksGovernment• gov.ru [267]—Official governmental portal (Russian)

• Duma [268]—Official site of the parliamentary lower house (Russian)

• Federation Council [269]—Official site of the parliamentary upper house• Kremlin [270]—Official presidential site• Chief of State and Cabinet Members [271]

• Central Bank of Russia [272]

• Federal Migration Service [273] (Russian)

• Russian Federal Customs Service [274]

• Energy Statistics for Russia [275] from the Energy Information Administration• Russian News Agency Ria Novosti [276]

General information• Russia [277] entry at The World Factbook• Russia [278] at UCB Libraries GovPubs• Russia [279] at the Open Directory Project• Wikimedia Atlas of Russia• Russia travel guide from WikitravelOther• ITAR-TASS News Agency [280]

• Interfax.com [281]—News agency based in Moscow• Way to Russia. An Introduction to Russia and Russian People [282]

• RussGUS [283]—Bibliographic database of German publications on Russia (about 175,000 positions)• Russia Beyond the Headlines [284] International news project about Russia.

Russia 48

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Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Flag of Russia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Russia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AndriusG, Artem Karimov, Davepape, DmitryStrotsev, Drieskamp, Enbéká, Fred J, Gleb Borisov, Herbythyme, Homo lupus, Kiensvay, Klemen Kocjancic, Kwj2772, Mattes, Maximaximax, Miyokan, Nightstallion, Ondřej Žváček, Pianist,Pumbaa80, Putnik, R-41, Radziun, Rainman, Reisio, Rfc1394, Rkt2312, Rocket000, Sasa Stefanovic, SeNeKa, Srtxg, Stianbh, Wikiborg, Winterheart, Zscout370, Zyido, ОйЛ, 34 anonymouseditsFile:Coat of Arms of the Russian Federation.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:User:Zscout370File:Russian Federation (orthographic projection).svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Russian_Federation_(orthographic_projection).svg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution 3.0  Contributors: User:SsolbergjFile:Speaker Icon.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Speaker_Icon.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Blast, G.Hagedorn, Mobius, 2 anonymous editsFile:Russland Relief.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Russland_Relief.png  License: unknown  Contributors: User:LencerFile:Central highlands.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Central_highlands.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Ilya1166 at en.wikipediaFile:Mount Elbrus May 2008.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mount_Elbrus_May_2008.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:JukoFFFile:Vasyugan.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vasyugan.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Vadim tLS Andrianov / Вадим tLSАндриановFile:Medved mzoo.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Medved_mzoo.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SimmFile:Archangelsk taiga.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Archangelsk_taiga.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:XxxlFile:Amur Tiger Panthera tigris altaica Cub Walking 1500px.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Amur_Tiger_Panthera_tigris_altaica_Cub_Walking_1500px.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:LycaonFile:Siberian birch forest.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Siberian_birch_forest.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Brian JefferyBeggerlyFile:IE expansion.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IE_expansion.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Dbachmann, Esteban.barahona, Manvyi, Mdd, Mvangeest, 1 anonymous editsFile:Muromian-map.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Muromian-map.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Berillium, Chesnok, DavidKernow, Geagea, Huhsunqu, Imz, Incnis Mrsi, Joonasl, Maximaximax, Stannered, Wst, 2 anonymous editsFile:Kievan Rus en.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kievan_Rus_en.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Captain Blood, RottweilerFile:NevskyKorinStamp.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NevskyKorinStamp.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Creator of the stamp uncredited; painting byPavel KorinFile:Lebedev baptism.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lebedev_baptism.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Butko, Mladifilozof, RandbewohnerFile:Lissner TroiceSergievaLavr.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lissner_TroiceSergievaLavr.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Alex Bakharev, DmitryRozhkov, MishaPan, Pianist, 1 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 59

File:Dormition (Kremlin).JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dormition_(Kremlin).JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SmackFile:Ivan the Terrible (cropped).JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ivan_the_Terrible_(cropped).JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: Butko, Kürschner,Mrlopez2681, ShakkoFile:Minin&Pogjarsky 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Minin&Pogjarsky_2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: EugeneZelenko,Julmin, Kneiphof, OkmanFile:Surikov Pokoreniye Sibiri Yermakom.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Surikov_Pokoreniye_Sibiri_Yermakom.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: ВасилийИванович СуриковVasiliy SurikovFile:Peter der-Grosse 1838.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Peter_der-Grosse_1838.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Anathema, Butko, Ecummenic, Kilom691,Mathiasrex, Miyokan, Polarlys, Shakko, Sparkit, TheoClarke, Vincent SteenbergFile:Empress Catherine The Great circa 1770 (D.G. Levitsky).JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Empress_Catherine_The_Great_circa_1770_(D.G._Levitsky).JPG License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Mrlopez2681 at en.wikipediaFile:Suvorov crossing the alps.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Suvorov_crossing_the_alps.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Alex Bakharev, Anne97432, Hispa,Mattes, Maximaximax, Peter Isotalo, Shakko, SidoniusFile:Napoleons retreat from moscow.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Napoleons_retreat_from_moscow.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnRo0002,Anne97432, BrokenSphere, Butko, Erri4a, Hispa, Jusjih, Kersti Nebelsiek, Mattes, Myself488, Pitke, Sparkit, TheJH, Thuresson, 3 anonymous editsFile:Imperio Ruso.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Imperio_Ruso.PNG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:MexicanoFile:Kustodiev The Bolshevik.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kustodiev_The_Bolshevik.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Cecil, Kalki, Shakko, Túrelio,XhienneFile:Lenin 1920.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lenin_1920.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was Stevegiacomelli aten.wikipediaFile:1937urss.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1937urss.jpg  License: anonymous-EU  Contributors: ABF, Alex Bakharev, Gryffindor, Man vyi, Manecke, Millevache,The DeceiverFile:Поезд идет от ст. Социализм до ст. Коммунизм.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Поезд_идет_от_ст._Социализм_до_ст._Коммунизм.jpg  License: PublicDomain  Contributors: Соколов-Скаля П. П.,File:Stalingrad Streets.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stalingrad_Streets.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Georgii Zelma &Fredy.00File:VE-day-parade-moscow.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:VE-day-parade-moscow.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alex Bakharev, Bukvoed, Emijrp,Lupo, Man vyi, Martin H., PMG, The Deceiver, 1 anonymous editsFile:Gagarin space suite.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gagarin_space_suite.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: Original uploader was Irpen at en.wikipediaFile:TVtower in Ostankino.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TVtower_in_Ostankino.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:User:Игорь СFile:Banknote 5 rubles (1997) front.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Banknote_5_rubles_(1997)_front.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:VizuFile:Rub5b.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rub5b.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Outlamed at en.wikipediaFile:Moscow-City 28-03-2010 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moscow-City_28-03-2010_2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:BradmoscuFile:Kremlin senate.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kremlin_senate.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: kingpenguin1029.Original uploader was Miyokan at en.wikipediaFile:Thewhitehouseinmoscow.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thewhitehouseinmoscow.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:Pepijn SchmitzFile:Langman sto.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Langman_sto.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: NVOFile:Peter the Great statue in Saint Petersburg.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Peter_the_Great_statue_in_Saint_Petersburg.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors:Presidential Press and Information OfficeFile:BRIC leaders in 2008.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BRIC_leaders_in_2008.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Presidential Press and Information OfficeFile:2010 Moscow Victory Day Parade-37.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2010_Moscow_Victory_Day_Parade-37.jpeg  License: unknown  Contributors:Presidential Press and Information OfficeFile:Kusnzov2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kusnzov2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bukk, Darz Mol, Joshbaumgartner, Pibwl, SchlendrianFile:Russian-regions.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Russian-regions.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:NightstallionFile:Population of Russia.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Population_of_Russia.PNG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: User:LokiiTFile:Kremlin 27.06.2008 01.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kremlin_27.06.2008_01.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:User:NVOFile:PalaceSquare.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PalaceSquare.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Flrn, Peterburg23, Sergey kudryavtsevFile:Novosibirskopera.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Novosibirskopera.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: BOLSCHOI, Maximaximax, 1 anonymous editsFile:Yekaterinburg skyline2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yekaterinburg_skyline2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:Владислав ФальшивомонетчикFile:Nizhny Novgorod center small.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nizhny_Novgorod_center_small.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:Surendil, User:VmenkovImage:Ladya Samara winter.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ladya_Samara_winter.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:User:AtgnclkFile:Spasski Tower.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Spasski_Tower.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:UntiflerImage:Omsk Vrubel Museum.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Omsk_Vrubel_Museum.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:User:Siberiano, User:SiberianoFile:RussianLanguageMap.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RussianLanguageMap.png  License: unknown  Contributors: Chinneeb, Damian Radu, David Kernow,DenghiùComm, Kuban kazak, Roke, Small Bug, Tat1642, Winterheart, 22 anonymous editsFile:Moscow - Cathedral of Christ the Saviour.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moscow_-_Cathedral_of_Christ_the_Saviour.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: user:Voytek SFile:Kazan church.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kazan_church.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: MaartenFile:Terapevt Mudrov train.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Terapevt_Mudrov_train.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:User:GluckeFile:52316532 b27574ec03 o.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:52316532_b27574ec03_o.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors:Alexander Konovalenko from St. Petersburg, RussiaFile:Школа 1118 (Москва).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Школа_1118_(Москва).jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: vowFile:Russian economy since fall of Soviet Union.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Russian_economy_since_fall_of_Soviet_Union.PNG  License: GNU FreeDocumentation License  Contributors: User:LokiiTFile:Rosneft-azs.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rosneft-azs.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:S1File:Russian subdivisions GRP per capita.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Russian_subdivisions_GRP_per_capita.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:User:EmilfaroFile:Rozh.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rozh.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Afanasovich, Ghirlandajo, Sfrandzi, Shakko

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 60

File:Archangel reindeer3.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Archangel_reindeer3.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Detroit Publishing Co.File:RF NG pipestoEU.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RF_NG_pipestoEU.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Beagel, Benlisquare, Dominic, JLogan,Jacoplane, Mion, 2 anonymous editsFile:Magic Sankt Petersburg - Kunstkammer at White Nights (Weisse Nächte).jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magic_Sankt_Petersburg_-_Kunstkammer_at_White_Nights_(Weisse_Nächte).jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Hamlet53File:Lomonosovportrait.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lomonosovportrait.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jflomonosoff, Papa November, ShakkoFile:Periodic table monument.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Periodic_table_monument.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors:http://www.flickr.com/people/mmmdirt/File:sk334.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sk334.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: pxNick@yandex.ruFile:Shukhov tower shabolovka moscow 02.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shukhov_tower_shabolovka_moscow_02.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Arssenev, Donskoy, Lite, NVO, Rlevse, Roomba, Snowgrove, TomAlt, Vonvon, 5 anonymous editsFile:Soyuz TMA-2 launch.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Soyuz_TMA-2_launch.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA/Scott AndrewsFile:Rifle AK-47.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rifle_AK-47.jpg  License: Free Art License  Contributors: User:Alex07File:Indian Army T-90.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Indian_Army_T-90.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Dhatfield, Geni, HaraldHansen, KTo288, Nilfanion, PMG, ThuressonFile:Sukhoi Superjet 100 prototype.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sukhoi_Superjet_100_prototype.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:Marina LystsevaFile:TransSiberianRailwayAtKm9288.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TransSiberianRailwayAtKm9288.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Bukk, Demidow, Ingolfson, Krinkle, Mschlindwein, 1 anonymous editsFile:NSF picture of Yamal.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NSF_picture_of_Yamal.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: High Contrast, Kneiphof,Maximaximax, Stunteltje, TungstenFile:Moscow Metro Arbatskaja.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moscow_Metro_Arbatskaja.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Daniel 1992, Interpretix, Jcornelius, Kuban kazak, S.L., S1, Saibo, Stan ShebsFile:Kuban Cossack Dance.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kuban_Cossack_Dance.jpg  License: Free Art License  Contributors: User:StanitsaFile:PELMENY.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PELMENY.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:RubashkynFile:Kustodiev russian venus.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kustodiev_russian_venus.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Alex Bakharev, Berillium, Jtir,Longhairadmirer, Rl, Shakko, Skipjack, TwoWings, 1 anonymous editsFile:Die drei Bogatyr.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Die_drei_Bogatyr.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Alex Bakharev, ArtMechanic, Butko, Conscious,Kersti Nebelsiek, Snek01, Spider, Thuresson, Warburg, Wolfmann, Wst, Александров Павел, 1 anonymous editsFile:Kizhi churches.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kizhi_churches.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:MatthiasKabelFile:Triumph-Palace2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Triumph-Palace2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Sharealike 1.0  Contributors: gallery.vashdom.ruFile:Andrej Rublëv 001.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Andrej_Rublëv_001.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, AnonMoos, Aroche,Goldfritha, Laurom, Shakko, Tsca, WstFile:NesterovMV NaRusi206x483GTG.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NesterovMV_NaRusi206x483GTG.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Alex Bakharev,Ghirlandajo, MishaPan, Shakko, Syrcro, WstFile:Bernsteinzimmer02.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bernsteinzimmer02.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:jeanyfanFile:Porträt des Komponisten Pjotr I. Tschaikowski (1840-1893).jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Porträt_des_Komponisten_Pjotr_I._Tschaikowski_(1840-1893).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Cherubino, Dmitry Rozhkov, JappalangFile:Snowdance.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Snowdance.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Rick DikemanFile:AleksandrPushkin.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AleksandrPushkin.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alex Bakharev, Bkmd, Butko, HenryMerrivale, Mariluna, Mikko Paananen, Phrood, Shakko, Алексей Скрипник, 2 anonymous editsFile:Dostoevskij 1872.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dostoevskij_1872.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Vassilij Grigorovič PerovFile:ChekhovGl 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ChekhovGl_1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Osip Braz (1873-1936)File:L.N.Tolstoy Prokudin-Gorsky.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:L.N.Tolstoy_Prokudin-Gorsky.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Avenger911, Berillium,Damouns, Henry Merrivale, J.M.Domingo, Pianist, RedAndr, Reino Həlismaa, Yann, 2 anonymous editsFile:Vgik.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vgik.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Jonathan Hollow. Original uploader was Jphollow aten.wikipediaFile:Potemkinmarch.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Potemkinmarch.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Adelchi, Kakoui, TwoWingsFile:Berkut flies.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Berkut_flies.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: User:BeaumainFile:1980 Summer Olympics Closing Ceremony.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1980_Summer_Olympics_Closing_Ceremony.jpg  License: Attribution Contributors: BrokenSphere, Cmapm, High Contrast, IBook of the Revolution, Samulili, StifleFile:Maria Sharapova Indian Wells 2006 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maria_Sharapova_Indian_Wells_2006_2.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors:w:User:Akademan. Original uploader was Miyokan at en.wikipediaFile:Dmitry Medvedev 20 May 2008-2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dmitry_Medvedev_20_May_2008-2.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Presidential Pressand Information OfficeFile:Ded Moroz.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ded_Moroz.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Presidential Press and Information OfficeFile:Victory Day Parade 2005-18.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Victory_Day_Parade_2005-18.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: ITAR-TASSFile:RussianBear.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RussianBear.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: Roman KovriginFile:Alyye parusa.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alyye_parusa.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Marina LystsevaFile:PeterhofGrandCascade.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PeterhofGrandCascade.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Cottbus,Kaganer, RonaldinoFile:Sochi Beach arbour.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sochi_Beach_arbour.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ori~, VäskFile:Kazan Kremlin night.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kazan_Kremlin_night.jpeg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Denis Larkin.Original uploader was TY-214 at en.wikipediaFile:2006-07 altaj belucha.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2006-07_altaj_belucha.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Dmottl,Latebird, VitecekFile:Russian-Matroshka2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Russian-Matroshka2.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Fanghong, Mariluna

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