russian education after perestroika_ the search

8/18/2019 Russian Education After Perestroika_ the Search

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R U S S I A N E D U C A T I O N A F T E R P E R E S T R O I K A : T H E S E A R C H

F O R

N E W V A L U E S

N I K O L A I D . N I K A N D R O V

A b s t r a c t - D u r i n g s e v e n d e c a d e s f o ll o w i n g th e R e v o l u ti o n , R u s s ia n e d u c a t io n b e c a m e

o v e r b u r d e n e d w i t h i d e o l o g y ; n o d i s c u s s i o n w a s p o s s i b l e a b o u t g e n e r al h u m a n v a l u e s

t h a t m i g h t t r a n s c e n d c l a s s b o u n d a r i e s . I n t h e w a k e o f p e r e s tr o i k a , th e r e w a s a n e x t r e m e

c o u n t e r - r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t e v e r y t h i n g c o n n e c t e d w i t h S o v i e t e d u c a t i o n . T h i s h a s r e s u l t e d

i n c o l o s s a l p e s s i m i s m a m o n g m a n y e d u c a t i o n i s t s a n d t e a ch e r s , w h o f e e l th a t th e

e n t i re e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m i s in r u i n s. A d d i t i o n a l p r o b l e m s a r e c re a t e d b y t h e c o m -

m e r c i a l i z a t i o n o f a ll s p h e r e s o f l i f e a n d t h e g r o w t h o f c r i m i n a l i t y . T e a c h e r s a r e

u n c l e a r a b o u t w h a t v a l u e s s h o u l d b e i n c u l c a t e d in s c h o o l s , a n d t he v a l u e o f

e d u c a t i o n i t s e l f i s c a l l e d in t o q u e s t i o n i n a s o c i e t y w h e r e i t i s b e c o m i n g i n c r e a s -

i n g l y d i f f ic u l t t o m a k e a n h o n e s t l i v i n g . T h e a u t h o r w e l c o m e s t h e m o v e t o w a r d s a n

e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m b a s e d o n c h o i c e r a t h e r t h a n c o e r c i o n , b u t h e b e l i e v e s i t w i l l

t a k e m a n y y e a r s to d e v e l o p a n e w s e t o f v a l u e s t h a t c o u l d b e i n c u l c a t e d i n R u s s i a n

s c h o o l s .

Z u s a m m e n f a s s u n g - I n d e n s i e be n J a h r ze h n t e n n ac h d e r R e v o l u t i o n w a r da s

r u s s i s c h e B i l d u n g s s y s t e m m i t I d e o l o g i e f i b e rf r a ch t e t, e i n e D i s k u s s i o n f i b er a l lg e m e i n e ,

m 6 g l i c h e r w e i s e k l a s s e n f ib e r s c h r e i t e n d e m e n s c h l i c h e W e r t e w a r n i c h t m 6 g l i c h . I m

Z u g e d e r P e r e s t r o i k a g a b e s e i n e e x t r e m e G e g e n r e a k t i o n a u f a ll e s , w a s m i t s o w -

j e t i s c h e r B i l d u n g z u s a m m e n h i n g . D i e s f fi h rt e z u e n o r m e m P e s s i m i s m u s b e i v i e l e n

P ~ i d a go g e n u n d L e h r e r n , d i e d a s g a n z e B i l d u n g s s y s t e m i n S c h e r b e n s a h e n . Z u s f it z -

l i c h e P r o b l e m e s c h a f f t e n d i e K o m m e r z i a l i s i e r u n g a l le r L e b e n s b e r e i c h e u n d d e r

A n s t i e g d e r K r i m i n a l it ~ it . L e h r e r s i n d s i c h f i b er d i e i n d e r S c h u l e z u v e r m i t t e l n d e n

W e r t v o r s t e l l u n g e n i m u n k l a r e n , u n d d e r W e r t d e r B i l d u n g s e l b s t w i r d in e i n e r

G e s e l l s c h a f t in F r a g e g e s t e l l t, i n d e r e s i m m e r s c h w i e r i g e r w i r d , s e i n e n U n t e r h a l t

z u v e r d i e n e n . D e r A u t o r b eg r ti l3 t d e n T r e n d z u e i n e m B i l d u n g s s y s t e m , d a s e h e r a u f

f r e i e r W a h l a l s a u f Z w a n g b a s i e r t , b e f fi r c h t e t j e d o c h , d a b d i e E n t w i c k l u n g n e u e r f ~ir

d e n U n t e r r i c h t i n r u s s i s c h e n S c h u l e n g e e i g n e t e r W e r t v o r s t e l l u n g e n v i e l e J a h r e d a u e r n

w i r d .

R 6 s u m 6

A u c o u r s d e s s e p t d 6 c e n n i e s q u i s u i v i r e n t l a r 6 v o l u t io n , l e s y s t~ m e 6 d u c a t i f

r u s s e 6 t a i t i m p r 6 g n 6 d ' i d 6 o l o g i e e t i n t e r d i s a i t t o u t e d i s c u s s i o n s u r l e s v a l e u r s h u m a i n e s

f o n d a m e n t a l e s o u t r e p a s s a n t l e s d 6 1 i m i t a ti o n s s o c i a l e s . L a p e r e s t r o i k a a m a r q u 6 l ' a v ~ n e -

m e n t d ' u n e c o n t r e - r 6 a c t i o n r a d i c a l e , c o n d a m n a n t t o u t c e q u i a v a i t t r a it h l ' 6 d u c a t i o n

s o v i 6 t i q u e . C e c i s e t r a d u i t p a r u n t r 6 s g r a n d p e s s i m i s m e p a r m i d e n o m b r e u x 6 d u c a -

t e u r s e t e n s e i g n a n t s q u i v o i e n t t o u t l ' 6 d i f i c e 6 d u c a t i f e f f o n d r 6 . D ' a u t r e s p r o b l ~ m e s

r 6 s i d e n t d a n s l a c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n d e t o u s l e s d o m a i n e s d e l a v i e e t d a n s l a c r o i s s a n c e

d e l a c r i m i n a l i t 6 . L e s e n s e i g n a n t s r e s t e n t i n d 6 c i s q u a n t a u x v a l e u r s ~t t r a n s m e t t r e d a n s

l e s 6 c o l e s , e t l a v a l i d i t 6 d e l ' 6 d u c a t i o n e l l e - m ~ m e e s t r e m i s e e n q u e s t i o n d a n s u n e

s o c i6 t 6 oO i l s 'a v ~ r e d e p l u s e n p l u s d i f f i c i l e d e g a g n e r s a v i e h o n n & e m e n t . L ' a u t e u r

a p p r o u v e n 6 a n m o i n s l ' 6 v o l u t i o n a m o r c 6 e v e r s u n s y st ~ m e 6 d u c a t i f f o n d 6 d a v a n t a g e

s u r l e c h o i x q u e s u r la c o n t r a in t e , m a i s e s t i m e q u e d e n o m b r e u s e s a n n 6 e s s e r o n t n 6 c e s -

s a i r e s p o u r 6 l a b o r e r u n n o u v e a u s y s t ~ m e d e v a l e u r s s u s c e p t i b l e d ' e t r e e n s e i g n 6 d a n s

l e s 6 c o l e s r u s s e s .

I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e v i e w o f E d u c a t i o n - I n t e r n a t i o n a l e Z e i t s c h r i f t f i i r E r z i e h u n g s w i s s e n s c h a f i -

R e v u e l n t e r n at i o n a le d e l E d u e a t i on 41(1-2 ) : 47 -57 , 1995 .

9 1995

K l u w e r A c a d e m i c P u b l is h e r s . P r i n t e d i n t he N e t h e rl a n d s .


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4 8

S u m a r i o

En Rus i a , duran t e l os s i e t e decen ios que s i gu i e ron a l a Revoluc i6n , l a

educac i6n p f ib li ca e s tuvo r eca rga da de i deo log i as , s in que fue ra pos ib l e n inguna d i s -

cus i6n sobre va lo res hum anos genera l es que pud i e ran t r a scender l a s ba r r e r as soc i a l e s.

A r a i z de l a pe res t ro ika se p rodu jo una ex t r emada con t r a r r eacc i6n con t r a t odo l o que

es tuv i e ra r e l ac ionado con l a educac i6n sov i6 t ica . Es to de r iv6 en un en orm e pes im i smo

ent r e muchos educadores y maes t ros , que pe rc iben que t odo e l s i s t ema de educac i6n

cay6 en ru ina . Ademfis , s e han generado p rob l emas ad i c iona l es con l a comerc i a l i zac i6n

de t odas l a s e s f e r as v i t a l e s y con e l aumento de l a c r imina l i dad . Los maes t ros ya no

saben qu6 va lo res i ncu l ca r en l os co l eg ios , y e l va lo r de l a educ ac i6n m i sm a se e sf ft

pon i endo en du da en una so c i edad en l a cua l e s cada vez mi ls d i fi c il v iv i r honrad a-

m e n t e . E 1 a u t o r a p r u e b a e l d e s a r r o l o h a c ia u n s i s t e m a d e e d u c a c i 6 n b a s a d o e n l a

e l ecc i6n mgts q u e en l a coe rc i6n , pe ro t ambi6n op ina que e l desa r ro l l o de un nuev o

con junto d e valores que se pued a inculcar en los coleg ios rusos af in requer ir fi m uch os

afios.

P e 3 t o u e

- - B TeqeHHe CeM~I ~eC~TI4~IeTH ~ r]oc,~e peB o~ ou H~ pOCCHfiCKOe o6 pa 3o sa nH e

6bIJIO neperpy~KeHO H~Ieo30rHefi. ~HCKyCCIAtl 06 O6LReqeJloBeqeCKHX L~eHHOCTSIX, KOTOpbIe

npeo~o33eBatOT K~aCCOBNe rpaHHUb~, 6bI3]H HeBO3MO:CKHbl. HocJ le nepecTpOfIKH peaK~/H~

npOTHB COBeTCKO~I CHCTeMN o6pa3OBaHH~t ~NJ~a BeCbMa OCTpOfi. ~TO nopo~Hao qpe 3M ep -

HbI~ neccHMH3M cp e;IH MHOrUXne;Ia roro B H yu HT ene fI, KOTOpb~en o aa ra am qTO CHCTeMa

06pa3osaHH 9 pa 3p ym e~ a. KpoM e 9TOrO, SO3HHKaeTMHOrO np o6 ~eM s CB~3H c KOMMep-

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pOCTOM HpeCTyHHOCTH. YqHTe3]~ He yBepeHbI B TOM,

KaK~e LteHHOCTH c~e~IyeT HpHBHBaTb B 1JJKOJqax, a 1J, HHOCTb o6pa3oBaHH~ no~ Be pr ae Tc 9

COMtteHHIO B 06IKeCTBe, rAe gce Tp y~ue e qeCTHO 3apa6aTNBaTb. ABTOp BNCTyHaeT 3a

CnCTeMy o6pa3oBanng, oc~osauHyro Ha Bb~6ope, a He Ha npnHy~K~leHUn, HO nonaraeT,

qTO npofi~leT ue M an o ~ eT , npe~K;Ie qeM cqbopM npyeTc9 HOBa~ CnCTeMa tte~nocwef~ ~la~

pOCCH~ICKHX llI KOZI.

T h e c o l o s s a l c h a n g e s t h a t h a v e t a k e n p l a c e i n R u s s i a a n d t h e S o v i e t U n i o n

s i n c e th e l a te 1 9 8 0 s h a v e a f f e c t e d th e r e a l m o f v a l u e s a n d b e l i e f s a s m u c h a s

t h e p o l i t ic a l a n d e c o n o m i c s p h e r e s . T h e o l d r i g id i t i e s o f M a r x i s m - L e n i n i s m

a r e n o l o n g e r o f f i c ia l d o c t r i n e , a n d t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s f r e e t o s e a r c h f o r m e a n i n g

i n c a p i t a l i s m , n a t i o n a l i s m , c o n s u m e r i s m a n d a v a r i e t y o f o t h e r " i s m s " . I n

i d e a l s , a s in g o o d s , t h e f r e e m a r k e t re i g n s . W h i l e t h is i s e x h i l a r a t i n g , i t i s

a l s o p r o f o u n d l y c o n f u s i n g f o r m a n y p e o p l e .

T h i s f e e l i n g o f c o n f u s i o n i s f e l t e s p e c i a l l y a c u t e l y i n t h e e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m ,

w h i c h i s e x p e r i e n c i n g m a n y d i f f i c u l t i e s i n m a k i n g t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e p o s t -

c o m m u n i s t e r a . It h a s , f o r e x a m p l e , t a k e n s e v e r a l y e a r s t o r e p l a c e t h e o l d

i d e o l o g y - l a d e n t e x t b o o k s w i th n e w o n e s, a p p r o v e d b y a p a n e l o f R u s s i a n

s c h o la r s. S y l l a b u s e s h a v e c h a n g e d a c c o r d i n g l y a n d n o w f e a t u re s u c h s u b j e c t s

a s c i v i l r i g h ts , e n v i r o n m e n t a l s t u d ie s a n d b a s i c m a r k e t e c o n o m i c s . I n a d d i t io n ,

s tu d e n ts a r e n o w e n c o u r a g e d t o b e g e n e r a l ly m o r e i n q u is i ti v e a n d q u e s t io n i n g

i n t h e ir a p p r o a c h t o le a r n in g . T h r o u g h t h e s e m e a n s , t h e g o v e r n m e n t h o p e s t o

c r e a te a w h o l e n e w p o s t - c o m m u n i s t m e n t a l i ty . T h e m a g n i t u d e o f th is u n d e r -

t a k in g c a n b e s t b e u n d e r s t o o d b y b r i e fl y s u r v e y i n g t h e h i s t o r y o f S o v i e t e d u -

c a t i o n a n d t h e v a l u e s w h i c h i t a t t e m p t e d t o i n s t i l .


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4 9

V a l u es a n d e d u c a t i o n in th e U S S R h i s t o r ic a l b a c k g r o u n d

F o r o v e r 7 0 y e a r s t h e p r e v a l e n t ( o r p e r h a p s t h e o n l y ) p o s s i b l e a p p r o a c h i n

R uss i a n s c i e n t i f i c a nd c u l tu r a l l i f e wa s the so - c a l l e d c l a s s - o r i e n t e d a pp r oa c h .

The un de r ly in g ide a wa s tha t , i n al l e s se n t i a l f e a tu r e s , t he th ink ing o f e a c h

ind iv idua l i s de t e r m ine d by h i s o r he r be lo ng in g to a pa r t i c u l a r soc i a l c l as s .

I n i t s e x t r e m e f o r m th i s me a n t a l so tha t t he r e we r e on ly tw o c l a s se s : t he bou r -

ge o i s i e ( t he ha ve s ) a nd the p r o l e t a r ia t ( t he ha ve - no t s ) . The r e ar e o f c ou r se

b e t t e r - o f f w o r k e r s a n d p o o r e r c a p i ta l is t s, b u t e v e r y o n e b a s i c a ll y b e l o n g s t o

one g r oup o r t he o the r .

T h i s s i m p l i s t i c v i e w w a s v e r y c o n v e n i e n t f o r t h e p e o p l e w h o c a p t u r e d

p o l i ti c a l p o w e r in R u s s i a i n O c t o b e r 1 9 1 7. I t w a s s o e a s y t o d e t e c t f r ie n d f r o m

f oe by the t ouc h s tone o f c l a s s a f fi l ia t i on . F u r the r mo r e , s in c e the opp os i t i on

b e t w e e n t he t w o c la s s e s w a s c o n s i d e r e d a n t a g o n i s t ic , t h a t is t o s a y u n c o m -

p r o m i s i n g t o t h e l a s t, t h e o n l y w a y to e n d it w a s b y l i q u i d a t i n g t h e

( f o r m e r l y ) r u l in g c l a ss . T h i s m a c a b r e w o r d c o u l d m e a n e x i l e , c o n f i n e m e n t i n

a l a b o u r c a m p o r p h y s i c a l e x t e rm i n a t i o n . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f th e 1 9 3 0 s J .

S t a li n s t a t ed p r oud ly tha t t he ku la ks ( be t t e r - o f f pe a sa n t s ) ha d be e n l i qu ida t e d

as a c lass .

M y p u r p o s e n o w i s n o t t o p r o n o u n c e m o r a l j u d g e m e n t o n t h e i n h u m a n

ide o log y be h ind the l i qu ida t ion . An o the r t h ing is m or e impo r t a n t he r e : wh a t

m e a n t p h y s i c a l d e a th f o r m a n y p e o p l e a l s o m e a n t d e s t r u c ti o n o f m a n y i d e a s ,

m a n y i n t e l le c t u a l a c h i e v e m e n t s o f th e t i m e s , m a n y p u b l i s h e d a n d u n p u b l i s h e d

w r i t i n g s , m a n y w o r k s o f a r t ( s o m e a l r e a d y c r e a te d , o t h e r s o n l y p l a n n e d )

i f t he y d id no t c on f o r m to t he s t a t e d ide a l o f p r o l e t a r i a n c u l tu r e , s c ie nc e ,

e duc a t ion , pa in t ing , s c u lp tu r e , c a t t le - r a i s ing o r ma c h ine - bu i ld ing , a s t he c a se

m i g h t b e . E v e n t h o u g h V . L e n i n i n 1 9 2 2 c a l le d o n th e S o v i e t c o m m u n i s t s t o

b o r r o w t h e g o o d f r o m a b r o a d w i t h b o t h h a n d s , i n p r a c t i c e t h e S o v i e t U n i o n

w a s c u t o f f b y w h a t w a s la t er c al l ed th e I r o n C u r ta i n f r o m m a n y i d e a s t h at

o r ig ina t e d in t he c a p i t a l i s t c oun t r i e s .

Th i s b i t t e r t r u th a pp l i e d to e duc a t ion w i th a ve nge a nc e . A l though the i de a

o f b u i ld i n g a n e w m a n d a t es b a c k m a n y c e n tu r ie s , c o m m u n i s t o r t h o d o x y

h a d l i tt le u s e f o r e d u c a t i o n a s i t h a d d e v e l o p e d b e f o r e t h e G r e a t O c t o b e r

S o c i a l i s t R e v o l u t i o n . A l m o s t e v e r y t h i n g i n e d u c a t i o n h a d t o b e o v e r h a u l e d

o r r e b u i lt f r o m s c ra t ch . T h e a t a v i s m s o f t h e o l d m o r a l i t y w e r e c o n s i d e re d

e x t r e m e ly da ng e r ous - m or e da nge r ou s t ha n , sa y , u s ing c e r t a in t e c hno log ic a l

i d e a s o r i g in a t i n g a b r o a d . I t w a s e v e n d a n g e r o u s t o m e n t i o n c a p i t a li s t i d e a s

i n a c r it i ca l w a y ; th e n a m e f o r t h is c r i m e w a s b o r r o w i n g u n d e r t h e p r e t e x t

o f c r i t i c i sm .

A s a r e s u lt , b y t h e e n d o f t h e 1 9 2 0 s S o v i e t e d u c a t io n a n d t h e s c i e n c e o f

e d u c a t io n ( te r m e d p e d a g o g i c s ) w e r e o v e r l o a d e d w i t h i d e o lo g y . W h a t e v e r

b e l o n g e d to t h e n e w p r o l e t a ri a n t h i n k in g w a s p r o g r e s s i v e ; w h a t e v e r h a d

a n y t h i n g t o d o w i t h c a p i t a li s t i d e a s w a s r e a c t i o n a r y a n d h a d t o b e g o t r id

o f . T h e r e w a s n o t a l k a b o u t g e n e r a l h u m a n v a l u e s t h a t tr a n s c e n d c l a s s b o u n d -

a r i e s . O n l y m u c h l a t e r d i d i t b e c o m e a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e i d e o l o g y d i v i d e d t h e


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51

Today, in the eyes of many Russian educationists and teachers, almost

everything is in ruins. In my opinion this pessimistic view should not prevail.

There are encouraging trends in education. There are also general human

values, and deviations from them (however saddening) do not cancel them out

entirely. When we come to accept this, the worst thing for us to face will

be the fact that we shall have to wait (and work) for a better life and better

education longer than some other countries and cultures. I would say that

one of the most important educational trends for the Russians is the move

towards humane education, that is education which is opposed to coercion,

education that presupposes choice available to teachers and students. It is

understandable that there is no place for all this in a totalitarian state. There

may be humane teachers, but there cannot exist humane education as a general

rule. In the wake of the perestroika that began in 1985 there was a burst of

interest in democratization in education, as in all other domains of social life,

and an enthusiasm for ideas of freedom and choice in education. All this came

to be known as pedogogics of cooperation , the opposite being pedagogics

of command . Since, however, the people who activated all this in 1985 were

practitioners rather than scholars, and knew little of the history of education,

much of this seemed like a discovery to them. Pedagogics of cooperation

became a popular educational slogan and, in a way, a touchstone of progres-

sivism in education (HeaarorHKa, 1986).

There is no diminishing the role of the perestroika people who introduced

the idea of humane education into practice. But it is easy to show that it was

not a discovery after all. Rather, it was a revival of traditions that existed all

over the world, a continuation of a step-by-step movement interrupted in

Russia in 1917. Of course, it would be an oversimplification to say that the

movement elsewhere was quite steady and without its ups and downs. But a

trend it was, and the trend - among others - makes Russian education part

of the world's educational progress.

T h e v a l u e c h a n g e i n u s s i a

What makes the situation in Russian particularly dramatic is that of late there

have been two value changes. One was that of the perestroika period when

M. Gorbachev initiated very significant liberalization of all spheres of life in

the former USSR. It is important to realize that the change was not an imme-

diate result of a struggle by a significant part of the population against human

rights violations. The diss idents were a tiny fraction who could at most

attract international attention which could (and very often was ) easily brushed

away by the Soviet authorities. So, whatever others may say, my opinion

is that perestroika was a courageous decision of the man who wanted to

make Russia a democratic country recognized as such by the international

community.

There is now much talk about Gorbachev's mistakes ; perhaps future his-


6/11

52

torians and politicians will throw more light on this. More than anything else,

the slow pace of reform has been blamed on him. My understanding is that

even the pace he admitted was deadly dangerous for him and for the cause

itself. Suffice it to recall that, at the time he took the decision, hard-liners

were still very powerful and could easily have demoted Gorbachev from the

central position of the General Secretary of the Communist Party if they had

felt their own position to be threatened.

On the other hand, the change i tself was seemingly very easy for the vast

majority of the people to accept. In fact, what was it all about? Human rights,

technically proclaimed in the Brezhnev Constitution and even in the earlier

one under Stalin freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of

meetings, inviolability of the domicile etc.) were to be actually granted. The

power of the Party in administering the economic and cultural activity at the

centre and in the cities was to be severely curtailed. The key importance was

attached to the initiative of the working person. Private property was gradu-

ally introduced. All this and much more was gladly accepted by the vast

majority of the people.

The picture, however, was not entirely rosy. Some thought the changes

should have been still greater initially - for example, private property should

have been allowed without any limitations. Others were not prepared for the

initiative. Another faction found it abhorrent to do certain things that were

allowed under the new regulations. Still others abused the new possibilities

to make quick money. Examples are easy to find. Many people just did not

want to become owners of factories or shops. Others, on the contrary, made

full use of the possibilities to organize enterprises of any kind, the choice

being only that of the quickest way to make money. Many people thought it

immoral to buy a thing in a state shop and sell it for five times the price at

the door of the shop. Others made it their business to do just that. And so on.

True, Gorbachev wanted to have it all under some sort of control, but he

declined authoritarian practices, and that was very well ab)used by some

people. And it was a great change in values which was being gradually

accepted by most people.

The situation became much more acute after Yeltsin came to power in

Russia in April 1991, and especially after the coup attempt in August and the

liquidation of the USSR in December of that year. Rapid economic decline

followed the dissolution of economic and cultural links that had been built

up in the course of centuries rather than in the decades of Soviet power. For

most people estimates vary between 40 and 85 per cent, but my personal

estimate is closer to the second figure) that meant rapid impoverishment. For

very few 3 to 5 per cent) it meant making big money in no time. The

remainder did not feel the change either for the better or for the worse in real

terms. Practically all, however, felt the general uncer tainty and anxiety.

There was also another, and much more serious, change in values. It became

virtually impossible to earn decent money by decent means, and whoever

wanted to stay afloat had to accept the means that had been abhorred by most.


7/11

53

On top of that, racketeering, robbery, prostitution, drug trafficking, murder

for money, corruption in government and the police are now so widespread

that the situation in Russia, especial ly in large cities, has become, to say the

least, generally unfriendly to the people.

As far as values are concerned, this means a very hard choice for almost

everyone. Some people are prepared to stay in honest poverty while rejecting

the over-commercialization in all spheres of life. Others have no liking for

dubious means of making money but feel economically pressed to accept them.

A tiny minority wish nothing better.

Of course economic values are not the only ones that matter, even though

they are closely linked to almost everything else, and it may be interesting

to have a look at other values and the role that education can play in trans-

mitting (inculcating?) them. That education has such a mission is hardly open

to question, though terminology matters very much here. Transmission and

especially inculcation of values presupposes, inthe eyes of many, a sort of

pressure, even violence; words like brainwashing and indoctrination also come

to mind. Nevertheless it is hardly imaginable that education can be limited

to transmitting factual, positive knowledge and no values. It is not only

a problem of educational philosophy; an understanding of democracy is

also involved. My understanding is that the educational system should, as

far as possible, limit itself to transmitting general human values and be

especially careful not to transmit party values. In this sense the order by the

former Minister of Education, Dneprov, forbidding party activity, was very

important.

There are and have always been traditional values. So, in assessing the

importance of a general change in values, two things should be taken into

account. First, it should be asked whether new values have appeared that did

not exist before - a relatively rare phenomenon. Second, has there been a

change that has made some values less, some more important? The second

question is likely to yield more informative answers, reflecting overall changes

in society.

If we look at a range of values in Russia, we find that the family has always

been given high importance. In a public opinion poll in 1993 by the news-

paper oscow News 90 per cent of the respondents gave the family as value

number one. Admittedly, the poll was somewhat simplified. The respondents

were given a list o f factors - family, money, work, emotions, love, friends,

sex, religion, art, national feelings - and were asked how significant a role

these things played in their lives. Only two answers were possible - very

important and insigni ficant - which does not allow for much precision.

Interestingly, only three per cent of respondents gave the primary value to

money.

Despite the high importance assigned to the family, the divorce rate has

been rising steadily. In the two largest cities, Moscow and St. Petersburg, there

are now two divorces for every three marriages. The largest number of

divorces take place in the fi rst year of married life. As everywhere, attitudes


8/11

54

to sex outside and in addition to marriage have become quite lenient. Because

of restricted housing conditions, however, it is not as easy as in the West for

couples to live together without being legally married. So it is understand-

able that sex (in and/or outside marriage) is considered very important by

40 per cent of the same respondents, and love by 60 per cent. In the area of

sexual relations, it has to be mentioned that some new developments have

appeared in the past two years or so. A very considerable percentage of school-

girls (some polls indicate over 50 per cent) prefer prostitution to any other

way of making a living. Since this has now become dangerous - and not

because of the police, who are quite lenient in this respect - these girls are

almost openly assisted by their boyfriends, who take a share of the profit.

Over 90 per cent of the respondents consider their work very important .

It is difficult, however, to interpret this result. For many people, work is

whatever brings income. Thus racketeering, prostitution, robbery and finan-

cial misdeeds are work , although of course they cannot be openly declared.

Gone is the time when a considerable number of young people were prepared

to take up a financially less rewarding job if it was interesting. Now, for most

young people the value of a job can be measured in money terms only.

m p l i c a t i o n s f o r e d u c a t i o n

There has been a considerable change in attitudes to education. Roughly

speaking, the more education one has nowadays, the less money one earns.

Consequently many people take the view that one should forget about the

education one has and do whatever brings the most money. Theoretically

everyone understands that education is important, but at a time of falling living

standards people's minds are occupied by other matters. In some public

opinion polls education takes 12th or 13th place in the list of national

priorities.

Patterns of enrolment in institutions of higher education have changed

markedly. Competition to enroll in science or engineering courses has dras-

tically fallen. On the other hand, humanities departments and colleges are

experiencing a boom, as are departments of economics, management and

law. Combined with the fact that many engineers and scientific researchers

are leaving their professions (or the country) in search of more money, this

trend has serious implications for the future of science and engineering in

Russia.

These changes in Russian society as a whole are reflected in the attitudes

of pupils in schools. This is shown by the results of a survey carried out in

1993 among 1012 school leavers from 29 schools in Moscow. The survey

revealed that these young people are realists, acutely aware that their world

has become a difficult place in which to survive. Hence they are motivated

by practical considerations to a greater extent than their counterparts of three

to five years ago. They also place greater emphasis on independence and


9/11

55

s e l f- r el ia n c e . T h u s 8 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e m c o n s i d e r t h a t s u c c e s s i n l i f e d e p e n d s

on one se l f a nd no t on f a t e o r e x t e r na l c i r c ums ta nc e s . The r e i s a l so a ne ga t ive

s ide t o t he se c ha nge s i n a t t i t ude . F o r e xa mple , 51 pe r c e n t be l i e ve tha t a ny

me a ns a r e j u s t i f i e d in t he s t r ugg le f o r e x i s t e nc e , a nd 24 pe r c e n t c ons ide r i t

a c c e p ta b l e t o i gno r e t he i n t e r e s t s o f o the r s .

M e m b e r s o f t h is g e n e r a t io n a r e t u rn i n g a w a y f ro m t h e c o m m u n a l v a l u e s

o f t h e p a s t a n d t o w a r d s i n d i v i d u a l g o a l s o f s u c c e s s a n d p r o s p er it y . T h e y a i m

f o r c a r e e r s a s l a w y e r s , m a n a g e r s o r e n t r e p r e n e u r s r a t h e r t h a n j o b s i n p r o -

duc t ion . Jo in t ve n tu r e s a nd p r iva t e c oope r a t ive s a t t r a c t t he m mor e tha n s t a t e

e n te r p r i s e s . A t t he s a me t ime , t he y p l a c e l e s s va lue on t r a d i t i ona l e duc a t ion

a n d m o r e o n t h e k i n d o f p r ac t ic a l k n o w l e d g e t h a t m o d e m l i fe r eq u i r e s ( f o r e ig n

la ngua ge s , f o r e xa mple ) .

A f e e l in g o f a li e n a t io n f r o m s c h o o l w a s a n o t h e r f e a t u r e e v i n c e d b y t h e s e

g r a d u a te s . L e s s t h a n h a l f o f t h e m w e r e s a t is f ie d w i t h t h e i r s c h o o l , w h i c h t h e y

v a l u e d m o r e f o r h u m a n c o n t a c t s th a n f o r t h e te a c h in g . T h e y c o m p l a i n e d t h a t

t h e s c h o o l w a s n o t a d a p t i n g q u i c k l y e n o u g h t o t h e c h a n g e s i n t h e o u t s i d e

w o r l d .

The su r ve y a l so r e ve a l e d a po l i t i c a l a t t i t ude s a mong the r e sponde n t s , 59 pe r

c e n t o f w h o m s a i d t h e y w o u l d n o t s u p p o r t a n y p o l i t i c a l p a r t y o r m o v e m e n t .

T h e s o c i a l i s t i d e o l o g y w a s o v e r w h e l m i n g l y r e j e c t e d - o n l y 2 p e r ce n t o f t h e

r e s p o n d e n t s s u p p o r t e d i t . T h i s a g a i n r e f l e c t s a g e n e r a l t r e n d . B e f o r e 1 9 8 6

po l i t i c a l i n s t r uc t ion wa s a lmos t ob l iga to r y a t a l l l e ve l s a nd in a l l qua r t e r s .

T h e n c a m e a b r i e f p e r i o d o f g e n u i n e p o p u l a r i n t e re s t i n p o li t ic s , b e t w e e n 1 9 8 6

a n d 1 9 9 2, w h e n t h e e l e c t o r a t e h o p e d t h a t t h e y c o u l d d e t e r m i n e t h e f u tu r e o f

the coun t r y . Th i s m oo d c ha nge d , how e ve r , to one o f d i s a ppo in tm e n t i n po l i t ic s

a nd e spe c i a l l y i n po l i t i c i a ns . T oda y in t e r e s t i n po l i ti c s i s l ow , a nd the num be r

o f e x t r e me r a d i c a l s a nd c o nse r v a t ive s ha s a l so fa l l e n . A t t he s a m e t ime , t he

p a t t e rn o f p o l i t i c s h a s b e c o m e m o r e p l u r a l is t i c t h a n e v e r b e f o r e . T h e r e

r e m a i n s , h o w e v e r , a g e n e r a l f e e li n g o f l o s s w i t h r e g a rd t o th e b r e a k - u p o f

t h e U S S R , w h i c h i s w i d e l y s h a r e d b y p o l i t i c i a n s , e x c e p t f o r t h e e x t r e m e

radica ls .

I n c on t r a s t t o po l i t i c s , i n t e r e s t i n r e l i g ion ha s e n joye d a n upswing . Af t e r

s e v e n t y y e a r s o f o f fi c i a l a t h e i sm , e n f o r c e d w i t h v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f ri g o u r,

t h e re c a m e a t ur n in g p o i n t i n 1 9 8 8 , t h e m i l le n n i u m o f th e O r t h o d o x C h u r c h ,

w h e n G o r b a c h e v b e g a n t o f r e e r e l i g i o n f r o m i t s s t r a i t - j a c k e t . B e f o r e t h e

G o r b a c h e v p e r i o d i t i s e s t i m a t e d t h a t 2 0 - 3 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n w e r e

b e l i e v e r s - m o s t l y C h r i s ti a n b u t a l so i n c l u d i n g M u s l i m s , J e w s a n d o t h er s .

S inc e pe r e s t r o ika , i n t e r e s t i n r e l i g ion ha s g r own t r e me ndous ly , a l t hough i t i s

o f t e n d i f f i c u lt t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e b e t w e e n i n t e r e s t i n re l i g i o n a n d b e i n g r e li -

g ious . On e th ing i s c e r ta in : t he num be r o f c hu r c h - goe r s ha s r i s e n sha r p ly , a s

h a s t h e n u m b e r o f c h u r c h es a n d t h e n u m b e r o f r e li g io u s c e r e m o n i e s ( b a p ti s m s ,

ma r r i a ge s , f une r a l s ) i n a l l de nomina t ions .

R e l i g i o u s e d u c a t i o n h a s a l s o g r o w n c o m m e n s u r a t e l y a n d t a k e s v a r i o u s

f o r m s . M a n y c h u r c h e s n o w p r o v i d e S u n d a y s c h o o l s , a n d t h e s e h a v e b e e n

w i d e l y w e l c o m e d b y p a r e n t s a s a w a y o f in s t il li n g e t h ic a l v a l u e s i n to t h e i r


10/11

5 6

c h i l d r e n . W i t h i n t h e s t a t e e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m , m a n y s c h o o l s a r e n o w g i v i n g

pup i l s t he oppor tun i ty to le a r n a bo u t r e l ig ion , e i t he r t h r ough oc c a s io na l one -

o f f l e c tu r e s by v i s i t ing p r i e s t s o r by in t roduc ing op t ion a l r e l ig ious s tud ie s a s

pa r t o f t he c u r ri c u lum. Ap a r t f r om i t s u se f u lne s s i n p r om ot ing in t e r- c u l tu r a l

u n d e r s t a n d i n g , r e l i g i o u s e d u c a t i o n h a s a l s o b e e n w i d e l y w e l c o m e d f o r i t s

m o r a l v a l u e a n d i t s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e s p i r i t u a l r e g e n e r a t i o n o f s o c i e t y .

A n o t h e r f o r m o f re l ig i o u s e d u c a t i o n i s n o w p r o v i d e d b y a n u m b e r o f p r i v a te

r e l ig ious sc ho o l s o f va r iou s f a ith s a nd de nom ina t ions .

R e l ig io us p lu r a l i sm i s pa r t o f a ge ne r a l e thn ic a nd c u l tu r a l p lu r a l i sm wh ic h

i s t yp ic a l o f p r e se n t - da y R uss i a n soc ie ty . M or e a nd m or e pe op le p r oc la im the ir

r e l ig i o u s o r n a t i o n a l a f f il i at i o n , i n c lu d i n g t h o s e w h o f o r m e r l y t e n d e d t o

c onc e a l i t. In t he pas t , fo r e xa mp le , ma ny Je w s c ha nge d the ir na m e s to R uss i a n

one s . Ve r y f e w o f t he m we n t t o the syna g ogue o r c e l e b r a t e d re l ig ious ho l ida ys ,

a n d h a r d l y a n y J e w i s h c h i ld r e n l e a r n ed H e b r e w o r Y i d d i sh . N o w a ll th a t h a s

c ha nge d . The s i t ua t ion in the Je wish c ommuni ty i s pa r t i c u l a r ly in t e r e s t ing .

T h e r e a r e m o r e t h a n 2 0 J e w i s h s c h o o l s i n M o s c o w a l o n e , r e l i g i o u s h o l i d a y s

a r e r e g u l a r l y c e l e b r a t e d , a n d k o s h e r f o o d i s n o w a v a i l a b l e . M a n y J e w s ,

how e ve r , s a y a l l th i s i s no t so m uc h a bou t re l ig ion a s suc h . R a the r , i t is a no the r

w a y to fe e l one ' s na t iona l i de n t it y a nd sho w i t t o o the r s - t he l a tt e r w i sh w ou ld

h a v e b e e n u n t h i n k a b l e o n l y a f e w y e a r s a g o .

T h e r e a r e a l s o m a n y e t h n i c G e r m a n s i n R u s s i a n , t h o u g h a c o n s i d e r a b l e

n u m b e r h a v e a l r e a d y l e f t f o r G e r m a n y . T h e y t o o s e i z e e v e r y o p p o r t u n i t y t o

l e a r n the la ngu a ge o f t he i r f o r e be a r s , t o c e l e b r a t e Ge r m a n c u l tu r a l f e s t iva l s ,

t o c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h p e o p l e l i v i n g i n G e r m a n y .

An o the r s ign i f i c a n t f e a tu r e o f m a ny t e e n a ge r s i n R u ss i a i s t ha t, i nc r e a s -

ing ly , t he y t e nd to p r e f e r W e s te r n c u l tu r e to t he i r ow n (C o~ a Te H ~o~ , 993 ) .

Th i s i s shown ve r y c l e a r ly by the i r r e a d ing t a s t e s , t hough the y now r e a d l e s s

than teenagers d id severa l yea rs ago (Co6Krm, HHcapc~H~, 1992) .

The sys t e m o f e duc a t ion h a s c ons id e r a b le d i f f i c u l ti e s in i nc u lc a t ing va lue s .

F o r one th ing , s om e t e a c he r s f e e l t ha t " inc u lc a t ion" i s a b r e a c h o f pe r sona l

f r e e dom , a so r t o f i ndoc t r ina t ion . B u t a no the r r e a son i s t he we l l - k now ine r ti a

o f t he sys t e m in a s s im i l a ting ne w ide a s. The ine r ti a i s no t t o be e v a lua t e d a s

de c ide d ly a d r a wba c k , f o r i t i s a l so a ba s i s f o r some s t a b i l i t y i n a n uns t a b le

t ime .

S t i l l , e d u c a t i o n i s a l w a y s a b o u t v a l u e s . A n y p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n

b e t w e e n t e a c h e r a n d p u p i l s i n v o l v e s s o m e t ra n s m i s s i o n o f v a l u e s , w h e t h e r

p l a n n e d o r n o t . I n S o v i e t t i m e s t h e r e w e r e t h e s o - c a l l e d " c l a s s h o u r s "

(K.qaCCHble qaCb~), i .e . les so ns spe cia l l y d es ign ed to so lv e mo ral pr ob lem s th at

ha d a r i s e n in the c l as s . And , o f c ou r se , t he r e wa s a s ing le c r i t e r ion f o r so lv ing

t h e m : M a r x i s t - L e n i n i s t i d e o l o g y . N o w t h e c l a s s h o u r s h a v e g o n e , t o g e t h e r

w i t h t h e i d e o lo g y , a n d f e w p e o p l e w o u l d w i s h t o r e tu r n t o t h e p r a c ti c e . M o s t

s t u d e n t s a n d t e a c h e r s f e e l f r e e a n d c h e r i s h t h e f e e l i n g . M a n y t e a c h e r s ,

h o w e v e r , a re a t a l o s s to k n o w w h i c h v a l u e s s h o u l d b e i n c u l c a te d . T h e n o t i o n

o f "g e n e r a l h u m a n v a l u e s " d o e s n o t h e lp t h e m v e r y m u c h . I t m a y t a k e s e v e r a l

ye a r s f o r mor e spe c i f i c i de a s to e me r ge . As to the me a ns , i t i s mos t ly th r ough


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57

the humanities part of the curriculum that values are transmitted. At the same

time it should be remembered that, in the opinion of students, parents and

teachers, the school plays a less significant role in the transmission of values

than the mass media , the fami ly and peers - in that order.

In wr i t ing th i s ar ti c le , the au thor made use o f some m ater ia l k ind ly prov ide d by Pro f .

Dr . S . G. Vershlovsky o f St . Petersbu rg.

An ear l ie r and shor ter ver s ion o f the ar t i c le app eared in the Aus t ra l ian journ al

Education and Society

11 2) , December 1993 .

e f e r e n c e s

[Ie,3aForHKa CoTpy;IH 4qecTBa:OTqeT O BCTpeqc yqHTe~e~-3KClJepHMeHTaTOpOB / YqH-

Te~bcKa9 rasexa, 18 OKT96p9 1986 ro~Ia.

CO6KHH B.C. COLtHO3OrHUeCKHfinopTpeT yyaiueroc9 FITY.- M.: MHnUcTepCTBOo6pa3o-

BaHH9 POCCH~CKO~ qbe~epa~IHH, 1992.-42 c.

CO6KHH B.C., FIHcapcKHfi U.C. ]IHHaMHKa xy;Io:~ecTBeHH~,~Xnpe~nouTeHn~ cTapmeK-

naCCHUI(OB.-M.: PAO, 1992.-80.

Con~aTeHKOS A.]I., AIe6e~eBa O.B. HaLtHoHa3bHa~ Ky3bTypa H noapocToK / / Yle3aro-

rnKa.- 1993.-N_o 1.-C.38-42.

Recum, Hasso yon. 1991.

Social Change and Educa t ional Planning in W est Germany.

Frankfurt am Main: German Institute for International Educational Research.

russian education after perestroika_ the search

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