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Sacred Tobacco ANTH106 Dr Lisa Wynn

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Page 1: SacredTobacco - Transtutors...South’American’varie>es’of’tobacco’ thatbecamedominant:! • Key!varie8es!of!tobacco!came!from!South!America;!! overlapping!distribu8on!of!rus%ca!and

Sacred  Tobacco        

ANTH106    Dr  Lisa  Wynn  

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Tobacco  

•  A  drug  used  in  v.  different  contexts  in  Europe  and  Na8ve  America  

•  European  culture:  intent  on  trade  and  colonizing  new  worlds.    Europeans  took  tobacco  and  made  a  commercial  product  out  of  it.  

•  Na8ve  Americans:  domes8cated  tobacco  and  made  a  sacred  drug  out  of  it.  

Na8ve  American  peace  pipe   Commercial  cigareAes  

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What  do  all  of  these  plants  have  in  common?  

•  corn    •  peanuts    •  squash    •  potatoes    •  tomatoes  •  chilli  peppers    •  sweet  potatoes    •  green  beans  •  blueberries    •  cranberries    •  vanilla    •  chocolate  •  tobacco  

deadly  nightshade  

tobacco  

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Pituri    Aboriginal  people  already  extensively  used  nico8ne-­‐containing  drugs  prior  to  European  discovery  

•  local  species  of  Nico%ana  (probably  introduced  into  Australia  by  Indonesian  and  Papua  New  Guinea  traders)      

•  some  used  a  nico8ne-­‐containing  plant  called  Duboisia  hopwoodii.  

•  Drug  made  from  it  called  “pituri”  –  high  nico8ne  content.  •  alkali  ash  used  to  enhance  ac8on  of  the  drug    •  used  for  shamanis8c  purposes  to  achieve      altered  states  of  consciousness    

•  effects  ranging  from  euphoria  to      stupor  and  catalepsy  

•  Pituri  references:  •  Watson,  P  1983  This  precious  foliage:  a  study  of  the  Aboriginal  psycheac8ve  drug  pituri.  Oceania  

Monograph  26.  Sydney:  Oceania  Publica8ons,  U  Sydney  Press.  •  Watson,  R,  O.  Luanratana,  and  W.  J.  Griffin  1983  The  ethnopharmacology  of  pituri.  Journal  of  

Ethnopharmacology  8:  303-­‐311  .  

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South  American  varie>es  of  tobacco  that  became  dominant:  

 •  Key  varie8es  of  tobacco  came  from  South  America;  overlapping  distribu8on  of  rus%ca  and  tabacum  tobacco    

•  Rus%ca  tobacco  produced  largely  for  insec8cide  and  “Turkish  cigareAes”  (not  used  for  pes8cide  anymore  –  too  poisonous)  

•  Tabacum  is  milder  than  Rus8ca.    Now  the  dominant  variety.  •  Indians  of  South  America  domes8cated  the  tobacco  and  

started  growing  it  in  their  gardens.      

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Nico8ne  

•  Main  ac8ve  ingredient  in  tobacco:  nico8ne.      •  Pure  nico8ne:  a  clear  oily  liquid.    A  single  drop  of  is  said  to  be  

fatal.      •  Have  to  smoke  about  400  cigareAes  all  at  once  together  to  

get  a  fatal  dose  of  cigareAes  (Nick  Modjeska’s  calcula8on).      

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Measuring  addic>veness  of  nico>ne    

•  Nico8ne  is  highly  addic8ve  –  possibly  more  than  heroin.      •  One  way  of  measuring  addic8on:  looking  at  how  many  people  in  a  sample  

who  give  up  a  drug  are  s8ll  clean  ager  a  year.    Heroin  addicts  more  ogen  s8ll  clean  ager  a  year  than  tobacco  addicts.      

•  Problems  with  this  way  of  measuring  addic8on?      –  a  lot  easier  to  buy  tobacco  than  heroin  –  cigareAes  are  less  s8gma8sed  than  heroin  –  drug  is  more  widely  used    (sociability  structured  around  cigareAes)  

•  Another  way  of  measuring  addic8on:  the  Addic8on  Severity  Index    •  Regardless,  tobacco  definitely  a  difficult  addic8on  to  kick.    Only  about  7%  

who  try  to  quit  s8ll  clean  ager  a  year.      •  As  liAle  as  2  cigareAes  a  week  can  give  you  an  addic8on  ager  a  few  weeks.  •  Withdrawal  symptoms:  up8ght,  fidgety,  anxious,  irritable.    

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Two  main  kinds  of  tobacco:      

Nico%ana  tabacum          Nico%ana  rus%ca  •  Originated  from  wild  species  in  Bolivia,  Peru,  and  Ecuador.      •  Over  50  wild  species  of  Nico%ana    

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How  prepared:  

•  cured,  fermented,  and  aged  before  smoking  •  Na8ve  Americans  just  dried  tobacco  leaves  over  the  fire    

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How  Na>ve  Americans  used  it  •  Columbus  found  the  na8ves  used  it      for  healing  (ogen  by  blowing      tobacco  smoke  over  parts  of      the  body)  

•  Other  techniques  used:    –  Blowing  smoke    –  Tobacco  chewing    –  Some  tribes:  men  take  turns  blowing      tobacco  dust  up  each  other’s  noses.  

–  Tobacco  juice  to  drink,  rub  over  the  skin,  or  use  as  an  enema    •  drinking  tobacco  juice  causes  the  face  to  turn  pale,  the  body  to  

tremble,  nausea,  vomi8ng,  and  then  a  lapse  into  sleep  or  semi-­‐unconsciousness    

•  Indian  shamans  also  achieved  these  results  by  heavy  smoking  of  large  cigars.      

•  Tradi8onally  use  of  tobacco  with  inten8on  of  crea8ng  a  very  heavy  dose  (overdose)  which  puts  the  smoker  or  drinker  into  a  deep  trance/sleep.    Nausea,  vomi8ng,  trembling,  pain  and  discomfort.  

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Pharmacology  

•  Nico8ne  s8mulates  produc8on  of  neurotransmiAers:  –  dopamine  (neurochemical  associated  with  reward  and  sa8sfac8on)  

–  noradrenaline  –  Serotonin  

•  Tobacco  inhibits  the  produc8on  of  enzyme  MAOB  which  breaks  down  dopamine  –  thus  dopamine  level  rises  

•  Complex  range  of  reac8ons  for  smokers:    –  calm  relaxa8on    –  s8mula8on  and  euphoria  –  High  doses:  severe  s8mulant  effect,  leading  to  hyperac8vity,  vomi8ng,  trembling,  and  convusions.      

–  Extremely  high  doses:  narco8c  effect  –  will  make  you  pass  out.  •  Reac8on  depends  on  dose,  environmental  condi8ons,  and  

mood  and  personality  of  user.      

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Effect  on  the  heart  

•  Constricts  blood  vessels  •  Increases  concentra8on  of      triglycerides  and  cholesterol      in  the  blood  

•  S8mulates  components  of  the  blood  clonng  process  •  carbon  monoxide  combines  with  haemoglobin  to  form  

carboxyhaemoglobin  (COHb).    Reduces  oxygen-­‐carrying  capacity  of  blood,  makes  heart  work  harder.    COHb  very  stable  and  takes  a  long  8me  to  break  down.  

   Result:  huge  increase  to  mortality  from  heart  aAacks  amongst  smokers  (Robson  pp.59-­‐61).  

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Possible  benefits  of  smoking  •  Reduces  anxiety  and  stress  (military  in  WWI:  the  Allied  forces  

relied  heavily  on  cigareAes  to  keep  men  calm  and  alert  when  all  night  on  guard  duty  or  in  the  trenches).  

•  Aids  in  sociability:  not  because  of  the  drug,      but  because  of  the  rituals  of  smoking  

•  Promotes  alertness.  •  Relieves  discomfort  and  pain  •  Reduces  appe8te.    Indians  were  well  aware      of  this  and  explained  to  the  Spaniards  that      they  smoked  to  relieve  their  hunger.      

•  According  to  Robson,  it  somewhat  relieves      the  symptoms  of  Parkinson’s  and  Alzheimer’s,  and  ToureAe’s.  

Smoking  in  the  trenches,  WWI  

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Tobacco  and  shamanism  •  Tobacco  is  not  a  true  hallucinogen.    Shamans  used  “tobacco  

narcosis”  to  reach  the  spirit  world.  •  used  as  medicine  by  Na8ve  Americans    •  Smoked  throughout  the  New  World      for  ritual  purposes.      

•  Plains  Indians  did  NOT  smoke  themselves      into  unconsciousness;  puffed  on  the  peace      pipe  and  passed  it  around;  regarded  as  a      sacred  drug  and  act.      

•  tobacco  to  Na8ve  Americans:  equivalent      of  grapes  to  Chris8anity:  without  it,  there      could  be  no  communion  with  the  divine.      

•  tribes  who  knew  of  real  hallucinogens  some8mes  mixed  hallucinogens  with  tobacco  à  combined  effect  

Smoking  the  peace  pipe  

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What  is  a  shaman?  •  Wilbert  uses  the  expression  “shamanis8c  ecstasy”    •  Etymology  of  shaman:  from  Russian;  Russians  got    

it  from  Indigenous  people  of  Siberia  –  a  people      called  the  Tungas,  who  had  a  well  established      magical  tradi8on  of  shamans  who  entered  the      spirit  world  to  find  out  why  people  were  sick.      

•  Shamans  of  Siberia  didn’t  have  tobacco  –  got  their      high  through  controlled  breathing.      

•  But  shamanis8c  idea  of  genng  into  the  spirit  world      and  fixing  things  up  DID  spread  from  Siberia  down      into  the  Americas,  all  the  way  down  to  Patagonia      and  Tierra  del  Fuego.      

•  Ager  about  1700,  smoking  for  pleasure  became      more  and  more  the  norm  for  Na8ve  Americans,      and  smoking  for  trance  and  spirit  communica8on      purposes  became  less  and  less  commons.      

Shipibo  Shaman,  Enrique  Lopez,  brewing  ayahuasca  which  he  uses  with  tobacco  smoke  in  shamanis8c  rituals  (Shipibo:  Indigenous  Peruvians  famous  for  their  use  of  psychedelic  vine  ayahuasca)  

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Ethnographic  account  of  a  shaman’s  use  of  tobacco  from  Wilbert  

 “The  shaman  inhaled  deeply,  and  as  he  finished  one  cigareAe,  an  aAendant  handed  him  another  lighted  one.    These  cigareAes  are  each  about  a  meter  long.    The  shaman  inhaled  all  the  smoke  and  soon  began  to  show  considerable  physical  distress.    Ager  about  ten  minutes,  his  right  leg  began  to  tremble.    Then  his  leg  arm  began  to  twitch.    He  swallowed  smoke,  as  well  as  inhaling  it,  and  soon  he  was  groaning  in  pain.    His  respira8on  became  labored.    He  groaned  with  every  exhala8on.    By  this  8me,  the  smoke  in  his  stomach  was  causing  him  to  retch.    The  more  he  inhaled,  the  more  nervous  he  became.    He  took  another  cigareAe  and  con8nued  to  inhale,  un8l  he  was  near  to  collapse.    Suddenly  he  “died.”    Flinging  his  arms  outward  and  straightening  his  legs  s8ffly,  he  remained  in  this  state  of  collapse  for  about  figeen  minutes.    When  he  had  revived,  two  aAendants  rubbed  his  arms.    One  of  the  shamans  drew  on  a  cigareAe  and  blowed  smoke  gently  onto  the  shaman’s  legs  and  arms  (the  one  who  had  gone  into  the  spirit  world),  and  especially  on  the  places  that  he  indicated  on  his  body  by  touching  himself.  

     Note:  this  is  not  a  pleasurable  drug,  but  one  that  is  necessary  for  obtaining  knowledge  about  the  spirit  world.    

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North  American  tobacco  myths  •  Winnebago  tribe’s  myth:  the  spirits  are  desperate  for  

tobacco,  and  if  we  give  tobacco  to  the  spirits,  they’ll  do  anything.  

•  Another  North  American  tribe  myth  says  that  the  spirits  gave  tobacco  to  humans  and  then  forgot  to  keep  any  for  themselves.    Having  forgoAen  to  keep  it  for  themselves,  they  accidentally  gave  the  humans  a  way  of  prevailing  over  them,  by  blackmailing  them  with  tobacco.    They  became  dependent  on  huans  to  blow  smoke  (‘food  of  the  gods’)  up  to  them.  

•  Thus,  tobacco  provides  bridge  to  the  spirit  world,  but  also  a  means  of  influencing  the  gods,  who  are  as  addicted  to  tobacco  as  the  shaman.    Tobacco  smoke  returns  to  the  spirit  world  as  a  bridge  between  seen  and  unseen  worlds,  and  as  a  gig/sacrifice  it  influences  the  unseen  world’s  beings.  

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The  Warao  •  Warao  Indians  of  the  Orinoco  Delta  in  eastern  Venezuela  

(famously  their  myths  were  studied  by  anthropologist  Claude  Levi-­‐Strauss,  wrote  about  them  in  The  Raw  and  the  Cooked)  

•  15,000  people  speaking  the  Warao  language  in  Venezuela,  Guyana,  and  Suriname      

•  Very  isolated  people  at  the  8me  that  Wilbert  was  there  in  the  1950s.    (now  heavily  touristed)  

Claude  Levi-­‐Strauss  (died  in  2009,  age  100)  in  the  Amazon  

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Shamanism  and  tobacco  among  the  Warao  •  Warao  have  three  different  kinds  of  shaman  who  use  tobacco  for  both  

curing  and  causing  sickness.      •  Tobacco  essen8al  in  inducing  ecsta8c  trance  experiences.      •  Everyone  smokes,  but  long  indigenous  “cigars”  used  only  by  shamans  •  Priests  or  shamans  in  the  Warao  visit  the  spirit  world  regularly.    They  use  no  

other  drug  substance  than  tobacco.    •  “Light”  shamans  maintain  a  bridge  of  tobacco  smoke  with  the  bright  part  of  

the  spirit  realm;  bridge  must  be  constantly  renewed  by  shamans  smoking  •  dark  part  of  the  spirit  world  sends  out  a  blood  siphon  at  night  •  tobacco  smoke:  proper  food  to  give  to  good  spirits,  and  proper  séance  

medicine  to  see  the  bad  spirits,  which  cause  most  illness.  •  Novices  become  shamans  by  becoming  culturally  condi8oned  for  a  specific  

ecsta8c  experience.      

Pictures  from  a  Warao  village.    The  Warao  live  in  a  region  of  the  Orinoco  Delta  where  tobacco  cannot  be    grown,  so  the  tribe  goes  to  great  efforts  producing  goods  to  trade  for  tobacco  on  trading  expedi8ons.    

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Wilbert’s  Conclusions  :  •  Tobacco  smoke  used  both  for  healing  and  sorcery  (both  good  and  bad)  in  many  

Na8ve  American  cultures  •  Before  Columbus  (pre-­‐Columbian),  tobacco  was  mostly  smoked  for  medical  and  

magical  purposes;  in  post-­‐Columbian  America,  Virginia  tobacco  was  smoked  increasingly  for  pleasure.  

•  Technically  it’s  not  a  hallucinogen,  but  its  role  in  shamanism  in  the  Americas  is  very  similar  to  that  of  hallucinogenic  /  psychotropic  plants.    Difference:  with  most  psychotropic  drugs,  you’re  hallucina8ng  while  awake;  with  tobacco,  you  hallucinate  while  unconscious.      

•  What  the  shaman  sees  is  a  “non-­‐ordinary  reality”—this  is  a  term  coined  by  Carlos  Castaneda  to  speak  of  things  that  other  people  see  and  which  are  real  to  them,  but  which  may  not  be  normally  seen  and  perceived  by  others  who  are  not  trained  to  see  and  perceive  them.      

•  Parallels  between  shamanism  in  the  Americas  and  Siberia  are  so  numerous  and  extensive  that  Wilbert  believes  it  must  have  been  a  single  intellectual  tradi8on  that  spread  and  travelled  over  the  con8nent  and  across  the  Bering  Straits.      

•  Wilbert  proposes  that  for  a  tradi8on  to  spread  so  far,  it  would  have  to  be  very  old  and  to  have  spread  for  a  very  long  8me  –  he  es8mates  15-­‐20,000  years  for  tobacco  being  domes8cated  and  spread  throughout  the  Americas.  

•  Downbeat  conclusion:  between  the  missions  and  the  traders,  the  chances  of  the  Warao  keeping  their  tradi8ons  and  con8nuing  to  smoke  tobacco  in  this  sacred  way  are  preAy  minimal.