Creating Safe and Drug-FreeSchools

An Action Guide

September 1996

The full text of this document is available through the U.S. Department of Education WorldWide Web site at:

http://www.ed.gov

and through the Home Page of the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice at:

http://www.ncjrs.org/ojjhome.htm

For additional copies, please call 800–624–0100.

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Table of Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Action Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Action Steps for Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Action Steps for Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11Action Steps for Parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Action Steps for Community and Business Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Information Briefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Preventing Juvenile Gun Violence in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19Searches for Weapons and Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33Drug Testing Student Athletes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41Truancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47Uniforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57Alternative Education Programs for Expelled Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63Conflict Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71Mentoring in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79Information Sharing and the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act . . . . . . . . . . 87Effective Data Collection for Safe Public Schools: Exemplary Practices . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-1

Additional Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-1

Contact Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-1

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Introduction

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IntroductionThe issue of school safety is a shared concern. Today, more than ever, it is essential thatcommunities, businesses, parents, and students work together to develop a disciplinedenvironment where learning can take place. Providing safe and drug-free schools is acornerstone for achieving a world-class education.

Most of all, creating safe and orderly schools is about commitment and community will. Accomplishing such a goal requires families, schools, and community leaders to articulate thequality of the educational environment they want to provide for youth and to collaborativelydevelop the strategies that will produce the desired results. Achieving this significant objectiverequires school and community leaders to assess where they are, plan where they want to be,implement a a series of comprehensive strategies to bridge the difference, and evaluate theirprogress.

Essential ingredients for creating safe, orderly, drug-free schools include:

Placing school safety high on the educational agenda. Such a priority involves making apersonal and community commitment toward creating a safe, welcoming, respectful, gun-free, and drug-free school.

Involving parents and citizens. No plan can succeed without the participation of parentsand citizens in the community. Planners must make certain to bring these participants to thetable often to shape strategies and programs together. Most people dislike having things"done to them." However, they enjoy being a part of planning, carrying out, and evaluatingprograms in which they have invested concern and time. Those affected by Safe SchoolPlans should be involved throughout the entire process.

Building and developing the team. Making schools safe is a joint responsibility, requiringa broad-based team and a working attitude emphasizing collaboration and cooperation. Team members should include educators, parents, students, law enforcers, community andbusiness leaders, probation and court representatives, social service and health careproviders, and other youth-serving professionals.

Conducting the school site assessment. Team members should determine the specificissues and concerns that the local community believes are most important. This step beginsthe process of developing a meaningful Safe School Plan that will foster an increased levelof community commitment.

Reviewing the law. The law is at the heart of every major school safety issue today. Lawsare intended to articulate the reasonable standards that define the delicate balance betweenstudent rights and student responsibilities. The law proclaims what must be done, implieswhat should be done, and establishes limits for what may be done. The law constitutes acode of professional expectations for school administrators and youth-serving professionals. As planning begins, school and community leaders should consult with the school district’s

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attorneys to ensure that legal issues are appropriately addressed. Constitutional issues, as well asother concerns ranging from adequate liability insurance to the effective screening of volunteers,may arise with the implementation of a comprehensive violence prevention program.

Creating a Safe School Plan. This is an action plan that not only includes the substance ofwhat is necessary to accomplish but also identifies the processes by which those goals willbe achieved, including short-term objectives and long-term systemic changes. It is mostimportant for team members to understand that they can make a positive difference in thequality of life for themselves, their community, and all the children they serve.

Formulating a contingency plan. Having a backup plan for handling emergencies andcrises simply makes good sense. Such foresight can prevent a crisis and preclude successivecrises while creating an effective mechanism for managing school problems.

Creating an educational climate. Team members should evaluate the current educationatmosphere and propose modifications that will transform it into a safe, vibrant learningenvironment in which students and teachers respect each other.

Searching for ways to serve students and ways students can serve. Young people shouldalways be included as part of the solution to the problems associated with juveniledelinquency. Actively engaging students in school and community projects and activitiescreates a level of ownership that supports the success of every child.

Getting the message out/communicating. Working with the media may be one of the mostsuccessful strategies for building awareness of both the issues involved and the progressbeing made. With simple newsletters, schools can share success stories and break downbarriers with other districts and schools.

Evaluating progress. It is important to monitor activities, measure impact, and evaluate how the plan is working. A Safe School Plan should be modified and improved whenevernecessary.

These guidelines represent the beginning of a continuing team process to create safe schools forall of America's children. Making schools safe requires a total community effort within thecontext of a broad spectrum of opportunities. There are no simple solutions to making schoolssafe. Each school and each school district has its own unique challenges and resources withwhich to address them.

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This Action Guide begins with action steps for schools, parents, students, and community andbusiness groups. Next it provides information briefs on specific issues affecting school safety. Other sectons contain research and evaluation findings, a list of resources, and additionalreadings. This information is all designed to help school and community leaders, parents, andstudents develop a strategy to ensure safe schools in their communities.

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Action Steps

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Action Steps for SchoolsSome of the ways in which schools can ensure safety and discipline are:

Establish a team of educators, students, parents, law enforcement and juvenile justiceofficials, and community and business leaders to develop a plan for creating a safe,disciplined, gun- and drug-free school.

Develop a Safe School Plan based upon an examination of problems and resources and areview of strategies that work.

Ensure that students are engaged in school work that is challenging, informative, andrewarding. When students are fully engaged and absorbed, they are less prone to violenceand less likely to be disruptive.

Establish, publish, publicize, and enforce policies that clearly define acceptable and un-acceptable behavior. These policies should include zero tolerance for weapons, violence,gangs, and use or sale of alcohol and drugs.

Work with law enforcement and juvenile justice agencies for support in reporting vio-lationsof weapons policies as well as other delinquent or criminal behavior.

Take immediate action on all reports of drug use or sales, threats, bullying, gang activity, orvictimization. Anyone caught bringing a gun to school should be reported immediately tothe appropriate law enforcement agency.

Create an environment that encourages parents and other adults to visit the school andparticipate in the school’s activities. Develop a sense of community within the school.

Encourage staff to treat each other and students with respect and to act as good role models.

Encourage community members to support schools in their community and to participate inschool programs and services that promote the safety of students and all school staff.

Work with community groups and law enforcement officials to keep schools open afternormal operating hours so that students and their families have places where they canengage in productive, well-supervised, and safe activities. Help create safe corridors to andfrom school.

Involve youth in program and policy development.

Offer programs that teach peaceful, nonviolent methods for managing conflict to studentsand their families, as well as to staff.

Work with the media to make the public aware of the crime and safety issues that confront

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the schools. Provide accurate assessments of school crime and violence to the public.

Learn about effective practices based on research and proven programs used in otherdistricts. Share the knowledge.

Monitor implementation and progress of the Safe School Plan, making improve-ments basedon what is learned as well as on new developments in the field.

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Action Steps for StudentsStudents have an important role to play in ensuring that their schools are safe and orderly. Theycan take steps to help make their schools places where learning can take place withoutdisruption and without the fear of being victimized or bullied. They can:

Participate in, or help develop, student government organizations and guidelines thatpromote a drug- and gun-free, safe, and orderly environment for learning.

Volunteer to serve on decisionmaking or advisory committees such as the group developingthe overall Safe School Plan.

Become advocates for programs such as peer mediation, conflict resolution, peer assist-ance leadership, teen courts, or anger management.

Reduce conflict situations rather than making them worse. Practice good citizenship, andtreat peers and teachers with respect.

Report weapon possession, drug use or sale, bullying threats or intimidation, victimi-zation,gang activity, or vandalism to school authorities and parents.

Learn the consequences of gang involvement and alcohol, drug, and gun use and themethods for resisting alcohol, drugs, and tobacco. Use this understanding to help otherstudents avoid alcohol or drug use or seek help if they are already involved in alcohol ordrugs.

Follow the school code of conduct, understand that rules are made for everyone, andrecognize the consequences of violating the rules.

Whenever possible, travel with others to and from school and to special school events. Students must always be aware of their surroundings.

Work with teachers, principals, and other students in developing a community serviceprogram, where students give back to the community in a positive manner.

Encourage their parents to come to the school and be involved in activities that support theschool.

Serve as a big brother/big sister, tutor, or mentor for a younger student.

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Action Steps for ParentsParents play a key role in ensuring that their children are safe and drug-free. Without the activesupport and participation of parents, schools and communities cannot be safe. Parents have tobe part of a school's effort to create an orderly, respectful environment. Some of the actionsparents can take to assist schools are:

Set standards of behavior, limits, and clear expectations for children both in and out ofschool and develop mutually agreed-upon rules about homework, extracurricularparticipation, grades, curfews, chaperoned parties, and places that are off limits.

Teach standards of right and wrong and demonstrate these standards through example.

Discuss with their children the school’s discipline policies, reinforcing the belief that schoolrules support the rights of all students to attend schools with disciplined environments safefrom influences of violence and alcohol or substance abuse.

Encourage their children to talk about school, their social activities, their interests andproblems, and even their walk to and from school.

Be involved in their children’s school life by reviewing homework, meeting their teachers,and attending school functions such as parent-teacher conferences, PTA meetings, classprograms, open houses, plays, concerts, and sporting events.

Build a network of other adults with whom they can talk about school safety issues andalcohol and drug use.

Join a community association to ensure that issues related to alcohol, drugs, and violence aremade part of the organization’s agenda and that community groups work together to create asafe school corridor by supervising walking routes to and from school.

Talk to their children about the consequences of drug and weapon use, gang participation,and violence and ensure that firearms that parents keep in the home or automobile areunloaded and inaccessible to children. Other dangerous weapons should also be kept out ofthe reach of children.

Work with the school to develop a comprehensive Safe School Plan that incorporates aclearly articulated statement to students, parents, and the community regarding what will andwill not be tolerated and that also provides a strong emphasis on programs to preventviolence and the use of alcohol and drugs.

Monitor the programs their children watch, the video games they play, and the music theylisten to regularly. Take time to explain to their children the actual nature and consequencesof what is being said and done.

Encourage their children to participate in school-sponsored, after-class activities to helplimit the amount of time their children spend watching television.

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Action Steps for Community andBusiness Groups

Making schools safe, orderly, and drug-free requires the support and cooperation of the entirecommunity. Children spend a significant amount of their time in the community, and it isessential that community groups (including law enforcement and social services, juvenile justiceagencies, foundations, and not-for-profit organizations) and businesses provide students withthe assistance and support needed to live in a community and go to school without the fear orthreat of violence. Some of the actions community and business groups can take to assistschools are:

Participate on a school's Safe School Plan committee.

Adopt and support a school.

Sponsor extracurricular social and cultural activities, entrepreneurial opportunities, and otherpositive alternative activities for students.

Work collaboratively with the schools in developing and sponsoring community projects foryouth living in the community.

Assist in creating safe corridors for students going to and from school.

Adopt policies that permit and encourage employees to become active in youth-relatedactivities, like tutoring, mentoring, or coaching.

Encourage employees who are parents to visit their children’s schools regularly withoutbeing penalized at work.

Open businesses and corporate facilities for field trips, apprenticeships, and internships forstudents.

Promote awareness of career and college opportunities and the availability of financial aidand nontraditional scholarships. Sponsor a scholarship program.

Sponsor fundraising events for schools to support their safe schools initiatives, focusing onpreventing violence and resisting alcohol and drug use.

Become knowledgeable about the operation of schools in their community and participatein school reform efforts.

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InformationBriefs

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Preventing Juvenile GunViolence in Schools

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Preventing Juvenile Gun Violence in Schools

Since the mid-1970’s, homicides by juveniles violence, participants from all communityinvolving a firearm have increased nearly sectors, public and private, are beginning tothreefold. In addition, during this same work collaboratively and comprehensively toperiod, the number of juvenile arrests for reduce the incidence of violence in theweapons violations increased 117 percent. schools. A number of approaches have beenWhen guns are the weapon of choice, youth taken, can be supported, or should beviolence becomes deadly. initiated to address the increased access to1

In 1990, the Centers for Disease Control andPrevention surveyed a nationally representa-tive sample of 9th- and 12th-grade studentsabout the number of times they had carried aweapon such as a gun, knife, or club duringthe prior 30 days. One in 20 students indi-cated he or she had carried a firearm, usuallya handgun. A number of other surveys con-2

firm an increased propensity among youngpeople to carry guns. 3–5

In 1984, the United States saw a dramaticincrease in juvenile gun homicide, coincidingwith the introduction of crack cocaine intourban communities. Studies show that as the4

use of guns by drug-involved youthincreases, other young people obtain guns fortheir own protection. This cycle of fear or“diffusion” theory is supported by recentresearch on the “ecology of danger.” A5

1993 Louis Harris poll showed that 35percent of children ages 6 to 12 fear theirlives will be cut short by gun violence, and6

a longitudinal study of 1,500 Pittsburgh boysrevealed that their frequency of carrying aconcealed weapon increased when they beganselling drugs. 7

Promising Practices

To effectively address the rising levels ofjuvenile crime, especially youth gun

and use of guns by young people. Thesepractices are listed below as (1) preventionprograms, (2) intervention programs, and (3)comprehensive initiatives.

Prevention Programs

The majority of youth gun violence preven-tion programs involve instruction carried outin schools, community-based organi-zations,and physicians’ offices. They emphasize theprevention of weapon misuse, the risksinvolved with the possession of a firearm, andthe need for conflict resolution and angermanagement skills. Educational programsoften use videotapes to support theirpresentation of the tragic results of gunviolence and may also include firearm safetyinstructions, public information campaigns,counseling programs, or crisis interventionhotlines. Key elements of a gun violenceprevention program may include:

Creating an interagency gun-free schoolcommittee.

Standardizing antiweapon policies andprocedures for an immediate response forgun-related incidents.

Developing a Safe and Drug-Free SchoolPlan with a crisis response team for gun-related incidents.

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Establishing an interdisciplinary review with prevention activities for children andcommittee to examine gun-related their families. Through STAR, students alsoincidents and determine offender learn how to make better, safer decisions andoutcomes in addition to expulsion (e.g., resolve conflicts without violence throughalternative school). role playing, goal setting, and the

Providing student assessment foralternative school placement and linking Gun Buy-back Programs. Weapons Watchof services for student and family, if was organized by the mental health center ofneeded. the Memphis School District, the Memphis

Developing prerelease and transition Weapons Watch was implemented to getstrategies for returning the student to a children involved in ridding their schools ofmainstream school. weapons. A hotline was established for stu-

Providing followup services to track the about a classmate who brings a weapon tostudent’s performance in the mainstream school. Students are rewarded if the infor-school. mation leads to the confiscation of weapons

Developing methods for communicating weapon on campus.the requirements of the Gun-Free SchoolsAct and corresponding school policies Public Education Campaigns. Fresno’sthrough school and community Youth Violence Prevention Networknewsletters, Parent-Teacher and Parent- campaign in California is unique because itStudent Associations, school resource directly involves young people in deliveringofficers, and other outlets. an anti-gun violence message. Previously

Developing and implementing a gun result of a collaboration among Chicanoviolence prevention curriculum. Youth Center, House of Hope, Save Our Sons

Establishing a student group against gun Violence prevention activities includeviolence. developing gun-free zone programs in city

Some examples of prevention practices are: response and mediation teams, youth

Classroom Strategies. The Center to Pre-vent Handgun Violence has developed a Intervention Programsschool-based curriculum that has been usedextensively across the country and has beenevaluated by the Education DevelopmentCenter with positive results. The StraightTalk About Risks (STAR) program at theCenter to Prevent Handgun Violence is acomprehensive school-based programdesigned to reduce gun injuries and deaths

development of leadership skills.

Police Department, and Crime Stoppers.

dents to call anonymously with information

and the arrest of the classmate who brings a

known as Radio Bilingue, the Network is the

and Daughters, and End Barrio Warfare.

parks and neighborhoods, school emergency

conferences, and youth leadership programs.

Police and sheriff’s departments have beeninstrumental in supporting gun violenceprevention/intervention programs. As part ofdrug education, public safety, and violenceprevention efforts, police officers and sheriffsacross the Nation have worked

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collaboratively with schools to present not hard-core delinquents but who have beencritical information on gun violence to young referred to juvenile court for firing or carryingpeople and, simultaneously, to develop more a gun, and for young people at risk for beingeffective and interpersonal relations with involved with guns. At least one parent isyoung people. required to attend the monthly sessions.

Community Law Enforcement Programs. informs the juveniles and their parents aboutThe Illinois State Police School Security gun laws. Parents are given instruction onFacilitator Program identifies jurisdictions safe gun storage. By agreeing to take thewith concerns about school violence. course, the youth do not have their casesRepresentatives from all community pro- adjudicated and are not placed on probation;grams that play a role in addressing prob- however, they do acquire a juvenile record.lems of youth crime and violence are invitedto attend an intensive 5-day team building Gun Courts. A special type of court called aand education program. Part of the curric- Gun Court has recently been established byulum deals directly with the interdiction of Providence, Rhode Island, to focus on gunguns in schools. Teams return to their crimes. All gun crimes are referred to a singlecommunities to educate others on youth judge who processes cases on a fast track.violence issues and to implement specific Gun courts have cut the processing time ofstrategies for violence reduction. While no gun crime cases in half.short- or long-term evaluation of this programhas been implemented, anecdotal information Alternative Schools. The Second Chancefrom prior participants indi-cates some degree School in Topeka, Kansas, is a voluntaryof usefulness and success. half-day instructional course for students who

Gun Market Disruption and Interception. weapons or assaulting a staff member. The Kansas City Weed and Seed program is a Students engage in studies of math, socialjoint effort of the U.S. Department of Justice, sciences, and language skills, participate inthe U.S. Attorney, and the Kansas City, some recreational activities, and are requiredKansas, police department. The program to participate in community service. Depen-focuses police efforts in high-crime ding on the seriousness of the offense, stu-neighborhoods on traffic violations, curfew dents attend the program for 1 semester or 1violations, and other infractions of the law. year. To date, 90 percent of the studentsDespite the fact that previous police enrolled have successfully completed thecampaigns have drawn protests of program. The program has been operating fordiscrimination, the gun intercept program in 3 years and has developed partnerships withKansas City has not. Police have involved the juvenile courts, the public schools, thecommunity and religious leaders in initial police department, and the recreationalplanning, and neighborhoods have made department.requests for greater police activity.

Diversion and Treatment Programs. In PimaCounty, Arizona, the Juvenile DiversionProgram has set up a firearms preventioncourse for youngsters who are

During the course, the assistant prosecutor

have been expelled for possession of

Comprehensive Initiatives

In Atlanta, the Center for Injury Control atEmory University is working together with

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the community, State and local governments,and with Project Pulling America’s CitiesTogether (PACT) to analyze the magnitude,extent, and characteristics of youth firearmsviolence and to develop a broad-basedstrategy for addressing the problem. Theplanned intervention includes a three-partstrategy: (1) to reduce the demand forfirearms through a comprehensive communityeducation program; (2) to reduce supply bypromoting safe storage of firearms and byincreasing law enforcement efforts to interdictthe illegal gun market; and (3) to provideaggressive rehabilitation to decreaserecidivism among juvenile gun offenders.

In Dade County, Florida, the Youth CrimeWatch program, mandated for all schools bythe Miami school board, was created in 1984to extend the neighborhood watch concept toschools. The Gun Safety Awareness Program,a districtwide effort, began in November1988. In addition to this comprehensivecurriculum, the school board declares a weekin November as Gun Safety AwarenessWeek. The Gun Safety Awareness Programtargets kindergarten through 12th gradestudents and their parents, examining causesof handgun violence and teaching theconsequences of being arrested. Thecurriculum is supple-mented by area YouthCrime Watches, school resource officers, andpolice officers. Parents attend trainingworkshops on handgun safety awareness. Metal detectors are used unannounced atselected schools, and students caught withguns are referred to juvenile or adult courtand recommended for expulsion andassignment to an alternative school. Awareness levels among youth and parentsabout the need to prevent handgun violencehave increased in Dade County as a result ofthis comprehensive program.

State Legislation

In May 1995, the State of Texas enactedlegislation that would both remove studentswho bring guns to school and who commitother serious offenses from their regularschool and provide a safety net for thoseyouth so they are not on the streets. Eachschool, in cooperation with the juvenile boardof each county, must adopt a student code ofconduct and provide an alternative educationprogram. When a student is expelled, theschool must notify juvenile court. Juvenileboards and schools establish what supportservices are to be given to these expelledyouth. In counties where the populationexceeds 125,000, the juvenile board mustoffer a juvenile justice alternative educationprogram. School districts and local juvenileboards meet regularly to coordinate efforts. For more information, contact the TexasJuvenile Probation Com-mission at512–912–2404.

Federal Legislation

In August 1994, the Youth Handgun SafetyAct (Title XI, Subtitle B) (P.L. 103–322) waspassed as part of the Omnibus Violent CrimeControl and Law Enforcement Act. Itprohibits the possession, sale, or transfer of ahandgun or ammunition to a juvenile. Thelaw includes a number of exceptions, such asfarming, hunting, and other specified uses.The Gun-Free Schools Act (P.L. 103–382)(GFSA), enacted in October 1994, requiresthat local educational agencies implement apolicy “requiring referral to the criminaljustice or juvenile delinquency system of anystudent who brings a firearm or weapon to aschool served by such agency.” Under theGun-Free Schools Act, each State receivingassistance under the Elementary andSecondary Education Act

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(ESEA) must have a law requiring expulsion prohibits a private school from imposing afrom school, for a period of not less than 1 similar expulsion from the private school on ayear, of any student who brings a firearm to student who brings a weapon to school.school. The local chief administering officermay modify the expulsion requirement on a Does the Gun-Free Schools Act’s case-by-case basis. 1-year expulsion requirement preclude

Even though reducing youth gun violence isa Federal priority, the primary responsibility is on the State and local level. The Federalrole must be to encourage and assist com-munities by providing support based onsound information gathered nationally oneffective approaches to intervention andprevention.

Frequently Asked Questions

What entities are affected by theprovisions of the Gun-Free Schools Act(GFSA)?

Each State, as well as its State educationalagency and local educational agencies, hasresponsibilities under the GFSA.

Are private schools subject to therequirements of the Gun-Free SchoolsAct?

Private schools are not subject to theprovisions of the GFSA, but private schoolstudents who participate in Local Educa-tional Agency (LEA) programs or activitiesare subject to the 1-year expulsion require-ment to the extent that such students areunder the supervision and control of the LEAas part of their participation in the LEA'sprograms. For example, a private schoolstudent who is enrolled in a Federal program,such as Title I, is subject to a 1-yearexpulsion, but only from Federal programparticipation, not a 1-year expulsion from theprivate school. Of course, nothing

any due process proceedings?

No. Students facing expulsion from schoolare entitled under the U.S. Constitution andmost State constitutions to the due processprotection of notice and an opportunity to beheard. If, after due process has beenaccorded, a student is found to have broughta weapon to school, the GFSA requires anexpulsion of not less than 1 year (subject tothe case-by-case exception discussed below).

What does the Gun-Free Schools Actrequire of States?

The GFSA requires that each State receivingFederal funds under the ESEA must, byOctober 20, 1995, (1) have in effect a Statelaw requiring LEA’s to expel from school fornot less than 1 year a student who isdetermined to have brought a weapon toschool; (2) have in effect a State law allowingthe LEA’s chief administering officer tomodify the expulsion requirement on a case-by-case basis; and (3) report to the Secretaryon an annual basis concerning informationsubmitted by LEA’s to State EducationalAgencies (SEAs). SEA’s must also ensurethat no ESEA funds are made available to anLEA that does not have a referral policyconsistent with Section 14602.

1-year Expulsion Requirement Each State’s law must require LEA’s tocomply with a 1-year expulsion requirement;that is, subject to the exception discussedbelow, any student who brings a weapon to

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school must be expelled for not less than requirement, including: 1 year. (1) Name of the school concerned.

Case-by-Case Exception Each State’s law must allow the chief admin-istering officer of an LEA to modify the 1-year expulsion requirement on a case-by-case basis.

Annual ReportingEach State must report annually on LEAcompliance with the 1-year expulsion re-quirement and on expulsions imposed underthe State law, including the number of stu-dents expelled in each LEA and the types ofweapons involved. LEA’s must take immediate action to imple-

What does the Gun-Free Schools Act nal justice or juvenile delinquency system ofrequire of LEA’s? any student who brings a weapon to school.

The GFSA requires that LEA’s (1) comply be made available to an LEA unless that LEAwith the State law requiring the 1-year has the required referral policy.expulsion; (2) provide an assurance of com-pliance to the SEA; (3) provide descriptive When must an LEA submit the requiredinformation to the SEA concerning the LEA’s assurance?expulsions; and (4) adopt a referral policy forstudents who bring weapons to school. In its first application to the State educational

1-year Expulsion Requirement State enacts and makes effective the requiredLEA’s must comply with the State law 1-year expulsion legislation, the LEA mustrequiring a 1-year expulsion; that is, subject include an assurance that the LEA is into the case-by-case exception, any student compliance with the State law.who brings a weapon to school must beexpelled for not less than 1 year. What is the role of the SEA in

LEA Assurance compliance with the Gun-Free SchoolsAn LEA must include in its application to the Act?State educational agency for ESEA assistancean assurance that the LEA is in compliance The GFSA requires States to report to thewith the State law requiring the 1-year Secretary on an annual basis concerning LEAexpulsion. compliance. Therefore, before awarding any

Descriptive Report to SEA that the LEA has (1) implemented a policyAn LEA must include in its application for requiring referral to the criminal justice orESEA assistance a description of the juvenile delinquency system of any studentcircumstances surrounding expulsions who brings a weapon to school; and (2)imposed under the 1-year expulsion included in its application for ESEA funds

(2) Number of students expelled from the school.(3) Type of weapons concerned.

Referral PolicyLEA’s must also implement a policyrequiring referral to the criminal justice orjuvenile delinquency system of any studentwho brings a weapon to school.

When must an LEA implement itsreferral policy?

ment a policy requiring referral to the crimi-

The GFSA directs that no ESEA funds shall

agency for ESEA funds after the date that the

determining whether an LEA is in

ESEA funds to an LEA, the SEA must ensure

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the assurance and other information required Is it permissible for an LEA to use theby the GFSA. SEA’s must ensure that the case-by-case exception to avoidLEA application contains: (1) An assurance compliance with the 1-year expulsionthat the LEA is in compliance with the State requirement?law requiring the 1-year expulsion; and (2) Adescription of the circumstances surroundingexpulsions imposed under the 1-yearexpulsion requirement, including: (A) the name of the school concerned.(B) the number of students expelled from the school.(C) the type of weapons concerned.

Who is an LEA’s “chief administeringofficer”?

The term “chief administering officer” is notdefined by the GFSA. Each LEA shoulddetermine, using its own legal framework,which chief operating officer or authority(e.g., Superintendent, Board, etc.) has thepower to modify the expulsion requirementon a case-by-case basis.

Can any individual or entity other thanthe LEA’s “chief administering officer”modify the 1-year expulsionrequirement on a case-by-case basis?

No. However, the chief administering officermay allow another individual or entity tocarry out preliminary information gatheringfunctions, and prepare a recom-mendation forthe chief administering officer.

No, this exception may not be used to avoidoverall compliance with the 1-year expulsionrequirement.

How is the term “weapon” defined?

For the purposes of the GFSA, a “weapon”means a firearm as defined in Section 921 ofTitle 18 of the United States Code.According to Section 921, the following areincluded within the definition:

Any weapon (including a starter gun)which will or is designed to or mayreadily be converted to expel a projectileby the action of an explosive.The frame or receiver of any weapondescribed above.Any firearm muffler or firearm silencer.

Any destructive device, which includes:

(a) Any explosive, incendiary, or poisongas—

(1) Bomb,(2) Grenade,(3) Rocket having a propellant charge ofmore than four ounces,(4) Missile having an explosive orincendiary charge of more than one-quarter ounce,(5) Mine, or(6) similar device.

(b) Any weapon which will, or which may bereadily converted to, expel a projectile by theaction of an explosive or other propel-lant,and which has any barrel with a bore of morethan one-half inch in diameter.

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(c) Any combination or parts either designed providing the school district’s determinationor intended for use in converting any device to permit firearms is made and disseminatedinto any destructive device described in the in advance, as part of LEA policy, and istwo immediately preceding examples, and consistent with the intent and purposes of thefrom which a destructive device may be GFSA to prevent violence and create anreadily assembled. environment conducive to learning. For

According to Section 921, antique firearms extracurricular program such as a rifle club orare not included in the definition. In allows students to bring firearms solely foraddition, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, before- or afterschool hunting, the activitiesand Firearms advises that Class-C common would not violate the GFSA if the schoolfireworks are not included in the definition of district:“weapon.” For additional information aboutwhether a particular weapon is a “firearm” Determines that the activity is consistentunder this definition, contact the Safe and with the intent and purposes of the GFSA.Drug-Free Schools Program at202–260–3954 for referral to the nearest Provides notice as part of its Gun-FreeBureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms Schools policy that the activities arefield office. approved and authorized.

Does the Gun-Free Schools Act If any firearms are to be allowed for thesepreclude classes such as hunting or limited purposes, local school districts aremilitary education, or activities such as cautioned to consider all applicable Federal,before- or afterschool hunting, or rifle State, and local laws pertaining to theclubs, which may involve the handling possession of firearms. In particular, schoolor use of weapons? districts should be aware that Federal and

No. Although individual school districts may possessing handguns may be applicable. Thechoose to prohibit firearms altogether, the Secretary also encourages school districts thatSecretary does not believe that Congress permit students to bring firearms to school forintended the GFSA to preclude, in all these limited purposes to adopt appropriatecircumstances, school-sponsored or safeguards to ensure student safety,authorized classes and activities that might consistent with the purposes of the GFSA.involve the handling or use of firearms bystudents. The Secretary interprets the GFSA Are knives considered weapons underto allow local school districts to permit the Gun-Free Schools Act?firearms at school when students are partici-pating in school-sponsored or authorized No, for the purposes of the GFSA, theactivities that involve firearms. Similarly, definition of weapon does not include knives. based on the legislative history, the Secretary State legislation, an SEA, or an LEA may,interprets the GFSA not to forbid school however, decide to broaden its own definitiondistricts from allowing firearms at school of weapon to include knives. when students intend to use firearms solelyfor before- or afterschool hunting purposes,

example, if a local school district approves an

some State laws prohibiting juveniles from

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What is meant by the term Do the requirements of the Gun-Free“expulsion”? Schools Act conflict with requirements

The term “expulsion” is not defined by theGFSA; however, at a minimum, expulsion No. Compliance with the GFSA may bemeans removal from the student’s regular achieved consistently with the requirementsprogram. Expulsion does not mean merely that apply to students with disabilities, somoving a student from a regular program in long as discipline of such students is deter-one school to a regular program in another mined on a case-by-case basis in accordanceschool. Care should be taken by local with the Individuals with Disabilities Educa-officials to ensure that a student who is tion Act (IDEA) and Section 504. Thedetermined to have brought a firearm to Department intends to issue separate, moreschool is effectively removed from that detailed guidance on discipline of studentssetting. with disabilities, which will include clarifi-

Is a State, SEA, or LEA required toprovide alternative educational servicesto students who have been expelled for Is it permissible to expel a student for abringing a weapon to school? “school year” rather than a year?

The GFSA neither requires nor prohibits the No. The statute explicitly states thatprovision of alternative educational services expulsion shall be for a period of not lessto students who have been expelled. Other than 1 year.Federal, State, or local laws may, however,require that students receive alternativeeducational services in certain circumstances.

What is an “alternative setting” for theprovision of educational services to anexpelled student?

An alternative setting is one that is clearly supervision of the LEA.distinguishable from the student's regularschool placement.

Is Federal funding available to providealternative educational services?

Yes, formula grants awarded under the Safeand Drug-Free Schools and Communities Actmay be used for alternative educationalservices. In addition, other Federal fundsmay be available for alternative educationalservices, consistent with each program’sstatutory and regulatory requirements.

that apply to students with disabilities?

cation of the implementation of the GFSAconsistent with IDEA and Section 504.

Does the expulsion requirement applyonly to violations occurring in theschool building?

No. The 1-year expulsion requirementapplies to students who bring weapons to anysetting that is under the control and

Research and Evaluation

While there are few conclusive evaluations ofyouth gun violence prevention programs,because so many are new, a growing body ofresearch identifies the circumstances sur-rounding the incidence of youth gun vio-lence, providing guidance for prevention andintervention programs.

Effective programs should address youngpeople’s access to, carrying of, and use ofguns. Research suggests that targeting the

30

source of guns and drug dealing, increasing strategies and law enforcement strategies;young people’s faith in law enforcement and from drafting a model juvenile handgun lawschool administrators, teaching conflict for adoption by States and U.S. territories toresolution skills, and encouraging youth to disseminating documents on youth gundevelop positive attitudes about themselves research, programs, organizations, andand their peers may assist in creating a safer, program implementation. For moreviolence-free school environment. information about these activities, contact the

Resources

Safe and Drug-Free Schools ProgramU.S. Department of Education600 Independence Avenue, SW. Washington, D.C. 20202–6123202–260–3954.

The U.S. Department of Justice is engaged ina number of efforts to address the problem ofyouth gun violence, from grant programs tosupport linkages between community-basedyouth gun violence reduction

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin-quencyPrevention (OJJDP) at 202–307–5911. For acopy of OJJDP’s Reducing Youth GunViolence: A Summary of Programs andInitiatives, contact the Juvenile JusticeClearinghouse (JJC) at 800–638–5726. OnAugust 9, 1996, OJJDP sponsored a satelliteteleconference to assist communities indeveloping strategies to reduce youth gunviolence. The broadcast described promisingapproaches to youth gun violence preventionand intervention. For a videotape copy of this program entitled Reducing Youth GunViolence, contact JJC.

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1. American Psychological Association. 1993. Violence and Youth: Psychology’s Response. Washington, D.C.

2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1991. Weapon-Carrying Among High SchoolStudents: United States, 1990. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 40(40):681–684.

3.Webster, D.W., P.S. Gainer, and H.R. Champion. 1993 (November). Weapon-CarryingAmong Inner-City Junior High School Students: Defensive Behavior vs. AggressiveDelinquency. American Journal of Public Health 83(11):1604–1608.

4. A Survey of Experiences, Perceptions, and Apprehensions About Guns Among Young Peoplein America. 1993. New York: Louis Harris and Associates, Inc. And LH Research, Inc.

5. Allen-Hagen, B., M. Sickmund, and H. Snyder. 1994 (November). Juveniles and Violence:Juvenile Offending and Victimization. Fact Sheet #19. Washington, D.C.: Office of JuvenileJustice and Delinquency prevention, U.S. Department of Justice.

6. Coordinating Council on Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. 1996 (March).Combating Violence and Delinquency: The National Juvenile Justice Action Plan. Washington,D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice, p.34.

7. Blumstein, A. 1994. Youth, Violence, Guns, and the Illicit-Drug Industry. Pittsburgh, PA.:Carnegie Mellon University.

8. Louis Harris and Associates, Inc. 1993.

9. Van Kammen, W. and R. Loeber. 1994. Delinquency, Drug Use and the Onset of AdolescentDrug Dealing. Pittsburgh, PA.: University of Pittsburgh.

Endnotes

33

Searches for Weaponsand Drugs

35

Searches for Weapons and DrugsIf public schools experience high levels of the search. The Supreme Court has held thatviolence and drug use, school officials may students have a legitimate expectation ofwish to consider adopting search policies that privacy in their persons and accompanyingpermit them under certain circum-stances to possessions. However, the Court also hasscreen students and search school property held that schools have a substantial interest infor weapons and drugs. maintaining security and order in the

Compliance With Basic Dictatesof the Fourth Amendment

Public school officials, like law enforcementofficers, are State officers bound by theFourth Amendment. Thus, school officialsmust understand the basic dictates of theFourth Amendment—both to comportthemselves within the bounds of the law andto implement an effective drug and weaponssearch policy. What follows is a generaldiscussion on this important topic.

Contact an attorney beforeimplementing a search policy.

The information contained in this section ismeant to give school officials some basis forconsidering whether to pursue a search policyin their schools or school districts. Beforeimplementing a search policy, schools shouldbe sure to contact either the school attorney,the local district attorney, or the Stateattorney general.

School officials do not need a warrantor probable cause prior to conducting asearch.

The Fourth Amendment prohibits allunreasonable searches and seizures by Stateofficers. Reasonableness is determined bybalancing the governmental interest behindthe search against the privacy intrusion of

classroom and on school grounds. The Courthas determined that this interest justifies amore flexible standard of reasona-bleness forsearches of students that are conducted byschool officials as opposed to lawenforcement officers. Thus, the Court hasheld that school officials, unlike the police,do not need to obtain a warrant prior toconducting a search. Nor do they needprobable cause to believe that a violation ofthe law has occurred.

In order to conduct a search, schoolofficials need only a “reasonable sus-picion” that the search will turn up evi-dence that the student broke the law orthe rules of the school.

School officials need only have “reasonablesuspicion” that a particular search will revealevidence that the student has violated or isviolating either the law or the rules of theschool. Even if reasonable suspicion exists,to be permissible, the scope of the searchmust be such that the measures used arereasonably related to the purpose of thesearch, and not excessively intrusive in lightof the age and gender of the student and thenature of the suspected infraction. TheSupreme Court has upheld searches thatcomply with this standard only insofar assuch searches are initiated and conducted byschool officials. A more stringent legalstandard likely applies to searches conductedin conjunction with or at the behest of lawenforcement officers.

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The meaning of “reasonable suspicion.” excessively intrusive in light of the age and

In interpreting and applying the “reasonablesuspicion” standard set forth by the SupremeCourt, lower courts generally have requiredmore than general suspicion, curiosity, rumor,or a hunch to justify searches of students andtheir possessions. Factors identified bycourts in sustaining a search of a studentinclude the observation of specific anddescribable behavior leading one reason-ablyto believe that a particular student is engagingin or has engaged in prohibited conduct. Themore specific the evidence in support ofsearching an individual student, the morelikely the search will be upheld. Forexample, courts using the reasonablesuspicion standard have upheld the right ofschool officials to search the following:

A student’s purse, after a teacher saw hersmoking in a restroom and the studentdenied having smoked or being a smoker.

A student’s purse, after several otherstudents said she had been distributingfirecrackers.

A student’s pockets, based on a phone tipabout drugs from an anonymous sourcebelieved to have previously providedaccurate information.

School officials may search studentsonly within reasonable limits.

When reasonable suspicion exists, schoolofficials may search students, but only withinreasonable limits. Such limits require schoolofficials to adopt measures that arereasonably related to the purpose behind thesearch. In addition, the search may not be

gender of the particular student and the natureof the infraction. For example, if a teacherthinks he or she has seen a student pass amarijuana cigarette to a second student, theteacher might reasonably search the twostudents and any nearby belongings in whichthe students may have tried to conceal thedrug. If, however, the teacher discovers thatwhat was actually observed was only a stickof gum or other noncontra-band item, theteacher would be unjustified in searchingeither the students or their belongings anyfurther.

As a general rule, the more intrusive thesearch, the greater the justification the courtswill require. Thus, a search of a student’sjacket or bookbag requires less suspicionthan a physical pat-down or, at the extreme, astrip search. Courts consider strip searches tobe highly intrusive of an individual student’sprivacy; thus, they should be premised onlyon probable cause.

A search does not have to end becausethe school official found the item that issought.

In addition, school officials do not have toend a search simply because they uncoverwhat they suspected would be found. Instead, if a search of a student reveals itemsthat provide reasonable grounds for suspec-ting that the student might also possess otherevidence of crimes or misconduct, the schoolofficials may continue the search. For exam-ple, if a teacher justifiably searches a stu-dent’s purse for cigarettes and finds rollingpapers such as those used for marijuanacigarettes, it will be reasonable for the teacherto continue the search for further evidence ofdrugs.

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School officials may search school expectation of privacy as that retained property when they have “reasonable by students in their lockers probably suspicion” that the search will turn up would attach.evidence that the student broke the lawor the rules of the school. Courts are more likely to uphold

The Supreme Court has not decided whether, students have a reduced expectation ofand to what extent, students have legitimate privacy.expectations of privacy in school propertysuch as lockers, desks, or other areas Courts are more likely to uphold searchesprovided for the storage of school supplies conducted by school officials of lockers,and/or personal belongings. At a minimum, secured desks, and other areas in whichschool officials may search all such areas students store personal effects when certainwhen they have reasonable grounds for steps are taken to reduce the reasonablesuspecting that such a search will reveal expectation of privacy students may have evidence of illegal activity or a violation of in these areas. First, at the start of eachschool regulations, as set forth above. academic year, school administrators canWhether school officials may conduct provide students with a written statement thatsuspicionless searches, however, will be details the school’s policy of conductingdetermined by the nature of the specific random, unannounced searches throughoutprivacy expectations students have in a the year of student lockers, desks, and anyparticular area. other targeted areas within the school. The

For example, a student’s locker often serves to consider all such areas to be “public,” notas the repository for all school supplies and “private.”personal belongings that the student isrequired, or chooses, to bring to school. Moreover, the nonprivate nature of areas suchIndeed, at least one court has described the as lockers and desks should be made obviousschool locker as a student's “home away from to the students. Thus, courts have upheldhome.” Thus, when school officials permit a locker searches when the school retains jointstudent exclusive, secured use of a locker to control over the student lock-ers, maintainsstore his or her books and belongings duplicate or master keys for all lockers, andthroughout the school year, such student reserves the right to inspect lockers at anyarguably has a legitimate expectation of time. Other possibilities might includeprivacy in the locker’s contents. providing students with lock-ers that have

On the other hand, students likely have a passersby to observe the contents therein orlesser expectation of privacy in the contents providing students with secured lockers onlyof classroom desks, at least to the extent these when the students consent to joint custodydesks are unsecured and available for use by with the school. other students throughout the school day. When a school does permit its students to When a policy of inspecting lockers or otherstore and secure the contents of a desk such school property is adopted, school officialsthat others cannot gain access (in a should in fact implement it. Otherwise, thehomeroom, for example), a similar practice of not searching could negate the

searches of school property when

statement should inform students that they are

transparent or grid doors that enable

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effect of the written policy by raising the weapon and/or drug problem and thatexpectation of privacy that students have in conducting these searches is a reasonablysuch areas. effective means of combatting that problem.

Although these practices remain largely either that (1) students have access to theiruntested by the courts, locker and desk vehicles during the school day and thus aresearches in schools will be easier to justify able to bring weapons and/or drugs from theirwhen the students’ reasonable expectation of vehicles into the schools or (2) weaponsprivacy is effectively reduced. and/or drugs are used or exchanged within

School officials may search student Moreover, the searches as conducted must bevehicles when they have “reasonable only as intrusive as necessary to further thesuspicion” that the search will turn up interests at stake. For example, if a schoolevidence that the student broke the law official is searching for a firearm, it would notor the rules of the school. be reasonable to examine the ashtray.

School officials may search a student’s Vehicle searches must be conducted invehicle that is left in a school parking lot a manner that curtails undue discretion.when they have reasonable grounds forsuspecting that the search will disclose The vehicle searches must be conducted in aevidence that the student has violated or is manner that curtails undue discretion on theviolating either the law or the rules of the part of school officials in deciding whichschool, as set forth above. vehicles to search. Suspicionless vehicle

School officials may conduct random systematically random selection, such asvehicle searches or keep students’ car every third car. The courts have held thatkeys when the school has a very when the decision to search is left entirely toserious weapon or drug problem. the discretion of the official, the searches may

Under certain limited circumstances, school searched, tending to make the searchofficials also may be able to conduct random, relatively more intrusive.suspicionless weapon and/or drug searches ofstudent vehicles parked on school grounds. Schools must adequately inform allWhen it is justifiable, all students who park students that their vehicles are subjecttheir vehicles on school property therefore to search.could be required to leave the ignition keyswith school officials in the morning and then In addition, the school must adequatelyretrieve them before leaving at the end of the inform all students who use the lot that theirschool day. Or, such students simply may be vehicles are subject to search. This noticerequired to agree to provide school officials should inform the students of the grounds forwith access to their vehicles on demand. the search, the extent of the search, and the

To justify such a policy, a school will have to notice must be consistent with the school’sdemonstrate that it has a very serious actual vehicle search practice. For

For example, the school may have to show

the immediate area of the parking lot.

searches must be done uniformly or by

stigmatize or embarrass the isolated students

frequency or regularity of the searches. This

39

example, if school officials inform students cases, courts probably will find that anywho use the school parking lot that their consent obtained is coerced and thusvehicles will be subject to a search once a invalid.To enhance the voluntariness of amonth, but in fact do not conduct such student’s consent, school officials are advisedsearches until 6 months have elapsed, stu- to explain to students that they do not have todents may be justified in arguing that their consent to a search. In some cases, consentexpectation of privacy in the security of their forms may be useful.vehicle was not adequately reduced by thepractice followed by the school, regard-less If a student refuses to consent to a search,of the specific terms of the initial notice. school officials still may conduct the search

A search is permissible if the student justify it, as set forth above.consents.

If a student consents to a search, the search ispermissible, regardless of whether thereotherwise would be reasonable grounds forthe search. However, school officials shouldbe extremely cautious in basing a search on astudent's consent.

Consent must be given knowingly andvoluntarily.

For a search based on a student’s consent tobe valid, such consent must be givenknowingly and voluntarily. Establishingwhether a student's consent was voluntarycan be difficult and the burden remains withthe school official to so prove. If a studentagrees to be searched out of fear or as a resultof other coercion, that consent will probablybe found invalid. Similarly, if school offi-cials indicate that a student must agree to asearch, or if the student is very young orotherwise unaware that he or she has the rightto object, the student's consent also will beheld invalid. For example, a policy thatpermits vehicle searches will not bepermissible in schools at which students haveno choice other than to drive—for example,because of a lack of public transportation orthe unavailability of school busing—and noviable parking options other than the schoollot. In such

as long as there are reasonable grounds to

Alternative search techniques

Schools with severe drug or weaponsproblems may wish to consider special typesof search techniques to screen students fordrugs or weapons. Although the SupremeCourt has not addressed the constitution-alityof the use of these devices in the context ofpublic schools, the case law has evolved inthe lower courts as follows:

Trained narcotics dogs to sniff objectsmay be used at any time and withoutany particular suspicion by the schoolofficial.

The courts have generally agreed that the useof trained narcotics dogs to sniff objects, asopposed to people, is not a search within themeaning of the Fourth Amendment and thusrequires no level of suspicion. Schoolofficials therefore may use trained narcoticsdogs to sniff objects that are not affixed to, orcarried by, an individual student, such aslockers, desks, student vehicles parked inschool parking lots, or any articles ofpersonal property that have been discarded orabandoned. If the dog alerts them to aparticular locker or vehicle, school officialsthen will have satisfied the reasonablesuspicion requirement that justifies a more

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thorough search to determine whether in fact light of the vital governmental interest indrugs are present. preventing air hijackings and safeguarding

The use of dog sniffs on individual students intrusiveness of the magnetometer search.in the absence of reasonable suspicion ismore problematic. Of the few courts to Courts are likely to uphold the use ofconsider the issue, the majority have magnetometers in public schools subject toconcluded that the use of dog sniffs on certain restrictions. First, school officialsstudents is a search and therefore may not be must be able to document a very seriousjustified in the absence of reasonable problem with the possession of illegalsuspicion. weapons and the threat of related violence on

When justified, schools may use metal must use the device in a random fashion; theydetectors to search students and their may not exercise any discretion in decidingpersonal effects. whom to search. Thus, school officials may

Under certain circumstances, schools may be or some other neutral category of persons,able to use magnetometers, or metal detec- such as every third student. The courts havetors, to search students and their personal held that such random use of a magnetometereffects for weapons prior to entering school limits the stigma that attaches to thosepremises. These devices could be either walk- searched and minimizes the risk of abuse bythrough or hand-held. Although Federal the searching officials. Finally, the routinecourts have not yet addressed the use of a magne-tometer is justifiable only toconstitutionality of such devices as used in the extent school officials are searching forpublic schools, the courts have upheld such weapons. However, other contrabanduse in the context of airports and court- uncovered in plain view or by plain touchhouses. The courts have so concluded in during a magnetometer search may be seized

courthouses and of the relatively minimal

school grounds. Second, school officials

search every student who enters the building,

by school officials. Subject to theserestrictions, students may be required tosubmit to such a detection device daily orintermittently throughout the academic year.

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Drug Testing StudentAthletes

43

Drug Testing Student AthletesIf a public school has a drug problem in Those chosen are notified and tested thatwhich its athletes play a significant part same day, if possible.and school officials have attempted other, lessintrusive drug prevention methods, Prior to the testing, each student mustthe school may wish to consider adopting complete a specimen control form that bearsa policy of random drug testing of student an assigned number. The student mustathletes. identify and verify any prescription

Promising Practices

The use of drug tests to screen students fordrug use is a relatively new phenomenon inthe school setting, and the law is stillevolving. The Supreme Court in June 1995upheld a policy of the Vernonia, Oregon,school district that requires all students whowish to participate in the school's athleticprogram to submit to periodic, random drugtesting. The Vernonia policy was effective: teachers noted a decrease in drug use and animprovement in discipline.

In the fall of 1989, after undertaking previousprevention efforts that proved ineffective instopping the district’s sharp increase in druguse, the policy of random drug testing wasadopted, along with very detailed proceduresto ensure the accuracy of the testing, whileminimizing its relative intrusiveness. Underthe Vernonia policy, all students in thedistrict who wish to participate ininterscholastic athletics are required to sign aform consenting to be drug tested and mustobtain the written consent of their parents. Athletes are tested at the beginning of theirathletic season; once each week thereafter, 10percent of all athletes are randomly selectedfrom a pool for an additional drug test. Astudent, with the supervision of two adults,blindly draws the names of the 10 percent tobe tested.

medications they are taking. Studentsproduce the samples under conditions verysimilar to those encountered in a publicrestroom. The student enters an empty lockerroom with an adult monitor of the same sex. Each male student produces a sample at aurinal, remaining fully clothed with his backto the monitor, who stands approximatelytwelve to fifteen feet behind the student. Themonitor may or may not directly observe thestudent while he produces the sample. Female students produce samples in anenclosed bathroom stall and thus are notsubject to direct observation. For both maleand female students, monitors listen fornormal sounds of urination. After the sampleis produced, the student gives it to themonitor, who checks it for temperature andtampering and then transfers it to a vial.

The samples are then sent to an independentlaboratory, which routinely and anony-mously tests them for amphetamines, cocaine,and marijuana. The laboratory also mayscreen for other drugs, such as LSD, at therequest of the district, but the identity of thestudent whose sample is being tested does notdetermine which drugs will be tested. Thelaboratory has a 99.94 percent rate ofaccuracy, and the district adheres to strictchain of custody procedures. Uponcompletion of its analysis, the laboratory isauthorized to mail written test reports only

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to the superintendent and to provide test the search. In upholding the drug testingresults to district personnel by telephone only policy in Veronia, the Supreme Courtafter the requesting official recites a code balanced the school's interest in conductingconfirming his or her authority. Only the the drug test against the privacy interest uponsuperintendent, principals, vice princi-pals, which the test intrudes. The Courtand athletic directors have access to the test recognized the “government's responsibil-results, and the results are not kept for more ities, under a public school system, asthan 1 year. Under no circumstances are the guardian and tutor of children entrusted to itsresults of a drug test turned over to law care.” The Court noted that deterring drugenforcement officers. use by the Nation's schoolchildren, in

If a student tests positive, he or she is subject It further noted the substantial physical risksonly to either suspension from the athletic posed by student athlete drug use, where theteam or participation in an assistance risk of immediate physical harm to the drugprogram. Specifically, if a test result is user or teammates is particularly high. Thepositive, a second test is conducted as soon as Court underscored the severity of the drugpossible to confirm the result. If the second problem that existed within the school districtsample tests negative, no further action is whose policy was at issue and the fact thattaken. If the second sample tests positive, the athletes were an active part of the school’sstudent's parents are notified, and the drug-using population. Thus, the Courtprincipal meets with the student and the observed that the drug problem was largelyparents. At this meeting, the student is fueled by the “role model” effect of athletes’presented with the option of (1) participating drug use.for 6 weeks in an assistance program thatincludes weekly urinalysis or (2) being Against this governmental interest, the Courtsuspended from athletics for the remainder of balanced the privacy intrusion endured bythe current season and the next athletic student athletes who are drug tested. Theseason. The student is then retested before Court acknowledged that urinalysis drug teststhe start of the next athletic season for which are searches within the meaning of the Fourthhe or she is eligible. A second violation Amendment that intrude upon a significantresults in automatic imposition of option (2); privacy interest. However, the Court helda third offense results in suspension for the that athletes, unlike other members of therest of the current season and the next two student population, have reducedathletic seasons. expectations of privacy due to the “element of

Legal Issues

Drug testing of a student by a public schoolofficial is a search that must comply with therequirements of the Fourth Amendment. TheFourth Amendment prohibits allunreasonable searches and seizures by Stateofficers. Reasonableness is determined bybalancing the governmental interest behindthe search against the privacy intrusion of

general, is “important, perhaps compelling.”

communal undress” inherent in athleticparticipation. Moreover, student athletesvoluntarily subject themselves to preseasonphysical examinations and a higher degree ofregulation than other students throughcompliance with codes of conduct, dress, andmaintenance of minimum grade pointaverages. Finally, the Court noted theimportance of the strict chain of custody

45

procedures and restricted access to test results courts have not addressed the constitu-to which the district adhered. tionality of a drug testing program that targets

The unique, reduced expectation of privacy upholding the random drug testing ofof student athletes and the heightened risk athletes, the Supreme Court stated in fairlyposed by student athlete drug use—which is strong terms that any school policy thatnot at issue with students who are not identifies students for testing in other than aengaged in rigorous, school-supported random fashion, thus allowing schoolphysical activity—provided the basis for the officials to exercise any amount of discre-Court’s decision upholding the school’s drug tion, would be met with disapproval.testing policy. Since the Vernonia decision,

students other than athletes. More-over, in

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Truancy

49

Truancy The Problem of Truancy inAmerica’s Communities

Truancy is the first sign of trouble, the firstindicator that a young person is giving up and losing his or her way. When youngpeople start skipping school, they are tellingtheir parents, school officials, and thecommunity at large that they are in troubleand need help if they are to keep movingforward in life.

Research data indicate that students whobecome truant and eventually drop out ofschool put themselves at a long-termdisadvantage for becoming productivecitizens. High school dropouts, for example,are 2 1/2 times more likely to be on welfarethan high school graduates. In 1995, highschool dropouts were almost twice as likelyto be unemployed as high school graduates. In addition, high school dropouts who areemployed earn much lower salaries. Studentswho become truant and eventually drop outof high school too often set themselves up fora life of struggle.

Truancy is a gateway to crime. High rates oftruancy are linked to high daytime burglaryrates and high vandalism. According to theLos Angeles County Office of Education,truancy is the most powerful predictor ofjuvenile delinquent behavior. “I’ve neverseen a gang member who wasn’t a truantfirst,” says California District Attorney KimMenninger. Truancy prevention effortsshould be a part of any community policingeffort to prevent crime before it happens.

During a recent sample period in Miami, to decide what steps to take to reduce truancy. more than 71 percent of 13- to 16-year- These decisions should be made

olds prosecuted for criminal violations hadbeen truant.

In Minneapolis, daytime crime dropped68 percent after police began citing truantstudents.

In San Diego, 44 percent of violentjuvenile crime occurs between 8:30 a.m.and 1:30 p.m.

While no national data on the extent oftruancy exist, in some cities unexcusedabsences can number in the thousands eachday. In Pittsburgh, for example, each dayapproximately 3,500 students or 12 percentof the pupil population is absent and about 70percent of these absences are unexcused. InPhiladelphia, approximately 2,500 stu-dents aday are absent without an excuse. InMilwaukee, on any given school day, thereare approximately 4,000 unexcused absences.

Combating truancy is one of the first waysthat a community can reach out quickly to adisaffected young person and help familiesthat may be struggling with a rebelliousteenager. This chapter seeks to offer parents,school officials, law enforcement agencies,and communities a set of principles to designtheir own strategies to combat truancy anddescribes successful models of antitruancyinitiatives that are working in communitiesacross the Nation.

Users' Guide to DeterringTruancy

Each school and each community needs

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with the active involvement of parents, 2. Ensure that students face firmeducators, law enforcement personnel, sanctions for truancy.juvenile and family court judges, andrepresentatives from social service,community, and religious organizations.

The communities that have had the most linking truancy to such items as a student’ssuccess in deterring truancy not only have grades or driver’s license can help reduce thefocused on improving procedures—such as problem. Connecticut, Delaware, and severalthose that accurately track student other States have curfews during daytimeattendance—but have also implemented a school hours that allow law enforcementcomprehensive strategy that focuses on officers to question youth to determine if theirincentives and sanctions for truants and their absence is legitimate. In a few States,parents. Below are five primary elements of a including New York, a student with a certaincomprehensive community and educational number of unexcused absences can be failedstrategy to combat truancy. in his or her courses. A Wisconsin judge

1. Involve parents in all truancyprevention activities.

Parents play the fundamental role in theeducation of their children. This applies toevery family regardless of the parents’ stationin life, their income, or their educational It is critical that parents of truant childrenbackground. Nobody else commands greater assume responsibility for truant behavior. influence in getting a young person to go to Each community must determine the best wayschool every day and to recognize how a to create meaningful incentives for suchgood education can define his or her future. parents to ensure that their children go to

For families and schools to work together tosolve problems like truancy, there must bemutual trust and communication. Manytruancy programs contain components thatprovide intensive monitoring, counseling,and other family-strengthening services totruants and their families. Schools can helpby being "family-friendly" and encouragingteachers and parents to make regular contactbefore problems arise. Schools may want toconsider arranging convenient times andneutral settings for parent meetings, startinghomework hotlines, training teachers to workwith parents, hiring or appointing a parentliaison, and giving parents a voice in schooldecisions.

School districts should communicate to theirstudents that they have zero tolerance fortruancy. State legislatures have found that

may, among other options, order a truant toattend counseling or an education programdesigned for him or her.

3. Create meaningful incentives forparental responsibility.

school. In some States, parents of truantchildren are asked to participate in parentingeducation programs. Some other States, suchas Maryland and Oklahoma, have determinedthat parents who fail to prevent truancy canbe subject to formal sanction or loseeligibility for certain public assistance. Communities can also provide positiveincentives for responsible parents who ensuretheir child’s regular school attendance. Suchincentives can include increased eligibility toparticipate in publicly funded programs. Working together, local officials, educators,and parents can make a shared commitment toassume responsibility for reducingtruancy—and can choose the incentives thatmake the most sense for their community.

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4. Establish ongoing truancy rather than bring them to local police stationsprevention programs in school. for time-consuming processing. Police

Truancy can be caused by or related to suchfactors as student drug use, violence at ornear school, association with truant friends,lack of family support for regular schoolattendance, emotional or mental healthproblems, lack of a clear path to moreeducation or work, or inability to keep pacewith academic requirements. Schools shouldaddress the unique needs of each child andconsider developing initiatives to combat theroot causes of truancy, including tutoringprograms, added security measures, drugprevention initiatives, mentorship effortsthrough community and religious groups, campaigns for involving parents in theirchildren’s school attendance, and referrals tosocial service agencies.

Schools should also find new ways to engagetheir students in learning, including suchhands-on options as career academies,school-to-work opportunities, andcommunity service. They should enlist thesupport of local business and communityleaders to determine the best way to preventand reduce truancy. For example, businessand community leaders may lend support byvolunteering space to house temporarydetention centers, establishing communityservice projects that lead to afterschool orweekend jobs, or developing software totrack truants.

5. Involve local law enforcement intruancy reduction efforts.

In order to enforce school attendance policies,school officials should establish closelinkages with local police, probation officers,and juvenile and family court officials. Policedepartments report favorably on community-run temporary detention centers where theycan drop off truant youth

sweeps of neighborhoods in which truantyouth are often found can prove dramaticallyeffective when they are part of acomprehensive antitruancy initiative.

Model Truancy ReductionInitiatives

Each community needs to determine how itwill reduce and deter truancy. Below aredescriptions of truancy programs in commu-nities around the country that employ some orall of the elements described above.

Milwaukee, Wisconsin

Program elements: Parents, police, and theschool system focus on the causes of truancyin the Truancy Abatement and BurglarySuppression (TABS) initiative in Milwaukee.Attendance is taken every period in all highschools. Local police officers pick up truantstudents and bring them to a Boys and GirlsClub for counseling. Parents are called athome automatically every night if their childdid not attend school that day. If the parent isnot supportive of regular school atten-dance,the district attorney is contacted.

Results: In a recent sample of students whowent through the TABS process, 73 percentreturned to school the next day, 66 percentremained in school on the 15th day, and 64percent still are in school 30 days later. Sincethe TABS initiative began, daytime burglaryin Milwaukee has decreased 33 percent, anddaytime aggravated battery has decreased 29percent. Aquine Jackson, director of theParent and Student Services Division of theMilwaukee Public Schools, said: “I think theTABS program is so effective because it is acollaboration among...the Milwaukee PublicSchools, the

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Milwaukee Boys and Girls Clubs, the Results: Denise Keyes Page, who recruitsMilwaukee Police Department, and the and trains mentors for this initiative, said:County Sheriff, and because it is now a part “This program works because it harnesses theof State statute that police officers can stop power of peer pressure. Truants are judgedstudents on the street during school hours.” and mentored by their peers, instead of just

Rohnert Park, California

Program elements: The Stop, Cite, andReturn Program is designed to reduce truancyand juvenile crime in the commu-nity and toincrease average daily attendance for theschools. Patrol officers issue citations tosuspected truants contacted during schoolhours, and students are returned to school tomeet with their parents and a vice principal.Two citations are issued without penalty; thethird citation results in referral to appropriatesupport services.

Results: Due in large part to this initiative, thedaytime burglary rate is 75 percent belowwhat it was in 1979. Haynes Hunter, who hasworked in different capacities on the issue oftruancy in Rohnert Park for more than 15years, reported that the program is effectivebecause it is a “high-visibility” effort. “Beingon the street, being in contact with the kidsmakes them aware of the fact that we care. We want them to get their education.”

New Haven, Connecticut

Program elements: The Stay in SchoolProgram targets middle school students who have just begun to have problems. Targeted students go to truancy court where apanel of high school students question themand try to identify solutions. After court,youth and attorney mentors are assigned toeach student for support. The student and thecourt sign a written agreement, and after 2months, students return to the court to reviewtheir contract and report on their progress.

by adults who may seem distant andunconnected. Our program uses both thecarrot and stick approaches, providing bothsupportive mentorship and real courtroomaccountability to truant students. One of theevolving strengths of the program is that notonly are we providing support to the truant,but we are serving as a resource to theirparents.”

Atlantic County, New Jersey

Program elements: The Atlantic CountyProject Helping Hand receives referrals fromsix Atlantic City and four Pleasantvilleelementary schools for youth in kindergartenthrough eighth grade who have 5 to 15 daysof unexcused absences. A truancy workermeets with the youth and family to provideshort-term family counseling, usually up toeight sessions. Referrals for additional socialservices are made on an as-needed basis. Ifthe family fails to keep appointments, homevisits are made to encourage cooperation.Once a truancy problem is corrected, the caseis closed and placed on an aftercare/moni-toring status with contact made at 30-, 60-,and 90-day intervals to ensure that truancydoes not persist.

Results: During the past school year, 84percent of the students who participated inthe Atlantic County program had norecurrence of truancy. Colleen Denelsback ofProject Helping Hand stated: “Ourphilosophy is one of early intervention,regarding both the age level and the numberof unexcused absences. We stress that theearlier intervention takes place, the greater

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the chance for positive outcomes. Early team composed of teachers, parents, andintervention will prevent truancy and school staff that examines the data to analyzelater delinquency.” truancy trends. For example, a team may try

Oklahoma City, Oklahoma students are found during school hours and

Program elements: The THRIVE (Truancy locations. A team may also notice certainHabits Reduced Increasing Valuable months when truancy is prevalent and thenEducation) initiative is a comprehensive design special programs to curb truancyantitruancy program spurred by an ongoing during those months.community partnership of law enforcement,education, and social service officials. Police Results: Ann Hall of the Norfolk Publicbring a suspected truant to a community-run Schools stated: “Attendance has improved atdetention center where, within 1 hour of all levels of schools since 1992—2 percent atarrival, officials assess the youth’s school the elementary and secondary levels. Thestatus, release the youth to a parent or overall district average is up 1 percent. This isrelative, and refer the family to any needed significant in that the legal attendance rate forsocial service agencies. Parents are notified 1994–95 is up to 93 percent. Tighterby the district attorney of potential attendance policies, grading practices, andconsequences for repeat behavior. Parents teamwork have led to this improve-who harbor youth with 15 days of ment...There are few, if any, teachers com-consecutive unexcused absences are subject plaining that discipline and law violations areto misdemeanor charges. not being handled consistently throughout

Results: Since THRIVE’s inception in 1989, over the report that was made in the teacherthe Oklahoma City Police Department reports satisfaction survey conducted in 1988.”a 33-percent drop in daytime burglary rates. Tom Steemen, the parent of a student who Marion, Ohiowent through THRIVE, commented: “Thefirst I heard of the program was when my son Program elements: The Community Servicewas caught and taken to the center. I was real Early Intervention Program focuses onglad to know they had something like potential truants during freshman year.THRIVE.” His son Ken, age 15, said, Referred students are required to attend“THRIVE shook me up. I knew [while in the tutoring sessions as directed, give their timepolice car] just how wrong I was.” to community service projects, and participate

Norfolk, Virginia are required to give back to the intervention

Program elements: The Norfolk, Virginia, with new students in the program and byschool district uses software to collect data on recommending it to others who might benefit. students who are tardy, cut class, leave Parental participation is required throughoutgrounds without permission, are truant but the program. When the student has completedbrought back to school by police, or are the 6-week sequence, school records relative absent without cause. Each school has a

to pinpoint particular locations where truant

then place additional monitors in these

the district. This is a marked improvement

in a counseling program. In addition, students

initiative by sharing what they have learned

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to truancy are nullified. If the student fails the citywide has been cut in half since 1994. program, formal court intervention is the next “Look at today’s truant, and you’re looking atstep. tomorrow’s criminal,” said Assistant City

Results: Of the 28 students who took part inthe program one recent semester, 20 had Bakersfield, Californiaimproved attendance records and wereexpected to pass freshman year. The eight Program elements: A consortium of schoolwho did not improve their attendance records districts in Kern County, California, formedeither moved from the school district or were the Truancy Reduction Program. Localremoved from the school for failure to meet schools reach out to youth with a history ofattendance requirements. Misty Swanger, truancy through parent contact, peer tutoring,community educator for this initiative, saw a and mentoring services. Persis-tently truantgeneral improvement in the grades and youth are referred to the County Probationbehavior of the students. Executive Director Office. Probation officers visit parents atChristine Haas noted: “This program is a home one-on-one, check on the youth atcombination of early intervention and early school weekly, and in the majority of casesattention. As long as the child knows that refer youth and their families to one or moresomeone is watching out for them and taking needed social service agencies. The Countyan interest in them, they will not be truant. Probation Office and the local schoolThe attention factor is very important. It continue to track the youth for a full yearcreates success.” The intervention program before making a referral to the local Districthas already identified 100 ninth-grade Attorney’s Office.students with truancy problems to work within the coming year. Results: “The majority of graduates of the

Peoria, Arizona longer present a truancy problem,” according

Program elements: In Operation Save Kids, coordinator, Steve Hageman. More than aschool officials contact the parents of fifth of that 1994 class had perfect schoolstudents with three unexcused absences. attendance records in the year following theirParents are expected to inform school participation.officials of steps they have taken to ensuretheir children regularly attend school. Whenstudents continue to be truant, cases arereferred to the local district attorney. To avoid criminal penalty and a $150 parentfine, youth are required to participate in an intensive counseling program, and parentsmust attend a parenting skills trainingprogram.

Results:Since Operation Save Kids began 2years ago, daytime juvenile property crimerates have declined by 65 percent. Truancy

Attorney Terry Bays Smith.

Truancy Reduction Program’s first year no

to the Kern County Public Schools

Resources

The U.S. Department of Justice providesFederal funding to States to implement localdelinquency prevention programs, includingprograms that address truancy. Many of theseprograms address risk and protective factors. A large portion of the funding comes from theJuvenile Justice and Delinquency PreventionAct Formula Grants Program, which isadministered by the Office of Juvenile Justice

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and Delinquency Prevention, Office of youth out of the education mainstream. Justice Programs. For more information Training and technical assistance will becontact the Juvenile Justice Clearinghouse, made available to 10 jurisdictions through a800–638–8736. competitive application process in 1996. For

Under a jointly funded project, the National School Safety Center,Department of Justice and the Department of 805–373–9977.Education have developed a training andtechnical assistance project to help For more information about the programs incommunities develop or enhance truancy this chapter, please call the U.S. Departmentprevention/intervention programs and of Education Safe and Drug-Free Schoolsprograms that target related problems of Office at 202–260–3954.

more information contact Ron Stephens at the

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Uniforms

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UniformsAt the direction of President Clinton, U.S. Helping parents and students resist peerSecretary of Education Richard W. Riley sent pressure.a Manual on School Uniforms to everyschool district in the country in March 1996. Below is an excerpt from the manual as wellas answers to some commonly asked ques-tions on school uniforms. For a copy of thecomplete manual, please call 800–624–0100. The full text is also available throughout theU.S. Department of Education World WideWeb site at http://www.ed.gov.

School Uniforms: Why TheyWork and Where They Are

A safe and disciplined learning environmentis the first requirement of a good school. Young people who are safe and secure, wholearn basic American values and theessentials of good citizenship, are betterstudents. In response to growing levels ofviolence in the Nation’s schools, manyparents, teachers, and school officials havecome to see school uniforms as one positiveand creative way to reduce disciplineproblems and increase school safety. Theyobserved that the adoption of school uniformpolicies can promote school safety, improvediscipline, and enhance the learningenvironment. The potential benefits ofschool uniforms include:

Decreasing violence and theft—even life-threatening situations—among studentsover designer clothing or expensivesneakers.

Helping prevent gang members fromwearing gang colors and insignia atschool.

Instilling discipline in students.

Helping students concentrate on theirschool work.

Helping school officials recognizeintruders who come to the school.

As a result, many local communities aredeciding to adopt school uniform policies aspart of an overall program to improve schoolsafety and discipline. California, Florida,Georgia, Indiana, Louisiana, Maryland, NewYork, Tennessee, Utah, and Virginia haveenacted school uniform regulations. Manylarge public school systems—includingBaltimore, Cincinnati, Dayton, Detroit, LosAngeles, Long Beach, Miami, Memphis,Milwaukee, Nashville, New Orleans,Phoenix, Seattle, and St. Louis—haveschools with either voluntary or mandatoryuniform policies, mostly in elementary andmiddle schools. In addition, many privateand parochial schools have required uniformsfor a number of years. Still other schoolshave implemented dress codes to encourage asafe environment by, for example, prohibitingclothes with certain language or gang colors.

Users’ Guide to Adopting aSchool Uniform Policy

The decision to adopt a uniform policy ismade by States, local school districts, andschools. For uniforms to be a success, aswith all other school initiatives, parents mustbe involved. The following information isprovided to assist parents, teachers, andschool leaders in determining whether toadopt a school uniform policy.

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1. Get parents involved from the 3. Protect students’ other rights ofbeginning.

Parental support of a uniform policy is criticalfor success. Indeed, the strongest push forschool uniforms in recent years has comefrom parent groups who want betterdiscipline in their children’s schools. Parentgroups have actively lobbied schools tocreate uniform policies and have often ledschool task forces that have drawn upuniform guidelines. Many schools that havesuccessfully created a uniform policy surveyparents first to gauge support for schooluniform requirements and then seek parentalinput in designing the uniform. Parentsupport is also essential for encouragingstudents to wear the uniform. 2. Protect students’ religious

expression.

A school uniform policy must accommodatestudents whose religious beliefs are substan-tially burdened by a uniform requirement. AsU.S. Secretary of Education Richard W. Rileystated in Religious Expression in PublicSchools, a guide he sent to superintendentsthroughout the Nation on August 10, 1995:

Students may display religious messages onitems of clothing to the same extent that theyare permitted to display other comparablemessages. Religious messages may not besingled out for suppression, but rather aresubject to the same rules as generally apply tocomparable messages. When wearingparticular attire, such as yarmulkes and headscarves, during the school day is part ofstudents’ religious practice, under the ReligiousFreedom Restoration Act schools generallymay not prohibit the wearing of such items.

expression.

A uniform policy may not prohibit studentsfrom wearing or displaying expressiveitems—for example, a button showingsupport for a political candidate—so long assuch items do not independently contribute todisruption by substantially interfering withdiscipline or with the rights of others. Thus,for example, a uniform policy may prohibitstudents from wearing a button bearing agang insignia. A uniform policy may alsoprohibit items that undermine the integrity ofthe uniform, notwithstanding their expressivenature, such as a sweatshirt that bears apolitical message but also covers or replacesthe type of shirt required by the uniformpolicy.

4. Determine whether to have avoluntary or mandatory schooluniform policy.

Some schools have adopted wholly voluntaryschool uniform policies that permit studentsfreely to choose whether and under whatcircumstances they will wear the schooluniform. Alternatively, some schools havedetermined that it is both warranted and moreeffective to adopt a mandatory uniformpolicy.

5. When a mandatory school uniformpolicy is adopted, determinewhether to have an “opt out”provision.

In most cases, school districts with manda-tory policies allow students, normally withparental consent, to “opt out” of the schooluniform requirements.

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Some schools have determined, however, that 8. Treat school uniforms as part of ana mandatory policy with no “opt out”provision is necessary to address a disruptiveatmosphere. A Phoenix, Arizona, school, forexample, adopted a mandatory policyrequiring students to wear school uniforms orattend another public school. That Phoenixschool uniform policy was recently upheld bya State trial court in Arizona. However, inthe absence of a finding that disruption of thelearning environment has reached a pointwhere other lesser measures have been orwould be ineffective, a manda-tory schooluniform policy without an “opt out” provision could be vulnerable to legal challenge.

6. Do not require students to wear amessage.

Schools should not impose a form ofexpression on students by requiring them towear uniforms bearing a substantive message,such as a political message.

7. Assist families that need financialhelp.

In many cases, school uniforms are lessexpensive than the clothing that studentstypically wear to school. Nonetheless, thecost of purchasing a uniform may be a bur-den on some families. School districts withuniform policies should make provisions forstudents whose families are unable to afforduniforms. Many have done so. These aresome examples of the types of assistance: (1) the school district provides uniforms tostudents who cannot afford to purchase them,(2) community and business leaders provideuniforms or contribute financial support foruniforms, (3) school parents work together tomake uniforms available for economicallydisadvantaged students, and (4) useduniforms from graduates are made availableto incoming students.

overall safety program.

Uniforms by themselves cannot solve all theproblems of school discipline, but they can beone positive contributing factor to disciplineand safety. Other initiatives that manyschools have used in conjunction withuniforms to address specific problems in theircommunity include aggressive truancyreduction initiatives, drug prevention efforts,student-athlete drug testing, communityefforts to limit gangs, a zero tolerance policyfor weapons, character education classes, andconflict resolution programs. Working withparents, teachers, students, and principals canmake a uniform policy part of a strong overallsafety program, one that is broadly supportedin the community.

Frequently Asked Questions

Why is the President promoting schooluniforms?

For the past 3 years, the President hasactively been supporting activities that reduceviolence and crime in schools. The Clintonadministration is always looking for ideas orconcepts that will help create safer schools. After talking to and working with schoolsthat found reductions in crime and violenceafter adopting a uniform policy, the Clintonadministration drafted the manual to assistcommunities that want to implement schooluniform policies.

Is the President mandating that schoolshave a school uniform policy?

The President believes that it is a localdecision whether to adopt a uniform policy. The school uniform manual developed by theDepartments of Education and Justice merelyprovides guidance and assistance to localschool districts and schools.

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Is the cost of school uniforms and should be combined with such otherprohibitive? actions as training security personnel,

School uniforms are usually less expensivethan the clothes students typically wear toschool. Further, the manual gives some Is the Department of Educationsuggestions for schools that want to assist recommending a specific uniform forfamilies in need of financial help to purchase schools?uniforms.

Does a school uniform policy robstudents of their individuality?

School uniform policies permit children towear expressive items, such as a button thatshows support for a political candidate, or areligious piece of clothing, such as ayarmulke or head scarf.

Will a school see reductions in crime,violence, and disruptions simply byadopting a uniform policy?

School uniform policies must be viewed aspart of a comprehensive safe school strategy

implementing zero tolerance policies, andstarting after-school programs.

Individual schools and school districts thatchoose to adopt uniform policies shoulddetermine what their uniforms are.

What is the most common schooluniform?

No one style of uniform is predominant. Theuniforms that schools have adopted cover awide range of options for individual schoolsand school districts to consider.

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Alternative EducationPrograms for Expelled

Students

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Alternative Education Programs forExpelled Students

A defining feature of life in America’s students generally return to school no betterschools today is the increasing incidence of disciplined and no better able to manage theirviolence. Nearly 3 million crimes take place anger or peaceably resolve disputes. Theyin or near schools annually—one every 6 will also have fallen behind in theirseconds of the school day. These increases education, and any underlying causes of their1

are occurring nationwide. Eighty-two percent violent behavior may be unresolved. of school districts surveyed by the National Research has shown a link between suspen-School Boards Association (NSBA) reported sion/expulsion and later dropping out ofincreasing violence within their schools school, with resulting personal and socialduring the past 5 years. Increasingly, costs.incidents of violence reported in schoolsinvolve deadly weapons. More than 60 One reservation about providing services topercent of school districts have reported expelled students has been the cost. weapon violations among their students. However, data show it is less costly to2

One prominent legislative and policy measure underlying causes as quickly as possible thanto ensure a safe school environment has been to wait until the student becomes involvedto require removal of disruptive and with the criminal justice or welfare systemsdangerous students. Typically this is later in life. The American Federation ofaccomplished through expulsions and long- Teachers has estimated that “for the [$1,750]term suspensions. For example, the Federal additional dollars spent on each [disruptive]Gun-Free Schools Act of 1994 requires a student attending an alternative school, theminimum 1-year expulsion for any student public annually gains $14,000 in studentfound to have carried a firearm on school learning time that would have been lost,grounds (See Preventing Juvenile Gun $2,800 in reduced grade repetition costs,Violence in Schools, page 21). $1,750 in reduced welfare costs, and $1,500

School districts across the country report savings of $18,300 per student. experiencing significant increases in both thenumber of students expelled and the length oftime they are excluded from their schools.The consensus among educators and othersconcerned with at-risk youth is that it is vitalfor expelled students to receive educationalcounseling or other services to help modifytheir behavior and possibly other supportservices while they are away from theirregular school. Without such services,

address the problem behavior and its

in reduced prison costs.” This is a total3

Promising Practices

School systems across the country are turningto alternative education programs to delivereducational and other services to expelledstudents. Some school systems aremodifying existing programs to accom-modate the larger numbers of studentsexpelled for disruptive behaviors, whileothers are creating new programs, often in

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collaboration with social agencies or Working relations with all parts of thenonprofit service organizations. school system and with other colla-

The programs typically differ from the services to youth.expelled students’ regular schools in these Linkages between schools anddimensions: the ratio of students to tea-chers, workplaces.the way academic subject matter is presented, Intensive counseling and monitoring.the setting of the program, the linkage of theschool to the community or workplaces, theemphasis on behavior mod-ification, theemphasis on counseling for conflictresolution and anger management, and theavailability of comprehensive sup-portservices. Programs have been created forstudents as young as elementary age. Someseek to prepare students to return to theirregular schools, and others prepare studentsto graduate from high school and enter theworkforce or postsecondary educationdirectly from the alternative program.

Components of EffectiveAlternative Education Programs

The components of effective alternativeprograms are:

Lower student-to-staff ratio.Strong and stable leadership. Highly trained and carefully selectedstaff.A vision and set of objectives for theprogram that are shared by all staff andintegrated into how staff andadministrators interact with the program.Districtwide support of programs.Innovative presentation of instructionalmaterials with an emphasis on real-lifelearning.

borating agencies that provide critical

Examples of AlternativeEducation Programs

The following programs provide some ex-amples of the varied alternative educationprograms that have been created for expelledstudents.

City-As-School Program, Buffalo,New York

The City-As-School (CAS) program inBuffalo, New York, places students as internsin dozens of sites across the city. Studentsearn academic credits for the work theyperform—an English credit for workinvolving the theater, a newspaper, or othertype of communication; a social studies creditfor work at the local courts or communityaction agency. Students rotate through threeor four internships each semester, becomingfamiliar with a variety of work environmentsand being exposed to a variety of rolemodels. Throughout the program, eachstudent also works on his or her LearningExperience Activity Packet (LEAP), a set ofgoals and activities customized for eachstudent and each internship. The LEAPincludes weekly assignments as well as asemester-long final product. The student’sprogress is monitored by his onsitesupervisors and program teachers. Studentsattend weekly seminars at CAS offices. The

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program elected to locate its offices on a has also established community partnershipscollege campus to expose the students to the with several area businesses, civic organ-possibilities of postsecondary education. izations, and social service agencies for

The CAS program has developed extensivesupport within the community. Because many The academic component of the programbusinesses and agencies have volunteered to assigns students to small classes to worksponsor interns, the program has been able to intensively with highly skilled andserve more students. Program staff feel the experienced teachers on core academicexperience produces major changes in the subjects. Teaching is individualized to eachstudents. The students become more student’s abilities and learning style, with themotivated and their negative behaviors are goal of bringing the student up to grade-levelreduced. Sixty-five percent of the students performance. Students are required toare able to maintain 100 percent attendance participate in a counseling program conduc-for as long as 2 years, complete all their ted by the program’s staff psychologist thatinternships, and earn their high school focuses on personal growth and develop-diplomas. The staff point out that this ment. The psychologist is also available tograduation rate is considerably higher than meet with students individually on an as-that of comparable students who remain in needed basis. However, students who maythe regular school program. need intensive counseling are referred to area

Community Academy, Boston,Massachusetts

The Community Academy (CA) is located inthe Roxbury neighborhood of Boston,Massachusetts. CA is designed to providestudents with a safe and challengingacademic learning environment in order tohelp them become successful and productivecitizens. CA is housed in leased space in theRoxbury Boys and Girls Club. In workingwith students, CA uses a cognitive approachthat focuses on modifying inappropriatebehavior and enhancing academic potential. CA emphasizes small class size, low student-teacher ratios, and parental involvement. Inaddition to academic instruction, the programprovides a vocational component and anadvanced placement program, and studentsare eligible to earn dual enrollment credits atarea colleges and universities. CA

providing services to students.

community health centers. Additionally,assessments, counseling, and drug awarenesseducation are provided by the substanceabuse clinicians. These staff meet withstudents on both an individual and groupbasis, but those students needing intensive/long-term treatment are also referred to thelocal community health center. Students areencouraged to participate in communityservice activities, work with a mentor,complete job-training classes, and exploreadvanced academic course work and post-secondary education.

Staff closely monitor student progress. Ratings for each student are based uponattendance, academic performance,disciplinary incidents, and clinicalassessments. Although the program wasdesigned under the assumption that theaverage student would require 2 years ofservice before returning to the regular

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school, nearly 45 percent are judged ready citizens in the workplace. Students earnafter 1 year. Fewer than 15 percent of credits toward a New York City High Schoolstudents entering the program are unable to degree through the three components of thecomplete it. More than 25 percent are able to program: academic, guidance, andcomplete some college-level work before internship/vocational. Students choose theirleaving the CA program. schedule each day under a program called

Borough Academies, New York,New York

The Borough Academies, located in NewYork City, serve students from the entiremetropolitan area. The Borough Academiesare designed primarily to help studentsdevelop positive behavior skills and second-arily to prepare students for entrance intocollege or a job. Students are provided withthe opportunity to earn credits throughvocational internships with employersthroughout New York City. The key conceptat the Borough Academies is behavior changethrough positive reinforce-ment andflexibility. Faculty are instructed to alwaysuse positive incentives and to presentstudents with attainable goals. Students aretold only what they can do, not what theycannot. The Borough Academies encourageflexibility not only from students but alsofrom faculty and administrators. Theprogram’s three campuses are located innontraditional settings—offices or apartmentbuildings.

The program provides students with acombination of academic and behaviormanagement skills. The model initiallyfocuses on teaching students how to managetheir behavior positively. The principal feelsthat once students are able to manage theirbehavior they will be better prepared to reachtheir potential both as students and as

“free options” whereby they can change theset of classes they attend every day. Stu-dents can earn credits as quickly as they wantto and work at their own pace.

Since the inception of the BoroughAcademies, two classes have graduated. TheAcademies have an 86-percent graduationrate, and the majority of the students havegone on to college.

Resources

Alternative Schools for Disruptive Youth. National School Safety Center (NSSC) Resource Paper, 1987. This research paperpresents background information on reasonssome youth are disruptive, approaches toalternative education, and alternative schoolsas a way to provide services to suspended orexpelled students.

Joy G. Dryfoos, Adolescents at Risk:Prevalence and Prevention, New York:Oxford University Press, 1990. Adolescentsat Risk provides an overview of preventionprograms, practices, and components thatappear critical to success regardless of thehigh-risk behavior the program strives toprevent.

Alternative Schools for Disruptive Youth,School Safety, NSSC (winter 1991), pp.8–11.

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1. National School Safety Center. 1993 (September). “School Safety Update.” National School Safety Center News Service, p.1.

2. National School Boards Association, 1993. “Violence in the Schools: How America’s School Boards Are Safeguarding Our Children.” Alexandria, Virginia.

3. “Tiny Knife Sets Off Big Debate Over Right To Attend School.” Education Daily 28, August 8, 1995 (166): 1–3.

School Safety, NSSC (winter 1995). This National School Boards Associationspecial issue is devoted entirely to alternative 1680 Duke Streeteducation and provides several articles on a Alexandria, Virginia 22314range of issues including early identification 703–838–6722of problems, State initiatives, adultmentoring, and apprenticeship learning. National Association of State Boards

More information is availablefrom:

Safe and Drug-Free Schools ProgramU.S. Department of Education600 Independence Avenue, SW.Washington, DC 20202-6123

National School Safety Center4165 Thousand Oaks BoulevardSuite 290Westlake Village, California 91362805–373–9977

of Education1012 Cameron StreetAlexandria, Virginia, 22314800–220–5183

Endnotes

71

Conflict Resolution

73

Conflict Resolution

Too many of our young people are caught up Effective conflict resolution educationin conflicts every day that they do not know programs can:how to manage—teasing, jealousy, andphysical aggression. Juvenile delinquencyand violence are symptoms of youth’sinability to manage conflict in their lives. Teaching youth how to manage conflict in aproductive way can help reduce incidents ofviolent behavior. Conflict resolutioneducation is a beneficial component of acomprehensive violence prevention andintervention program in schools andcommunities.

Conflict resolution education encompassesproblem solving in which the parties indispute express their points of view, voicetheir interests, and find mutually acceptablesolutions. Conflict resolution educationprograms help the parties recognize that whileconflict happens all the time, people canlearn new skills to deal with conflict innonviolent ways. The programs that appear tobe most effective are comprehensive andinvolve multiple components such as theproblem-solving processes and principles ofconflict resolution, the basics of effectivecommunication and listening, critical andcreative thinking, and an emphasis onpersonal responsibility and self-discipline.

According to William DeJong, a lecturer atthe Harvard School of Public Health, “Thebest school-based violence preventionprograms seek to do more than reach theindividual child. They instead try to changethe total school environment, to create a safecommunity that lives by a credo of non-violence and multicultural appreciation.” 1

Most school violence– prevention programsinclude conflict resolution education.

Enable children to respond nonviolentlyto conflict by using the conflict resolutionproblem-solving processes of negotiation,mediation, and consensusdecisionmaking.

Enable educators’ ability to managestudents’ behavior without coercion byemphasizing personal responsibility andself-discipline.

Mobilize community involvement inviolence prevention through educationprograms and services, such as expandingthe role of youth as effective citizensbeyond the school into the community.

Four Common Strategies forApproaching Conflict Resolution

Experts identify four school-based conflictresolution strategies that can be replicated inother settings. These are commonly referredto as: (1) Peer Mediation, (2) ProcessCurriculum, (3) Peaceable Classrooms, and(4) Peaceable Schools. The PeaceableSchools model incorporates the elements ofthe other three approaches. In all fourapproaches, conflict resolution education isviewed as giving youth nonviolent tools todeal with daily conflicts that can lead to self-destructive and violent behaviors. It is up toeach local school district to decide howconflict resolution education will beintegrated into its overall educationalenvironment. The expectation is that whenyouth learn to recognize and constructivelyaddress what takes place before conflict ordifferences lead to violence, the incidence

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and intensity of that situation will diminish. education reported that playground fightingThe program examples provided below had been reduced to such an extent that peerempower young people with the processes mediators found themselves out of a job.and skills of conflict resolution. However,youth need to know that conflict resolution Process Curriculum Approachdoes not take precedence over adultresponsibility to provide the final word in avariety of circumstances or situations. Conflict resolution has a place in the home,school, and community, but it can only supplement, not supplant, adult authority.

Peer Mediation Approach

Recognizing the importance of directlyinvolving youth in conflict resolution, many schools and communities are using the PeerMediation approach. Under this approach, specially trained student mediators work withtheir peers to resolve conflicts. Mediationprograms reduce the use of traditionaldisciplinary actions such as suspension,detention, and expulsion; encourage effectiveproblem solving; decrease the need forteacher involvement in student conflicts; andimprove school climate. An example of a PeerMediation program is We Can Work It Out,developed by the National Institute forCitizenship Education in the Law and theNational Crime Prevention Council. Theprogram promotes mediation, negotiation, orother non-litigating methods as strategies tosettle unresolved confrontations and fighting.

One Albuquerque elementary schoolprincipal reported, “We were having 100 to150 fights every month on the playgroundbefore we started the New Mexico Center forDispute Resolution’s Mediation in theSchools Program. By the end of the schoolyear, we were having maybe 10 (fights).” 2

Other elementary schools using the same PeerMediation approach to conflict resolution

Teachers who devote a specific time—aseparate course, a distinct curriculum, or a daily lesson—to the principles, foundationabilities, and problem-solving processes ofconflict resolution are implementing theProcess Curriculum approach. The Programfor Young Negotiators, based on the HarvardNegotiation Project, is representa-tive of thisapproach. Participating students, teachers,and administrators are taught how to useprincipled negotiation to achieve goals andresolve disputes. This type of negotia-tionhelps disputants envision scenarios andgenerate options for achieving results thatsatisfy both sides.

In a North Carolina middle school with morethan 700 students, conflict resolutioneducation was initiated. The school used thePeace Foundation’s Fighting Fair curriculumand a combination of components fromvarious conflict resolution projects. After aschool year, in-school suspensions decreasedfrom 52 to 30 incidents (a 42-percentdecrease), and out-of-school suspensionsdecreased from 40 incidents to 1 (a 97-percent decrease).3

Peaceable Classroom Approach

The Peaceable Classroom approach integratesconflict resolution into the curriculum anddaily management of the classroom. It usesthe instructional methods of cooperativelearning and “academic controversy.” TheEducators for Social Responsibilitycurriculum, Making Choices About Conflict,Security, and Peacemaking, is a peaceableclassroom approach to conflict

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resolution. The program shows teachers how school districts in New York City, teachers ofto integrate conflict resolution into the the Peaceable School approach to conflictcurriculum, classroom management, and resolution reported a 71-percent decrease indiscipline practices. It emphasizes physical violence in the classroom andopportunities to practice cooperation, observed 66 percent less name calling andappreciation of diversity, and caring and fewer verbal insults. Other changes ineffective communication. Generally, student behavior reported by the teacherspeaceable classrooms are initiated on a included greater acceptance of differences,teacher-by-teacher basis into the classroom increased awareness and articulation ofsetting and are the building blocks of the feelings, and a spontaneous use of conflictpeaceable school. resolution skills throughout the school day in

Studies on the effectiveness of the TeachingStudents To Be Peacemakers program, aPeaceable Classroom approach to conflictresolution, show that discipline problemsrequiring teacher management decreased byapproximately 80 percent and referrals to theprincipal were reduced to zero.4

Peaceable School Approach

The Peaceable School approach incorporatesthe above three approaches. This approachseeks to create schools where conflictresolution has been adopted by every memberof the school community, from the crossingguard to the classroom teacher. A peaceableschool promotes a climate that challengesyouth and adults to believe and act on theunderstanding that a diverse, nonviolentsociety is a realistic goal. In Creating thePeaceable School Program of the IllinoisInstitute for Dispute Resolution, students areempowered with conflict resolution skills andstrategies to regulate and control their ownbehavior. Conflict resolution is infused intothe way business is conducted at the schoolbetween students, between students andteachers and other personnel, betweenteachers and admin-istrators, and betweenparents and teachers and administrators.

In an evaluation of the Resolving ConflictCreatively Program in four multiethnic

5

a variety of academic and nonacademicsettings.

Conflict Resolution Education inOther Settings

The usefulness of conflict resolution pro-grams is not limited to traditional schoolsettings. These programs are also a meaning-ful component of safe and violence-freejuvenile justice facilities and alternativeeducation programs. In these settings,conflict resolution programs are introducednot to replace but to supplement existingdisciplinary policies and procedures. Whenopportunities are created to learn and prac-tice conflict resolution principles andstrategies in these settings, youth may receivepositive life skills and acquire behaviors tocarry with them throughout their lives. Nolonger do they need to feel that a crosswiselook or a cutting remark requires a physicalchallenge that can lead to violent outcomes. They learn to control their anger and to reactin a nonconfron-tational manner to diffuse thesituation. When youth practice conflictresolution principles and skills on a regularbasis, they begin to experience greatersatisfaction in their lives.

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The Youth Corrections Mediation Program of complement the school program. Thesethe New Mexico Center for Dispute programs provide common vocabulary andResolution teaches youth and staff in juvenile problem-solving processes that serve asjustice facilities communication skills and critical linkages for youth who have beencombines the conflict resolution curricula trained in conflict resolution in schools. with mediation. This program has areintegration component in which familiesnegotiate agreements for daily living beforethe juvenile offenders return home. Theprogram emphasizes the need to model andpractice communication and the problem-solving processes of conflict resolution. Byproviding alternatives to resolving conflicts,the program gives youth a model for positiveexpression and the peaceful resolution ofproblems. An evaluation study of theprogram reported a 37-percent decrease indisciplinary infractions among youthmediators compared with 12-percent foryouth not trained as mediators. This studyalso found that the recidivism rate amongyouth trained as mediators was 18-percentlower during the first 6 months after returningto the community than for a control group nottrained in mediation. The knowledge and6

skills of conflict resolution give these formeroffenders the tools to defuse or resist conflictsituations and get along better with family,friends, teachers, supervisors, and fellowstudents or fellow employees.

Taking what they have gleaned back into thecommunity and family settings is often thebiggest challenge young people face withconflict resolution training, especially whenothers are not similarly trained. A number ofconflict resolution education programs haveeither originated in the community andmoved into the school or moved from theschool into the community. Regardless oftheir origin, the programs enhance the qualityof life in the home, school, and community. Parent and community conflict resolutioneducation programs build on and

Community Mediation Centers

Community mediation centers are located inmore than 400 communities across thecountry. These centers, which are typicallynonprofit community-based agencies, usetrained community volunteers to provide awide range of mediation services to youthand adults. Through these centers, media-tion has been applied in common conflictsituations found in the community, schools,and families, such as gangs, businesscomplaints of juvenile loitering, schoolsuspensions, truancy, and parent/childrelationships, as well as in juvenile justicesettings. Community mediation centers alsooffer training in conflict resolution processesand skills that may be used effectively inpersonal and professional life for all agegroups. Nationwide community mediationcenters have collaborated with lawenforcement, schools, and other youth-serving agencies in developing andimplementing community-based compre-hensive violence prevention and interventionprograms. A listing of local communitymediation centers is available from theNational Association for CommunityMediation. (See contact information under“Resources.”)

Conclusion

The effective conflict resolution educationprograms highlighted above have helped toimprove the climate in school, communityand juvenile justice settings by reducing thenumber of disruptive and violent acts in

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these settings; by decreasing the number of school board members, school site-basedchronic school absences due to a fear of management teams, and youth-serving andviolence; by reducing the number of juvenile justice professionals to use in theirdisciplinary referrals and suspensions; by strategic planning for implementing conflictincreasing academic instruction during the resolution education programs that meet theirschool day; and by increasing the self-esteem specific needs. It also includes a reading listand self-respect, as well as the personal and annotated lists of conflict resolutionresponsibility and self-discipline of the programs by approach, resources, and trainersyoung people involved in these programs. with contact information.

Young people cannot be expected to promote videotape from a satellite teleconference onand encourage the peaceful reso-lution of conflict resolution education, which wasconflicts if they do not see conflict resolution based on the guide. Experts and practition-principles and strategies being modeled by ers in conflict resolution discussed theadults in all areas of their lives, such as in benefits and importance of teaching youth thebusiness, sports, entertainment, and personal skills to resolve disputes without violence. relationships. Adults play a part in making Model programs across the country werethe environment more peaceful by practicing showcased. To receive a copy of either thenonviolent conflict resolution when minor or guide or videotape, contact OJJDP’s Juvenilemajor disputes arise in their daily lives. Justice Clearinghouse at 800–638–8736. Resources

Providing guidance on conflict resolutioneducation programs, the Office of JuvenileJustice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP)of the Department of Justice, in partnershipwith the Safe and Drug-Free Schools Programof the Department of Education, has developed a guide entitled ConflictResolution Education: A Guide toImplementing Programs in Schools, Youth-Serving Organizations, and Community andJuvenile Justice Settings. The guide isdesigned to be a tool for teachers,administrators,

In addition to the guide, OJJDP has a

For information on local communitymediation centers, contact the NationalAssociation for Community Mediation at1726 M Street, NW., Suite 500, Washington,DC 20036 or at 202–467–4769, and by faxat 202–466–4769.

For information on establishing conflictresolution programs for schools and a list ofbest practices, contact Safe and Drug-FreeSchools Program, U.S. Department ofEducation, Washington, DC 20202,202–260–3954.

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1. DeJong, W. 1994 (Spring). “School-Based Violence Prevention: From the Peaceable Schoolto the Peaceable Neighborhood.” Forum 25:8.

2. Smith, M. 1996. “Strategies to Reduce School Violence: The New Mexico Center forDispute Resolution,” In A.M. Hoffman, ed., Schools, Violence, and Society. Westport,Connecticut: Praeger, p. 256.

3. Powell, K.M., L. Muir-McClain, and L. Halasyamani. 1995. “A Review of Selected School-Based Conflict Resolution and Peer Mediation Projects.” Journal of School Health 65:10, 429.

4. Johnson, D. and R. Johnson. 1995. “Teaching Students To Be Peacemakers: Results of FiveYears of Research.” Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology 1:4, 424.

5. Metis Associates, Inc. 1990. Resolving Conflict Creatively Program: 1988-89 Summary ofSignificant Findings. New York: Metis Associates, Inc.

6. Smith, M. 1996. “Youth Corrections Mediation Program: Fact Sheet.” Albuquerque: NewMexico Center for Dispute Resolution, 2.

Endnotes

79

Mentoring in Schools

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Mentoring In SchoolsMost adolescents are on the healthy path to instances, help young people changeproductive adult lives. There is evidence, direction and do better academically andhowever, that 25 percent of adolescents are at socially. Mentoring has been defined as asignificant risk of veering off that path sustained, close, developmental relationshipbecause they frequently engage in behaviors between an older, more experiencedwith negative consequences, such as alcohol individual and a younger person, with theor other drug abuse, sexual activity with its goal of building character and competence onpotential for sexually transmitted diseases the part of the protégé. Usually theand teen pregnancy, truancy, delinquency, or relationship involves regular contact over aviolence. Another 25 percent of adoles-cents, sustained period of time and involves mutualwho engage in fewer of these beha-viors, are commitment, respect, and loyalty. Mentorsat moderate risk. need not be experts in drug prevention,1

A 1992 study conducted by the Carnegie family counseling. Studies have shown thatFoundation determined that only 60 percent individuals who gain the trust of youthof an adolescent’s nonsleeping time is taken through interaction and time can have greatup by school, homework, chores, meals, or influence on their lives.employment. Many adolescents spend theremaining 40 percent of their nonsleepingtime alone, with peers without adultsupervision, or with adults who mightnegatively influence their behavior. A recent2

study found that 27 percent of eighth-gradersspent 2 or more hours alone after school andthat low-income youth were more likely thanothers to be home alone for 3 or more hours.3

Similarly, the Study of Causes and Corre-lates of Delinquency, sponsored by the Officeof Juvenile Justice and DelinquencyPrevention (OJJDP), found the influence ofpeers and lack of supervision by parents to bestrong risk factors in the causes of delin-quency. It is not surprising, therefore, that4

most acts of juvenile delinquency take placeat the close of the school day, when oppor-tunities for constructive activities are toooften unavailable.

While these are disturbing trends, there isgrowing belief that mentoring can, in many

remedial tutoring, antisocial behavior, or

Users’ Guide to EstablishingMentoring Programs

The planning stages of developing a mentor-ship program are very important. Becausementor programs are built on shared trust andrespect of the people involved, much careshould be given to its implementation. Thefollowing steps are loosely based on thosedeveloped by the National Association ofPartners in Education, a nonprofit organ-ization in Alexandria, Virginia, which hasextensive experience in school-communityand school-business partnership programs. Coordination and assessment. A small teamor group of individuals or staff must worktogether to plan and execute an effectiveprogram. This group must assess the need formentors and determine what resources areavailable in the community. In addition tovolunteer mentors, assistance in the areas oftraining, sponsorship of travel, provision

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of meeting space, and media and commun- mentoring programs have activities off schoolications could be helpful. grounds, careful history checks of applicants

Setting goals and objectives. For a mentorprogram to be successful, it must have well- Training mentors. It is recommended thatdefined goals and measurable objectives. each mentor be trained before he or she isOne of the first tasks for the team is to paired with a mentee. Sessions should bedetermine what the program’s goals and used to clarify the program’s goals and focusobjectives should be. These can vary from on providing insight into the way youngbroad goals to specific, structured ones. For people behave and communicate. Methodsexample, while many school-based mentor- for effectively communicating with menteesing programs focus on upgrading social and and their parents and lessons on adolescentacademic skills, programs in the past have development are useful topics for training. specified increasing career awareness or a Ongoing feedback sessions allow for targetedgreater understanding of civic responsibility. training and assistance, as well as provideRecruiting mentors and mentees. The focus mentors an opportunity to compare notes.of the program should determine the types ofindividuals to be recruited. Traditionally, Pairing or matching. While most programsthere has been a shortage of mentors in most use surveys that explore shared interests andprograms. To ensure an adequate number of hobbies to determine which individuals makementors, they can be recruited through a good pairs, choosing a good match school’s volunteer office, a company’s dir- is as much an art as it is a science. Studies areector of public relations, and community inconclusive as to whether individuals fromorganizations that sponsor volunteer pro- similar socioeconomic, racial, or ethnicgrams. Targeted recruiting in local colleges backgrounds make the best pairs. Flaxmanor universities, local newspapers, TV and and Ascher believe that more subtle charac-radio stations, and local businesses is also a teristics like caretaking or nurturing styles,good tactic. Senior citizens can be exem- energy levels and approach to adventure, plary mentors and may be contacted through or rigidity versus a tolerance for ambiguitysenior citizen organizations like the American and conflict may be better indicators of whyAssociation of Retired Persons (AARP). relationships flourish or falter. When a bad

Selecting mentors and mentees. Eligibility to reassign both parties. Organizers must screening for participation in mentorship be prepared to deal with other obstacles programs could include an application that may arise, including serious issues ofprocess and review, face-to-face interview, behavior such as violence, drug use, extremeand a reference check for mentors with depression, or suicide threats by the youngwritten eligibility requirements for program person. participants. It is a good idea not only to getparental consent, but to involve parents to the Keeping enthusiasm alive. Many mentoringmaximum extent possible by sharing the programs fail due to poor participation orprogram’s goals and objectives and keeping absenteeism on the part of the mentor or thethem informed of specific events. If the mentee. To minimize “dropouts,” some

are needed.

5

match does occur, steps should be taken

programs have pooled mentors so that two ormore sets of mentoring pairs meet together.

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Sometimes dropouts occur due to a lack New Jersey. It matches at-risk youth withof initiative on the young person’s part or police officer mentors. They employunrealistic expectations on the part of the prevention and intervention strategies to helpmentor. Some of these issues can be solved youngsters from chaotic home environ-mentsby discussions with the mentor’s supervisors cope with peer pressure, succeed in school,or additional periodic training. Enthusiasm and make career decisions and sound lifestylecan be maintained by frequent interaction choices. Evaluations completed by parents,among mentors, public recognition ceremo- volunteers, and youth indicate reductions innies, positive publicity, and parental delinquency and court involve-ment andparticipation. improvement in school atten-dance, behavior,

Evaluating the program. While program staffnaturally prefer to direct resources into the Robert Taylor Homes in Chicago, Illinois, theoperations of a mentoring program, rather largest public housing development in thethan into its assessment, formal evaluations country, has implemented a Mentoring andare an important component in determining Rites of Passage program designed to assistwhich methods or decisions have been suc- adolescents in their transition to adulthood. cessful and should be replicated. They also Mentors meet with groups of 10–15 youths ofserve as positive reinforcement to both vol- similar ages at least twice a week and addressunteers as well as the coordinating team. such areas as self-concept, communicationsIdeally, evaluations should be planned at the and decisionmaking, and cultural heritageoutset of a program and be completed by a appreciation. Evaluations of participants arethird party. However, data that will be used as conducted every 6 months to track theirprogram variables can be collected along the interpretation of standard social interactionsway. Some examples are length of meetings, and situations, self-reported violent behaviorlocation of meetings, length of mentoring and self-concept, hospital visits related torelationship, and significant events. violence, and calls to the police about violent events in the housing project.Promising Practices

There are numerous examples of mentoringprograms throughout the country that are A 1995 evaluation of the Big Brothers/Bigsponsored by schools, communities, social Sisters mentoring program conducted byand religious organizations, and private Public/Private Ventures provides evidencecorporations. The resource section lists that mentoring programs positively affectseveral publications that include a variety of young people. Those between the ages ofexamples. The two mentoring programs 10–16 in the mentoring program were lesslisted below have proven effective over time likely to start using drugs and alcohol andand in evaluations. were less likely to be violent. In addition, the

"Bigs in Blue" is an innovative mentoring their school attendance and performance,program developed by the Big Brothers/Big experienced positive attitudes towardSisters mentor program of Warren County, completing school work, and improved their

and grades. 6

7

Research and Evaluation

study found that participants had improved

peer and family relation-ships.

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The impact was even greater among minority discusses the nuts and bolts of establishing aparticipants: Male and female minority mentor program, from needs assessment andparticipants were approximately 70 percent working with parents to evaluating theless likely to initiate drug use, and female program. It also includes examples ofminority participants were 54 percent less successful programs and suggestions onlikely to initiate alcohol use. selection, training, and tracking mentors as8

A 1990–1991 New York City SchoolVolunteer Program evaluation found that Bryan, Samuel; Ahoun, Nilofer; and Garcia,participants in their program made signi- Jill. Know Your Community: A Step by Stepficant progress in reading and math, as judged Guide to Community Needs and Resourceby both teachers and volunteers. They also Assessment. Chicago: Family Resourceshowed improved self-confidence and a better Coalition, 1996. A practical guide forattitude toward school. communities and program directors that9

Resources

The Department of Justice, through OJJDP, isproviding funding to 41 mentoring programsunder the Juvenile Mentoring Program(JUMP). An evaluation of the JUMP is beingconducted currently to determine itseffectiveness and lessons learned inpreventing delinquency. For moreinformation on these mentoring programs andthe evaluation, contact OJJDP at202–307–5914.

U.S. Department of Education. One on One,A Guide for Establishing Mentor Programs.Washington, D.C., 1990. This guide

well as on recruiting participants.

includes surveys, questionnaires, and focusgroup questions.

Flaxman, Erwin and Ascher, Carol. Mentoring in Action: The Efforts ofPrograms in New York City. The Institute forUrban and Minority Education, TeachersCollege, Columbia University, New York, April 1992. Examines the operation of 21youth mentoring programs in New York City.

Walker, Gary and Freedman, Marc. SocialChange One on One, The New MentoringMovement.The American Prospect, July–August 1996.

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1. Dryfoos, J.G. 1990. Adolescents at Risk: Prevalence and Prevention. London: OxfordUniversity Press.

2. Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development. 1994 (April). A Matter of Time: Risk andOpportunity in the Out-of-School Hours. New York: Carnegie Foundation.

3. National Center for Education Statistics. 1990. National Education Longitudinal Study of1988: A Profile of an American Eighth Grader. Washington, D.C.: Office of EducationalResearch and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education.

4. Thornberry, T.P., D. Huizinga, and R. Loeber. 1995. The Prevention of Serious Delinquencyand Violence: Implications From the Program of Research on the Causes and Correlates ofDelinquency. In J.C. Howell et al., eds. Sourcebook on Serious, Violent, and Chronic JuvenileOffenders. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

5. Flaxman, E. and C. Ascher. 1992 (April). Mentoring in Action: The Efforts of Programs inNew York City. New York: Ford Foundation.

6. Barnes, L. 1992 (Fall/Winter). Police Officers at Heart of Bigs in Blue Program. BigBrothers/Big Sisters of America.

7. Coordinating Council on Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. 1996 (March).Combating Violence and Delinquency: The National Juvenile Justice Action Plan. Washington,D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice.

8. Tierney, J.P., J.B. Grossman, and N.L. Resch. 1995 (November). Making A Difference: AnImpact Study of Big Brothers/Big Sisters. Philadelphia: Public/Private Ventures.

9. Klein, S. 1991 (October). 1990–1991 Survey of Program Effectiveness Among Volunteersand Teachers. Prepared for the New York School Volunteer Program, Inc. Stockbridge, MA:Sue Klein Marketing Consultant.

Endnotes

87

Information Sharing andthe Family EducationalRights and Privacy Act

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Information Sharing and the FamilyEducational Rights and Privacy Act

Schools are often called upon to provide pose significant obstacles to meaningfulinformation regarding current or former information sharing between agencies.students to a variety of individuals andorganizations. For example, social service The Improving America’s Schools Act ofagencies, law enforcement agencies, youth- 1994 (IASA) amended FERPA to permitserving organizations, and health agencies educators, pursuant to a State statute, tooften seek information concerning students to disclose information to State and localwhom they are providing services. While the officials, as long as the disclosure concernssharing of information contained in records the juvenile justice system. As a result,systems (education and law enforcement schools in States that have passed suchrecords) maintained by the school is critical statutes may now disclose information onto the effective delivery of services, it cannot students to other local and State agencies.be done indiscriminately because Federallaws restrict the release of information For example, the State of Florida enactedcontained in a student's education records. legislation requiring the State’s Department

Enacted in 1974, the Family Educational to establish an early delinquency interventionRights and Privacy Act (FERPA) protects the program with the cooperation of local lawprivacy interests of students and parents enforcement agencies, the judic-iary, districtthrough standards designed to discourage school board personnel, the office of theabusive and unwarranted disclosure of a State’s Attorney, the office of the Publicstudent’s education records. FERPA Defender, and community service agenciesprovides parents access to education records that work with children. The Florida lawand limits nonconsensual disclosure. Failure specifies the type of information theof an educational agency or institution to cooperating agencies are to share with thecomply with FERPA can result in the loss of DHRS and directs specified agencies andFederal funding. persons to cooperate with law enforcement

Many State and local educational agencies about juvenile offenders.and institutions narrowly interpret FERPA intheir information release policies. Educatorsfrequently decide to err on the side of cautionby establishing policies recognizing a What is FERPA?generalized right to privacy with regard to allinformation on students. Unfortunately,overly restrictive policies

of Health and Rehabilitative Services (DHRS)

agencies with regard to releasing information

Frequently Asked Questions

FERPA is a Federal law that affords parentsthe right to have access to their children’s

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education records, the right to seek to have What is a “law enforcement unitthe records amended, and the right to have record”? some control over the disclosure ofinformation from the records. When a A “law enforcement unit record” is a recordstudent turns 18 or enters college, the rights that is maintained by a law enforcement unitunder FERPA transfer to the student. of the school or school district that was

What is an “education record”? purpose of law enforcement.

FERPA defines “education record” as a What is a “law enforcement unit”?record that contains information directlyrelated to a student and that is maintained by A “law enforcement unit” is an individual,an educational agency or institution or by a office, department, division, or otherparty acting for such agency or institution. component of a school or school district, suchThe following types of records are examples as a unit of commissioned police officers orof education records: report cards, surveys noncommissioned security guards, that isand assessments, health unit records, special officially authorized or designated by theeducation records, or information about school district to parents maintained by a school. (1) enforce any Federal, State, or local law or

What type of information is included in of schools in the district. Larger metropolitanan education record? school districts, such as the Houston (Texas)

FERPA does not address the types of infor- commissioned police officers who have themation a school may or may not maintain in responsibility of enforcing laws. However,education records. Rather, FERPA affords many smaller school districts do not hireparents and eligible students rights with commissioned police officers but ratherrespect to any education records maintained officially designate an individual in theby an educational agency or institution. district with the responsibilities of a lawHowever, as noted above, the term “edu- enforcement unit.cation record” is very broad and, with limitedexceptions, includes most infor-mation that What information can be shared from aschools maintain on students. law enforcement unit record?

Who controls or manages an education FERPA does not prohibit the sharing ofrecord? information from a law enforcement unit

Each educational agency or institution report that is created and maintained for determines which officials are responsible for a law enforcement purpose is not protectedmaintaining education records and for from disclosure by FERPA. Although ensuring that parents are afforded their rights a student’s education records may be sharedunder FERPA. with a school’s law enforcement unit, the

created by that law enforcement unit for the

(2) maintain the physical security and safety

Independent School District, employ

record. A record such as a crime or incident

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law enforcement unit may not disclose authorities information that is based on thatthe education records without prior paren-tal official’s personal knowledge or observationor student consent (if the student is 18 years and not from an education record. or older) or under a specified exception inFERPA. Schools may also disclose any information on

What information from an education consent, to officials of another school whererecord can be shared with (1) other law the student seeks or intends enforcement entities and (2) non-law to enroll.enforcement entities?

Subject to certain exceptions, FERPA educational authorities may be providedprovides that schools must obtain written information on students in connection withconsent from a parent or guardian before an audit or evaluation of Federal or State-disclosing education records to a third party. supported education programs or with theHowever, there are several exceptions to this enforcement of or compliance with Federalgeneral rule. legal requirements that relate to those

One exception allows a school to discloseinformation from a student’s education Does FERPA permit schools to workrecords to appropriate authorities in effectively with juvenile justice systemconnection with an emergency in order to agencies to address juvenile violenceprotect the health or safety of a student or and delinquency?other individuals.

Another exception allows a school to disclose schools—while maintaining compliance withinformation from a student’s education the law—to play a vital role in a commun-records in compliance with a lawfully issued ity’s efforts to identify at-risk and delinquentsubpoena or court order. Generally, before youth and provide services before a childcomplying with a subpoena or court order for becomes involved in serious and violenteducation records, a school must make a crime. As more and more States establishreasonable effort to notify the parent. programs for the sharing of informationHowever, a school need not notify the parent designed to serve students as part of a juven-if the subpoena or court order has been issued ile justice system, the emphasis on neighbor-for a law enforcement purpose and the court hood school participation in interagencyor other issuing agency orders that the information-sharing agreements will increase. existence or contents of the subpoena not be FERPA need not be a barrier to this progressdisclosed. toward proactive information-sharing

Nothing in FERPA prevents a school offi-cialfrom disclosing to local law enforcement

a student, without the parent’s prior written

Additionally, Federal, State, and local

programs.

Yes. As previously noted, FERPA allows

networks.

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How can a school obtain technical The Family Policy Compliance Office in assistance on FERPA? the U.S. Department of Education is

The U.S. Department of Education and the Any educational agencies or institutions withOffice of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency specific questions on FERPA needingPrevention, Department of Justice, are technical assistance or desiring inserviceworking together to develop and publish a training may contact the Family Policyguidebook entitled FERPA: Schools and Compliance Office, U.S. Department ofInteragency Communication for Delinquency Education, 600 Independence Avenue SW.,Intervention and Prevention for educators Washington, DC 20202–4605. Additionally,and juvenile justice professionals who are institutions may contact the office by e-mailinterested in developing interagency infor- at FERPA@ED.Gov or by callingmation-sharing agreements. The guidebook 202–260–3887.is designed to eliminate areas of ambiguityand provide clear guidance for allowableinformation sharing while maintaining Stateand local compliance with FERPA.

responsible for administering FERPA.

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Effective Data Collectionfor Safe Public Schools:

Exemplary Practices

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Effective Data Collection for Safe Public SchoolsExemplary Practices

Schools and school districts around the community members in the development of aNation vary widely in whether and how they data collection strategy.collect and track data on incidents of studentviolence and discipline. However, withoutaccurate and consistent data to analyze, it isdifficult for educators, parents, andcommunities to draw conclusions on theimpact of any policy relating to safer publicschools, much less to determine whichschools are doing a good job and whereresources should be concentrated. To helpcommunities address this vital need, thefollowing examples of exemplary datacollection strategies being used by certainschool districts in the country have beencompiled. These examples may assist localeducation agencies looking for bettermethods of information gathering to developa system that best suits their needs.

Elements of a Good DataCollection Strategy

As more and more school districts recognizethe benefits of accurate data, they will want toshare “best practices.” One of the bestsuggestions for school districts to begin adata collection process is to talk with otherschool districts with similar informationneeds. The school districts should also:

Start with a clear and concise policyregarding discipline, conduct, and safetyin the school.

Involve parents, law enforcement, youthservice agencies, lawmakers, and other

Make any automated system easy to learnand use.

Establish parameters with the com-munityof data users. For example, establishwhether the system will record weaponsviolations by combining all weaponsviolations under one category, byidentifying firearms versus knives versusexplosives, or by distinguishing amongtypes of firearms.

Explore State statutes or regulationsregarding data collection and release ofinformation.

Ensure student privacy by deleting anystudent identifier, such as name or socialsecurity number. (A section in this guide,“Information Sharing,” further exploresthe topic of student records and privacy).

Review data periodically to ensure dataintegrity; a system is only as good as theinformation included.

Take every opportunity to use the infor-mation in a positive and constructivemanner, emphasizing intervention andprevention.

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Norfolk Public School District Dade County Public SchoolsNorfolk, Virginia Miami, FloridaSMART Program SPAR System

The Norfolk Public School District’s School Dade County Public Schools use a computerManagement and Resource Teams (SMART) system called School Police Automatedprogram was funded by a joint grant from the Reporting (SPAR) to record incidents ofU.S. Departments of Education and Justice. violence involving students. Once anThe Norfolk effort establishes a team for each incident occurs on a school campus, onschool and decentralizes responsibility for school-sponsored transportation, or even off-discipline to those teams. Part of the SMART campus, the school notifies the Dade Countyprogram includes an Incident Profiling Public Schools (DCPS) Police Department. System (IPS) that is a simple-to-use, The DCPS Police enters the incident infor-computerized tracking system available in mation into the SPAR system, and a uniqueeach of Norfolk’s schools. Data are collected SPAR number is assigned. By assigning aon the nature of the violation, location of the SPAR number to each incident of violence,incident, and the disciplinary action taken. the system links the district’s data base forStudent names are not inclu-ded. Using this student discipline with that of the localdata, school teams identify three primary schools’ computers. Each school has accesspatterns of disruption within their school, to the SPAR number as well as to the infor-report to the district level, and work together mation entered, and makes disciplinaryto recommend solutions for improvement. decisions. The schools are responsible for

Benefits. This school district believes that mation on the incident.the SMART process has contributed to asteady decline in the number of incidents as The SPAR system enables teachers andwell as in the seriousness of the incidents. authorized persons to obtain “batch” orThe data collected in IPS allow month-by- profile reports that can identify studentmonth tracking and year-over-year demographics and incident details such ascomparison to be done quickly. The data also number of students involved, type ofbecome the basis for interacting with other violation, location of incident, and type ofagencies like the juvenile courts and have disciplinary action taken. A summary reportresulted in targeted police monitoring of is submitted annually to the Floridatruancy. During parent conferences, teachers Department of Education.can access a student’s record in the IPS(which also includes class schedules, test Benefits. SPAR’s ability to produce so manyscores, and grade point average), allowing for different types of reports aids securitya holistic approach to student progress. personnel and administrators in developing

More Information: Bill DelkDirector of Pupil Personnel More Information: E.O. “Red” McAllister804–441–2811 Chief of Police

updating the system with any relevant infor-

individual school security plans.

305–754–9630

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Anaheim Union High School District Collect informal incident reports,Anaheim, California enabling a proactive approach toIPS discipline.

The Anaheim Union High School District is More Information: Bob Montenegrothe designated West Coast Resource Site for Safe Schools Administratorschool districts interested in implementing 714–999–5655the SMART (School Management andResource Team) program. As part of this Metropolitan Nashville Public Schoolsprogram, the Incident Profiling System (IPS), Nashville, Tennesseewhich operates on the school district’s AIMS Systemcomputers, is used by each school to recordall disciplinary infractions and criminal acts, Metropolitan Nashville Public Schools useincluding law violations and education code the Automated Information Managementviolations. The IPS generates reports System (AIMS) to record data and createdescribing patterns of disruptions and crimes. reports on student violations. When anData are reviewed by teams at all school sites incident of violence occurs in this system, theeach month and are used to problem-solve as principal makes a verbal report by telephone well as to set goals and determine solutions to the school’s director of administrativefor the sites. The district’s SMART services. From the director’s office acommittee reviews the data based on a typewritten account of the incident, called andistrictwide concern for monitoring activity Infogram, is created to alert the Board ofand developing prevention strategies. Data Education about the matter. Eventually, theare used on a regular basis by site principal completes a Student Incidentadministrators to monitor student behavior Report, which compiles the details and theand to develop intervention, support, or outcome of the violation. Once thedisciplinary plans. disciplinary action to be taken is determined,

Benefits. IPS helps the school district to: with reason codes into AIMS. School

Obtain objective incidence data thatindicate the levels of safety in schools.

Analyze data in order to eradicate raceand gender disparities in referrals andsuspensions.

Reduce paperwork.

Precisely identify and target specificproblems.

Strengthen the school improvementprocess.

secretaries at each school enter actions taken

personnel download the information eachattendance period into the mainframe, fromwhich printouts of suspension data may beobtained. Based on the information enteredinto AIMS, various types of reports can begenerated. For example, suspension data canbe retrieved from AIMS according to school,grade, gender, race, or any other variablealready in the system.

More Information: Joseph AndersonDirector of Safety and Security615–259–8747

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Detroit Public Schools national data, the Bureau of Justice StatisticsDetroit, Michigan (BJS) at the Department of Justice attached aAIMS School Crime Supplement to the National

The Detroit Public Schools use the Auto- Based on students ages 12–19 enrolled in amated Information Management System school program leading to a high school(AIMS) for processing code of conduct diploma, the information includes studentviolations that warrant suspension, transfer, demographic characteristics, violent andor expulsion. Once a student’s guilt is property victimization data, fear of crimeestablished, AIMS assigns a unique identi- measures, drug and alcohol availability,fication code to the incident and codes the weapons use, and school security measures. incident type, location, disciplinary action The BJS report based on this study, Schooltaken, and any other pertinent information. In Crime, is available from the BJS Clearing-addition to reporting all incidents of violence house (800–732–3277) or may be down-to the Student Code of Conduct Office, loaded from the BJS World Wide Web siteserious incidents, which include assaults that (http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/). The data filerequire medical attention and those that result used to produce the report may be obtainedin arrest, are also reported to the Public Safety on diskette from the National Archive ofOffice. Detroit’s system allows school Criminal Justice Data by callingpersonnel to generate year-to-year 800–999–0960, or from their World Widecomparisons and reports by month, semester, Web site (http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/or school year. Reports may also be nacjd/home.html). categorized by district, area, gender, gradelevel, and school. A replication of this study, funded by the

Benefits. By keeping a record of students (NCES) was attached to the NCVS in 1995who are in the suspension track, AIMS and is currently being processed and anal-ensures due process of rights for students and yzed. Measures are similar to those includedparents. This is important because no student in the 1988 study but provide expandedmay be transferred out of her or his school information on weapons prevalence and use,without justification and proof from AIMS measures of gang presence and activity, andthat all other options and interven-tions have school characteristics derived from NCESbeen exhausted. files. The reports should be available in early 1997.Resources

For those school districts interested incomparing their statistical information to

Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) in 1988.

National Center for Education Statistics

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Resources

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ResourcesFederal Clearinghouses

The Federal Government funds a variety of clearinghouses. Each clearinghouse usually dealswith a specific topic (e.g., drug abuse, delinquency) or Federal agency. These clearinghousesdistribute a variety of materials: program models, grant information, research and evaluationfindings, newsletters, and funding announcements. Clearinghouses can usually refer callers toother Federal clearinghouses and to non-Federal foundations and associations dealing with thesame subject matter.

Housing and Urban DevelopmentDrug Information and Strategy Clearinghouse

P.O. Box 6424Rockville, MD 20849Telephone: 800–578–3472

301–251–5222Fax: 301–251–5767

National Clearinghouse for Alcohol andDrug Information (NCADI)

P.O. Box 2345Rockville, MD 20847Telephone: 800–729–6686

301–468–2600Fax: 301–468–6433

Child Abuse and Neglect Clearinghouse

3998 Fair Ridge Dr., Suite 350Fairfax, VA 22033Telephone: 800–394–3366

703–385–7565Fax: 703–385–3206

National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS)

P.O. Box 6000Rockville, MD 20850Telephone: 800–851–3420Fax: 301–251–5212

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NCJRS serves as a single point of contact for the following offices:

Bureau of Justice Assistance Bureau of Justice Statistics National Institute of Justice Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Office of National Drug Control Policy Office for Victims of Crime

[NCJRS also has electronic resources, which can be found in the section on Federal OnlineServices.]

Federally Funded Resource Centers

Selected listing of centers dealing with youth and crime/violence prevention:

Regional Educational Laboratories

Northeast and Islands Laboratory at Brown University222 Richmond Street, Suite 300Providence, RI 02903–4226Telephone: 401–274–9548

401–421–7650800–521–9550

States Served: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, Rhode Island, Vermont, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands

Mid-Atlantic Laboratory for Student SuccessTemple University/Center for Research in Human Development and Education933 Ritter Annex, 13th St. and Cecil B. Moore AvenuePhiladelphia, PA 19122Telephone: 215–204–3030

800–892–5550Fax: 215–204–5130States Served: Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Washington, D.C.

Appalachia Educational LaboratoryP.O. Box 1348Charleston, WV 25325–1348Telephone: 304–347–0400

800–624–9120Fax: 304–347–0487States Served: Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia

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Southeastern Regional Vision for Education (SERVE) University of North Carolina at Greensboro201 Ferguson BuildingGreensboro, NC 27403Telephone: 910–334–3211

800–755–3277Fax: 910–334–3268States Served: Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, and

South Carolina

North Central Regional Educational Laboratory1900 Spring Road, Suite 300Oak Brook, IL 60521–1480Telephone: 630–571–4700

800–356–2735Fax: 630–571–4716States Served: Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, and Wisconsin

Southwest Educational Development Laboratory211 East Seventh StreetAustin, TX 78701–3281Telephone: 512–476–6861

800–476–6861Fax: 512–476–2286States Served: Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas

Mid-Continent Regional Educational Laboratory2550 S. Parker Road, Suite 500Aurora, CO 80014Telephone: 303–337–0990Fax: 303–337–3005States Served: Colorado, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota,

and Wyoming

Far West Laboratory for Educational Research and Development and the Southwest Regional Laboratory730 Harrison StreetSan Francisco, CA 94107Telephone: 415–565–3000Fax: 415–565–3012States Served: Arizona, California, Nevada, and Utah

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Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory101 SW Main Street, Suite 500Portland, OR 97204Telephone: 503–275–9500

800–547–6339Fax: 503–275–9489States Served: Alaska, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, and Washington

Pacific Region Educational Laboratory828 Fort Street Mall, Suite 500Honolulu, HI 96813–4321Telephone: 808–533–6000Fax: 808–533–7599States Served: American Samoa, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Federated

States of Micronesia (Chuuk, Kosrae, Pohnpei, and Yap), Guam, Hawaii,Republic of the Marshall Islands, and the Republic of Palau

Comprehensive Regional Assistance Centers

These centers, funded by the Department of Education, offer technical assistance across a broadrange of educational topics, including safe and drug-free schools.

Region I: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont

Education Development Center, Inc.55 Chapel StreetNewton, MA 02158–1060Telephone: 617–969–7100, ext.2310Fax: 617–332–4318

Region II: New York State

New York UniversityNew York Technical Assistance Center82 Washington Square East, Suite 72New York, NY 10003–6644Telephone: 212–998–5110Fax: 212–995–4199/4041

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Region III: Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Washington, DC

George Washington University1730 North Lynn Street, Suite 401Arlington, VA 22209Telephone: 703–528–3588Fax: 703–528–5973

Region IV: Kentucky, North Carolina, South Carolina , Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia

Appalachia Educational Laboratory, Inc.P.O. Box 1348Charleston, WV 25325–1348Telephone: 304–347–0441Fax: 304–347–0489

Region V: Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi

Southeast Comprehensive Assistance Center 3330 Causeway Boulevard, Suite 430Metairie, LA 70002–3573Telephone: 504–838–6861Fax: 504–831–5242

Region VI: Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wisconsin

1025 West Johnson StreetUniversity of WisconsinMadison, WI 53706Telephone: 608–263–4326Fax: 608–263–3733

Region VII: Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, Oklahoma

University of Oklahoma100 ASP, Room 210Norman, OK 73019Telephone: 405–325–1711Fax: 405–325–1824

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Region VIII: Texas

Intercultural Development Research Association5835 Callaghan Road, Suite 350San Antonio, TX 78228–1190Telephone: 210–684–8180Fax: 210–684–5389

Region IX: Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah

New Mexico Highlands University121 Tijeras, NE, Suite 2100Albuquerque, NM 87102Telephone: 505–242–7447Fax: 505–242–7558

Region X: Idaho, Montana, Oregon, Washington, Wyoming

Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory101 Southwest Main Street, Suite 500Portland, OR 97204Telephone: 503–275–9479Fax: 503–275–9625

Region XI: Northern California

Far West Laboratory for Educational Research730 Harrison StreetSan Francisco, CA 94107Telephone: 415–565–3009Fax: 415–565–3012/2024

Region XII: Southern California

Los Angeles County Office of Education9300 Imperial HighwayDowney, CA 90242–2890Telephone: 310–922–6319Fax: 310–922–6699

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Region XIII: Alaska

South East Regional Resource Center210 Ferry Way, Suite 200Juneau, AK 99801Telephone: 907–586–6806Fax: 907–463–3811

Region XIV: Florida, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands

Educational Testing Service1979 Lake Side Parkway, Suite 400Tucker, GA 30084Telephone: 770–723–7443Fax: 770–723–7436

Region XV: American Samoa, Federated States of Micronesia, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, Hawaii, Republic of the Marshall Islands, Republic ofPalau

Pacific Region Educational Laboratory828 Fort Street Mall, Suite 500Honolulu, HI 96813Telephone: 808–533–6000Fax: 808–533–7599

Other Resource Centers

Families, Communities, and Schools

Center on Families, Communities, Schools, and Children’s LearningBoston University605 Commonwealth AvenueBoston, MA 02215Telephone: 617–353–3309Fax: 617–353–8444

National School Safety Center4165 Thousand Oaks BoulevardSuite 290Westlake Village, CA 91362Telephone: 805–373–9977Fax. 805–373–9277

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National Resource Center for Family Support ProgramsFamily Resource Coalition200 South Michigan Avenue, 16th FloorChicago, IL 60604Telephone: 312–341–0900Fax: 312–341–9361

Victims

National Resource Center on Child Abuse and NeglectAmerican Humane AssociationChildren’s Division63 Inverness Drive EastEnglewood, CO 80112–5117Telephone: 800–227–5242

303–792–9900Fax: 303–792–5333

Crime Prevention

National Crime Prevention Council1700 K Street, NWSecond FloorWashington, DC 20006Telephone: 202–466–6272Fax: 202–296–1356

For a complete listing of federally funded Resource Centers contact:National Center for Service Integration Clearinghousec/o Child and Family Policy Center128 6th AvenueFleming Building, Suite 1021Des Moines, IA 50309Telephone: 515–280–9027Fax: 515–244–8997

Federal Online Services

The Federal Government funds several online services that include information on youth crimeprevention and youth development. These services are available through the Internet.

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PAVNETA cooperative online effort of several departments, PAVNET lists over 550 specific Federal,local, and private programs and initiatives that deal with violence prevention.

via gopher: pavnet.esusda.govPAVNET can also be accessed through the NCJRS electronic services (see below).PAVNET User’s Guide is available through NCJRS at 800–851–3420.Access is free of charge.

PREVLINEManaged by NCADI (see page 121) and funded by HHS, PREVLINE has information andmaterials on alcohol and drug abuse, conferences, grant announcements, keynote speeches,and press releases; provides forums and electronic mail for exchange of ideas and topics byprevention professionals.

via modem: 301–770–0850via telnet: ncadi.health.orgAccess is free of charge.

CANnetThe Child Abuse and Neglect Network allows professionals working in the fields of childmaltreatment and child welfare easy access to information from the Child Abuse and NeglectClearinghouse and the National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect (NCCAN).Contact CANnet for a UserID:via phone: 800–394–3366via e-mail: nccanch@clark.net

National Criminal Justice Reference Services (NCJRS) Online Services

NCJRS Bulletin Board Services:

via modem: 301–738–8895 or via telnet to bbs.ncjrs.org or via gopher to ncjrs.org:71

NCJRS Anonymous FTP:ftp://ncjrs.org/pub/ncjrs

JUST INFO Electronic Newsletter: listproc@ncjrs.org

Information/assistance via e-mail:NCJRS general information —look@ncjrs.org

Answers to questions—askncjrs@ncjrs.org

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Additional Readings

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Additional Readings

1. Preventing Juvenile Gun Violence in Schools:

Brewer, D., J.D. Hawkins, R.F. Catalano, and H.J. Neckerman. (1994). Review of PreventionPrograms: Community Laws and Policies Related to Weapons. Seattle, WA: DevelopmentalResearch and Programs, Inc.

Butterfield, G.E., and J.L. Arnette (Editors) (1993). Weapons in Schools. Malibu, CA: NationalSchool Safety Center.

Comprehensive Health Education Foundation. (1994). Preventing Violence: A Framework forSchools and Communities. Seattle, WA.

Massachusetts Prevention Support Services. (1994). Words, Not Weapons: A Resource Manualfor School Administrators, Advisors, and Peer Leaders. Boston, MA.

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (May 1996). Reducing Youth GunViolence: An Overview of Programs and Initiatives. Washington, DC: U.S. Department ofJustice.

2. Searches for Weapons and Drugs:

Cavin, J. D. (1992). “Shedding Remedies At The Schoolhouse Gate: The Severe Limitations ToSection 1983 Civil Rights Actions In School Search Cases.” Journal of Juvenile Law 13: 116–126.

National School Safety Center (November 1994). “Conducting Student Searches Under theLaw.” School Safety Update. Westlake Village, CA.

Rubin, D.B. (Summer/Fall 1993). “Passing Through the ‘Schoolhouse Gate’: ConstitutionalImplications of Preserving Student Safety.” Children’s Legal Rights Journal 14 (3–4): 28–33.

Van Dyke, J. M., and M. Sakurai. (1993). Checklists for Searches and Seizures in PublicSchool. Deerfield, IL: Clark Boardman Callaghan.

Wylie, N., J. Scheft, and J. Abramson. (July 1993). “Search and Seizure In Schools:Commonwealth v. Carey and Commonwealth v. Snyder.” Law Enforcement Newsletter 2 (4):6–10.

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3. Drug Testing Student Athletes:

Deivert, R G. (1991). “Role of the Constitution in the Drug Testing of Student Athletes in thePublic Schools.” Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education 36 (2): 32–41.

Knapp, C F. (1990). “Drug Testing and the Student-Athlete: Meeting the ConstitutionalChallenge.” Iowa Law Review. 76 (107): 107–138.

4. Truancy:

Dembo, R., and G. Turner. (Fall 1994). “Study of Truants Processed at the Hillsborough CountyJuvenile Assessment Center.” Journal of At-Risk Issues 1: 38–42.

Diebolt, A., and L. Herlache. (1991). School Psychologist as a Consultant in TruancyPrevention. Arlington, VA: Eric Document Reproduction Service of Paper Presented at AnnualConvention of National Association of School Psychologists.

Dreilinger, M. (1992) School Attendance, Truancy and Dropping Out. Huntington, NY: Bureau For At-Risk Youth.

National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges. (1990). “New Approach to Runaway,Truant, Substance Abusing and Beyond Control Children.” Juvenile and Family Court Journal41 (3B): 9–49.

Rohrman, D. (January 1993). “Combating Truancy in Our Schools: A Community Effort.” NASSP (National Association of Secondary School Principals) Bulletin.

5. Uniforms:

National School Safety Center (March 1994). “Restricting Gang Clothing in the PublicSchools.” School Safety Update.

Tanioka, I., and D. Glaser. (September 1991). “School Uniforms, Routine Activities, and theSocial Control of Delinquency in Japan.” Youth and Society 23 (1): 50–75.

6. Alternative Education Programs for Expelled Students:

Allen, S. D., and D.R. Edwards-Kyles. (Winter 1995). “Alternatives to Expulsion: Houston’sSchool of Last Resort.” Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Problems 3 (4): 22–25.

Glass, R. S. (November 1994). “Alternative Schools.” American Teacher 79 (3): 10–11, 18.

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Uroff, S., and B. Greene. (November 1991). “ Low-Risk Approach to High-Risk Students.” NASSP (National Association of Secondary School Principals) Bulletin 75 (538): 50–58.

Wehlage, G. (Fall 1991: Special Issue). “School Reform for At-Risk Students.” Equity andExcellence 25 (1): 15–24.

7. Conflict Resolution:

Guerra, N.G., A. Moore, and R.G. Slaby. (1995). Guide to Conflict Resolution and DecisionMaking for Adolescents. Champaign, IL: Research Press Company.

Hamburg, D. A. (1994). Education for Conflict Resolution. New York, NY: CarnegieCorporation of New York.

Prothrow-Stith, D., and M. Weissman. (1996). Conflict Resolution Programs Can PreventYouth Violence. San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press, Inc.

8. Mentoring in Schools:

Benard, B. (1992). Mentoring Programs for Urban Youth: Handle With Care. Portland, OR:Western Regional Center for Drug-Free Schools and Communities.

Boseman, V. (1992). Hand-in-Hand Mentor Program, Replication Manual. San Francisco,CA: National Council on Crime and Delinquency.

National Association of Partners in Education (NAPE). (1992). Organizing Effective School-Based Mentoring Programs. Alexandria, VA.

Schneider, S. (Winter 1995). “Young Leaders Mentoring Troubled Children.” Journal ofEmotional and Behavioral Problems 3 (4): 31–33.

9. Information Sharing and the Family Educational Rights andPrivacy Act:

Laney, R. (July 1996). Information Sharing and the Family Educational Rights and PrivacyAct. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Departmentof Justice.

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice, and FamilyPolicy Compliance Office, U.S. Department of Education. (October 1996). FERPA: A Guide forEducators’ Participation in Juvenile Justice Programs. Washington, DC: Government PrintingOffice.

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10. School and Community Delinquency Prevention andIntervention Programs:

Advertising Council, Inc., and the National Crime Prevention Council. (1995). Partner With theMedia To Build Safer Communities: An Action Kit. Washington, DC: Bureau of JusticeAssistance, U.S. Department of Justice.

Coordinating Council on Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (1996). CombatingViolence and Delinquency: The National Juvenile Justice Action Plan (Summary). Washington,DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice.

Costello, L. (Ed.). (1995). Part of the Solution: Creative Alternatives for Youth. Washington,DC: National Assembly of State Arts Agencies, National Endowment for the Arts, and U.S.Department of Justice.

Goodnow, M. (August 1996). The Gould-Wysinger Awards: A Tradition of Excellence. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice.

Kracke, K. (June 1996). YES: Youth Environmental Service Initiative. Washington, DC: Officeof Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice.

National Crime Prevention Council. (1995). Crime Prevention Starts at Home: Setting the Stagefor Community Action To Prevent Violence and Other Crimes. Washington, DC: Bureau ofJustice Assistance. U.S. Department of Justice.

National Crime Prevention Council. (1995). Three Hundred Fifty Tested Strategies To PreventCrime: A Resource for Municipal Agencies and Community Groups. Washington, DC: Bureauof Justice Assistance, U.S. Department of Justice.

National School Boards Association. (1993). Violence in the Schools: How America’s SchoolBoards Are Safeguarding Your Children. Alexandria, VA.

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (September 1995). Matrix ofCommunity-Based Initiatives. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (November 1995). DelinquencyPrevention Works. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (April 1996). Curfew: An Answer toJuvenile Delinquency and Victimization? Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.

President’s Crime Prevention Council. (1995). Preventing Crime and Promoting Responsibility: 50 Programs That Help Communities Help Their Youth. Washington, DC: Superintendent ofDocuments, GPO.

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Weitz, J.H. (April 1996). Coming Up Taller: Arts and Humanities Programs for Children andYouth At Risk. Washington, DC: President’s Committee on the Arts and the Humanities.

Wilson, J.J. and J.C. Howell. (1993). Comprehensive Strategy for Serious, Violent, and ChronicJuvenile Offenders. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention,U.S. Department of Justice.

Witt, P.A., and J.L. Crompton (Eds.). (1996). Public Recreation in High Risk Environments:Programs That Work. Arlington, VA: National Recreation and Park Association.

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ContactInformation

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Contact InformationRecognizing that each of you—whether you are a parent, school administrator, teacher, orcommunity or business leader—can be at the forefront of making schools safer and moreconducive to high-quality teaching and learning, we invite your suggestions on topics andissues that would be most helpful for future Information Briefs to help you implement your ownprograms to achieve safe and orderly schools. Please feel free to contact us at the locationslisted below.

Department of Education:

Via Internet:SAFESCHL@ed.gov

By regular mail:Safe and Drug-Free Schools ProgramU.S. Department of Education600 Independence Avenue, SWWashington, D.C. 20202–6123

Department of Justice:

By regular mail:Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency PreventionOffice of the AdministratorU.S. Department of Justice633 Indiana Avenue, NWWashington, D.C. 20531