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    Safer driving through reective thinkingThe paper considers aspects of driving which are less often considered but increasingly appearing in literature. It

    looks at the focus on skill which has dominated approaches to dealing with driving behaviour and then goes on todiscuss some of the other aspects of driving behaviour and what is involved in the thinking related to driving.Finally the paper argues that there are many aspects of driving which need to be considered in a reective inquirymode through group interaction.Skill focus

    There is currently a lot of international agreement amongst those researching in the area of road safety that thesorts of methods that have been tried in the past are limited in their eectiveness. ttempts to deal with and

    improve road safety can be considered to have fallen into two broad categories!the environment and behaviour.

    The environment approach deals with the standard of roads and other features of the tra"c environment. Therehave been some obvious developments and bene#ts in this area such as the building of better roads$ improving thesafety features of vehicles$ compulsory seat belt wearing and so on. These sorts of developments can only go sofar$ however.

    nother feature of the environment is police presence and the use of speed cameras and random breath testing.%learly$ these initiatives have also made a dierence$ but again it is limited. The police cannot be everywhere allthe time. &hen the police focus on a particular area they #nd that the tra"c slows down and behaviour improves.s soon as the police presence is removed however$ behaviours revert very quickly to their previous forms.

    The ma'or area of concern remains the driver and this is also seen as the most di"cult aspect of road safety to dealwith. The behaviour approach has tended overwhelmingly to focus on driving skill. (esearchers have noted$however$ that driver behaviour does not change substantially through skill based training. The training oftenfocuses on dealing with sudden and dangerous situations which drivers #nd in their e)perience rarely occur. *riverswho tend to take risks$ +come to realise that illegal or risky behaviours do not necessarily lead to crashes+ ,&atson$-/0

    s &atson notes$ crashes are relatively rare events so that emergency procedures are not practised. *rivers whoare trained in emergency control procedures subsequently revert to their pre!training behaviours when faced withan emergency. *riving skill$ it is concluded$ is di"cult to modify in a lasting way.

    In addition$ a focus on skill does not deal with the fact that people choose to speed regularly$ to tailgate others andengage in other risky behaviours$ for a range of reasons which need to be e)amined. Figures from the 1S& 2oliceindicate that the number of speeding #nes is increasing from year to year. &hether this is because there are moreinfringements or the police are #nding better ways to catch oenders is unclear. 3owever$ due to the fact that largenumbers of oenders do go under detected$ it does indicate that many are prepared to speed regularly and thereappears to be little real questioning of this kind of behaviour or consideration of its possible consequences.

    number of researchers are now noting the short lived nature of skill based driver awareness campaigns. ,&atson$-/$ F4(S (eport$ -50. Further it does not appear that inadequate vehicle handling skills is the ma'or cause ofroad accidents ,%hristie$ -60. s &atson states7 +the emphasis on practical driving skills ignores the powerfulinuence that motivational and attitudinal factors can e)ert on driver behaviour.+

    &atson recommends$ along with a number of other researchers ,he cites$ 8ob$ -6$ %hristie$ -6 and &atson$ etal.$ -9 among others0 that driver training should focus more on addressing +the wide range of perceptual$cognitive$ motivational and attitudinal factors which inuence driver 'udgment and decision!making+.

    It has been noted since the /:s that ability is relatively unimportant +compared with motivation in determining saferdriving behaviour+ ,Saron$ -;ales who have been driving for 3$ ?etters to the @ditor0 and this is the areawhere they see themselves as superior to women. @ven young males appear to maintain a consensus that womenare 'ust not as good at handling a vehicle ,(T

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    The sorts of factors in driving behaviour that need to become the focus of attention are other aspects of the drivingenvironment as well as the attitudes$ beliefs$ assumptions and e)pectations which inform responses to these. number of researchers have noted the need to consider and deal with the attitudes and beliefs which bring about orare behind less safe driving practices ,Saron$ -;

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    focus on increasing responsible driving in all drivers as well as impressing on young people in particular that it issafer to drive within speed limits and a safe distance from the vehicle in front$ for e)ample.*evelopment of thinking

    ?ittle is known of the actual cognitive demands involved in driving. It is not merely what we are able to perceive butwhat information we pay attention to$ how we assess the information we are receiving and what 'udgments wemake on the basis of it. In addition$ our perceptions and 'udgments are heavily inuenced by a set of social beliefsand values as well as assumptions$ attitudes and e)pectations which govern how we function and what we are ableto integrate into our thinking.

    The sorts of motivational factors that may inuence the driver are most likely in the background of the individual+sthinking but may be e)erting a strong eect on cognitive and perceptual processing as well as the way in which thedriver approaches the task of driving.

    It is important therefore$ that these factors receive some attention at the learning stage and that young driverslearn ways of reecting on and checking these aspects of driving behaviour which otherwise become systematicalong with the more technical elements of driving.

    Thinking occurs in relation to others$ a social environment$ a social structure and world view. Seeing$ hearing$taking in what is going on around us$ occurs whether we are conscious of it or not. Taking in information with a viewto noticing what is being transmitted and checking the interpretation of what is perceived is an important functionin being aware of how we are operating in that conte)t$ as well as in highlighting important aspects of it. It helps usto avoid misinterpretations and to e)amine our relationship to the beliefs and values operating there.

    It is necessary to create new modes of thinking in dealing with an increasingly comple) and demandingenvironment. Seeing that there are other ways of thinking aboutAinterpreting a situation leads to more options fordealing with what we are faced with. In order to see and use these however$ we need to be able to e)amine theassumptions we start with and be able to draw connections.

    2erhaps our thinking has not kept up with changes in the driving e)perience!better roads$ faster more e"cient andcomfortable cars!what kinds of e)pectations result from these advancesB t the same time as things improve$ theroads have become more crowded and our lives place more time pressure on most of us. The demands on thedriver are in many senses greater even though there have been many advancements.

    There is currently no forum for confronting these kinds of di"culties or focusing on what role they are playing in theway we drive$ and there has been little if any attention paid to these aspects of driving. The thinking involved indriving is not something that most people have learned to pay a great deal of attention to. *eveloping reectivethinking and awareness leads to greater responsibility for self and consideration of others.2hilosophical inquiry

    2hilosophical inquiry is a process designed to produce greater use of thinking skills which enable reection on theassumed or less obvious aspects of everyday thinking. =y drawing out ma'or assumptions$ concepts and beliefs$the inquiry process aids in evaluation and analysis$ consideration of consequences and connections and otherrelevant aspects of 'udgment and information processing. In using a community of inquiry as a forum fordeveloping reective skill in relation to particular conte)ts$ driving in this case$ and to assess the virtues and meritsof legal and other aspects of driving$ participants are more likely to be able to relate to and take on for themselves$those aspects of driving. 4ne of the reasons for this is that participants learn how to apply their thinking moreappropriately to understanding concepts$ analysing$ seeing connections and so on. They develop reectiveawareness and learn to pay closer attention to dierent elements of it.

    The +community of inquiry+ is an idea that originates with 8ohn *ewey and has been developed into the 2hilosophyfor %hildren program which uses the method of philosophical inquiry in creating a community of inquiry. >atthew?ippman ,-;60$ one of the authors of the 2hilosophy for %hildren curriculum$ argues that in order to developindividual thinking skills and employ them in a coordinated fashion it is important to develop certain +cognitivedispositions+. &ith the employment of the community of inquiry in learning conte)ts$ ?ippman states that cognitivedispositions emerge such as7 +care for the procedures of inquiry$ a considerateness of others+ points of view$ and areadiness to apply the same critical spirit to oneself as one does to others$ that is$ to be self!appraising as well asappraising of one+s peers.+ These cognitive dispositions$ ?ippman suggests$ motivate individuals to +mobilise their,thinking0 skills eectively+.

    @ncouraging reective thinking on these sorts of areas should build into the driver+s awareness a process ofconstantly checking on focusAattention as well as motivational factors. carefully guided questioning process in agroup conte)t leads participants into focusing on areas of their thinking they hadn+t previously considered$ tohearing the dierent views of others and how they understand and think about aspects of driving and to criticallyevaluating attitudes and beliefs$ the resulting behaviours and their consequences.

    The group eect

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    *riving behaviour is strongly inuenced by the attitudes of one+s family$ peers and other signi#cant persons,Saron$ -;any initiatives are underway but very few have involved any focus on thethinking and related behavioural aspects of driving.

    There is a need for some social awareness of attitudes$ e)pectations$ beliefs and assumptions and the role theseplay in the driving e)perience. This can be achieved by putting drivers through a facilitated process whichenhances important aspects of thinking and brings into focus and questions some of the prevailing attitudes andbeliefs. %arefully controlled media campaigns$ informed by an understanding of the more social and culturalaspects of driving behaviour can also aid a greater focus on thinking and bringing into focus appropriate attitudesand beliefs.

    There is a need for an overall cultural change and reection on our attitudes$ e)pectations and beliefs of road use.Technology has brought about ma'or changes in vehicles$ roads and tra"c management but drivers themselves$

    their e)pectations and attitudes$ and the culture of driving$ have received less attention. *rivers learn from otherdrivers and what they see going on around them. &e need to create opportunities to +stop and think+ about thepurposes and practical implications of convenient$ safe travel on our roads.

    &hile we can make an impact on young drivers as they start to gather e)perience on the roads it is necessary alsoto relate their understandings to the broader community too and create e)pectations there about how peoplebehave on the roads and how the issue of driving e)pectations$ attitudes and beliefs can be dealt with. ?aws arenot enough. &e need more appropriate ways to relate to the parameters the laws provide.Inuences on youthful driving behavior and their potential for guiding interventions to reduce crashes

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    This paper presents an organiDed$ comprehensive view of the factors known to inuence young drivers+ behaviorand how those factors might inform interventions to reduce crashes. This eort was done from the perspective of apublic health professional$ with a background in health behavior and health education$ interested in preventingin'ury and death among young people from motor vehicle crashes. The author+s own studies$ selected relevantliterature$ observation$ and e)perience were considered and organiDed. framework of si) categories of inuenceson youthful driving behavior was developed$ including the following elementsE driving ability$ developmentalfactors$ personality factors$ demographics$ the perceived environment$ and the driving environment. It is apparentthat a comple) set of many dierent factors inuences young drivers+ behavior. To reduce crashes$ comprehensive$multilevel interventions are needed that target those factors in the framework that are amenable to change.Keywords: adolescent$ automobile driving$ risk factors$ crash prevention

    In spite of recent improvements attributed to graduated driver licensing$ -young drivers+ high rates of tra"ccrashes$ in'uries$ and fatalities$

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    Figure 2 4verall inuences on youthful driving behaviour.Figure Inuences on youthful driving behaviour.!riving behaviorSeveral driving behaviors seem particularly common in the crashes of young drivers$ but are not the only behaviorsthat could lead to crashes. These behaviors$ individually or as a group$ need to be modi#ed by interventions inorder to reduce crashes and crash related in'uries. Coung drivers put themselves and others at risk by tending tospeed$ follow vehicles too closely$ make illegal lane changes$ and weave through tra"c. -:Coung drivers also$ morefrequently than more mature drivers$ fail to yield the right of way at controlled intersections ,yield signs$ stop signs$and tra"c lights0.-:$--$-$ et al$ unpublished data0.$ et al$unpublished data0. nd those who are more susceptible to peer pressure are likely to have more crashes. G-nothermeasure of interest is tolerance of devianceHthe acceptance of behaviors that most others consider wrong orimmoral. Those young people with a high tolerance of deviance ,who do 14T consider deviant behavior to bewrong0 have more tra"c crashes.

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    Coung drivers who report that they live with both parents have less risky driving than those who live with only oneparent$ perhaps because of the ability of parents to monitor and be involved in their teens+ behavior.

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    achieve$ without$ for instance$ being able to implement such technology as red light or speed cameras that enforceparticular behaviors certainly$ swiftly$ and consistently. 4ther new technology of interest would allow monitoring ofteens+ driving by parents$ such that undesirable behavior could lead to consequences such as a loss of drivingprivileges$ or desirable behavior could lead to an increase of driving privileges.!riving ability@nsuring that novice drivers have su"cient ability to drive independently is essential. *river education and trainingis currently conducted in dierent ways$ by dierent people$ with dierent quali#cations$ and with dierentrequirements for those quali#cations. s mentioned earlier$ a scienti#c basis for current practices may be lacking. -9It is important to identify what adequate education and training to drive should be$ and then to require that. It isalso important to determine scienti#cally what adequate practice and e)perience would be for licensure to drive

    independently$ and then to require that as well. There is little current knowledge available$ however$ to do so.&ithout that knowledge$ caution is certainly advisable before allowing teens who have had a driver educationcourse to drive earlier than those who have not.

    Traditional driver education courses may not adequately address lifestyle issues that are also related to riskydriving.-94ne program that attempted to do so was a high school based alcohol misuse prevention program thatincluded refusal skills practice and had a positive eect on students+ #rst year serious driving oenses. 5ost demographic factors are not possible to change$ but they could also be considered in decisions aboutreadiness to drive independently. n older age of licensure may be desirable$ but when considering se)$ however$ itis more complicatedHshould young men have to wait to drive longer than young women based on their highercrash numbersB Jnfortunately$ not enough is known about employment and driving among young teens to makesuggestions.

    "erceived environmentSeveral things could be done to target young people+s perceptions about driving$ gleaned from the environment inwhich they #nd themselves. 2arents could be targeted to learn to set a good driving e)ample and be the best rolemodels. 2arents can also be given assistance in learning ways to be more involved with their teens+ driving and setmore realistic restrictions on their novice teen drivers to enhance their safety. 55%reative programs are also neededthat use peers and partners to promote safer driving by young people.%ommunities could work to change their norms about young people+s driving behaviorHfor e)ample$ sending clear$instead of mi)ed$ messages about drinkAdriving. %hanging the cultural norms about driving would be harder$although there is some current interest in the JS overdependence on the automobile$ the negative health eects ofthe built environment$ energy use$ and emissions.56The media$ both advertising and entertainment$ could providegood avenues for interventions$ although it may be challenging to enlist their collaboration. (isk perception can bechanged$ thus providing opportunities for intervention. 2ubliciDing active tra"c safety enforcement programsincreases the perception of enforcement$ thus resulting in safer driving behavior. 59

    !riving environmentInterventions have begun to target the driving environment$ notably in the *? night driving restriction. (estrictingnovice teen drivers from being e)posed to the higher risk of late night driving until they have gained drivinge)perience has been eective in reducing nighttime crashes.5/$5;2arents can be encouraged to restrict noviceteens+ driving under certain weather and road conditions until their e)perience is adequate. 2arents can also beadvised about the risks associated with making a vehicle available to their teen$ and the types of vehicles thatwould be safer for teens to drive. This ecologic approach has value and has also been used by *? programs andby individual parents to restrict numbers of passengers and the age of passengers allowed to ride with a noviceteen driver. 2erhaps passenger se) should also be considered. Trip purpose has also been included in some *?programs$ usually to permit e)ceptions ,not necessarily appropriately0 to the program+s restrictions.$uccessful interventionsSuccessful interventions can be developed based on an understanding of the factors from the above conceptualframework. Interventions must be comprehensive to aect the comple) issues involved in youthful driving behavior.Ideally$ one would begin with interventions that are most likely to succeed$ or that will eect the greatest dierence

    http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1592526/#ref16http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1592526/#ref16http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1592526/#ref42http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1592526/#ref1http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1592526/#ref1http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1592526/#ref43http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1592526/#ref44http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1592526/#ref44http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1592526/#ref45http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1592526/#ref45http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1592526/#ref46http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1592526/#ref47http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1592526/#ref47http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1592526/#ref47http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1592526/#ref48http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1592526/#ref48http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1592526/#ref16http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1592526/#ref16http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1592526/#ref42http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1592526/#ref1http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1592526/#ref43http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1592526/#ref44http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1592526/#ref45http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1592526/#ref46http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1592526/#ref47http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1592526/#ref48
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    in outcome. The framework presented can serve to guide the development of further research questions as well asinterventions to be implemented and evaluated.Further research will be needed to understand the viewpoints of young drivers themselves and their interpretationsand e)planations of the relationships in the framework$ as well as their views of potential interventions. Forinstance$ not wearing seat belts may serve a developmental purpose or function$ such as Mlooking coolN for someyoung people. Interventions would not be successful without an understanding of the MpurposeN of such a behavior$so that safer means to Mbe coolN$ for instance$ could be promoted.

    The intent of an intervention needs to be clear$ and the e)pected outcome ,not necessarily reduced crashes orchanged driving behavior0 identi#ed. &ith a sound conceptual basis$ interventions will be more likely to succeed$but of course they must be ongoing. If not$ behaviors will return to preintervention levels. Successful interventions

    must also be ongoing because there are always new young drivers entering the driving population. nd it may bethat changing the behavior of a large group of people will be more easily accomplished with policy level changesrather than with individual behavioral approaches.@valuation of interventions is essential$ and should include process evaluation as well as evaluation of the impact,on the intermediate measure of interest0 and the outcome ,driving behavior or crash0. 4ngoing research andevaluation of interventions may serve to add to andAor re#ne the conceptual framework presented. It is alsoimportant in intervention development to anticipate and monitor for unintended consequences$ especially withyoung people. They can be very creative in reacting to well intentioned intervention eorts$ resulting in surprisingand often unanticipated outcomes.o toEConclusionIt is important to study the issues and gather the evidence that links youthful driving behavior with the multiplefactors that may inuence that behaviorHdriving ability$ development$ personality$ demographic factors$ perceivedenvironment$ and the driving environment. (esearch may need to be conducted to #ll in some gaps in e)istingknowledge. (ecommendations for interventions should be based on research results in the conceptual framework.fter interventions have been developed$ implemented$ and evaluated$ revisions of the interventions will likely benecessary. fter revisions$ reevaluation will be required.>otor vehicle crashes due to young people+s high risk driving behavior can be reduced. *oing so will requiredeveloping sound programs based on a conceptual framework such as that presented. 2rogram implementationmust then be thorough$ and compliance with the program ensured. 2arental involvement seems essential$ andcommunity involvement will enhance any program. >uch has been learned about the factors related to high riskdriving$ and intervention programs can build on what is known while contributing further to the growing knowledgebase being gathered for the purpose of protecting young drivers.&ays To Safe *rivingRESEARCH has indicated that passing a driving test is not sufcient or a driver to be sae or lie.*rivers+ attitude and behaviour are known to be ma'or contributors to tra"c collisions. *rivers hold distortedcognitions about their driving skills$ believe they are less likely to be involved in an accident compared with theirpeers and may not consider they are at risk or need to change their driving attitude and behaviour.*riving instructors often know little about how to manage these human factors in driving. aining knowledge about

    the human factors in driving is desirable for driving instructors but being able to inuence driver attitude andbehaviour is even more crucial.1amibia needs a structure to address potential at!risk driver behaviour and an intervention that is tailored to theindividualdriver. &e need to focus on raising awareness about risk and getting drivers+ abilities$ personal strengths andweaknessesevaluated. %urrently$ 1amibia+s public drivers do go for physical e)amination to enable them to get #tnesscerti#cates.&hile this is a necessity it is not su"cient without a mental ability test to cover the aspects of attitude andbehaviour.I thus humbly call on all stakeholders$ including the (oads uthority$ >inistry of &orks and Transport$ >otor OehicleccidentFund and all companies who have drivers$ to integrate the attitude and behavioural aspects of drivers in the #tnesscerti#cate.

    This aims to make sure that only those with sound mental abilities and risk management attitude can obtain publicdriving#tness. &e can do it ! let+s 'ust do it.ina!1elago Iimbili Oia e!mail*rivers hold distorted cognitions about their driving skills$ believe they are less likely to be involved in an accidentcomparedwith their peers and may not consider they are at risk or need to change their driving attitude andbehaviour.*riving instructorsoften know little about how to manage these human factors in driving.aining knowledge about the human factorsin driving isdesirable for driving instructors but being able to inuence driver attitude and behaviour is even morecrucial.1amibia needs astructure to address potential at!risk driver behaviour and an intervention that is tailored to the individual driver.&eneed to

    http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1592526/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1592526/
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    focus on raising awareness about risk and getting drivers+ abilities$ personal strengths and weaknessesevaluated.%urrently$1amibia+s public drivers do go for physical e)amination to enable them to get #tness certi#cates.&hile this is anecessity it isnot su"cient without a mental ability test to cover the aspects of attitude and behaviour.I thus humbly call on allstakeholders$including the (oads uthority$ >inistry of &orks and Transport$ >otor Oehicle ccident Fund and all companies whohave drivers$ to integrate the attitude and behavioural aspects of drivers in the #tness certi#cate.This aims to makesure that only those withsound mental abilities and risk management attitude can obtain public driving #tness.&e can do it ! let+s 'ust do

    it.ina!1elagoIimbili Oia e!mail