salem s edst 590 grad paper 2013

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Selecting and Supporting Future Graduates in British Columbia

by

Stephen Joseph Salem

B.A. Vancouver Island University, 2005

University of British Columbia

A GRADUATING PAPER SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF EDUCATION

in

THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

(Higher Education)

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

(Vancouver)

December 2012

Stephen Joseph Salem 2012


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Abstract

The educational journey is long and difficult. Students who engage in further studies face

many challenges as they progress towards a degree or other certification. These barriers are both

academic and non-academic, and higher educational institutions need to be aware of these

challenges in order to support students in their journey to credential completion. This essay will

provide an overview of factors considered relevant to success both from the students perspective

and the institutions perspective. This journey begins long before a student applies and in many

cases continues off and on for the rest of his or her life.


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Table of Contents

Abstract ..................................................................................................................................................... i

Recruiting Future Graduates ............................................................................................................ 1

BCs Higher Education Landscape ............................................................................................................. 4

Educational Opportunity .............................................................................................................................. 9

Prediction Using Academic Merit ............................................................................................................ 14

Student Retention and Study Progress .................................................................................................. 16

Educational Event Histories ...................................................................................................................... 19

English as a Second Language ................................................................................................................... 19

Mature Students ............................................................................................................................................. 20

Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................ 22

References ............................................................................................................................................ 25


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Recruiting Future Graduates

The educational journey is long and difficult. Students who engage in further studies face

many challenges as they progress towards a degree or other certification. These barriers are both

academic and non-academic, and higher educational institutions need to be aware of these

challenges in order to support students in their journey to credential completion. This essay will

provide an overview of factors considered relevant to success both from the students perspective

and the institutions perspective. This journey begins long before a student applies and in many

cases continues off and on for the rest of his or her life (Andres & Offerhaus, 2012).

As mentioned, the path is fraught with many barriers, the first of which is gaining access to

a post-secondary program because institutions only have a limited number of seats. This means

students must compete for entry. A common practise in Canadian post-secondary institutions is

the evaluation of eligibility by assessing an applicants academic background. This is an important

measurement because having the minimum academic background ensures that the student will

have some basic understanding of theories. Basing entrance solely on previous academic

achievement is an imperfect measure because it often fails to account for motivation, interest,

aptitude, and different social, economic and cultural differences that restrict or provide access to

higher education. Resumes and statements of intent can be used to evaluate softer skills like

interest, but it much harder to identify and correct for social, economic and cultural barriers.

Achieving the ideal or fairest admission criteria can be quite complicated and costly, but there

may be a good return on investment as well-supported, academically prepared students should

have a better chance of persisting through to completion.

While post-secondary institutions wrestle with the rubric to determine if an applicant

should be admitted to the program, this is a singular event to the student. Once admitted the


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student faces the real challenge of actually finishing the program. Hopefully, they have chosen the

right field of study because they must now commit time, resources and energy to persisting through

to completion. Those with access barriers may now face burdens, and once again post-secondary

institutions need to provide support to ensure all students succeed. Success is an interesting

concept because it looks different depending on your perspective. Students who begin at one

institution but complete at a different one, may not be seen by the original institution as a success;

however, in the eyes of the student they have been quite successful. As we unpack access and

retention themes, we must keep in mind that institutional and personal goals are not always the

same.

Before we go too much further, let me reveal my personal biases. I currently work as the

Admissions Supervisor at the British Columbia Institute of Technology (BCIT). I have a solid

understanding of evaluation of previous academics for entry, but I have questioned the fairness and

legitimacy of this metric because previous academics do not measure current motivation. I myself

was an under-achiever in high school: immature and unfocused. It did not engage in post-

secondary studies until a workplace injury forced me to reconsider higher education. With

increased effort, I achieved better marks. In my case, I was allowed to begin studies because a

teacher waived the minimum English requirement for me; otherwise, I would have been required to

spend additional time and money upgrading. As the student, I benefitted from this individual

assessment. As the institution, I wonder how we can recruit and retain academically successful

students making individual assessments of motivation, ability and aptitude.

Because access and retention is a broad subject, this essay is group into many sections. The

first will provide an overview of the post secondary educational system in British Columbia (BC)

because my understanding of entrance requirements, upgrading and student life is based in this


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system. This provides a frame of reference for a more in depth discussion of social concerns about

access, retention and persistence. It draws on literature from the United States, Europe, the South

Pacific and other Canadian Provinces. This section will begin by exploring how the very act of

setting entrance requirementswhether academic or non-academicautomatically advantages

some groups and disadvantages others. Institutions should strive to remove disadvantages so

those with the talent and motivation are given the opportunity to participate, keeping in mind that

students must still accept any opportunity provided. This will be lead to section on academic

prediction, and an overview of student persistence, retention, integration and completion.

In BC there are some specific sub-populations that require special consideration. Those

assessing prior educational experience must be aware of global student mobility; especially, with

the BC government hoping to increase enrolment of international students in response to declining

high school graduates (Steffenhagen, 2011). Therefore language proficiency is an important

consideration for educational planners whether before admittance (e.g., testing and/or upgrading)

or after admittance (e.g., language support classes, tutors, etc.). Thus, there is a short section

discussing assessment English as a Second Language (ESL) applicants. This will be followed by a

section addressing the persistence and motivational concerns of mature students. These students

usually have taken many years away from education and have a number of life priorities that take

time away from studies. In BC there are a large number of mature students passing through the

higher education systemengaging and disengaging with various institutions at various stages in

their lives, and these students could help make up for program attrition at more advanced levels.

Institutions must recognize that as people age, their motivation and attitude towards higher

education changes also. Years after leaving high school many people return to the education

system as an effort to increase career opportunities. They follow a variety of adult educational


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paths to gain entry to and/or continue through post-secondary studies. Institutions must respond

to the needs of these academically mobile students to assist them in their educational goals (Andres

& Adamuti-Trache, 2008b; Andres & Offerhaus, 2012, Finnie & Mueller, 2008). Program

administrators at higher educational institutions have target enrolment numbers for limited seats;

thus, the academic bar must be set low enough to enable access for enough students to fill the

entry level of a program, but high enough to ensure that these students, once admitted, will have

the academic foundation to persist through to the advanced levels of a program. Provided a student

has chosen the right program and fits with his peers and professors, those who possess the

appropriate academic background should have a better chance of completing a credential. Once a

student graduates from post-secondary education, these individuals should experience increased

upward social and economic mobility. Technological education increases opportunities to gain

employment or to continue with more advanced educational studies. Post-secondary graduates

benefit the larger society by actively contributing to the provincial and global knowledge economy.

It cannot be understated that post-secondary education is a very important life shaping experience,

and it begins with the ability to access post-secondary training.

BCs Higher Education Landscape

Access to BC post-secondary education was dramatically increased in the 1960s. The

MacDonald Report (1962) was the catalyst for the myriad of access and transfer options currently

available to prospective students and adult learners in the province.

Prior to 1962 little development or diversification of post-secondary education had

occurred in British Columbia. [..., which] consisted of the University of British Columbia with

its satellite campus in Victoria, the tiny Notre Dame University in Nelson, one small private

college, and vocational schools (McArthur, 1997, p. 111-112).


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The MacDonald Report recommended the creation of two, four-year degree granting

colleges, but the provincial ministry went a step further and created two new full status

universities: Simon Fraser University in Burnaby and the University of Victoria, formerly Victoria

College. The report also recommended the creation of six two-year multi-purpose community

colleges, some of which were amalgamated with the federally constructed BC vocational

institutions. (Dennison, 1997; McArthur 1997). The report emphasised a spirit of excellence in the

creation of university-transferable programs in regions outside the south west corner of the

province. Individuals could take academically recognized first and second year courses in their

home community and then complete the final two years at one of the three major universities to

earn a degree; ultimately, laying the foundation for the now widely accessed and articulated

provincial higher education system.

The early 1990s saw many of the community colleges evolving into university-colleges.

Initially, Malaspina, Cariboo and Okanagan colleges, which were located in the communities of

Nanaimo, Kamloops and Kelowna, respectively. These were followed by colleges in the Lower

Mainland (Kwantlen) and the Fraser Valley (University-College of the Fraser Valley) a few years

later. Planning was underway for a university in Northern BC, and the Open Learning Agency was

recognized to confer degrees through distance education. The Skills Now (1994) initiative saw the

creation of applied technological degrees offered through non-university institutions, with Emily

Carr College of Art and Design and BCIT designated to degree granting status (Dennison, 1997;

McArthur, 1997). This same year, university-colleges, once conferring degrees under the auspice of

one of the three major research universities, were granted the ability to confer their own

credentials (Metcalfe, Mazawi, Rubenson, Fisher, MacIvor & Meredith, 2007).


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The province is now home to eleven universities, eleven community colleges, and four

higher educational institutions. Many of these university designations were the result of significant

changes to the provincial higher educational structure that followed Plants (2007) Campus2020

report on Access and Excellence into post-secondary education in the province of British

Columbia. One of these changes saw institutions previously designated university-colleges,elevated

to the status of teaching universities, and the University of British Columbia, Simon Fraser

University and the University of Victoria would remain the provinces research universities(BCCAT,

2010b; Metcalfe et al., 2007; Plant 2007).1 Plant recognized the same geographic challenges as

Macdonald; however, the post-secondary landscape in 2007 had evolved significantly in terms of

population, programs, structures and facilities that now exist in the various regions of the province.

[At the core] is the principle of equal opportunity within a hierarchy of achievement and

ability. It envisions an unbroken educational freeway conveying learners from K-20 with

enough on and off ramps to accommodate every speed and circumstance... limited only by a

learners ability, ambitions, starting point and available time (Metcalfe et al., 2007).

Irregular educational paths were continued at the pre-entry level. The Access for All

initiative recommended that all pre-entry and access courses offered at provincial higher

educational institutions be recognized for entry into programs at any of the other post-secondary

institutions; thus ensuring BC residents substitute upgrading locally attended ABE courses for

published high school entrance requirements when they apply to provincial higher education

institutions. For students seeking admission to the various provincial post-secondary institutions,

1Added to this landscape are a number of institutions, like the University of Phoenix that specialize in internet

delivery are expanding student enrolments to levels that far exceed those at traditional post-secondary schools

(Coates & Morrison, 2011).


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they would receive entry credit from any recognized upgrading programs. (BCCAT, 2010a;

Dennison & Schuetze, 2004; Province of British Columbia, 2010). Since 2007, ABE in BC has been

offered free for Canadian citizens and landed immigrants ensuring financial barriers are removed

for adults needing academic upgrading to be eligible for post-secondary studies (Plant, 2007).

With such a kaleidoscope of academic and upgrading programs developed to overcome

unique barriers to BC higher education, many educational routes have and continue to be taken by

individuals who graduate from secondary school and mature into various life roles (e.g., parent,

spouse, employee). To illustrate the number of different educational routes available to students in

the BC system, Paths on Lifes Waybegan with the individuals choice to attend either a university, a

non-university or neither. At five-year intervals, educational outcomes for these individuals

included non-participation, non-completer, non-university completer, bachelors completer, and

first professional/graduate completer. This longitudinal survey has now documented 22-years of

life history for individuals who graduated from BC high school in 1988 (Andres & Offerhaus, 2012).

The credential completion rate was observed to increase as the sample aged, and just under two

thirds of men and women completed bachelors degrees or other non-university credentials. A

further nine percent of both genders went on to earn professional or graduate degrees (Andres,

2009b).

Andres and Adamuti-Trache (2008a) plotted 55 distinct post-secondary educational

trajectories and observed students who took many differentpathsto completing or not-completing

a credential. By correcting for entry timing and pace, 21 categories were identified with the highest

frequency of individuals going immediately from high school graduate to post-secondary graduate,

which meant earning a university or non-university credential by 1993. Those who continued into

further studies followed an advanced route by continuing into subsequent professional or graduate


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level studies. Other common BC post-secondary routes included transferthose who began non-

university, but completed a university degree,prolongedthose who took extended time to

complete, broaderthose who completed a non-university credential and continued on to

complete a university degree, delayedthose who did not start immediately after finishing high

school, non-completerthose who began, but discontinued, and non-participantsthose who never

entered into the post-secondary system (Andres, 2009b; Andres & Adamuti-Trache, 2008a).

Although non-participation in post-secondary education was initially reported at roughly 20%

(18% of women and 22% of men) by 2003 non-participation dropped to only 6% (Andres &

Adamuti-Trache, 2008b). While the overall variety of paths taken by BC high school graduates

shown to be quite extensive (Andres & Offerhaus, 2012), it still could not account for many other

individuals accessing the provinces higher education system (e.g., out of province, landed

immigrants, international students, upgraded high school drop-outs, etc.). Educators and

administrators must be aware of all of these different trajectories, and try to respond to the unique

needs of students on these different paths. This should ensure the success of both the individual

learner and the institution through maximizing enrolment at all educational levels.

Of interest to institutions like BCIT, which offer specialized vocational training, those

individuals who entered into a technical or vocational institution immediately following high school

and completed a credential (usually after two-years of study) were observed to be almost

completely disengaged with higher educational training ten years later. Although, the desire for

others in the sample to engaging in this type of study increased sample aged (Andres & Offerhaus,

2012), so with frequency of older students accessing specialized training, institutions may alter

recruitment practices to attract more students with prior post-secondary training.


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The BC post-secondary system shows success for students transferring between the

institutions located within it, so these successes must be occurring somewhat independently of

institutional retention practices. Over a students educational journey, he or she may sample a

variety of programs and courses, acquiring many credits, and, when he or she finds a program of

best fit, combine all previously earned credits to complete a credential (Andres, 2009b). Arguably,

it would be in the receiving institutions best interest to ensure that advanced level entry can be

easily attained, as recruitment of these students would replace any withdrawing students.

Institutions cannot force fit students into subjects that they lack interest or aptitude, and BC post-

secondary institutions will continue to exchange students progressing irregularly through their

academic experience (Andres & Adamuti-Trache, 2008b, 2009b; Andres & Offerhaus, 2012; Finnie,

Mueller & Sweetman, 2008; Finnie & Qui, 2008).

Educational Opportunity

Although the BC post-secondary system has unique articulation and student mobility

models, it evolved from older European and North American models. Historically, access to post-

secondary education was a system of sponsored mobilitybecause it was reserved primarily for the

children of the elite and for the education of the clergy. New discoveries, knowledge and inventions

increased demand for a more highly skilled work force, which, in turn, saw an increased demand for

higher education. With these changes, access evolved into a system based more upon previously

earned merit (e.g., high school grades, credentials, ability to speak Latin, athletics, etc.).

This provided an equal opportunity for individuals privileged enough to pursue post-

secondary studies to compete for an opportunity to study using previous academic achievements as

a uniform measure of assessment (Farwell, 2002; Hayton & Paczuska, 2002; Karabel, 2005). There

is a major flaw inherent to systems of contest mobilitybecause those who develop the interest and


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ambition to seek further studies, must also possess the talent, cultural and socio-economic

resources to compete for access to the system (Turner, 1960). Furthermore, increasing populations

saw physical space on campus restricting the number of students admitted to a program, so as

more young people demanded post-secondary education, stricter gate-keeping mechanisms were

established to evaluate suitability for entry into a program. To offset the social inadequacies in the

United States, affirmative action and special recruitment efforts targeted marginalized sub-

populations (Karabel, 2005).

Karabel (2005) chronicled the changing definition of merit at Harvard, Princeton and Yale.

These institutions based admissions primarily on the mastery of traditional curriculum (P. 5).

Because this included subjects like Latin, many minority groups were disadvantaged. As an

increasing number of Eastern Europe minorities became better educated in the 1920s, institutions

began defining merit through less academic means to more gentlemanly characteristics. For

example, applicants were judged based on sturdy character, sound body and proper social

backgrounds (p. 5). This criteria again benefited the elite Protestants who had the proper social

background to be considered an all-round man. Eastern European and Jewish people continued

to be disadvantaged because they were unfamiliar with the customs of the dominant Protestant

culture. Entry was based on grades in specific high schools and sponsorship. Academic ability

and effort became less important than participation in the elite social clubs, extra-curricular

activities and athletics; those who studied too hard were often the target of institutionally

supported bullying (Karabel, 2005).

By the 1950s, the Cold War saw elite universities struggling with talent loss. The Soviet

Union was winning the Space-race, so entry merit retuned to a more academic definition with

emphasis placed on SAT and extra-curricular activity, and less emphasis on birthright and the


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subjective traits of manliness. A number of categories were defined in the rubric for assessing

eligibility. These used combinations of high school grades, GPA, athletics, extracurricular activities,

referrals, children of alumni and ethnic background to evaluate eligibility and suitability. Entry

became a combination of contest and sponsored mobility.

The 1960s saw the rise of human rights and the move towards inclusive and more

culturally diverse admissions policies; this included a drastic increase in number of women, Jewish

and Black Americans being accepted into elite universities. Over the following decades, Harvard,

Yale and Princeton opened their doors to a greater number and diversity of minority populations

(Karabel, 2005). This brief history of the Big Three illustrates how the definition of merit is fluid

and tends to reflect the values and interests of those who have the power to impose their particular

cultural beliefs (Karabel, 2005, p. 5, quotations in original), and no matter how merit is defined, it

will benefit some groups while disadvantaging others (p. 3). Burbules et al. (1982)

recommended that equality[...mean] equal and fair in light of relevant similarities and difference

(p. 171); furthermore, attributes of need and merit have a large role in the provision or prevention

of access, and policy makers must determine distributions by balancing what persons deserve

against what limited resources permit (p. 174).

On the surface it appears that the dominant culture can easily impose a system to advantage

their children, but the social and economic benefits to those individuals who gain access to post-

secondary education are immense, and special interest groups continue to influence who gains

access. The protection of elite status conflicts with the forces of social inclusivity. These forces

were brought to light by Karabel (2005) who observed admissions to the Big Three is a history not

only of elite dominance, but of resistance by subordinate groups (p. 6).


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Administrators and institutional planners must continue to exhibit leadership in social and

economic opportunities for students from all social classes. This is not always easy because post-

secondary institutions are continually responding to the needs and interests of funding sources

(e.g., alumni, the government, business, etc.), internal agents (e.g., students, staff, faculty, etc.) and

socio-cultural movements (e.g., affirmative action, unions, etc.) to define who will have access to the

limited institutional seats. Personal, social, cultural, economic, cognitive and environmental

factors that impact on the students decision and ability to attend further studies must be given

special consideration and institutional support (Burbules et al., 1982, 1982; Evans, 1976). Any

disadvantagein essence, the opposite of meritis considered a need that must be overcome for

an individual to access and complete post-secondary studies. If a disadvantage warrants special

consideration, intervention occurs on the part of the recruiters, government or special interest

groups rectify the need, which may derive different social and racial problems on campus (Browne-

Miller, 1996).

While society grapples with fairness and equality, institutions are still using previous

academics to measure student motivation and possible success. Measureable qualities like

academics and athletics have inherent biases preventing fair access to committed students. This is

because actual effort required for these achievements is not accurately reflected in this measure.

High marks with low effort are indistinguishable from high marks with high effort. The latter

probably has qualities better suited to persisting though the duration of the post-secondary

training. The same can be said about results achieved by students with high ability but low effort

and those achieved by students with low ability but high effort (Burbules, Lord & Sherman, 1982).

It is hard to say which student would be more successful in post-secondary because the former,

while gifted with intelligence, may not have developed the study skills or commitment to complete


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a credential; the latter, may have strong academic habits, but lack the intelligence to grasp

advanced topics.

The possession of ability, merit and the removal of any access barriers still requires that an

individual accept the opportunity to engage in higher educational studies. Opportunity is a special

kind of choice where an individual must have access to the choice, the willingness to engage and the

aptitude to be successful (Burbules et al., 1982) Thus, opportunity is an evaluative as well as a

descriptive label (Burbules et al., 1982 p. 170). Ennis (1976) argued that the concept of equality of

educational opportunities is generally agreed upon as a goal of higher education, but found that the

application of this concept became quite subjective when defining what actually constitutes

education, the cultural value of this training and what it is meant by having an opportunity. Karabel

(2005) also identified equality of conditionsas a philosophical objective of educational opportunity

because access to higher education should not be influenced by wealth or social status. So, while

philosophically higher education tries to level access through scholarships and affirmative action,

few considerations can be made for an unwillingness to accept an opportunity due to cultural or

social beliefs (Barbules et al., 1982).

For example, working class individuals may pass on the opportunity to participate in higher

education as a strategy of risk avoidance, rather than a lack of inspiration or talent (Archer,

Leathwood & Hutchings, 2002, p. 107). The risk of attending higher education (e.g., cost, both in

time and money, uncertainty of knowledge application or career outcome, student loan repayment,

etc.) outweighs the benefits in the mind of the individual (e.g., career advancement, expansion of

personal knowledge, economic and social mobility, etc.).

Cultural challenges exist in the widening participation. Many advantages that traditional

choosersuniversity attendance is part of what they do (p. 25)have due to an adequate level or


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surplus of cultural, societal, economic and social capitals are educational choices are socially

constructed as habitusacquired in their upbringing (Macrae & Maguire, 2002). They identified that

non-traditional choosersfirst generation studentsoften lacked social and cultural capital, which

led to poor program choice and/or a lack of critical guidance required for them to better survive a

long term educational experience.

Although the rules of the meritocratic contests have been strongly influenced by social,

cultural, economic and academic forces, for the student who engages in the opportunity, access

represents a single transitional point on the journey through higher education. Once a student

begins this journey, they can look forward to the academic trials that lead to a credential. The

question of widening access is not just about recruitment, it is about student retention [... and] some

students are better placed to navigate a route through higher education and stay the course than

others (Evans, 2002, p. 25). The next section will address the topics of student persistence and the

science of predicting student success.

Prediction Using Academic Merit

In the prediction of student success, academic merit can account for about a third of the

factors pushing a student toward success (Willingham, 1990). However, academic merit can be

evaluated in a number of ways. For instance, Geiser and Santelices (2007) compared SAT test

scores with high school grade point average (HSGPA) as predictive measures of success overthe

four years of a program and on through to graduation. They found that the HSGPA were

consistently the strongest predictor of four year college outcomes for all academic disciplines,

campuses and freshman cohorts in the University of California Sample, and predictive weight

associated with HSGPA [increased] after the freshman year (Geiser & Santelices, 2007, p. 2). When

the analysis was controlled for campus and subject groupings, the coefficient for...HSGPA, actually


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[increased] (Geiser & Santelices, 2007, p. 21), yet close to two-thirds of variance was still left

unexplained by either HSGPA or SAT predictors. These results should not be surprising given the

many other factors that affect students undergraduate experiences after admissions, such as

financial aid, social support and academic engagement in college (Geiser & Santelices, 2007, p. 12).

The first year or two of college [can be] a difficult transition period for many students who

must adjust not only to the more rigorous academic standards of college but often as well to

the experience of being away from home for the first time [...] for those who do persist,

mean GPAs plummet well below what students have been accustomed to earning in high

school. (Gieser & Santelices, 2007, p. 17)

After this initial adjustment, student grades showed gradual improvements, and HSGPA

remained the stronger predictor. The difference in predictability between HSGPA and SAT may be

the result of method covariance. For instance, high school courses have a similar method of

instruction, assessment and teacher-student interaction as used in post-secondary courses, and the

SAT only measures academic competence through a single means during the brief testing

timeframe (Geiser & Santelices, 2007).

Ramist, Lewis and McCamley (1990) found that courses with the highest correlation to the

SAT (i.e., most predictive) were quantitative and scientific in subject. The courses with the lowest

correlations (i.e., least predictive) were less traditionally academic subjects, such as remedial

English, music, art and physical education; furthermore, students in the lower third percentile

demonstrated lower predictability of freshman grade point average (FGPA, Ramist et al., 1990).

Adding to this, there was very little change in the validity coefficient observed for the top third

percentile. Grades of students in the lower third tended to be less predictable, which may be due in

part to available learner support services within a given institution. The offering of these services


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could allow academically weaker students an additional opportunity to learn/reinforce the

necessary foundational knowledge. Alternatively, lower third students may self-select courses that

they have more aptitude toward; while the courses that attract a higher calibre of students may

have inadvertently biased grading scales due to the historic and now expected performance

students with stronger academic backgrounds (Ramist et al., 1990).

Student Retention and Study Progress

The concepts of student retentionfrom an institutional perspective and study progressfrom

a student perspective are complicated by both (a) the academic and social relationships between

the institute and the student (Andres & Carpenter, 1997; Tinto, 1988), and (b) the provincial

structure enabling the ease of student mobility in the post-secondary environment (Dennison,

1997, Schuetze & Day, 2001). It is generally understood that the better a student integrates into the

educational environment, the more likely the individual will progress through a program to

graduation.

What does integration mean then? To a student, they may integrate both socially and

academically, yet as they learn more about the chosen discipline, they may not like the educational

or professional outcomes. For the student, education is a significant decision that impacts the rest

of his or her life, so it is reasonable to assume that he or she will continue to explore or discover

new career and/or other educational opportunities even after commencement of studies into a

program. This results in the transition of academically successful students who discontinued study

in one field before the completion of a credential, and transferred to a different program or

institution that may have a better fit (Andres et al., 2007; Martinello, 2008; Schuetze & Day, 2001).

This effect has been magnified in BC where the provincial government has facilitated the

development of an articulated post-secondary system enabling ease of student mobility among the


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various public post-secondary institutions with the assurance of credit for previously completed

subject matter (Andres & Adamuti-Trache, 2008a; BC Council on Admissions and Transfer, BCCAT,

2010a; Dennison, 1997; McArthur, 1997; Metcalfe et al., 2007).

Integration into the educational environment also involves the ability to learn. For instance,

faculty and staff who were members of the Association of American Universities, were asked about

the characteristics of a well-prepared and successful student. A number of skills were identified,

which Conley (2003) labelled habits of the mind. These habits included aptitudes like (a) critical

thinking, (b) problem solving, (c) an openness to critical feedback, and (d) the ability to use

acquired knowledge rather than simply regurgitating it. Many of the faculty and staff interviewed

suggested that these habits are somewhat more important than just simply high school grades.

They still support the assessment of incoming students because skills would be required for

students to be successful in high school and, provided students apply themselves, these skills

should carry forward into post-secondary.

So program choice, foundational knowledge, and the ability to learn are some factors in

student integration; however, there are many other factors that have an impact on progress

throughout a program. In an exploration of student success, Van Overwalle (1989) observed mid-

term results, the efficiency of study time and academic self-esteem as the best indicators of final

exam success. The academic confidence of successful students was moderated by personal

characteristics that included, but were not limited to, prior knowledge, study effort and time

commitments, interest in the subject, ability to understand lectures and fear of exams (Van

Overwalle, 1989). The influence and expectation for study originated both internally and externally

to the student, and were either more or less controllable by the student.


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An external controllablefactor, for example, would be the help and support available from

other students and faculty. External to the student because it hinges on the willingness of peers to

provide support, but it is controllable because the student can chose to engage in this manner of

study or not. An example of an internal uncontrollablefactor would be test anxiety. It is internal

because its a feeling that resonates from within the individual, yet it is irrational, largely

uncontrollable and difficult to suppress (Van Overwalle,1989).

Due to the multitude of influences on a student, prediction of academic completion is

strongest in the first few terms, but the influences diminish over time. In a case study at the

University of Manitoba, Cyrenne and Chan (2010) found that high school GPA still had a strong

correlation to student success. They observed that high school grades were a good indicator of a

students initial academic success; however, as time progressed, other factors like academic fit,

educational and career expectations, and a students commitment were all found to exert a greater

influence on longer term study progress than high school grades.

In a similar study, Beekhoven et al. (2003) observed secondary school GPA was a good

indicator of a students initial ability, having a strong positive effect on the study progress for first

year Dutch students; however, this influence decreased in subsequent terms with completed

courses showing a stronger influence on study progress. This supports the findings of OHallaran

and Russell (1980) who found that the influence of high school on performance in a part-time math

course decreased significantly after two years with the authors stating that no matter how

accurate and reliable an earlier measure, it will not account for later changes in a students attitude,

interests and career aspirations (p. 546). These factors tend to complicate research evaluating the

predictive validity of entrance requirements.


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Educational Event Histories

A common observationtechnique in higher education is the longitudinal study of term by term

progress through a program. Desjardins, Ahlburg and McCall (1999) usedone competing and two

single risk modelsto identify the timing of four possible student outcome variables(a) continue,

(b) drop-out and do not return during the study period, (c) first stop-out, or (d) graduationover a

seven year program, and they found that students were less likely to stop-out if they entered a

program with a higher GPA; however, students with transfer credit were more likely to stop-out in

year one. This study found that a higher GPA had a negative effect on drop-out (i.e., students were

less likely to experience drop-out), and the authors recommended that institutions practice

monitoring student grades as early as possible in a program to improve student retention and

success (Desjardins et al., 1999), and over the credential duration, continuous enrolment and

continuous improvements in grades were considered to be more important than just simply first

year grades in the completion of a credential. GPA was found to be a powerful predictor [...as] one

grade increase in GPA more than doubles a students chance of graduating (Desjardins, McCall,

Ahlburg & Mage, 2002). Interestingly, longitudinal research has observed voluntary departure

behaviour was observed by academically successful students who discontinued studies (Ishitani,

2003). Indicating that factors other than academic knowledge influence the students ability to

succeed.

English as a Second Language

With student integration playing such an important role in student retention and success,

second language speakers are disadvantaged both in verbal translation of classroom instruction

and in conversations with peers. The second language socialization theory describes the link

between linguistic and socio-cultural knowledge as individuals are socialized into different groups


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and social context in which they seek membership (Zappa-Hollman, 2007, p. 459). Generally, ESL

applicants must demonstrate a minimum level of English, and this requirement presents a barrier

both to international students and to those who have immigrated to Canada and wish to pursue

further education. Golder (2006) described English assessment as a long-term barrier to new

Canadians resuming previous professional occupations, but the enforcement of the English

requirement was supported by Coley (1999) who addressed the temptation for setting the entry

level too low for ESL students.

In a study of Australian institutions, Coley (1999) argued against accepting GCE English

tests taken overseas because ESL applicants were only being tested for reading and writing

components, and not being tested for listening and speaking components. A majority of the

institutions surveyed in this study used The British Council and The National Academic Recognition

Information Centre guide (1999) to determine equivalencies for GCSE/GCE levels in order to admit

foreign students. Institutions were further advised to align entry requirements with the levels

recommended by international testing agencies (e.g., TOEFL) to ensure that these students were

successful. This supported Spinks and Hos (1984) findings that IELTs results have good predictive

value if properly used because this language test assesses all four components.

Mature Students

Older students face unique challenges when undertaking a long-term educational

commitment, and when encouraging the mature student to embark on the risky endeavour of

further education, practical matters must be considered for them to be successful. For instance,

providing stable timetables well in advance of study to allow for the planning of daily activities like

childcare, work, and commuting (Dinsdale, 2002). In many educational systems, access programs

have been developed to provide mature students the ability to gain entry to higher education.


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Similar to the Canadian educational system, Carey (2002) reviewed how access courses

developed in the 1970s in Britain, have successfully increased participation by under-represented

and economically disadvantaged adults. Attendance in 1999 had risen to 37,726 students

registered at 457 institutionswomen made up three quarters of these access students. With

three different credentials available, many of these programs focused more on learning skills, than

just the acquisition of a large body of knowledge. The universities in Britain readily accepted

applicants who employed this educational route because the observed success/failure ratio of

access students and traditional students were roughly the same in the subsequent higher

educational programs (Carey, 2002).

A small qualitative study of seven students who dropped out of pre-entry courses in the UK

examined barriers to success for mature students (Reay et al., 2002). Those who abandoned

training expressed difficulty juggling work, and/or family obligations, and/or logistical difficulties

in arranging for all their commitments. A lack of prior-knowledge led to a lack of academic self-

esteem in many of the respondents, and a low socio-economic status also factored into the

withdrawals. The consequence for [upgrading] students not having adequate finances is that they

cannot afford travel, decent accommodations, or even essential course materials (Reay et al., 2002,

p. 10). Although Reay et al. (2002) made a case that financing was a significant issue for mature

students, they did not compare it to the pre-entry experience of those who completed and

continued into subsequent post-secondary studies. It would have been interesting to see if

successful mature students in the same cohort faced the same financial, family, and social

obligations, but developed better strategies to cope with these pressures.


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Conclusion

Students who have met requirements should be confident that they have the appropriate

academic foundation to understand the content of the program and the skill to cope with the

programs rigor, yet persisting to graduation will require more than just foundational knowledge.

As students progress through a program, resources like money and time begin to outweigh pre-

entry grades. Students who do not meet minimum requirements would need to leverage social and

economic capital before even beginning post-secondary studies, and if under-qualified students are

admitted before obtaining a minimum foundational knowledge, they would require additional

institutional support which would be over and above any classroom time assigned homework. This

could have a negative impact on the student by adding extra courses and/or tutoring, which

increases the academic time commitment and could lead to burn-out.

One could argue that an under-qualified but highly motivated student could overcome the

academic challenges created through a lack of foundational knowledge in a subject, but an alternate

argument could be made that these students have been set up to fail. Unless it was coupled with an

increase in corresponding academic support resources, these under-qualified students will have

more difficulty and less chance of completing the credential (Willingham, Lewis, Morgan, & Ramist,

1990).

Under-qualified students may adversely affect their peers; for example, students who lack

the appropriate background knowledge may ask more questions for clarity on basic concepts in the

classroom. On the other hand, stronger students may benefit by having peers to help, which may

improve their learning through tutoring and mentoring weaker students (Oakes, 1987). This

presents the first big complication involved in predictive assessment: peer influence.


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How could an institution possibly match students together who will form a high

performing team? (Leadership Seminar, 2012) And isnt the ability to work well both

independently and with others, skills students should learn during their post-secondary

experience? By asking these questions, we must resign ourselves to the fact that, although peer

interaction is important factor in a students persistence, it happens naturally in the educational

environment. Without a significant increase in resources, how would an institution determine

and/or optimize and/or correct for interactions between the students within each cohort every

term? What characteristics would be evaluated, by whom and how?

Another complication arises in assessing for motivation and commitment. These factors,

while considered important, are subject to events in an individuals life at a given time. How does

the institution predict a students long-term motivation and commitment to persist? Although

these skills are necessary to complete a degree, maybe these characteristics should be exercised

and developed throughout the post-secondary program rather than evaluated before commencing.

Appropriate non-academic support must be offered to guide students to develop and hone

motivational skill and commitment over the course of their post-secondary study.

We must now ask whether a student can and/or should be evaluated for minimum

commitment and motivation? Completion of high school with good marks is considered a reflection

of a students commitment and motivation while he or she was in high school, and it is hoped that

these attributes will carry forward into higher education. Enrolment in upgrading courses could be

considered another sign that an individual is motivated with completion of these courses being

another indicator. As we accept this reasoning, we must keep in mind the changing motivation and

commitment levels of individuals at various stages of their lives. On an individual level, assessment

of maturity, professionalism and motivation can be made somewhat accurately, but how does the


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institution evaluate for self-efficacy or academic confidence? While natural abilities, aptitudes and

peer integration have a strong influence on student success, they are very difficult to accurately

quantify for predictive assessment unless a personal meeting is conducted for every prospective

student. A practice that would require increased resources for eligibility assessments. This means

many higher educational institutions will continue to rely on past academic performance as

predictive of the success for the majority of prospective students.


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