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Oxidizing agent: the substance that gains an electron; it forces another atom to become oxidized.

Reducing agent: the substance that loses an electron; it forces another atom to become reduced.

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With the exception of chemoautotrophs, all organisms use _________________ as their primary source of energy. Because humans, like other _________________ cannot photosynthesize, we are unable to produce our own energy and so we must get it from the _________________ that can. Eukaryotic autotrophs (such as plants) and heterotrophs (such as animals) use the same organelle (________________) and process (_________________________) to release the energy stored in glucose. Glucose is _________________ (loss of hydrogen and its electron) and oxygen is _________________ (gain of hydrogen). The energy from this reaction is used for the

production of ATP molecules. This is known as aerobic cellular respiration.

+

!

+

+

!

Glucose Oxygen Carbon Dioxide

Water (in the form of

ATP)

When a molecule of glucose undergoes aerobic respiration, ________ molecules of ATP are produced. Glucose is an _____________ rich molecule. The breakdown of glucose results in the formation of low energy molecules and energy. ATP synthesis requires energy; it involves a series of _____________ reactions. About 40% of the chemical energy in glucose is transformed into energy in an ATP molecule. The rest is lost as _____________.

There are three goals to the process of aerobic cellular respiration: 1. To break the bonds between the six carbon atoms of glucose, resulting in six carbon dioxide molecules 2. To move hydrogen atom electrons from glucose to oxygen, forming six water molecules. 3. To trap as much of the free energy released in the process as possible in the form of ATP.

!! !

Anaerobic (“absence of oxygen”) cellular respiration also occurs; however, the yield of energy and the products produced are very different from aerobic respiration, as will be discussed in a few lessons from now.

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Before we go into the stage of glycolysis in greater detail, we must first understand the concept of ENERGY TRANSFER. Recall: " The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be ________________ or

_________________ - it can only be changed from one form into another " the mechanisms involved in energy transfer are called: substrate-level phosphorylation and

oxidative phosphorylation. !!"#$%&'%(:!"#"$%&'()*'(+,$-./(0!

" ATP is formed: directly or indirectly (circle one)

" A phosphate-containing compound transfers a phosphate group directly to ______, forming ______.

!"#$%&#'()*+,-.+,/01%&#,2!

" ATP is formed: directly or indirectly (circle one)

" This process is more complex than the substrate-level phosphorylation, BUT yields many

more ________ molecules for each glucose molecule processed

" Oxidative phosphorylation begins with a compound called nicotinamide adenine

dinucleotide (short-form: __________ )

What does ATP stand for? _____________________________________________

What does ADP stand for? _____________________________________________

Why is this mechanism considered “oxidative”?

In what two (2) stages of cellular respiration does substrate-level phosphorylation occur?

" Recall: this compound is a coenzyme.

" The NAD+ removes _____ hydrogen atoms (2 protons and 2 electrons) from the original

glucose molecule. This reduces NAD+ to NADH.

Where did the other H atom go?

What enzyme catalyzes this reaction?

In what three (3) stages of cellular respiration does NAD+ reduction occur?

" Another coenzyme called flavin adenine dinucleotide (short-form: _______) performs a

function similar to NAD+. " FAD is also reduced by _____ hydrogen atoms from a portion of the original glucose

molecule. The reduced form is FADH2.

Summarize the coenzymes in the chart below:

Coenzyme Oxidized form Reduced form Stages of cellular respiration

where reduction occurs

nicotinamide adenine

dinucleotide

flavin adenine dinucleotide

" The reduced coenzymes act as mobile _______________ carriers within the cell. This process

of reducing the coenzymes harvest energy. This will be discussed in greater detail in the

last stage of cellular respiration, called the ___________________ chain.

What is a coenzyme?

!"#$%&'($)*+,#-$&.$/#00'0+($1#-23(+*3&4!

There are four stages involved in aerobic cellular respiration:

1.

2.

3.

4.

The end result of these processes is the harvesting of energy from sugar and its conversion to the energy currency of the cell, ________________________________.

!"#$%&'(&)*+,-*+!.!!# glyco- __________________, and –lysis ____________________

# first step of both ______________ and _____________________ cellular respiration

# no oxygen is required for this step

# occurs in the __________________ of the cell

# each step catalyzed by a specific ______________

# energy (2 ATP) is required to start this process, and 4 ATP is eventually produced

# net production of glycolysis: _____ ATP, while 2 NADH are also produced

# during this stage, the 6-carbon glucose is broken down into two (2) __________________

molecules (a 3-carbon compound)

NOTE: Glycolysis occurs whether oxygen is present or not; however, the following 3 stages will only occur only if oxygen is present. The fate of pyruvate in anaerobic cellular respiration will be dealt with in its own lesson later.

Net tally of products from glycolysis per glucose ATP 2 NADH 2

!"#$%"#&'$()*&+,*#! !Source: BLM Biology 12, Nelson (2002)

Copyright © 2003 Nelson Chapter 2 Cellular Respiration 43

Student Worksheet

Glycolytic PathwayLSM 2.2-1

2

1. Glucose ActivationA.

B.

C.

E.

F.

D.

During the first four steps of glycolysis, are transferred to via , where

is converted to . The end product is .

2. Sugar Splitting gets split into two

fragments,

and .

then gets converted into .

3. Oxidation

Both molecules of become oxidized using

, which becomes . This process

releases , which is used to attach to the sugars, making them .

4. Formation of ATP

During the last four steps of glycolysis, the

groups of the molecules are transferred to ,

creating . This is done via the process of .

2

2

2

2

carbon oxygen phosphate

Fill in the blanks on the right side of the worksheet and in the steps of glycolysis. Also fill in the molecule names A to F.

Copyright © 2003 Nelson Chapter 2 Cellular Respiration 43

Student Worksheet

Glycolytic PathwayLSM 2.2-1

2

1. Glucose ActivationA.

B.

C.

E.

F.

D.

During the first four steps of glycolysis, are transferred to via , where

is converted to . The end product is .

2. Sugar Splitting gets split into two

fragments,

and .

then gets converted into .

3. Oxidation

Both molecules of become oxidized using

, which becomes . This process

releases , which is used to attach to the sugars, making them .

4. Formation of ATP

During the last four steps of glycolysis, the

groups of the molecules are transferred to ,

creating . This is done via the process of .

2

2

2

2

carbon oxygen phosphate

Fill in the blanks on the right side of the worksheet and in the steps of glycolysis. Also fill in the molecule names A to F.

Cellular Respiration: Glycolysis Structure of Mitochondria Electron Micrograph of Mitochondria

!"#$%&'(&)*+,-*+!.!"#$%"&'()$*+"– pp. 97 to top of 99!There are 10 complex reactions in the glycolytic pathway. A student in Grade 12 Biology should be able to answer the following questions, as you read pp. 97-99 (stop at the section on Mitochondria).

1) What is the 3-carbon molecule that is produced by the glycolytic pathway?

2) a) How many ATP molecules are used in the first five steps of glycolysis?

b) What is added to the original glucose molecule?

3) Fructose 1,6-biphosphate is split into two compounds in steps 4 and 5. What compounds are produced? Short-forms are sufficient.

4) How many molecules of glyceraldehydes 3-phosphate (G3P) are produced by the end of step 5?

5) During steps 6 to 10: a. How many NADH molecules are produced? ______ b. How many ATP molecules are produced? ______ c. What mechanism is used to form ATP from ADP in glycolysis? d. What compound is formed by converting phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)?

6) What is the overall chemical equation for glycolysis? Use the textbook to help you.

HWK: " read pp. 94-99 (stop at Mitochondria section) " complete questions #1-5, 9 and 10 on pg. 115

Note: you are not responsible for the individual names of each compound in the 10 steps of glycolysis. However, you should be familiar with the following compounds and understand their importance within the glycolytic pathway: Glucose, glucose 6-phosphate (G6P), G3P, PEP, pyruvate, NAD+, NADH, ADP, ATP

!"#$%&'(&)*+,-#"%&./01#"023!

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!"#$%&'(&)*%+",-.&/,#.01-,"&23#4.&#.5&23%64-06-040!

!Recall: the electron transport chain (short-form: ETC) is where we obtain the big payoff of ATP from oxidative phosphorylation. The energy carriers (NADH and FADH2) reduced in the first three stages will enter the ETC. Let’s begin our look at the final stage of aerobic cellular respiration…

1) Explain how energy is obtained to move protons (H+ ) from the matrix? 2) Where do the protons go? ________________________ 3) What molecule is the most electronegative in the ETC? _____________________

4) Which of these protein complexes are mobile? _______________ and __________________ 5) Using the diagram (Figure 19), where do the two (2) electrons originally come from?

Note: Using the textbook pages 103-110, complete the worksheet by filling in the blanks and answering the questions. I will go through this worksheet next class.

_________ and ______________ eventually transfer the hydrogen atom electrons they carry to a series of compounds, mainly proteins, which are associated with the ________ mitochondrial membrane, called the __________________ __________________ _________________ (ETC) (Figure 18). The components of the ETC are arranged in order of increasing ____________________, with the weakest attractor of electrons (NADH _________________) at the beginning of the chain and the strongest (__________________ ________________) at the end. Each component is alternately ______________ (by gaining two electrons from the component before it in the chain) and __________________ (by losing the two electrons to the component after it in the chain).

This final electron acceptor strips two electrons from the final protein complex in the chain and, together with two ______________ from the matrix, forms _______________. Order of these complexes: NADH dehydrogenase, ubiquinone (Q), the cytochrome b-c1 complex, cytochrome c, and cytochrome oxidase.

Fill-in-the-blank

Fill-in-the-blank

The electron transport process is highly exergonic. Describe the conversion of energy during this process: Describe the difference between NADH and FADH2 in the way they transfer their electrons to the ETC: The result is that _____ ATP are formed per FADH2 and ________ ATP molecules are formed per NADH. Also, a distinction must be made between the NADH molecules produced in glycolysis and those produced in the pyruvate oxidation step and Krebs cycle. NADH produced by glycolysis in the cytoplasm (cytosolic NADH) will only produce ______ ATP molecules as it must pass on its electrons to FAD as the NADH cannot cross the ___________ membrane.

6) How do the folds of the inner membrane help in aerobic cellular respiration?

!"#$%&'$&'%'()*+(,-%+).%/#(012(34*."#'%'!

!

!!7) Why is the inner mitochondrial membrane considered to be like a battery?

The _______________ that accumulate in the intermembrane space of the mitochondrion during electron transport create an ___________________________ gradient. This gradient has two components: an electrical component caused by a higher _____________ charge in the intermembrane space than in the matrix, and a chemical component caused by a higher concentration of ___________ in the intermembrane space than in the matrix.

Fill-in-the-blank

8) What is the importance of oxygen in this process?

!"#$%#&'()*$!"#$%&'(%)*+,*"&-.+/'0'*1"+23""(! 9) Give two possible reasons why the actual ATP yield is less than the theoretical ATP yield of 36: 1) 2) Note: for this class, we use the theoretical value of 36 ATP when summarizing aerobic cellular respiration.

Unable to diffuse through the ________________________ bilayer, the protons are forced to pass through special proton channels associated with the enzyme _______________________ (ATPase). The free energy stored in the electrochemical gradient produces a _____________________________________ (PMF) that moves protons through an ATPase complex. As _________________ move through the ATPase complex, energy is provided to produce ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) in the matrix (Figure 21). After they are formed by chemiosmosis, the ______ molecules are transported through both mitochondrial membranes by facilitated diffusion into the ________________, where they are used to drive ____________________ processes, such as movement, active transport, and synthesis reactions throughout the cell. The continual production of ATP by _____________________ is dependent on the establishment and maintenance of an _____ reservoir.

Fill-in-the-blank

!"#$%&'()*&+(,-'&%)./+0()+(1)./#20',2',0,!

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

Cellular Energetics Activity #2 page 6

ELECTRON TRANSPORT & OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION

Change in Potential Energy of the ETC

NADH

NADH dehydrogenase

complex

FMN

FeS

51.0 kJ

UbiQ

41.3 kJ

Cyt b

Cyt c1

FeS

Cyt cCyt a

99.5 kJ

O2

250

200

150

100

50

0

Cytochrome b/c1

complex

Cytochromeoxidasecomplex

Change in

Potential Energy

(kJ)

Cyt a3

Summary of the ETC Chain

ATP Synthase – a molecular motor The “a” and “b” polypeptide units anchor the enzyme in the membrane. The ring of “c” units rotate counter clockwise as protons flow through the enzyme. The “alpha” and “beta” polypeptide units protrude into the mitochondrial matrix and constitute the catalytic portion of the enzyme. The flow of protons through the enzyme causes the units to turn. The turning causes physical compression of the active site so that ADP and phosphate can join.

NAD+

NADH

NADH dehydrogenase

complex

Ubiquinone

cytochrome b/c 1

complex

cytochromec

cytochromea/a3

complex 1/2 O2

1/2 O2- + 2H+ H2O

2 H+

FADH2

FAD

1+0(;$-!<+//,/&0!*+29$0&'$()!=!1)!"5+05$+>!

Cellular Energetics A

ctivity #2 page 7

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!"##$#%&'(")*+&%,+-.'("/+"0'1$"),+-.)!1. What is the purpose of cellular respiration?

2. Write out the equation for aerobic cellular respiration.

3. What is a redox reaction? What is oxidation? Reduction?

4. Why is NADH called an electron shuttle bus?

5. What are the two mechanisms in which ATP is generated? Briefly describe each mechanism.

6. What are the ‘four’ steps of cellular respiration? Briefly explain what occurs in each phase and where it occurs.

7. Make a comparison chart to show how much ATP is produced from substrate level phosphorylation versus oxidative phosphorylation (use the equivalent amount of ATP for coenzymes).

8. Draw a labeled sketch of a mitochondrion, indicating where each part of cellular respiration occurs.

9. What are the two main phases of glycolysis?

10. What are the substances that enter this stage? What gets oxidized? Reduced?

11. What happens to glucose during the process of glycolysis?

12. What are the final products?

13. What happens to pyruvic acid before it enters the Krebs cycle?

14. What happens to the substance entering the Krebs cycle?

15. What products are formed? How many for one molecule of glucose?

16. Where does the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis occur?

17. How is the electron transport chain organized, and what is its purpose? Draw a labeled sketch that shows all of the protein complexes, energy molecules, electron movement, protons and location.

18. What substances get oxidized? Reduced?

19. What happens to the electrons as they are passed along the electron chain?

20. How is ATP generated in the ETC?

21. At what point on the ETC do the electrons stop from getting passed on?

22. What happens to theses electrons after that point?

23. When does fermentation occur?

24. What is being oxidized and reduced in fermentation? Contrast this to pyruvate oxidation and Krebs cycle phase.

25. What are the differences between alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid fermentation?