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Question 1Question 1

You are developing a public service You are developing a public service announcement to persuade people announcement to persuade people to do something and have decided to do something and have decided to apply Social Norm Theory. What to apply Social Norm Theory. What type of social norm would you want type of social norm would you want to use and why?to use and why?

Injunctive norms, subjective norms, Injunctive norms, subjective norms, moral norms. These have more moral norms. These have more impact on our behavior.impact on our behavior.

How are cognitive dissonance theory How are cognitive dissonance theory and Social Judgment Theory related?and Social Judgment Theory related?

In this answer, you will have to In this answer, you will have to explain both theories to make the explain both theories to make the connection clear. Use diagrams if connection clear. Use diagrams if necessary. necessary.

The key point is that dissonance is The key point is that dissonance is the key to persuasion in social the key to persuasion in social judgment theoryjudgment theory

What is the basis for “perception is What is the basis for “perception is reality” in terms of comm. theory?reality” in terms of comm. theory?

Based in constructivism. We all Based in constructivism. We all create our own ‘reality’ because we create our own ‘reality’ because we modify our perceptions based on our modify our perceptions based on our past experience. past experience.

““You can’t every compare what is You can’t every compare what is seen with what really is.”seen with what really is.”

What does that mean and how is it What does that mean and how is it relevant to communication?relevant to communication?

We cannot get outside our own We cannot get outside our own perceptions to objectively ‘see’ perceptions to objectively ‘see’ reality. It means that what we ‘see’ reality. It means that what we ‘see’ and what our intended audiences and what our intended audiences ‘see’ will always differ to some ‘see’ will always differ to some degree. degree.

How does cost-benefit analysis apply to How does cost-benefit analysis apply to designing a communication strategy.designing a communication strategy.

You have to create a communication You have to create a communication strategy that is perceived to have a strategy that is perceived to have a greater ratio of benefit to cost than greater ratio of benefit to cost than other options at that time and place. other options at that time and place.

That benefit must be obvious on first That benefit must be obvious on first glance.glance.

The actual benefit to cost ratio must The actual benefit to cost ratio must at least meet the perception. at least meet the perception.

Information or topic driven approach or Information or topic driven approach or message or schema-driven approach?message or schema-driven approach?

Information driven is organized and driven Information driven is organized and driven by topic. Organized like an encyclopedia.by topic. Organized like an encyclopedia.

Message driven is organized by message Message driven is organized by message or schema – organized the same way our or schema – organized the same way our brain organizes information.brain organizes information.

So reduce cognitive load with schema-So reduce cognitive load with schema-driven approach.driven approach.

What is Symbolic Interactionism?What is Symbolic Interactionism?

Symbolic interactionism is essentially Symbolic interactionism is essentially interacting through a shared set of interacting through a shared set of symbols. symbols.

It implies that we cannot think It implies that we cannot think without those shared symbols. without those shared symbols.

Key Tenet of ConstructivismKey Tenet of Constructivism

We actively construct knowledge by We actively construct knowledge by blending sensory input, including blending sensory input, including words, with what we already know words, with what we already know based on our past experience. based on our past experience.

Continuum of ConstructivismContinuum of Constructivism

RadicalRadical

CognitiveCognitiveTenets #1 & #2Tenets #1 & #2 #3#3

#4#4

SocialSocial

Basic tenets of constructivismBasic tenets of constructivism

1.1. Knowledge is not passively Knowledge is not passively accumulated, but rather is the accumulated, but rather is the result of active cognizing by the result of active cognizing by the individual.individual.

2.2. Cognition is an adaptive process Cognition is an adaptive process that functions to make an that functions to make an individual’s behavior more viable individual’s behavior more viable given a particular environment.given a particular environment.

Cognitive ConstructivismCognitive Constructivism

Accepts the two basic tenets, but Accepts the two basic tenets, but believes you can still construct believes you can still construct knowledge that reflects an objective knowledge that reflects an objective reality. reality.

Social and Radical ConstructivistsSocial and Radical Constructivists

Accept first two tenets.Accept first two tenets.

3.3. Cognition organizes and makes Cognition organizes and makes sense of one’s experience, and is sense of one’s experience, and is not a process to render an accurate not a process to render an accurate representation of reality.representation of reality.

Whatever worldview we construct, Whatever worldview we construct, we do not have any means to we do not have any means to validate it. validate it.

Sextus Empiricus c. 200 CESextus Empiricus c. 200 CE

““Objectivity is the delusion that Objectivity is the delusion that observations can be made without observations can be made without an observer.”an observer.”

Heinz von FoersterHeinz von Foerster

Social ConstructivistsSocial Constructivists

4.Knowing has roots both in 4.Knowing has roots both in biological/neurological construction biological/neurological construction and in social, cultural and language-and in social, cultural and language-based interactions.based interactions.

Lev VygotskyLev Vygotsky George Herbert MeadGeorge Herbert Mead Ludwig WittgensteinLudwig Wittgenstein

Lev Vygotsky Lev Vygotsky 1896-19341896-1934

18501850 19001900 19501950 20002000

18591859 Origin ofOrigin of

The SpeciesThe Species

Vygotsky’s stanceVygotsky’s stance

You don’t learn to become social; you You don’t learn to become social; you become social to learn. become social to learn.

Learn from the outside in. Learn from the outside in.

George Herbert Mead George Herbert Mead 1863-19311863-1931

18501850 19001900 19501950 20002000

18591859 Origin ofOrigin of

The SpeciesThe Species

Mead’s stanceMead’s stance

There is not subjective reality or There is not subjective reality or objective reality, only inter-subjective objective reality, only inter-subjective reality. reality.

Symbolic InteractionismSymbolic Interactionism

1.1. Humans act toward people and Humans act toward people and things based on meanings they things based on meanings they assign to those people and things.assign to those people and things.

2.2. Meaning arises out of social Meaning arises out of social interaction that people have with interaction that people have with each other in the exchange of each other in the exchange of symbols.symbols.

3.3. An individual’s interpretation of An individual’s interpretation of symbols is modified by their own symbols is modified by their own thought process.thought process.

Key pointsKey points

We can’t think reflexively before we We can’t think reflexively before we have symbols to think with. have symbols to think with.

Language is the software that Language is the software that activates the mind, so we need to activates the mind, so we need to become social to learn. become social to learn.

Mead’s great contributionMead’s great contribution

Idea that we can put ourselves in the Idea that we can put ourselves in the role of others, which is responsible role of others, which is responsible for the development of self-concept for the development of self-concept and reflexive thought. and reflexive thought.

Self is a function of language. Self is a function of language. Without language, we have no self-Without language, we have no self-concept. concept.

Ludwig WittgensteinLudwig Wittgenstein1889-19511889-1951

18501850 19001900 19501950 20002000

18591859 Origin ofOrigin of

The SpeciesThe Species

StanceStance

We can’t know anything outside of We can’t know anything outside of language – it is all we have to think language – it is all we have to think with.with.

Fritz MaulthnerFritz Maulthner

Language is an instrument designed Language is an instrument designed to satisfy a multiplicity of human to satisfy a multiplicity of human needs. As such, it is an imperfect tool needs. As such, it is an imperfect tool for exploring and depicting reality. for exploring and depicting reality.

““Truth is not to be found inside the Truth is not to be found inside the head of an individual person, it is head of an individual person, it is born between people collectively born between people collectively searching for truth, in the process searching for truth, in the process of their dialogic interaction.”of their dialogic interaction.”

Mikhail BakhtinMikhail Bakhtin

Key QuestionKey Question

How would a human develop How would a human develop cognitively without language?cognitively without language?

Develop a personal symbol system Develop a personal symbol system that would allow them to think at a that would allow them to think at a reasonably high level.reasonably high level.

EinsteinEinstein

MozartMozart

What does work of Einstein and What does work of Einstein and Mozart Suggest?Mozart Suggest?

That perhaps knowledge is translated That perhaps knowledge is translated into language rather than being into language rather than being defined by it.defined by it.

Baggage of LanguageBaggage of Language

An individual’s subjective reality is An individual’s subjective reality is overlain by society’s collective overlain by society’s collective subjective reality.subjective reality.

Emile Emile DurkheimDurkheim

What about self-image and What about self-image and reflexive thought?reflexive thought?

I believe you would develop some I believe you would develop some type of self-image based on the type of self-image based on the language of gestures used by other language of gestures used by other biological organisms.biological organisms.

Where does that take me?Where does that take me?

Ernst von GlasersfeldErnst von Glasersfeld1917-1917-

18501850 19001900 19501950 20002000

18591859 Origin ofOrigin of

The SpeciesThe Species

An epiphany!An epiphany!

Understanding another language is Understanding another language is not just about learning the not just about learning the vocabulary, syntax and grammar. It vocabulary, syntax and grammar. It required a different way of thinking required a different way of thinking about things – a different way of about things – a different way of seeing, feeling and experiencing the seeing, feeling and experiencing the world. world.

Sapir-Whorf HypothesisSapir-Whorf Hypothesis

How people see and think about the How people see and think about the world is to a large extent shaped by world is to a large extent shaped by their language, which is shaped by their language, which is shaped by their environment. their environment.

Also known as linguistic relativity. Also known as linguistic relativity.

““In order to discover whether a In order to discover whether a picture is true or false, we must picture is true or false, we must compare it with reality.”compare it with reality.”

Ludwig Wittgenstein, 1933Ludwig Wittgenstein, 1933

Each language entails and reflects Each language entails and reflects a conceptually different world.a conceptually different world.

Radical ConstructivismRadical Constructivism

Accepts the first three tenets – active Accepts the first three tenets – active construction, cognition as an construction, cognition as an adaptive tool and subjective realities.adaptive tool and subjective realities.

Does not deny the existence of an Does not deny the existence of an objective reality. objective reality.

Plays down the importance of social Plays down the importance of social influence. influence.

Continuum of ConstructivismContinuum of Constructivism

RadicalRadical

CognitiveCognitive SymbolicSymbolicTenets #1 & #2Tenets #1 & #2 #3 #3

#4#4

SocialSocial

Symbolic ConstructivismSymbolic Constructivism

We use symbols to actively construct We use symbols to actively construct our schemas, whether those symbols our schemas, whether those symbols are personal or shared. are personal or shared.

How does that relate?How does that relate?

We interact with symbols – both We interact with symbols – both language and others – to construct a language and others – to construct a shared reality. shared reality.

It combines semiotics – the use of It combines semiotics – the use of symbols – and symbolic symbols – and symbolic interactionism – the sharing of interactionism – the sharing of symbols. symbols.

How does that affect How does that affect communication?communication?

You must find/create a shared set of You must find/create a shared set of symbols in order to communicate. symbols in order to communicate.

What you communicate will never be What you communicate will never be exactly what you are envisioning exactly what you are envisioning because of the unique background of because of the unique background of others. others.

Communication ProcessCommunication Process

SemioticsSemiotics

The use of non-verbal symbolsThe use of non-verbal symbols

Tying a yellow ribbon around a treeTying a yellow ribbon around a tree

Professional wrestlingProfessional wrestling

TerminologyTerminology

Signifier (image)Signifier (image)

Signified (concept)Signified (concept)

Sign (signifier plus the sign = Sign (signifier plus the sign = schema or meaning)schema or meaning)

Signs in other culturesSigns in other cultures

What are some signs unique to your What are some signs unique to your culture that serve in a culture that serve in a communicative capacity?communicative capacity?

What are some experiences where What are some experiences where you have misinterpreted signs here?you have misinterpreted signs here?

How does semiotics affect us?How does semiotics affect us?

Think about the ELM – peripheral Think about the ELM – peripheral route. We use symbols to give us route. We use symbols to give us clues. Make sure you give the right clues. Make sure you give the right symbols. symbols.

Everything sends a Everything sends a messagemessage

Make sure all symbols are Make sure all symbols are consistentconsistent

PresentationPresentation

Cultivation TheoryCultivation Theory

Quanzhi and BinQuanzhi and Bin

Cultivation TheoryCultivation Theory

Could also call this ‘brainwashing’Could also call this ‘brainwashing’

Basically, people who watch TV Basically, people who watch TV believe that the world is meaner and believe that the world is meaner and more violent than it is. more violent than it is.

What groups of people would TV What groups of people would TV watchers be fearful of? watchers be fearful of?

QuoteQuote

I have been brainwashed by TV and I have been brainwashed by TV and the media in the United States. I can the media in the United States. I can see it now - all of my stereotypes are see it now - all of my stereotypes are coming out. I feel like I am in a movie coming out. I feel like I am in a movie about terrorists. about terrorists.

Brendan Bucy, Dubai airport, 2006Brendan Bucy, Dubai airport, 2006

TV watchers fearTV watchers fear

ForeignersForeigners Non-caucasiansNon-caucasians People who dress like terroristsPeople who dress like terrorists ArabsArabs HispanicsHispanics Blue collar workersBlue collar workers African AmericansAfrican Americans

What does this mean What does this mean from a communication from a communication

perspective? perspective?

TV has created and cultivated TV has created and cultivated schemasschemas

Instead of starting with an existing Instead of starting with an existing schema and building your point, you schema and building your point, you may have to destroy an existing may have to destroy an existing schema and build a new one. schema and build a new one.

Very difficult because people don’t Very difficult because people don’t like to be proven wrong. like to be proven wrong.

How do you do it?How do you do it?

Think of social judgment theoryThink of social judgment theory Think of cognitive dissonanceThink of cognitive dissonance Make headway a little bit at a timeMake headway a little bit at a time

Or, provide evidence so contradictory Or, provide evidence so contradictory that it shatters the schema. that it shatters the schema.