Psychology TodaySchools & Careers

Psychology Today: A Thriving Science and ProfessionPsychology is the science that

studies behavior and the physiological and cognitive processes that underlie it, and it is the profession that applies the accumulated knowledge of this science to practical problems.

Research: Seven major areasApplied Psychology: Four major

areas

Fig 1.9 – Major research areas in contemporary psychology. Most research psychologists specialize in one of the seven broad areas described here. The figures in the pie chart reflect the percentage of academic and research psychologists belonging to APA who identify each area as their primary interest.

Fig 1.10 – Principal professional specialties in contemporary psychology. Most psychologies who deliver professional services to the public specialize in one of the four areas described here. The figures in the pie chart reflect the percentage of APA members delivering professional services who identify each area as their chief specialty. (Based on 2000 APA Directory Survey)

Schools of Psychology

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

View of Human Nature:Behavior is primarily shaped by

learning

Perspective

What Determines Behavior:Stimulus cues and our history of

rewards and punishments

Questions for Study:What are the “laws” that associate

our responses with stimulus conditions?

How can they be applied to improve the human condition?

Biological

Psychodynamic

Sociocultural

Cognitive

Behavioral

Humanistic

Evolutionary/Sociobiological

BehaviorismJohn B. Watson (1878-1958):

United StatesFounder of Behaviorism

Behavior = overt or observable responses or activitiesRadical reorientation of psychology as a

science of observable behaviorStudy of consciousness abandoned

Behaviorism Revisited: B.F. SkinnerB.F. Skinner (1904-1990): United

States Environmental factors determine behaviorResponses that lead to positive outcomes are

repeatedResponses that lead to negative outcomes are

not repeatedBeyond Freedom and DignityMore controversy regarding free will

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

View of Human Nature:We are driven by dark forces of

the unconscious

Perspective

What Determines Behavior:Unconscious needs, conflicts,

repressed memories, and childhood experiences

Question for Study:How does the energy generated in

the unconscious mind motivate our actions and account for

mental disorders?

Biological

Psychodynamic

Sociocultural

Cognitive

Behavioral

Humanistic

Evolutionary/Sociobiological

Sigmund Freud and the Concept of the Unconscious MindSigmund Freud (1856-1939):

Austria

Emphasis on unconscious = outside awareness

Unconscious conflict related to sexuality plays a central role in behavior

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

View of Human Nature:Emphasizes human growth,

freedom, and potential

Perspective

What Determines Behavior:The influence of self-concept, perceptions, and interpersonal relationships, and on need for

personal growth

Question for Study:How can humanistic theory be

applied to enhance mental health through counseling and therapy?

Biological

Psychodynamic

Sociocultural

Cognitive

Behavioral

Humanistic

Evolutionary/Sociobiological

Opposition to Psychoanalysis & BehaviorismCharges that both were de-

humanizingDiverse opposition groups got

together to form a loose alliance

A new school of thought emerged - HumanismLed by Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) and

Carl Rogers (1902-1987)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

View of Human Nature:People are information-

processing systems

What Determines Behavior:Mental interpretation of our

experience

Question for Study:How do mental processes,

including sensation, perception, learning, memory, and language,

influence behavior?

Perspective

Biological

Psychodynamic

Sociocultural

Cognitive

Behavioral

Humanistic

Evolutionary/Sociobiological

CognitionCognition = mental processes

involved in acquiring knowledge

1950’s and 60’s – Piaget, Chomsky, and SimonApplication of scientific methods to studying

internal mental eventsCognitive psychology: the new dominant

perspective?

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

View of Human Nature:We are complex systems that

respond to hereditary and environmental influences

What Determines Behavior:Neural structures, biochemistry,

and inborn responses to external cues

Question for Study:How do heredity, the nervous

system, and the endocrine system produce behavior and

mental processes?

Perspective

Biological

Psychodynamic

Sociocultural

Cognitive

Behavioral

Humanistic

Evolutionary/Sociobiological

Biological PsychologyBiological perspective

James Olds (1956) Electrical stimulation of the brain evokes emotional

responses in animals

Roger Sperry (1981) Left and right brain specialization

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Perspective

View of Human Nature:Behavior is developed and

adapted over time

What Determines Behavior:Natural selection

Question for Study:How do behavior and individual

differences develop and change?

Biological

Psychodynamic

Sociocultural

Cognitive

Behavioral

Humanistic

Evolutionary/Sociobiological

Evolutionary PsychologyBuss, Daly & Wilson, Cosmides & Tooby – 80’s and 90’s

Studied natural selection of mating preferences, jealousy, aggression, sexual behavior, language, decision making, personality, and development

Thought provoking perspective gaining in influence, but not without criticism

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

View of Human Nature:People are social animals, so

human behavior must be interpreted in social context

Perspective

What Determines Behavior:Cultures, social norms and

expectations, social learning

Questions for Study:Under what conditions is the social and cultural situation

predictive of behavior?How are social influences different

across cultures?

Biological

Psychodynamic

Sociocultural

Cognitive

Behavioral

Humanistic

Evolutionary/Sociobiological

Contemporary Psychology: Cultural DiversityEthnocentrism – viewing one’s own

group as superior and as the standard for judging

Historically: middle and upper class white males studying middle and upper class white males

1980’s – increased interest in how cultural factors influence behavior

growing global interdependenceincreased cultural diversity

Careers & Themes

Fig 1.8 – Employment of psychologists by setting. The work settings in which psychologists are employed have become very diverse. Survey data on the primary employment setting of APA members indicates that one-third are in private practice (compared to 12% in 1976) and only 28% work in colleges and universities (compared to 47% in 1976). These data may slightly underestimate the percentage of psychologists in academia, given the competition between APA and APS to represent research psychologists. (Based on 2000 APA Directory Survey)

Studying Psychology: Seven Organizing ThemesThemes related to psychology as a

field of study:Psychology is empirical (Theme 1),

theoretically diverse (Theme 2), and it evolves in a sociohistorical context (Theme 3).

Themes related to psychology’s subject matter:Behavior is determined by multiple causes

(Theme 4), shaped by cultural heritage (Theme 5), and influenced jointly by heredity and environment (Theme 6).

Finally, people’s experience of the world is highly subjective (Theme 7).