science and islam muzaffar iqbal

8/2/2019 Science and Islam Muzaffar Iqbal

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ScienceandIslam


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RecentTitlesinGreenwoodGuidestoScienceandReligion

ScienceandReligion,14501900:FromCopernicustoDarwin

RichardG.

Olson

ScienceandReligion,400B.C.toA.D.1550:FromAristotle

toCopernicus

EdwardGrant

ScienceandNonbelief

TanerEdis

JudaismandScience:AHistoricalIntroduction


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NoahJ.Efron


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ScienceandIslam

MUZAFFARIQBAL

GreenwoodGuidestoScienceandReligion

RichardOlson,SeriesEditor

GreenwoodPress

Westport,ConnecticutLondon


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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData

Iqbal,Muzaffar.Scienceandislam/MuzaffarIqbal.

p.cm.(Greenwoodguidesto

scienceandreligion)Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.ISBN-13:9780313335761(alk.paper)ISBN-10:

0313335761(alk.paper)1.Islamandscience.I.Title.BP190.5.S3I6722007297.265dc222007000423

BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationDataisavailable.


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CopyrightC

2007byMuzaffarIqbalAllrightsreserved.Noportionofthisbookmaybereproduced,byanyprocessortechnique,

withouttheexpresswrittenconsentofthepublisher.

LibraryofCongress

CatalogCardNumber:2007000423ISBN-13:9780313335761ISBN-10:0313335761

Firstpublishedin

2007

GreenwoodPress,88PostRoadWest,Westport,


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CT06881AnimprintofGreenwoodPublishingGroup,Inc.www.greenwood.com

PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica

Thepaper

usedinthisbookcomplieswiththePermanentPaperStandardissuedbythe

NationalInformationStandardsOrganization(Z39.481984).

10987654321

Theauthor

andthepublishergratefullyacknowledgepermissiontoexcerptmaterialfrom


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thefollowingsources:

YaqubibnIshaqal-Kindi,OnFirstPhilosophy(fial-Falsafahal-Ula).TranslatedbyAlfred

L.Ivry.Albany:State

UniversityofNewYorkPress,1974,pp.7075.Reprintedbypermissionofthe

StateUniversityofNewYorkPress.Allrightsreserved.IbnSina-al-BiruniCorrespondence,al-Asilah

wal-Ajwibah.TranslatedbyRafikBerjakandMuzaffarIqbal,Islamand


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Science,Vol.1,Nos.1and2,2003,pp.9198and253-260.CourtesyoftheCenterforIslamandScience.

AbuAli

al-HusaynibnAbdAllahIbnSina,TheCanonofMedicine(al-Qanunfiltibb).

AdaptedbyLalehBakhtiarfromthetranslationbyO.CameronGrunerandMazar

H.Shah.Chicago:KaziPublications,1999,pp.1114.Courtesyof


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theGreatBooksoftheIslamicWorld,KaziPublications.

AbuBakrMuhammadbinTufayl,HayyibnYaqzan,ed.L

eonGauthier,

Beirut,1936,pp.7078,especiallytranslatedfortheCenterforIslamandScience

byYashabTur.

Everyreasonableefforthasbeenmadetotrace

theownersofcopyrightedmaterialsinthisbook,butin


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someinstancesthishasprovenimpossible.Theauthorandpublisherwillbegladtoreceiveinformationleadingtomorecompleteacknowledgmentsinsubsequentprintings

ofthebookandinthemeantimeextendtheirapologiesforanyomissions.


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Contents

SeriesForewordviiPrefacexvAcknowledgmentsxxiiiChronologyofEventsxxv

Chapter1Introduction1Chapter2Aspects

ofIslamicScientificTradition

(theeighthtothesixteenthcenturies)9

Chapter3FacetsoftheIslamandScienceRelationship

(theeighth

tothesixteenthcenturies)29Chapter4TheMosque,the


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Laboratory,andtheMarket

(theeighthtothesixteenthcenturies)61Chapter5Islam,Transmission,andtheDeclineofIslamic

Science103Chapter6IslamandModernScience:TheColonialEra

(18001950)131Chapter7IslamandModernScience:ContemporaryIssues159PrimarySources

189AnnotatedBibliography213Index227


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SeriesForeword

Fornearly2,500years,someconservativemembersofsocietieshaveexpressedconcernabouttheactivitiesofthosewhosought

tofindanaturalisticexplanationfornaturalphenomena.In429BCE,forexample,

thecomicplaywright,AristophanesparodiedSocratesassomeonewhostudiedthephenomenaof

theatmosphere,turningtheawe-inspiringthunderwhichhadseemedto


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expressthewrathofZeusintonothingbutthefartingoftheclouds.Suchactions,Aristophanesargued,wereblasphemousandwouldunderminealltradition,

law,andcustom.AmongearlyChristianspokespersonsthereweresome,suchasTertullian,

whoalsocriticizedthosewhosoughttounderstandthenaturalworldonthe

groundsthattheypersistinapplyingtheirstudiestoa


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vainpurpose,sincetheyindulgetheircuriosityonnaturalobjects,whichtheyoughtrather[direct]totheirCreatorandGovernor.1

Inthe

twentiethcentury,thoughageneraldistrustofsciencepersistedamongsomeconservativegroups,

themostintenseoppositionwasreservedforthetheoryofevolutionbynatural

selection.Typicalofextremeantievolutioncommentsisthefollowingopinion


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offeredbyJudgeBraswellDeanoftheGeorgiaCourtofAppeals:ThismonkeymythologyofDarwinisthecauseofpermissiveness,promiscuity,pills,prophylactics,

perversions,pregnancies,abortions,pornography,pollution,poisoning,andproliferationofcrimesofalltypes.2

Itcanhardlybesurprisingthatthosecommittedtothestudy

ofnaturalphenomenarespondedtotheirdenigratorsinkind,accusing


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themofwillfulignoranceandofrepressivebehavior.Thus,whenGalileoGalileiwaswarnedagainstholdingandteachingtheCopernicansystemofastronomyas

true,hewieldedhisbrilliantlyironicpenandthrewdowna


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SeriesForeword

gauntlettoreligiousauthoritiesinanintroductoryletterTotheDiscerningReaderatthebeginningofhisgreatDialogue

ConcerningtheTwoChiefWorldSystems:

SeveralyearsAgotherewas

publishedinRomeasalutoryedictwhich,inordertoobviatethedangerous

tendenciesofourage,imposedaseasonablesilenceuponthe


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Pythagorean[andCopernican]opinionthattheearthmoves.Therewerethosewhoimpudentlyassertedthatthisdecreehaditsorigin,notinjudiciousinquiry,

butinpassionnonetoowellinformed.Complaintsweretobeheardthat

advisorswhoweretotallyunskilledatastronomicalobservationsoughtnottoclipthe

wingsofreflectiveintellectsbymeansofrashprohibitions.


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Uponhearingsuchcarpinginsolence,myzealcouldnotbecontained.3

NocontemporarydiscerningreadercouldhavemissedGalileosangerand

disdainforthoseheconsideredenemiesoffreescientificinquiry.

Even

morebitterthanGalileowasThomasHenryHuxley,oftenknownasDarwinsbulldog.

In1860,afterafamousconfrontationwiththeAnglicanBishop


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SamuelWilberforce,Huxleybemoanedthepersecutionsufferedbymanynaturalphilosophers,butthenhereflectedthatthescientistswereexactingtheirrevenge:

Extinguishedtheologianslieaboutthecradleofeveryscienceasthestrangledsnakes

besidethatofHercules;andhistoryrecordsthatwheneverscienceandorthodoxyhave

beenfairlyopposed,thelatterhasbeenforcedtoretire


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fromthelists,bleedingandcrushed,ifnotannihilated;scotchedifnotslain.4

Theimpressionleft,consideringthesecolorfulcomplaintsfromboth

sides,isthatscienceandreligionmustcontinuallybeatwarwithone

another.Thatviewoftherelationbetweenscienceandreligionwasreinforcedby

AndrewDicksonWhitesAHistoryoftheWarfareofScience


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withTheologyinChristendom,whichhasseldombeenoutofprintsinceitwaspublishedasatwo-volumeworkin1896.Whitesviewshave

shapedthelayunderstandingofscienceandreligioninteractionsformorethana

century,butrecentandmorecarefulscholarshiphasshownthatconfrontationalstancesdo

notrepresenttheviewsoftheoverwhelmingmajorityofeither


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scientificinvestigatorsorreligiousfiguresthroughouthistory.

Oneresponseamongthosewhohavewishedtodenythatconflictconstitutesthemostfrequent

relationshipbetweenscienceandreligionistoclaimthattheycannotbein

conflictbecausetheyaddresscompletelydifferenthumanneedsandthereforehavenothingto

dowithoneanother.ThiswasthepositionofImmanuel


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Kant,whoinsistedthattheworldofnaturalphenomena,withitsdependenceondeterministiccausality,isfundamentallydisjointedfromthenoumenalworldofhuman

choiceandmorality,whichconstitutesthedomainofreligion.Muchmorerecently,it


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SeriesForeword

wasthepositiontakenbyStephenJayGouldinRocksofAges:ScienceandReligionintheFullnessof

Life(1999).Gouldwrites:

I...donotunderstandwhythe

twoenterprisesshouldexperienceanyconflict.Sciencetriestodocumentthefactualcharacter

ofthenaturalworldandtodeveloptheoriesthatcoordinate


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andexplainthesefacts.Religion,ontheotherhand,operatesintheequallyimportant,bututterlydifferentrealmofhumanpurposes,meanings,andvalues.5

Inordertocapturethedisjunctionbetweenscienceandreligion,Gould

enunciatesaprincipleofNon-overlappingmagisterial,whichheidentifiesasaprincipleof

respectfulnoninterference.6

Inspiteoftheintensedesire


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ofthosewhowishtoisolatescienceandreligionfromoneanotherinordertoprotecttheautonomyofone,theother,orboth,

therearemanyreasonstobelievethattheirsisultimatelyanimpossibletask.

Oneofthecentralquestionsaddressedbymanyreligionsis,whatisthe

relationshipbetweenmembersofthehumancommunityandthenatural


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world.ThisquestionisacentralquestionaddressedinGenesis,forexample.Anyattempttorelatehumanandnaturalexistencedependsheavilyonthe

understandingofnaturethatexistswithinaculture.Sowherenatureisstudied

throughscientificmethods,scientificknowledgeisunavoidablyincorporatedintoreligiousthought.Theneed

tounderstandGenesisintermsofthedominantunderstandingsof


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naturethusgaverisetoatraditionofscientificallyinformedcommentariesonthesixdaysofcreationwhichconstitutedamajorgenreofChristian

literaturefromtheearlydaysofChristianitythroughtheRenaissance.

It

isalsowidelyunderstoodthatinrelativelysimplecultureseventhoseofearlyurban

centersthereisalowlevelofculturalspecialization,soeconomic,


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religious,andknowledgeproducingspecialtiesarehighlyintegrated.InBronzeAgeMesopotamia,forexample,agriculturalactivitiesweregovernedbothbyknowledgeofthephysical

conditionsnecessaryforsuccessfulfarmingandbyreligiousritualsassociatedwithplowing,planting,

irrigating,andharvesting.Thusreligiouspracticesandnaturalknowledgeinteractedinestablishingthe

characterandtimingoffarmingactivities.

Evenin


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verycomplexindustrialsocietieswithhighlevelsofspecializationanddivisionoflabor,thevariousculturalspecialtiesarenevercompletelyisolatedfromoneanother

andtheysharemanycommonvaluesandassumptions.Giventhelinkednatureof

virtuallyallinstitutionsinanycultureitisthecasethatwheneither

religiousorscientificinstitutionschangesubstantially,thosechangesarelikely


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toproducepressuresforchangeintheother.Itwasprobablytrue,forexample,thattheattemptsofpre-Socraticinvestigatorsofnature,withtheir

emphasisonuniformitiesin


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SeriesForeword

thenaturalworldandapparentexamplesofeventssystematicallydirectedtowardparticularends,madeitdifficulttosustainbeliefs

intheoldpantheonofhuman-likeandfundamentallycapriciousOlympiangods.Butit

isequallytruethattheattemptstounderstandnaturepromotedanewnotion

ofthedivineanotionthatwasbothmonotheisticandtranscendent,


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ratherthanpolytheisticandimmanentandanotionthatfocusedonbothjusticeandintellectratherthanpowerandpassion.ThusearlyGreeknaturalphilosophy

undoubtedlyplayedarolenotsimplyinchallenging,butalsointransformingGreek

religioussensibilities.

Transformingpressuresdonotalwaysrunfromscientificto

religiousdomains,moreover.DuringtheRenaissance,therewasadramatic


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changeamongChristianintellectualsfromonethatfocusedonthecontemplationofGodsworkstoonethatfocusedontheresponsibilityoftheChristian

forcaringforhisfellowhumans.Theactivelifeofservicetohumankind,

ratherthanthecontemplativelifeofreflectiononGodscharacterandworks,now

becametheChristianidealformany.Asaconsequenceof


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thisnewfocusontheactivelife,Renaissanceintellectualsturnedawayfromthethen-dominantAristotelianviewofscience,whichsawtheinabilityoftheoretical

sciencestochangetheworldasapositivevirtue.Theyreplacedthisunderstanding

withanewviewofnaturalknowledge,promotedinthewritingsofmen

suchasJohannAndreaeinGermanyandFrancisBaconin


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England,whichviewednaturalknowledgeassignificantonlybecauseitgavehumankindtheabilitytomanipulatetheworldtoimprovethequalityoflife.

Naturalknowledgewouldhenceforthbeprizedbymanybecauseitconferredpowerover

thenaturalworld.Modernsciencethustookonadistinctlyutilitarianshapeat

leastinpartinresponsetoreligiouschanges.


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Neithertheconflictmodelnortheclaimofdisjunction,then,accuratelyreflecttheoftenintenseandfrequentlysupportiveinteractionsbetweenreligiousinstitutions,practices,ideas,

andattitudesontheonehand,andscientificinstitutions,practices,ideas,andattitudes

ontheother.Withoutdenyingtheexistenceoftensions,theprimarygoalof

thevolumesofthisseriesistoexplorethevast


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domainofmutuallysupportiveand/ortransformativeinteractionsbetweenscientificinstitutions,practices,andknowledgeandreligiousinstitutions,practices,andbeliefs.Asecondgoalisto

offertheopportunitytomakecomparisonsacrossspace,time,andculturalconfiguration.The

serieswillcovertheentireglobe,mostmajorfaithtraditions,hunter-gatherersocietiesin

AfricaandOceaniaaswellasadvancedindustrialsocietiesin


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theWest,andthespanoftimefromclassicalantiquitytothepresent.Eachvolumewillfocusonaparticularculturaltradition,aparticular

faithcommunity,aparticulartimeperiod,oraparticularscientificdomain,sothat

eachreadercanenterthefascinatingstoryofscienceandreligioninteractionsfrom

afamiliarperspective.


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SeriesForeword

Furthermore,eachvolumewillincludenotonlyasubstantialnarrativeorinterpretivecore,butalsoasetofprimary

documentsthatwillallowthereadertoexplorerelevantevidence,anextensiveannotated

bibliographytoleadthecurioustoreliablescholarshiponthetopic,anda

chronologyofeventstohelpthereaderkeeptrackof


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thesequenceofeventsinvolvedandtorelatethemtomajorsocialandpoliticaloccurrences.

SofarIhaveusedthewords

scienceandreligionasifeveryoneknowsandagreesabouttheirmeaningand

asiftheywereequallyappropriatelyappliedacrossplaceandtime.Neitherof

theseassumptionsistrue.Scienceandreligionaremodernterms


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thatreflectthewaythatweintheindustrializedWestorganizeourconceptuallives.EveninthemodernWest,whatwemeanbyscience

andreligionislikelytodependonourpoliticalorientation,ourscholarlybackground,

andthefaithcommunitythatwebelongto.Thus,forexample,Marxistsand

Socialiststendtofocusontheapplicationofnaturalknowledge


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asthekeyelementindefiningscience.AccordingtotheBritishMarxistscholar,BenjaminFarrington,Scienceisthesystemofbehaviorbywhichman

hasacquiredmasteryofhisenvironment.Ithasitsoriginsintechniques...

invariousactivitiesbywhichmankeepsbodyandsoultogether.Itssource

isexperience,itsaims,practical,itsonlytest,thatit


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works.7Manyofthosewhostudynaturalknowledgeinpre-industrialsocietiesarealsoprimarilyinterestedinknowledgeasitisusedandarerelatively

openregardingthekindofentitiespositedbythedevelopersofculturallyspecific

naturalknowledgesystemsorlocalsciences.Thus,inhisZapotecScience:Farmingand

FoodintheNorthernSierraofOaxaca,RobertoGonz


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alezinsiststhat

Zapotecfarmers...certainlypracticescience,asdoesanysocietywhosemembersengageinsubsistenceactivities.Theyhypothesize,theymodel

problems,theyexperiment,theymeasureresults,andtheydistributeknowledgeamongpeersand

toyoungergenerations.Buttheytypicallyproceedfrommarkedlydifferentpremisesthatis,from

differentconceptualbasesthantheircounterpartsinindustrializedsocieties.8


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AmongthedifferentpremisesisthepresumptionofZapotecscientiststhatunobservablespiritentitiesplayasignificantroleinnaturalphenomena.

Those

morecommittedtoliberalpluralistsocietyandtowhatanthropologistslikeGonz

alezareinclinedtoidentifyascosmopolitansciencetendtofocusonscience

asasourceofobjectiveordisinterestedknowledge,disconnectedfrom


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itsuses.Moreover,theygenerallyrejectthepositingofunobservableentities,whichtheycharacterizeassupernatural.Thus,inanamicuscuriaebrieffiledin

connectionwiththe1986SupremeCourtcasethattestedLouisianaslawrequiringthe

teachingofcreationscience


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SeriesForeword

alongwithevolution,forexample,seventy-twoNobellaureates,seventeenstateacademiesofscience,andsevenotherscientificorganizationsargued

that

Scienceisdevotedtoformulatingandtestingnaturalisticexplanationsfor

naturalphenomena.Itisaprocessforsystematicallycollectingandrecordingdataabout

thephysicalworld,thencategorizingandstudyingthecollecteddata


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inanefforttoinfertheprinciplesofnaturethatbestexplaintheobservedphenomena.Scienceisnotequippedtoevaluatesupernaturalexplanationsfor

ourobservations;withoutpassingjudgementonthetruthorfalsityofsupernaturalexplanations,

scienceleavestheirconsiderationtothedomainofreligiousfaith.9

No

referencewhatsoevertousesappearsinthisdefinition.Andits


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specificunwillingnesstoadmitspeculationregardingsupernaturalentitiesintosciencereflectsasocietyinwhichculturalspecializationhasproceededmuchfartherthaninthe

villagefarmingcommunitiesofsouthernMexico.

Inasimilarway,secular

anthropologistsandsociologistsareinclinedtodefinethekeyfeaturesofreligionin

averydifferentwaythanmembersofmodernChristianfaith


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communities.Anthropologistsandsociologistsfocusoncommunalritualsandpracticesthataccompanymajorcollectiveandindividualeventsplowing,planting,harvesting,threshing,hunting,preparationforwar

(orpeace),birth,theachievementofmanhoodorwomanhood,marriage(inmanycultures),

childbirth,anddeath.Moreover,theytendtoseethemajorconsequenceofreligious

practicesastheintensificationofsocialcohesion.ManyChristians,on


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theotherhand,viewtheprimarygoaloftheirreligionaspersonalsalvation,viewingsocietyasatbestasupportivestructureandatworst

adistractionfromtheirownprivatespiritualquest.

Thus,scienceand

religionarefarfromuniformlyunderstood.Moreover,theyaremodernWesternconstructsor

categorieswhoseapplicabilitytothetemporalandspatialothermust


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alwaysbejustifiedandmustalwaysbeunderstoodastheimpositionofmodernwaysofstructuringinstitutions,behaviors,andbeliefsonacontextin

whichtheycouldnothavebeencategoriesunderstoodbytheactorsinvolved.Nonetheless

itdoesseemtousnotsimplypermissible,butprobablynecessarytouse

thesecategoriesatthestartofanyattempttounderstand


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howactorsfromothertimesandplacesinteractedwiththenaturalworldandwiththeirfellowhumans.Itmayultimatelybepossibleforhistorians

andanthropologiststounderstandthepracticesofpersonsdistantintimeand/orspace

intermsthatthosepersonsmightuse.Butthatprocessmustbeginby

likeningtheactionsofotherstothosethatweunderstand


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fromourownexperience,evenifthelikenessesareinexactandinneedofqualification.


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SeriesForeword

Theeditorsofthisserieshavenotimposedanyparticulardefinitionofscienceorofreligionontheauthors,

expectingthateachauthorwilldevelopeitherexplicitorimplicitdefinitionsthatare

appropriatetotheirownscholarlyapproachesandtothetopicsthattheyhave

beenassignedtocover.

RichardOlson


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NOTES

1.Tertullian.18961903.Adnationes,inPeterHolmes,trans.,TheAnti-NiceneFathers,ed.AlexanderRobertsandJamesDonaldson,vol.3(New

York:CharlesScribnersSons),p.133.2.ChristopherToumey,GodsOwnScientists:Creationists

inaSecularWorld.(NewBrunswick,NJ:RutgersUniversityPress,1994),p.94.

3.GalileoGalilei,DialogueConcerningtheTwoChiefWorldSystems:


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PtolemaicandCopernican(BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1953),p.5.4.JamesR.Moore,ThePost-DarwinianControversies:AStudyof

theProtestantStruggletoCometoTermswithDarwininGreatBritainand

America,18701900.(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1979),p.60.5.StephenJayGould,

RocksofAges:ScienceandReligionintheFullnessof


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Life(NewYork:TheBallantinePublishingGroup,1999),p.4.6.Ibid.,p.5.7.BenjaminFarrington,GreekScience(Baltimore:PenguinBooks,1953).8.

RobertoGonzales,ZapotecScience:FarmingandFoodintheNorthernSierraofOaxaca

(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,2001),p.3.9.72NobelLaureates,17

StateAcademiesofScienceand7OtherScientificOrganizations.Amicus


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CuriaeBriefinsupportofAppellesDonAguilardetal.v.EdwinEdwardsinhisofficialcapacityasGovernorofLouisianaetal.(1986),

p.24.


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Preface

ThestoryoftherelationshipbetweenIslamandsciencecanbetoldfromavarietyofperspectives,rangingfromthe

sociologicaltothehistoricalandfromthemetaphysicaltothescientific.Themethodology

usedforthisnarrativedepends,toalargeextent,onhowoneperceives

thenatureoftherelationshipbetweenIslamandscience.It


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is,therefore,importanttostateattheoutsetthewayinwhichthisstorywillbetoldinthisbook.

Thisquestion

ofperspectiveandmethodologyhasbecomeevenmoreimportantinrecentyears,because

theenormousamountoftheoreticalworkpublishedbyscholarsworkinginthefield

ofscienceandChristianityintheWesthasestablisheda


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certainmodelforexploringissuesrelatedtotheinteractionbetweenscienceandreligion,andthismodelseemstohavegainedgeneralacceptability.Inthis

model,whichcanbecalledthetwo-entitymodel,scienceandreligionaretaken

astwoseparateentities.Thesetwodefinitivelydistinctentitiesarethenpositedagainst

eachotherandareallowedavarietyofpossiblemodes


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ofinteraction,suchasconflict,independence,dialogue,andintegration(Barbour2000).Thisvariety,however,iswithinthetwo-entitymodel;inotherwords,theseways

ofexplainingtherelationshipbetweenscienceandreligionallassumethatscienceand

religionaretwoseparateentitiesthathaveafinitenumberofpossiblemodes

ofinteraction.Eachofthesemodescanbefurthersubdivided


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intovariouspossibilities,refined,classified,andgradedintermsofthedegreeofinteractionbeingstrongorweak,butthemodelitselfremainsanchored

inthefoundationalparadigmthatconsidersthetwophenomenaseparateanddistinctentities.

Thetwo-entitymodelhasevolvedfromaspecificcultural,historical,and

scientificbackground,anditissupportedbyepisodesfromthe


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history


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xviPreface

ofinteractionbetweenscienceandChristianityintheWesternworld.Itis,however,nowbeingclaimedthatthismodel

isuniversal,andcanbeusedtounderstandtherelationshipbetweenallscientific

traditionsandallreligions(Barbour2002).Whilethismodelhasbeencriticizedfor

certainshortcomings,thiscriticismhasforthemostpartitself


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remainedwithinthetwo-entityframework(CantorandKenny2001).Sincescienceasweunderstandittodayisgenerallytakentobethatenterpriseborne

oftheEuropeanScientificRevolutionoftheseventeenthcentury,andsincethisparticular

scientifictraditionhashadaseriesofconflictswithChristianity,theconflictmodel

hasgainedcredibilitybothinthescholarlyworldaswell


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asinthepopularmind.Furthermore,sincethesciencebegottenbytheEuropeanScientificRevolutionhasnowspreadtoallcornersoftheworld,

theparticularhistoryoftheinteractionofscienceandthefaithalsoseems

tohaveaccompaniedthisspreadofscience:theonlyadjustmentdeemednecessaryis

thesubstitutionofChristianitywithIslamorotherreligionsof


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theworld.

Thismodelisbeingappliedretroactivelytothehistoricalinteractionbetweenvariousreligionsandphilosophiesforexample,theGreek,Roman,and

Islamicscientifictraditions.Ithasthusbecomepopulartosearchout,forexample,

instancesofconflictorcooperationbetweenIslamandthescientifictraditionthatemerged

inIslamiccivilization.Thisapproachmakesnodistinctionbetweenpremodern


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andmodernscienceasfarastheirphilosophicalfoundationsareconcerned,despitethebasicdifferencesbetweentheworldviewsthatgavebirthtothetwo

scientifictraditions.

Giventhisbackground,wemustfirstaskabasic

question:isthetwo-entitymodelarisingoutofaparticularcultural,historical,and

scientificbackgroundtrulyapplicabletoallreligionsandallscientifictraditions?


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Thismodelcanonlybeapplicabletoallreligiousandscientifictraditionsif

1.naturethesubjectmatterofscienceandits

relationshipwithbothGodandhumanityisunderstoodinthesamewayin

allreligioustraditions;2.thefoundationalsourcetextsofallreligionsareparallel

totheBibleintheepistemological,metaphysical,andsemanticstructures


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theyimply;and3.scienceinallcivilizationsisanenterprisethathasremainedthesameovercenturiesastoitsfoundations.Whatwe

have,however,isasituationwhereeventhetermsciencehasnoacceptable

universaldefinition(Ratzsch,2000,11).Furthermore,neithernaturenorsciencenortheirmutual

relationshipsareconceiveduniformlyacrossreligioustraditionsorevenwithin


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asingletraditionovercenturies.Thetwo-entitymodelbecomesespeciallyproblematicwhenwe


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Prefacexvii

takeintoaccountdevelopmentsinthehistoryofphilosophyofscience.Mostphilosophersofscienceagreethatwhatwe

nowtermscienceisnotalabelthatcanbeevenlyappliedto

theinvestigationofnatureinallerasandallcivilizations:thatis,the

termscience(howeveronedefinesit)restsuponanumber


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ofconceptualpresuppositionspeculiartothatcivilization,formedbythesocial,cultural,andhistoricalethosofthatspecificcivilization.Whatisknownasscience

todayisgenerallyunderstoodtobethatenterprisebegunintheseventeenthcentury,

builtonthespectacularexperimentsandtheoriesofGalileo(15641642),Kepler(15711630),and

Newton(16421727),andlaterentrenchedinthesocial,economic,academic,


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andculturalinstitutionsofWesterncivilization.Infact,theemergenceofthisparticularscientifictraditionhaschangedtheveryconceptofscienceasit

existedpriortotheseventeenthcentury.Manycontemporaryhistoriansofsciencetendto

termscientificactivitypriortotheemergenceoftheseventeenthcenturyanddating

backtwothousandyearstoGreeceasNaturalPhilosophyrather


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thanscience.

Furthermore,theparticularhistoryoftherelationshipbetweenmodernscienceandChristianityisespeciallyinapplicabletoIslam,sincethereis

nochurchinIslam,noecclesiasticauthoritythatcouldhaveenteredintointeraction

withscientistsandscientificinstitutionsinanyformalizedconcreteform.Thereisno

PopewhocouldhaveestablishedtheHolyOfficeofthe


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Inquisition,asPopePaulIIIdidin1542,orwhocouldhaveissuedanIndexofProhibitedBooksorencyclicsonIslamandscience.

ThisisnottosaythatIslamicreligiousthoughtiswithoutitsown

internalconflictsandtherewillbemuchmentionoftheseinsubsequentchaptersbut

tounderscorethereasonswhythetwo-entitymodel,oftenused


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todescribetheinteractionofChristianityandscience,isinapplicabletothecaseofIslam(andpossiblyotherreligioustraditions).

Thereis

noknownscientistorreligiousscholarbetweentheeighthandseventeenthcenturieswho

felttheneedtodescribetherelationshipbetweenscienceandreligionbycomposing

abookonthesubject.ThisabsenceofIslamand


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scienceasadifferentiateddisciplineisproofinitselfthatduringtheselongcenturieswhentheIslamicscientifictraditionwastheworldsmostadvancedenterprise

ofsciencenoonefelttheneedtorelatethetwothroughsomeexternal

construct.Whentheneeddidarise,itaroseinanentirelydifferentcontext

andinanentirelydifferenterathatis,withthe


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arrivalofmodernscienceinthelandsofIslamduringcolonizationoftheMuslimworld.

Asmentioned,Islamdoesnotviewnature

asaself-subsistingentitythatcanbestudiedinisolationfromitsall-embracing

viewofGod,humanity,andthecosmologicalsettinginwhichhumanhistoryis

unfolding.Furthermore,inIslamicclassificationofknowledge,sciencethedisciplinethat


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studiesnatureistakenasbutonebranchofknowledge,integrally


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xviiiPreface

connectedwithallotherbranchesofknowledge,allofwhicharelinkedtotheconceptofTawhid,theOneness

ofGod.Thus,theIslamictraditiondoesnotregardanydisciplineofknowledge

independentofotherdisciplines.Forthisreason,theconnectorandinthephrase

Islamandsciencedoesnotattempttoconnecttwoseparate


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entities,rather,itisusedhereasacopula.ThereisalsoafundamentaldifferencebetweenthenatureofsciencethatexistedinIslamic

civilizationbetweentheeighthandsixteenthcenturiesandmodernscience;theyapproachnature

intwoverydifferentmannersandhenceonecannotusethesamemethodology

fornarratingthestoriesoftheinteractionofIslamwith


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bothpremodernandmodernscience.

Thisdivisionisnotarbitrarybutisborneoutofthesubjectmatteritself:thescienceprior

tothearrivalofmodernscienceintheMuslimworldhaditsown

distinctmodeofinteractionwithIslambecauseitarosefromwithinthegreater

matrixofIslamiccivilization.Ofcourse,thesewaysofinteraction


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didnotexistinvacuum;theyexistedwithinthelargerintellectualuniverseofIslamauniversethathaditsshareofsharpedgesanddiscordant

voices,butwhichwas,nonetheless,auniverseshapedbytheQuranicworldview.

WiththearrivalofmodernWesternscienceintheMuslimworld,Islam

andsciencediscourseenteredanewperiod.Becausethisarrival


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coincidedwiththecolonizationoftheMuslimworlditwasaccompaniedbynumerousotherfactors,includingtheeconomic,political,andmilitaryagendasofthe

colonizingpowers.Thisdestroyedtheinstitutionsthathadproducedtheeight-hundred-year-oldIslamiceducational

tradition.Thestrangulationofcenturies-oldinstitutionsandtheimplantationofnewscientificinstitutions

withagendasthatsuitedtheinterestsofthecolonizingpowers


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changedthedynamicsofthepracticeofscienceintheMuslimworld.NowIslamhadtointeractwithasciencebasedonaphilosophy

ofnatureforeigntoitsownconception.Inordertoexplainthisnew

relationshipwewillhavetotakeintoconsiderationcertainfoundationalepistemologicalassumptionsof

modernscience,aswellasdevelopmentsthatledtothe


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emergenceofthesenewconceptsofnatureinthepost-BaconianWesternworld,andseehowtheseradicalchangesshapedthediscourseonIslamand

science.Alsoimportantforourpurposeisthecomplexprocessofintellectualcolonization

oftheMuslimmind,whichproducedadeep-seatedinferioritycomplexwithrespectto

Westernscienceandtechnologythefactorsperceivedasthemainreasons


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fortheWestsdominationoftheworldandthecolonizationofMuslimlands.

FinallythisbookwilldiscussthepostWorldWarII

era,whichhasproducedacertaindegreeofclarityinthedisciplineand

whichpromisestoopennewvistasinthefuture.Thecurrentfervorof

intellectualactivity


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Prefacexix

intheMuslimworldasitreshapesandreconfiguresinaworldlargelyconstructedbyWesternscienceandtechnologyisaccompanied

byatremendousamountofintellectualandphysicalviolenceandchaos,butsuch

ataxicdisorderisnotnewtotheIslamictradition.Therehavebeenseveral

suchperiodsinhistorywhenMuslimswereforcedtoreshape


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theirintellectualtradition,physicalborders,andtheirrelationshipswithothercommunitiesandtraditions.Someoftheseperiodswereparticularlystarkandaccompaniedbymuch

bloodshed,othersproducedintellectualdisplacements,but,throughoutthelastfourteenhundredyears,the

Islamictraditionhasremainedresilientandabletocopewithapparentlyinsurmountableobstacles.

Whetheritwastheintellectualencounterwiththelegacyof


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Greekphilosophyandscienceanencounterwewilldiscussindetailinthenextchapterorthelarge-scalephysicaldestructioncausedbymaraudingtribessweepingfrom

thesteppesofCentralAsia,Islamictraditionwasalwaysabletoreemergewith

renewedvigor.

ThecurrentIslamandsciencediscourseneedstobe

viewedinthelargercontextoftheencounterofIslam


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withmodernityanditsintellectual,social,cultural,political,andeconomicoutlooks,andsothelastpartofourstoryhastobenarratedwithin

thisbroadersetting.Ofcourse,itremainstobeseenhowIslamictradition

willfareinthisnewencounter,asthisisasituationofanother

kind;modernscienceandtechnologyarerapidlyreshapingtheentire


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spectrumofhumanexistencefromthewayhumanbeingsareborntothewaytheyprocuretheirfood,travel,communicate,establishinterpersonalrelationships,anddie.

Tobesure,itisafascinatingstorythatdeservesourfullattention,

astheworldaroundusreshapesthroughencountersofakindneverbefore

witnessedinhumanhistory.

Thequestionswewish


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toexploreinthefollowingchaptersincludethefollowing:WhatwasIslamicinIslamicscience?HowdidIslamaffectthecourseofdevelopmentof

theIslamicscientifictradition?WerethereanytensionswithintheIslamictraditionthat

mayhaveinhibitedthefullblossomingofthisscientificactivity?Whatwerethe

distinctcontributionsoftheIslamicscientifictraditiontobroaderscientific


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knowledge?When,why,andhowdidthistraditioncometoanend?HowwasthisscientificknowledgepassedontoEurope?Whatarethe

newfacetsoftheIslamandsciencerelationship,whichhaveappearedinthe

postScientificRevolutionera?Whataresomeofthefundamentalissuesinthecontemporary

Islamandsciencediscourse?

Throughanexplorationof


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theseandrelatedquestionsthisbookattemptstopresentaspectrumofIslamicopinionsonsomeofthemostimportantquestionsinthereligion

andsciencediscourse.


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xxPreface

ANOTEONNAMES,DATES,TRANSLATEDTEXTS,ANDTECHNICALTERMS

TheArabicwordAllahisusedwhenever

itisnecessarytomentionGodbyHispersonalname.Itiscustomary

tocapitalizetherecognizedfairnamesofAllahandpronounsdenotingGod.It

isalsocustomarytocapitalizethewordcompanion(s)whenused


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forthosemenandwomenwhoweretheCompanionsoftheProphetofIslam,whoseownmentioniscustomarilyfollowedbysalutationbyMuslims.

Thisbookfollowsallthese,butthelast-mentioned,asitisgenerallyabsent

fromworkssuchasthiswiththeprovisothatreadersshouldneverthelesssend

thecustomarysalutationsontheProphetwheneverhisnameis


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mentioned.PassagesoftheQurancitedinthetextareitalicized;alltranslationsaremine,thoughnecessarilybasedonanumberofothertranslations

andcommentaries.AllreferencestotheQuraninthetextoccurwithinparentheses

()andareprefixedwithQ.andtwonumbersseparatedbyacolon,

ofwhichthefirstnumberreferstothechapterand


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vowels,andacircumflex()ontopofthelettertodistinguishtwosimilarsoundingletters(e.g.,stodistinguishsadfromsn).

ThenamesofmanyMuslimscientistsandscholarsofpremoderntimes

havebeencorruptedforvariousreasons,atraditionstemmingfrommedievaltranslations.Al-Ghazali,

forinstance,becameAlgazel;AbuMasharbecameAlbumasar;IbnTufayl


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reasonsofexpediency,thisbookalsodoesnotuseatransliterationsystemforArabicwords,butitdoespreserveoriginalnames.

Arabic

namescanbeconfusingforreadersunfamiliarwiththissystem.Manynamescited

inthisbookarenotreallythepersonalnames(suchasMuhammad,Husayn,

orAli)ofthescientistorscholarbecauseinmost


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Prefacexxi

Anickname,anoccupationalname,oratitlecanalsobecomethemostwellknownnameofaperson

(al-Jahiz,thegoggle-eyed;al-Khayyam,thetentmaker).Inthisbook,thefullname

isgivenatfirstuseandthemostwellknownnameisused

thereafter.

Anotherpointofimportisthepronoun


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usedbythewriter.InIslamictradition,thepluralfirst-personweratherthanIispreferred,foravarietyofreasons.Iisconsidered

impolitebecauseoftheemphasisthispronounhasontheindividual,whereaswe

takestheemphasisawayfromthesinglepersontheadditionalpersonaisleftambiguous,

butitisassumedthatthewriterisnotalone


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intheprocessofwriting;thatheorsheisbeingaidedbyothers;thattheDivinepresenceisthereintheveryact

oftransmissionofknowledgeandideas;thatawholehostofscholarsare

incompany.Fortheseandotherreasonsweseldomfindtheuseof

IinIslamicscholarlytradition,andthisbookfollowsprecedent.


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Acknowledgments

Likeallbooks,ScienceandIslamhascomeintoexistencethroughtheeffortsofnumerousindividualswhoparticipatedinits

publicationinvariouscapacities.Thisparticipationrangesfromthemostpracticaltaskof

copyeditorswhoimproveditsmanuscripttomenandwomenofbygoneeras

whocontributedtothemakingoftheIslamicscientifictradition.


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Thentherearethehistoriansofthattraditionwho,overthelastthreecenturies,haveunearthedcountlessmanuscripts,instruments,andbookswhichallowus

toreconstructthecontoursoftheenterpriseofscienceinIslamiccivilizationprior

totheemergenceofmodernscience;withouttheirpainstakingeffortswewouldnot

knowwhatwedonowaboutthistraditionwhichwas


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untilrecentlyconsideredamereappendixtotheGreekscience.

RecenttrendsintellingthestoryofIslamicscientifictraditionarerevisionist

innature,attemptingamajorreconstructionofthenarrativethatdominatedthefield

untilthecloseofthetwentiethcentury.Thisbookattemptstohighlightthese

effortsaimedatamoreaccuratedescriptionofsciencein


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Islamiccivilization.Assuch,Iamparticularlyindebtedtothosehistorianswhoareattheforefrontofthiseffort.

Anynewwork

ontherelationshipbetweenIslamandscienceisboundtoraisemorequestions

thanitcananswer.Thecomplexmatrixfromwhichthisrelationshipemergesinvolves

history,politics,economics,sociology,and,ofcourse,subhistoriesofvarious


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branchesofscience.Anyconclusionsdrawninaworkofthisnatureareboundtoremainprovisionaluntilmoreinformationbecomesavailableaboutthe

scientific,social,political,andculturalconditionsofthosecenturiesduringwhichIslamicscientific

enterpriseflourishedinlandsasfarapartasCentralAsiaandal-Andalus.


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Acknowledgments

Butevenwhenthisinformationbecomesmoreaccessible,therewillalwaysbedisagreementamongscholarsabouthowtointerpretdata,

andthisbookhighlightsanumberofsuchdisagreements.I,nevertheless,appreciatethe

workofthosescholarswithwhomIhavedisagreedincertainfundamentalways,

astheyhavecontributedtothediscoursejustasthose


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whoseopinions,interpretations,andfindingsareinconsonancewithmyownviews.

InwritingthisbookIhavebenefitedfromthework

ofscholarsinsuchdiversefieldsasthehistoryofscience,Quranicexegesis,

hadithstudies,generalhistoryofIslam,sociology,linguistics,andphilosophyofscience,to

nameonlyafew.Theirrichcontributionshavegreatlyenhanced


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ourunderstandingofthevariousaspectsofIslamiccivilization,includingtheenterpriseofscience.

Inparticular,IamthankfultoRichardOlson,

serieseditor,forinvitingmetocontributethisvolumetotheGreenwoodGuides

toScienceandReligion,andtoKevinJ.DowningofGreenwoodPress,whose

promptnessinrespondingtonumerousqueriesduringthecourseof


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greatlyimprovedthisbook;mywifeElma,whosesustainedinvolvementinthisprojecthasenricheditinnumerousways;tomydaughterNoorand

sonUsman,whoseindirectcontributionstothisprojectrangefromthesheerpleasure

whichtheirpresenceevokestothenurturingofideasthroughvariousdiscussions.It

isbecauseofthesecontributionsthatitwaspossibleto


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devotesomuchtimeandefforttothisbookintheenrichingandblissfulenvironmentofWuddistanaplacewhereitispossibletopreclude

distractionsoftheworldanddevotelonghourstoasolitarylaborof

loveinthereconstructionofapastwhichmayslipfromhumanmemory

ifnotpreserved.Itisneedlesstosaythatonly


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ChronologyofEvents

SixthCentury570632ProphetMuhammad,borninMakkah,diedinMadinahSeventhCentury610MuslimsmigratedfromMakkah

toMadinah(ThismarkedthebeginningoftheHijricalendar)632655Muslimconquests

ofSyria,Iraq,andEgypt661EstablishmentofUmayyaddynasty691Domeof

theRockbuiltinJerusalemEighthCentury706GreatMosque


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oftheUmayyadsbuiltinDamascus710MuslimforcesenteredSpain712MuslimsreachedSamarqandal-Asmai(739831),thefirstMuslimscientistknowntocontribute

tozoology,botany,andanimalhusbandry750EstablishmentofAbbasiddynasty;endof

Umayyaddynasty754775Thereignofcaliphal-Mansur,patronofearlytranslationsof

scientifictextsfromGreek762BaghdadfoundedbyAbbasids


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130/309


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whoemphasizedscientificexperimentationandleftanextensivecorpusofalchemicalandscientificworks

TeachinghospitalestablishedinBaghdadBanuMusabrothers

(ca.800873)supervisedthetranslationofGreekscientificworksintoArabic,foundedArabic

schoolofmathematics,wroteovertwentybooks

onsubjectssuchas

astronomy,ingeniousdevices,onthemeasurementofplaneandspherical


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figuresIbnIshaqal-Kindi(801873),philosopher,mathemati

cian,specialistinphysics,optics,medicine,andmetal

lurgyHunaynibnIshaq(809873)

collectedandtranslatedGreekscientificandmedicalknowledgeintoArabic

Abbas

ibnFirnas(810887),technologistandchemist,thefirstmaninhistorytomake

ascientificattemptatflying

FlourishingofMutazilite


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134/309


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TenthCentury

874999

931

936

ChronologyofEvents

al-Farghani(d.after861),astronomer,

civilengineerwhosupervisedconstructionoftheGreatNilometercanalofCairo

SaburibnSahl(d.868),pharmacistal-Tabari(b.ca.808andd.

ca.861),physician,natural

scientistwhowroteon


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medicine,embryology,surgery,toxicology,psychotherapy,andcosmogonyAbbasibnFirnas(d.888)studiedmechanicsofflight,

developedartificialcrystals,builtaplanetarium

SamaniddynastyinTransoxania

IshaqibnHunayn(d.910),

physicianandscientifictranslatorfromGreekandSyriactoArabicAbdulIbnKhuradadhbih

(d.912),geographerwhode

velopedafull


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mapoftraderoutesoftheMuslimworldAbuBakrZakariaal-Razi(b.ca.854d.925or935),

philosopherand

physicianwithspecialtyinophthalmology,smallpox,andchemistryal-Battani(b.before858d.929),

mathematicianof

trigonometryandastronomeral-Farabi(b.ca.870d.950),metaphysician,

musicolo

gist,philosopherofsociology,logic,politicalscience,


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andmusical-Sufi(903986),astronomerrenownedforhisobser

vationsanddescriptionsoffixedstarsIbrahimibnSinan(908946),mathematicianandastronomer,

whostudiedgeometry,particularlytangentstocircles,alsoadvancedtheoryofintegration,appar

entmotionsofthesun,opticalstudyofshadows,solarhours,

andastrolabesBaghdadinitiatedalicensingexaminationforphysi


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cians,attendedby869doctors

al-Zahrawi(9361013),fatherofsurgery,wroteathirty-volumeworkofmedicalpracticeal-Buzjani(940998),astronomerand

mathematician

whospecializedintrigonometryandgeometryMadinatal-Zahrapalacecomplex

builtinCordoba


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9691171

EleventhCentury

ChronologyofEvents

al-Ashari(d.936),founderofschoolofIslamic

theology

IbnYunus(9501009),astronomerknownforhismanytrigonometricalandastronomicaltables

AbuHasanAlial-Masudi(d.956or957),geographerandhistorianwho

conceivedofgeographyasanessentialprerequisiteofhistory


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al-Khazin(d.971),astronomerandmathematician,whoseZijal-safaih(TablesoftheDisksoftheAstrolabe)werethebestinhisfield

al-Khujandi(d.1000),mathematicianandastronomerwhodiscoveredthesinetheoremrelative

tosphericaltriangles

Ibnal-Haytham(9651040),astronomer,mathematician,optician,andphysicist

Al-AzharUniversityfoundedinCairoal-Baghdadi(9801037),mathematician,


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Ibnal-Thahabi(d.1033),physician,whowrotethefirstknownalphabeticalencyclopediaofmedicinewithlistsofthenamesofdiseases,medicines,thephysiological

processortreatment,andthefunctionofthehumanorgans

Abu

Rayhanal-Biruni(9731048),oneofthegreatestscientistsinhistory,astronomerandmathematician

whodeterminedtheearthscircumference

IbnSina(9801037),


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thegreatestphysicianandphilosopherofhistime,theauthorofCanonofMedicine


145/309


146/309


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wellknownintheWestforhispoetry

AbuHamidal-Ghazali(10581111),philosopherandtheologian,themostinfluentialscholar,whoremainsan

importantintellectualfiguretothisday

IbnalTilmidh(b.ca.

10731165),pharmacistwhowrote

alAqrabadhinIbnBajjah(d.ca.1138),

philosopher,scientist,physician,musician,commentatoronAristotle

al-Idrisi


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(11001166),geographerandcartographer,whoconstructedaworldglobemapof400kgpuresilver,preciselyrecordingonitthesevencontinentswithtrade

routes;hisworkwasthebestofArab-Normanscientificcollaboration

Ibn

Tufayl(11051186),Andalusianphysician,author

ofHayybinYaqzanGerardof

Cremona(b.ca.11141187),translatorofworksonsciencefrom


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ArabictoLatin

al-Khazini(b.ca.1115d.ca.1130),astronomer,engineer,inventorofscientificinstruments,wroteaboutthescienceofweightsand

artofconstructingbalances,renownedforhishydrostaticbalance


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xxxChronologyofEvents

IbnRushd(11261198),Andalusianphysician,philosopher,judge,astronomer,commentatoronAristotle;themostpopularMuslimphilosopherin

theLatinWest

al-Samawal(11301180),mathematician,extendedar

ithmetic

operationstohandlepolynomialsal-Bitruji(fl.ca.1190),astronomer,naturalphilosopher,andmathematician

CrusadersdefeatedbySalahal-DinAyyubi(d.1193)


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al-Suhrawardi(d.1191),oneofthegreatestmysticsofIslamwhointegratedphilosophicalcosmologieswithIslamicworldview

ThirteenthCentury

Ibn

al-Baytar(b.ca.1190d.1248),pharmacologistandbotanistwhosystematizedtheknownanimal,

vegetable,andmineralmedicines

al-Jazari(fl.ca.1204),inventoroftechnologies,

wroteTheBookofKnowledgeofIngeniousDevices


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1217),philosopher,geographer,andtraveler

12191329Mongolraidscausedenormousdestructionofcities

andeconomiesal-Maghribi(12201283),trigonometristandastronomer

1236ChristianstookCordoba

Ibnal-Arabi(d.1240),exponent

ofSufimonism,wroteimportantworksoncosmologyal-Suri(d.1241),pharmacologistwho

documented

everyknownmedicinalplant


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ChronologyofEventsxxxi1258126112321492BaghdaddestroyedbyMongols,endedtheAbbasidCaliphateMamlukdynastyestablishedinEgyptNasiral-Dinal-Tusi

(12011274),astronomerandmathematicianwhospecializedinnon-Euclideangeometryal-Qazwini(b.ca.12031283),

cosmographerandgeographerConstructionofal-Hambra1236FallofCordobatoChristians1244

CrusaderslostJerusalemforthelasttime1254151712611258


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1267MamlukruleinEgyptFoundationofthegaziprincipalitiesinWesternAnatolia,thebeginningoftheOttomanEmpireBaghdadtakenbyMongolsFirst

MuslimstateofSamudraPasaiinIndonesia1271Latinempirecollapsed;Byzantinerule

restoredinConstantinopleJalalud-DinRumi(d.1273),Sufi,theauthorofMasnavi

FourteenthCentury

1300Timbuctu,Mali,and


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Gaobecameimportantcentersoflearning13001453GrowthofOttomanEmpire

1303MongolsdefeatedbyMamluksinEgyptIbnal-Shatir(13041375),Damascene

astronomerwhodevelopedtheconceptofplanetarymotionandastronomicallydefinedthetimes

ofprayer

Ibnal-Banna(d.1321),poet,scholaral-Jawziyyah(d.1350),

QuranscholarIbnBattutah(1304d.1368or1377),famedtraveler,


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covered75,000milesin22yearsacrossEurope,Africa,theMiddleEast,andAsia,madeextensivecontributionstogeography

13081312

MalisultanstraveledacrosstheAtlantic,exploredthelandsaroundtheGulfof

MexicoandtheAmericaninteriorviatheMississippiRiver


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ca.1313

FifteenthCentury

14531455

1492

1498

ChronologyofEvents

al-Khalili(13201380),astronomerwhocompiledex

tensivetablesforastronomicaluse

KamaluddinFarsi(d.1320),astronomerwhoimprovedIbnal-HaythamsOptics,studiedreflectionand

therainbow

IbnKhaldun(13321406),philosopherofhistory


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and

society,wroteauniversalhistoryMuqaddimahQutbal-DinShirazi(12361311),astronomerwhoperfectedPtolemaicplanetarytheory

GoldenHordeMongol

khansconvertedtoIslamIzzalDinnalJaldaki(d.1360),chemistUlugh

Beg(13941449),rulerofSamarqandandanac

complishedastronomer;his

astronomicalobservatorycompletedin1429

Timur(d.1405)


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ruledfromtheGangestotheMediter

raneanal-Umawi(14001489),mathematicianwhowroteworksonarithmeticandmensuration

al-Qalasida(14121486),

mathematicianwhointroducedideasofalgebraicsymbolismbyusinglettersinplaceof

numbers

Ghiyathud-DinKashi(d.1429),astronomerandmathematicianwhoworked

atSamarqandObservatory

OttomanstookConstantinoplePapalBull


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(b.1432)whowrotetheencyclopedicKitabal-FawaidfiUsulIlmal-BahrwalQawid(BookofUsefulInformationonthePrinciplesandRulesofNavigation)


163/309


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ofthepost-IbnSinaera,theauthorofthe

FourIntellectualJourneys

1683SiegeofViennabyTurks1688Fall

ofBelgradetoOttomans

EighteenthCentury

17811925QajarEmpire

inIranAurangzeb(d.1707),Mughalemperor1722AfghansconqueredIranandended

theSafaviddynasty1736NadirShah(d.1747)assumedthe


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titleofShahofPersiaandfoundedtheAfshariddynasty,defeatedtheMughalsandsackedDelhi17391757BattleofPlasseymarkedthebeginning

ofBritishruleinIndia1789NapoleonarrivedinEgyptHajjiMullaHadi

Sabziwari(b.1797or17981873),philosopher,mostprominentoftheQajarperiod

NineteenthCentury

MostoftheMuslimworld


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xxxivChronologyofEvents

SayyidJamalal-Dinal-Afghani(18381897),MuslimthinkerwhodebatedwiththeFrenchphilosopherErnstRenanonreligion

andscience

NewscientificinstitutionsmodeledonEuropeanpatternswereestablished

inthecolonies;officiallanguageschangedtoEnglishorFrenchinmostof

theMuslimworld

1857IndiabecameaBritish


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colonyMuhammadibnAhmadal-Iskandarani,anEgyptianphysicianpublishedthefirstcompletescientifictafsiroftheQuranin1880

TwentiethCentury

19001920NationalisticmovementsemergedinmanypartsoftheMuslimworld

19201950StruggleforindependencethroughouttheMuslimworld

19501965Decolonization

andrapidemergenceofnewnationstatesintheentire


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170/309


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I,manyMuslimstatesmadeeffortstoacquiremoderndefensetechnology

19902000ExponentialincreaseinthenumberofMuslimwebsitesdealingwith

Islamandscience

1998Pakistansuccessfullytestedanuclearweapon


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theInternet,moreweb-sitesmakingclaimsaboutthepresenceofmodernscientifictheoriesandfactsintheQuran;simultaneousmaturityofIslamand

sciencediscourseasmorescholarspayattentiontothefundamentalissuesinthe

discourse


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arbitrary;rather,itarisesfromtheverynatureofthescientificenterprise,whichhasgonethroughafoundationalchangesincetheScientificRevolutionof

theseventeenthcentury.Beforeweembarkonthisexplorationoftherelationshipbetween

Islamandscience,however,somethingmustbesaidaboutIslamitself,fordespiteits

ubiquitouspresenceinthemediaitremainsoneofthemost


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poorlyunderstoodreligionsintheworld.AlongwithcontemporaryeventscontributingtothegeneralperceptionofIslamintheWest,thereisalsosilent

historicalbaggageunderlyingnon-Muslimperspectivesonthereligion,makingtheunderstandingofIslam

acomplicatedaffair.Thespanofthetwentiethcenturyrevealsaphenomenalshift:

atitsdawn,Islamwasconsideredbymanytohave


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lostitsappeal,oratleastwasareligionwithoutadefinablepolity,asmostofitsadherentsthenlivedincoloniesoccupiedand

ruledbyEuropeanpowers.Atthedawnofthetwenty-firstcentury,theword

IslamhasbecomecommonplaceandhardlyadaypasseswithoutmentionofIslam

andMuslimsinheadlinenews.Thisenormousattentionhas,however,


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ScienceandIslam

THEEMERGENCEOFISLAM

Makkah,whereMuhammad,thefutureProphetofIslam,wasborn,wasnot

locatedonthecrossroadsofanymajorcivilizationofthetime.Itwas

neverthelessatownofconsiderableimportanceowingtothepresenceoftheKabah,

aSanctuarybuilttherebyAbrahamandhissonIshmael


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Syriainsummer.Shortlyafterhisbirth,thechildwastakentotheKabahandnamedMuhammadbyhisgrandfather,AbdulMuttalib,adescendent

ofAbrahamthroughhissonIshmael.

Attheageofforty,

whenMuhammadhadbeenmarriedtoawealthywidowofMakkahforalmost

fifteenyears,hereceivedhisfirstrevelationwhileinretreat


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inacaveatthesummitoftheMountainofLight,aboutfivekilometerssouthoftheancientSanctuary:Recite!Reciteinthename

ofthySustainerWhocreated;CreatedManfromaclotofblood;Recitefor

thySustaineristheMostBountifulWhotaughtbythepen;taughtManwhat

heknewnot(Q.96:1-5).Thiswasthebeginningof


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northernborderofthenascentstate.Withinacenturyofhisdeath,IslamhadspreadthroughouttheMiddleEast,muchofAfricaandAsia,

andasfarasNarbonneinsouthernFrance.Thisexpansionofthegeographical

boundariesoftheMuslimworldoccurredintwosuccessivewaves.Thefirsttook

placebetween632and649andthesecondbetween693


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and720.

ThisrapidexpansionofthegeographicalboundariesoftheIslamicstatehasoftenledWesternhistorianstoviewIslamas

areligionthatspreadbythesword.ThisimageofIslamwasconstructed

duringtheMiddleAgesagainstthebackgroundoftheCrusadesandhasremained

entrenchedintheWesttothisday(Grant2004,231).


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AsfarasMuslimsareconcerned,itwastheinherenttruthofthemessageofIslam,ratherthanmilitaryvictories,thatestablishedIslamacross

thisvastregion,extendingfromMakkahtosouthernFranceontheonehand

andfromthesteppesofCentralAsiatothebarrendesertsofAfrica

ontheother.Aseriousinquiryintotherapidspread


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ofIslamduringitsfirstcenturyisboundtoproduceadifferent


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aretworevolutionsofanotherkind:avastsocialrevolutionthattookplaceduringthisfirstcenturyofIslam,andanintellectualrevolutionof

thefirstorderthattransformedthenomadicArabsocietywithintwogenerations.

THETWOREVOLUTIONS

Thesocialrevolutionwascatalyzedbythe

rapidincorporationofnumerousculturesintothefoldofIslam.


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changeintheeighthcenturywastheresultofmassconversions,migrations,theestablishmentofnewcitiesandnewadministrativeandfiscalinstitutions,and

anewsocialcontractthatIslamestablishedwithJewishandChristiancommunities.The

beliefsystemofIslamwasabletoincorporatevariedsocialandculturaltraditions

becauseofitsoverarchinguniversalnature.Thus,whetheritwas


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thehuntingritesofthenomadictribesofCentralAsiaortheritualsofmarriageanddeathoftheancientcitydwellersofMesopotamia,

Islamwasabletorecastthesesocialandculturalaspectsofvariouspeoples

throughreorientingthemtoitsuncompromisingmonotheism,aprocessthatoftenleftthe

outerformuntouchedwhileremovinganytraceofpolytheism.This


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ofthenewlyconvertedmassesandimmigrants,andtheemergenceofnewadministrativeandfinancialarrangementsbetweenthestateanditscitizens.Therapid

geographicalexpansionalsoposednewquestionsrelatedtothepracticeoffaithand

thatrequiredimmediateattention:howtodeterminethecorrectqiblah(directiontowardthe

KabahinMakkah)forthefiveobligatorydailyprayersfrom


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adistantcity;howtocalculatethecorrectamountofzakah(obligatorycharityonwealthandmaterialgoods)ongoodsthatdidnotexist

inMadinahduringthelifeoftheProphetandforwhichnoclear-cut

ruling


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ScienceandIslam

couldbefoundintheQuranorPropheticprecedent;howtoapplytheprinciplesofinheritanceoutlinedin

theQurantocomplexsituationsthathadnotexistedinthelifeof

theMuslimcommunityinMadinah.Theseandnumerousotherissuesarisingoutof

arapidlyexpandingsocial,political,andeconomiclandscapeproduceda


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traditionsoftheancientworld.AlreadyduringthelifeoftheProphet,thesciencesoftheQuran(Ulumal-Quran)hademergedasadifferentiated

branchoflearning.Shortlyafterhisdeath,focusedeffortsweremadetopreserve,

annotate,andverifytheHadith(narratedsayingsoftheProphet).

The

Quranconsistsofabout70,000words,and,forallpractical


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indirectways.Thus,bythetimethestudyofnatureappearedinIslamiccivilizationasanorganizedandrecognizableenterprise,thereligiousscienceshad

alreadybeenfirmlyestablished;thissequenceaffectedtheframeworkusedtoexplorenature.

TheQuranitselflaysoutawell-definedandcomprehensiveconceptof

thenaturalworld,andthisplayedafoundationalrolein


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themakingofthescientifictraditioninIslamiccivilization.Itisthereforeincumbenttobriefly


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aspectsofcreation,theirconceptsofthe

Anillustratedpagefromathirteenth-centuryQuranmanuscriptinThulthandRayhanscripts.The

QuranwasrevealedtoProphetMuhammadoveraperiodoftwenty-threeyears(610632).

TheQuranicviewofnatureinfluencedthedevelopmentofscienceinIslamiccivilization.

Al-QalamPublishing.

c


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ScienceandIslam

naturalworldanditsrelationshiptohumanityhasconsiderabledivergences(Nasr1996,53).InthecaseofIslam,

theQuranicviewofnatureischaracterizedbyanontologicalandmorphologicalcontinuity

withtheveryconceptofGodalinkagethatimpartsacertaindegreeof

sacrednesstotheworldofnaturebymakingita


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Sign(ayah,pl.ayat)pointingtoatranscendentalreality.However,justastheQuranpresentstheworldofnaturetohumanityasasign,it

alsocallsitsownversesayat.Thissemanticlinkageisfurtherstrengthenedthrough

variousQuranicdescriptionsandmodesofcommunication.Godcommunicates,accordingtotheQuran,

bysendingHisayat.AsIzutsuhasnoted,


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onthisbasiclevel,thereisnoessentialdifferencebetweenlinguisticandnonlinguisticSigns;bothtypesareequallydivineayat...themeaningofthis,

inthesenseinwhichtheQuranunderstandsit,isthatallthat

weusuallycallnaturalphenomena,suchasrain,wind,thestructureofthe

heavenandtheearth,alternationofdayandnight,the


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ofnaturegrantsitdistinctmetaphysicalqualities.Ratherthanbeingself-subsisting,autonomous,orrandom,natureisdescribedbytheQuranasasophisticatedsystem

ofinterconnected,consistent,uniform,andhighlyactiveentities,allofwhichareontologically

dependentontheCreatorandexaltHimintheirownspecificways(Q.

24:41).Thesevenheavensandtheearthandwhateveris


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betweenthemsingthegloriesofGod,anoft-repeatedrefrainoftheQurantellsus.Itmustbenotedhere,however,thatthisdependence

andsubservienceofnaturetoGodisnotahaphazardmatter,sinceGods

waysandlawsareunchanging(Q.33:62),andthustheentireworldof

natureoperatesthroughimmutablelawsthatcanbediscoveredthrough


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theinvestigationofnature.Sincetheselawsarebothuniformandknowable,andsincenaturepointstosomethinghigherthanitselfindeed,totheCreator

HimselfitfollowsthatthestudyofnatureleadstoanunderstandingofGod,

andisinfactaformofworship.

Inunderstandingthese

relationshipsdrawnbytheQuran,itisimportanttorecall


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thattheQuranisconsideredbyMuslimstobetheactualspeechofGod,impartedtotheheartoftheProphetbytheArchangel

Gabriel.TheProphetthenconveyeditashereceivedit.Thetextof

the


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Introduction

QuranthusbecomestheactualDivineWord,notretrojectiveinspirationaltranscriptions,andsoitsconceptionofthenaturalworldis

(fortheMuslim)groundedinimmutablefaith.

Itshouldalsobe

notedthat,accordingtotheQuran,

humanbeingswerecreatedby

GodasHisvicegerents(khalifa)inthephysicalworldlying


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andbalance(mizan)thatGodhadcreatedinthelargercosmicwhole.(Haq2001,112)

TheQuranicviewoftherelationshipbetween

theworldofnatureandGodontheonehandandbetweenthe

worldofnatureandtheprogenyofAdamontheotheristhus

highlyinterconnected.

Adamssuperiorityoverothercreaturesand


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inseparable(Haq2001,118),andthatthesetwoperfectionsarethetwopolesofdivineaction,atthesametimecontrastedandcomplementary(Haq

2001).AccordingtotheQuran,theveryactofbringingintoexistencefrom

nonexistenceisanactofmercy.Furthermore,theQuranicviewofexistencenot

onlyinvolvesthisfirstactofmercybutalsothe


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ideathatthecontinuousexistenceofthingsisentirelyduetotheirbeingsustainedbyGod,oneofWhoseNamesisRabb,theOne

Whonourishesandsustains.Thus,accordingtotheQuran,notonlytheact

ofcreationbutalsotheactofprovidingsustenanceforthecontinuationof

existenceisalsoanactofmercyand,sincenatureis


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anexpressionofGodsMercy,allthatitcontainsisbyitssheerbountifulexistenceanundeniablesignofGodsexistence(andMercy).

ThethemeofMercyisespeciallyrelevanttooursubject.Ina

chapteroftheQuranentitledal-Rahman,avastrangeofphenomenaofthe

naturalworldthesunandthemoon,rivers,oceans,fruits,cattleare


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asbeingsomanydivinefavorsandblessings.TheQuranthenasks,inapowerfulrefrainoccurringthirty-three

timesinthischapter,whichofthefavorsofyourSustainerwillyou

thendeny?

Onecansaythatthewholethrustofthe

QuranicviewofnatureanditsrelationshipwithGodand


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humanityisunderscoredbythreeinterconnectedconcepts:Tawhid(OnenessofGod)andthevariousassociatedconceptsarisingoutofthemanifestationofdivineattributes;

theAmr(Command)ofGodintheoperationalrealm;andtheintertwinedpresence

ofQadr(Measure)andMizan(Balance)inthematerialworld(Haq2001).These

threeQuranicconceptsarenotonlycentraltotheteachings


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ofIslambuttheyarealsoofimmenseimportanceforunderstandingtherelationshipbetweenIslamandscience.AlthoughIslam,likeJudaism,Christianity,Hinduism,and

manyotherreligions,hasdevelopednumerousschoolsofthought[]theological,philosophical,scientific,

andmystical[]dealingwiththeorderofnature(Nasr1996,60),these

threeconceptsarecentraltotheunderstandingofnaturein


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much-toutedlackofseparationofstateandreligioninIslamicpolityisapplicabletoallotherdomains,asMuslimsbelievethatIslamisnot

merelyasetofcommandmentsandritualsbutacompletewayoflife,

encompassingalldomainsofknowledgeandhumanactivity.Thisworld-viewisbased

onanuncompromisinginsistenceonTawhid,theOnenessofGod,


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relationshipbetweentwodistinctivelyseparateentities.

Weneedtounderstandthisrelationshiplikethatofamotherandachild,inwhich

aparticularbranchofknowledgescienceemergesfromwithinthegreaterbodyofknowledgedealing

withtheworldofexistingthings,aworldconceivedascreatedbyand

ontologicallydependentupontheCreator.Itisarelationshipthat


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Chapter2

AspectsofIslamicScientificTradition(theeighthtothesixteenthcenturies)

THEEMERGENCEOFSCIENCEINISLAMIC

CIVILIZATION

Ourcurrentknowledgeoforiginalsourcesdoesnotpermitus

todrawaclearpictureoftheinitialphasesofscientificenterprisein

Islamiccivilization.Whatcanbesaidwithacertaindegree


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ofconfidencepertainstotheperiodbeginningwiththesecondhalfofthesecondcenturyofIslam.Bythen,however,theenterpriseofscience

inIslamwasalreadywellestablished,withdefinablebranchesandscientistsofhigh

caliberworkingindisciplinessuchascosmology,geography,astronomy,andalchemy.Thus,until

wediscovernewmanuscriptsandotherprimarysources,thestory


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Prophethimself,becausewedohaveverifiablesourcesallowingustorecountthestoryoftheiremergenceinMadinah.SayingsoftheProphetdealing

withhealth,sickness,hygiene,andspecificdiseasesandtheircureswerecompiledand

systematizedbylatergenerationsofMuslims,andthisbodyofliteratureprovidedthe

foundationforaspecificbranchofmedicalscienceinIslam:


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whatconcernsusattheoutsetaretheintrinsiclinksofthesescienceswithIslam.Theveryfoundationsofthesetwobranchesofscience

canbeshowntohavedirectconnectionswiththeQuranandSunnah,the

twosourcesthatdefineallthingsIslamic.Itisnotacoincidence,notes

GeorgeSaliba,thatthemathematicalastronomicaltraditionwhichdealtwith


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thetheoreticalfoundationsofastronomyalsodefineditselfasahaya[cosmological]tradition,eventhoughitrarelytouchedupontheQuranicreferencestothe

cosmologicaldoctrines(Saliba1994,17).Likewise,othersciencesthatemergedinIslamiccivilization

canbeshowntohaveintrinsiclinkswiththeIslamicworldview,eventhough

theyreceivedalargeamountofmaterialfromothercivilizations.


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TheselinksandconnectionswillremainourcontinuousfocusasweconstructournarrativeabouttheemergenceofscienceinIslamiccivilization.

ThegeographicalexpansionofIslamwithinitsfirstcenturywas,asnotedearlier,

accompaniedbyasocialrevolutionthatreconfiguredthesocial,cultural,andintellectualclimate

oftheoldworld.Thesamesocialrevolutionprovidedan


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fascinatingtalethatthisprocesscouldnothaveoccurredwithouttheabilityoftherecipientcivilizationtoabsorb.Inotherwords,priortothe

arrivalofGreek,Indian,andPersianscientificmaterial,theremusthavebeenan

indigenousscientifictraditionreadyandabletocomprehendandreceivethismaterial.We

know,forinstance,thatasearlyasthesecondquarter


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oftheeighthcentury,astronomicaltreatiseswerebeingwritteninSind(modernPakistan)inArabic.TheseearlytreatiseswereoftenbasedonIndianand

Persiansources,buttheyemployedtechnicalArabicterminologythatcouldnothavecome

intoexistencewithoutthepresenceofanalready-establishedastronomicaltraditioninIslamiccivilization

thatcouldthenabsorbnewmaterialfromIndianandPersian


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sources.

AsweproceedwiththeaccountoftheemergenceofscienceinIslamiccivilization,weshouldnotethattheIslamicscientific

traditionwasemerginginacosmopolitanintellectualmilieuandthatthosewhowere

makingthistraditionwerenotonlyMuslimsbutalsoJews,Christians,Hindus,Zoroastrians,

andmembersofotherfaithcommunities.AnIndian


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AspectsofIslamicScientificTradition

astronomerwhoarrivedinthecourtoftheAbbasidCaliphal-Mansur

(r.754775)as

partofadelegationfromSind,forinstance,wasprobablyaHindu.He

knewSanskritandhelpedal-Fazari(fl.secondhalfoftheeighthcentury)

translateaSanskritastronomicaltextintoArabic;thistextcontained


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elementsfromevenolderastronomicaltraditions.Theresultanttranslation,Zijal-Sindhind,becameoneofthesourcesofalongtraditionofsuchtextsin

Islamicastronomy(Pingree1970,10323).Theemergenceofthescientifictraditioninthis

multireligious,multi-ethnicatmospherewasadynamicprocessinvolvinginteractionsbetweenpatronsof

learning,scholars,scientists,rulers,guilds,andwealthymerchants.Tobe


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sure,thescientificactivityatthisearlytimewasnotyetaninstitutionalizedeffort,butwedoknowthatgroupsofscientistswerealready

workingtogetherinthesecondhalfoftheeighthcenturyinBaghdadand

othercitiesoftheAbbasidcaliphate.Weshouldalsokeepinmindthat

thisscientifictraditionwasevolvingatatimewhenthe


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religiousscienceshadalreadybeenestablishedonafirmfoundation,withadvancedtextsinQuranicstudies,philology,grammar,jurisprudence,andotherbranchesofreligious

studiescirculatingamongscholars.Thisfactisparticularlyimportantforourstudybecause

thepriorestablishmentofreligioussciencesmeantthatthenewscientifictraditionemerged

intoanintellectualmilieualreadyshapedbyreligiousthought.


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IntheatmosphereofintensecreativitythatpermeatedIslamiccivilizationduringthisearlyperiodtherewasconsiderablestrifeandpolarizationatalllevels

ofsociety.Bythetimescienceemergedasadifferentiatedfieldofstudy,

Islamicpolityhadalreadygonethroughtwomajorinternalfissures:thefirst(656661)

wassparkedbytheassassinationofUthman,thethirdCaliph,


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andledtoacivilwarinwhichcloseCompanionsoftheProphetfoundthemselvespitchedagainsteachotherundercircumstanceswhichthreatenedthe

veryexistenceoftheMuslimcommunity.Duringthesecondrift(680692),whichsprang

fromtworivalclaimstotheCaliphate,HusaynbinAli,thegrandsonof

theProphet,andallbutoneofhiscompanionswere


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killedatKarbalainOctober680;Makkahwasbesiegedbyarmedmen;aradicalsplintergroup,theKhawarij,tookcontrolofmuchofArabia;

andIbnal-Zubayr,oneofthecloseCompanionsoftheProphet,waskilled

inthesanctifiedcityofMakkah,wherefightinghadbeendeclaredunlawfulby

theQuran(Q.2:217).

Theseeventsinitiatedan


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intensedebateamongscholars,notonlyaboutwhatwashappeningandwhybutalsocertainotherfundamentalissuesthataroseinthiscontext:Is

thisacrisisofleadership?Whoisqualifiedtoleadthecommunity?Are

humanactspreordained?Whataretheboundariesofhumanfreedom?Whatisthe

roleofhumanintellectinmattersofreligion?Whatis


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theexactnatureofDivinejustice,HellandHeaven,andthatofDivineattributes?Theseandrelatedtheologicaldebateseventuallygave


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ScienceandIslam

birthtodifferentschoolsofthought;someoftheseschoolsalsodevelopedtheirownpositionsonthenatural

sciences,andwewillhaveoccasiontodiscusstheirpositionsinalater

chapter.

Theperiodduringwhichtheearliestscientificworkswerewritten

witnessedarevoltagainsttheUmayyads,whohadtakencontrol


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oftheCaliphateandshiftedthecapitaloftheIslamicstatefromMadinahtoDamascus.OriginatinginnewlyconqueredIraniancities,especiallyinMerv,

thisrevoltinfavoroftheAbbasidclaimtotheCaliphatemovedwestward

undertheleadershipofAbuMuslim,whohadcapturedthecityofKufa

bythemiddleof749.Earlyin750,AbulAbbas


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(posthumouslycalledal-Saffah))wasproclaimedthefirstAbbasidCaliphatKufa.Twomonthslater,theUmayyadsweredecisivelydefeatedatthebattleofGreater

Zab,andbyJune750mostofthemhadbeenmassacred.Abdal-Rahman

Iwasthesolesurvivorfromtherulingfamily;heescapedtoSpain,

whereheestablishedUmayyadrule(7551031).

AbulAbbas


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remainedatwarfortheentireperiodofhiscaliphateandonhisdeathin753,hisbrother,AbuJafar,wasproclaimedCaliphas

al-Mansur(thevictorious).In762,al-Mansurdecidedtomovehiscapitaltoa

saferplace.Hehimselfsupervisedtheprocessoftheselectionofitslocation;

thechoicefellforasmallandancienttown,which


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wastobecomethefabledcapitalofAbbasidruleforthenextfivehundredyears:Baghdad.SpanningbothbanksoftheriverTigris,the

newcapitalwasdesignedasacircularcitywithsixteengates.Itsconstruction

beganonJuly30,762,adatedeterminedbyastrologersandengineers,among

whomwastheaforementionedal-Fazari.Thecitywasofficiallycalled


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Madinatul-Islam,thecityofpeace.

BeginningwiththeconstructionofBaghdadwecantracethedevelopmentsinthescientifictraditioninIslamic

civilizationwithmoreconfidence;oursourcematerialbecomesmorereliableandthereis

anexponentialincreaseinavailabletexts.

Inordertounderstandthe

natureofscienceinIslamiccivilizationatthisstageof


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itsdevelopment,weproceedwithanoutlineofthevarioussciencesastheyemergedduringthesecondhalfoftheeighthcentury.

THEINITIALFLOWERING

BythetimeofthefamousalchemistJabir

binHayyan,scienceinIslamiccivilizationhadbecomeconsiderablywellestablished.Jabiriancorpus

issoextensiveandvariedthatsomescholarshaveexpressed


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doubtsaboutitsauthorshipbyasingleperson(Kraus1991).Thesehighlysophisticatedworks,dealingwithavastrangeofsubjects,weretoleave

alegacythatcontinuedtoinfluencescienceanddiscourseonsciencewellinto

thefifteenth


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TheopeningfolioofafragmentofanalchemicaltreatiseattributedtoAbuBakrMuhammadibnZakariyaal-Razi(d.925)thatisotherwise

knownonlythroughitsLatintranslationLiber70praeceptorum.CourtesyoftheNational

LibraryofMedicine.


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ScienceandIslam

AnotherfolioofafragmentofanalchemicaltreatiseattributedtoAbuBakrMuhammadibnZakariyaal-Razi

(d.925).CourtesyoftheNationalLibraryofMedicine.

century.Jabirs

writingsdealwiththetheoryandpracticeofchemicalprocessesandprocedures,classification

ofsubstances,astrology,cosmology,theurgy,medicine,alchemy,music,magic,pharmacology,


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andseveralotherdisciplines.Whatprovidesaninternalcohesiontothiscorpusisthe


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AspectsofIslamicScientificTradition

overallframeworkofinquiryand,morespecifically,hisTheoryofBalance.AccordingtoJabir,allthat

existsinthecosmoshasacosmicbalance.Thisbalanceispresentat

variouslevelsandreflectstheoverallharmonyofallthatexists.

InadditiontoJabir,manylesser-knownscientistsofthisperiod

science and islam muzaffar iqbal

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