Education and Social Policy DepartnentThe World BankSeptember 1993

ESP Discussion Paper SeriesNo. 8

Science Education in Hong Kong

Kin Bing Wu

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Abstract

This paper, one of a series of study on science and technology issues, aimsto assess the extent to which science education in Hong Kong has promotedscientific literacy, and prepared students for scientific disciplines in highereducation and science-related careers. It introduces the institutional contextwith reference to financing, selection and examination, teachers, curriculum, andallocation of instructional time. It then discusses Hong Kong students'mathematics and science achievement by international standards, and thedeterminants of achievement. Finally, it documents recent developments incurricular reform.

Contents

Page

Foreword ............... iv

Executive Summary ............... v

1. The Institutional Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Financing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 Selection and Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.3 Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.4 Curriculum, Textbooks, and Allocation of Instructional Time 5

2. Science and Mathematics Achievement .8

2.1 The Goals of Science Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82.2 Science Achievement by International Comparison . . . . . . . . 92.3 Determinants of Science Achievement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132.4 Mathematics Achievement and its Determinants . . . . . . . . . . 16

3. Recent Developments in Science Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3.1 Financing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193.2 Assessment and Educational Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203.3 Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203.4 Reorganizing the Curriculum Development Structure . . . . . . . 223.5 Changes in Science Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

References.. . ... 26

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Appendices

Page

1. Operating Educational Institutions and Enrollment, 1991 . . . . . . . 312. Total Enrollment in Various Levels of Education, 1967-91 . . . . . . 323. The Distribution of Schools by Source of Funding, 1967-91 . . . . . . 334. Pupil-Teacher Ratios in Primary and Secondary Day Schools

by Type of School . . . . . . . . ................. . 345. Structural Indices for Schools of Similar Average Ability but

Different Mathematics Achievement Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356. The Qualifications of Teachers, 1980-91 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367. Enrollment in Teachers' Training Colleges by Type of Course

by Gender ............................................. 378. Profile of School Teachers, 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389. Reasons for Leaving Teaching, 1991 .3910. Median Hourly Wage by Subject Specialty and Economic Sector, 1986 . 4011. Number of Candidates Sat in Selected Subjects in the Hong Kong

Certificate of Education Examination, 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4112. Results of Advanced and Higher Level Examinations . . . . . . . . . . 4213. Minimum No. of Teaching Periods Per Week in Each Subject in

Primary School .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4314. Basic Teaching Periods Per Week in Junior and Senior Secondary Forms 4415. Rank Order of Achievements in the IEA Science Study as Measured

by Mean Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4516. Percentage of Schools Scoring Lower than the Lowest School Mean

in the Highest Scoring Country ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4617. The Inter-class Correlation (Rho) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4718. Gender Differences in Science Achievement (S;tandard Score Difference) 4819. Science Curriculum Coverage at the Time of the IEA Studies . . . . . 4920. Science Process Skills ...................... . 5221. Hong Kong's Secondary .1 Students' Sub-Test Scores Location of Means

Amongst Quartiles for Twenty Countries.Hong Kong's Secondary 6 and 7 Students' Sub-Test Scores Locationof Means Amongst Quartiles for Fifteen Countries. . . . . . . . . . . 53

22. Percentage of Items Rated Relevant to the Math Curriculum . . . . . . 5423. Quartiles of Measures of Population A Amongst Twenty Countries . . . 5524. Quartiles of Measures of Population B Amongst Fifteen Countries . . . 5625. Science Curriculum Revision ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5726. Primary School Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5827. Junior Secondary Integrated Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6028. Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination in Mathematics

and Science Subjects for 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6329. Senior Secondary Biology ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6430. Senior Secondary Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7131. Senior Secondary Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . 7932. Senior Secondary General Mathematics Examination Syllabus . . . . . . 8833. Senior Secondary Additional Mathematics Examination Syllabus . . . . 9034. Senior Secondary Computer Studies Examination Syllabus . . . . . . . 91

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35. Advanced Level Examination in Mathematics andScience Subjects for 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

37. Advanced Level Biology ...................... . 9437. Advanced Level Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9838. Advanced Level Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10439. Advanced Level Applied Mathematics Examination Syllabus . . . . . . 10940. Advanced Level Pure Mathematics Examination Syllabus . . . . . . . 11141. Advanced Supplementary Level Liberal Studies Examination Syllabus . 11242. Example of Socially Relevant and Technology Related Physics Exercise 114

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Foreword

Science education imparts a method of inquiry and a systematic way ofprocessing knowledge about the physical world. For this reason, scienceeducation provides part of the foundation for any knowledge-based effort toimprove health, nutrition, family planning, environment, agriculture, andindustry.

Science education has two broad purposes. The first purpose is to promotescientific literacy among citizens on matters directly affecting their own livesand the society so that they can make decisions based on information andunderstanding. This is essential for the sustainable development of a modern,technological society. The second purpose is to build up the technologicalcapability by equipping the future workforce with essential science-basedknowledge and skills, and by preparing students for scientific disciplines inhigher education and science-related careers. Given the potential benefits, theprovision of quality science education to all children will have far reachingconsequence on a country's development prospect.

This study aims to assess the extent to which science education in HongKong has been able to promote scientific literacy, and to prepare students forscientific disciplines in science-related careers. In this sense, it examinesthe broader foundation on which the technological capability will be built. Itis intended to be a companion paper to "Higher Education in Hong Kong: Investmentin Science and Technology During the Time of Economic and Political Change," bythe same author. The higher education paper examines the past and presentpolicies towards tertiary education in Hong Kong.

This paper on science education begins by introducing the institutionalcontext: the school system, financing, selection and examination, teachers,curriculum and allocation of instructional time. It then discusses Hong Kongstudents' mathematics and science achievement by international standards, and thedeterminants of achievement. Finally, the paper will document the recentdevelopments to meet the political, economic, and technological challenges of thefuture.

Erik Thulstrup and Lauritz Holm-NielsenSenior Science and Technology Specialists

Education and Social Policy DepartmentThe World Bank

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Executive Summary

Improving science education at the school level is particularly relevantto Hong Kong's recent drive to strengthen its technological capability. Thispaper aims to assess the extent to which science education in Hong Kong has beenable to promote scientific literacy, and to prepare students for scientificdisciplines in higher education and science-related careers. It will alsodocument recent developments in science education.

In the Second International Study, a large-scale cross-country assessmentof science achievement conducted in the first half of the 1980s by theInternational Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA),Hong Kong's Secondary 7 (Grade 13) students ranked first in physics, first inchemistry, first in mathematics, and second in biology among all participantcountries. However, the Primary 4 and Secondary 4 (Grade 10) students performedpoorly. The case of Hong Kong thus presents a puzzle for science education. Whydid the primary and junior secondary students do poorly, while senior secondarystudents were able to excel? What were the factors contributing to the highachievement of the senior secondary students? What was the implication forscientific literacy among the broader student body? What measures have beentaken in order to strengthen science education?

This paper attempts to address these questions in three sections. Thefirst section examines the school system and the major issues that affects thequality of education -- financing, selection and examination, teachers, andcurriculum and allocation of instructional time. The second section discussesthe determinants of achievement by addressing how the curriculum coverage, time-on-task, test relevance, teachers, teaching and learning process, gender, familybackground, and students' aspiration and interest have affected learningoutcomes. The third section examines recent development in science education.

At the primary and junior secondary levels (Grades 1-9), scienceachievement was adversely affected by inadequate curricular coverage, deploymentof non-science specialists as science teachers, a teacher-centered instructionalapproach that emphasized rote memorization instead of understanding of scientificconcepts, low career aspirations of students, lack of attention to girls'academic performance in science, and low level of educational attainment ofparents.

At the matriculation level (Grades 12-13), science achievement waspositively affected by high-test relevance of the curriculum, increasedallocation of instructional time to science subjects, high frequency of homeworkand tests, the use of highly motivated science specialist teachers, and a moreexperimental approach to teaching scienc\e. The selectivity effect is also atwork - - students who successfully passed highly competitive examinations to reachthe matriculation level had overcome possible disadvantaged family background.Girls did less well than boys in physics and chemistry, but performed better thanboys in biology.

Section 3 describes the recent developments in science education, initiatedpartly as a response to the IEA findings and partly to meet the future political,

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economic, and technological challenges. The measures taken include curriculumrevision, re-structuring of educational governance, financing, andadministration, increasing use of research to guide educational policy decisions,increasing the professionalism of teachers, and promoting investigative approachto teaching and learning. The new science curricula at various levels includesocially relevant topics and emphasize the interconnections between science,society and technology. Exercises and questions increasingly ask students toperform decision making, i.e., apply scientific concepts to explain and proposesolutions to real life problems.

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1. The Institutional Context

The school system in Hong Kong comprises six years of primary education(Primary 1-6), three years of junior secondary education (Secondary 1-3 or theequivalent of Grades 7-9), two years of senior secondary education (Secondary 4-5or Grade 10-11), and two years of matriculation course (Secondary 6-7 or Grade12-13). Universal free education was extended to primary education in 1971, andto junior secondary education in 1978. Enrollment in the grammar stream in thesenior secondary level rose from 60% in 1978 to 85% in 1992; a further 10% willenroll in the vocational stream. Enrollment in tertiary education will beincreased from 18% of the 17-20 age group in 1991 to 25% by 1994-951 (Appendix1).

The recent universal provision of secondary schooling and expansion ofhigher education have been made possible by Hong Kong's rapid economic growth anddeclining fertility (Appendix 2). Now that the goal of quantitative provisionhas been realized, qualitative improvement remains a challenge.

The improvement of quality is of paramount importance to science educationbecause partial knowledge of the physical world will not achieve the optimalresults, and inferior products will never be able to compete on the internationalmarket. Meeting the challenge of qualitative improvement entails, among otherthings: (i) ensuring equitable allocation of resources to all schools to minimizethe variations in learning outcomes among different schools; (ii) makingselection and examination fairer and supportive to innovative teaching andcritical thinking; (iii) ensuring the recruitment, retention, and the continuingeducation of high-calibre teachers; and (iv) updating and ensuring the relevanceof the curriculum to society.

The following sections discusses the broad issues of financing, selectionand examination, teachers, and curriculum and allocation of instructional timewithin the school system as they have affected science education in the past.

1.1 Financing

The modes of financing directly impact on the deployment of instructionalresources, the quality of education provided, and the academic achievement.Schools in Hong Kong can be broadly divided into three categories: government,aided, and private schools. Government schools have accounted for no more than7.5% of all schools at any given time. The vast majority are aided schools,which have traditionally been run by Catholic orders, Protestant denominations,Buddhist and Islamic organizations, and Chinese clan-, and locality-basedorganizations. The private schools are usually profit-making institutions. Most

lHong Kong Government, Hong Kong 1992, 1992. p. 132 and 142.

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secondary schools offer instruction from Secondary 1-5, but not necessarilySecondary 6-7.

In aided schools, the government pays for 80% of the capital costs and 100%of the recurrent costs, including the salaries of teachers and administrativepersonnel and other instructional expenses. In return, these schools abide bythe government's Code of Aids which specifies the standard of physicalfacilities, teacher qualifications, hours of instruction, and teacher-studentratios. Finally, access to schooling has been expanded and standards raised bythe government's extension of financial aid and regulations to private schools.2

The number of government and aided primary schools grew from 43% in 1967 to 88%in 1991. Similarly, the number of government and aided secondary schools rosefrom 17% to 82% over the same period (Appendix 3).

In the 1970s and 1980s, to supplement the supply of subsidized places, thegovernment paid the private schools a certain amount for providing a place to astudent within the age of compulsory education.3 This "Bought Place Scheme"(BPS) was a major source of revenue for private schools which otherwise receivedneither capital or recurrent cost financing from government. The per pupilexpenditure in government-aided schools was about three times as high as theprice of a bought place in private school. Students were allocated to subsidizedSecondary 4 places according to their results in public assessment during Primary6 -- the better students were assigned to aided schools, which were often theschools of parental choice, and the weaker ones 1:o private schools. 4

The different modes of financing contributed directly to great variationsin academic standards among schools. Private schools are often housed in amulti-story building with limited space for library or laboratories. Aided schoolteachers receive the same salaries as teachers irm government schools, and manyof the benefits, while private school teachers do not. The work load of privateschool teachers is much heavier and class size bigger (Appendix 4). Thedifferent schools have tapped into very different pools of teachers -- governmentand aided schools attract university graduates, and the private schools non-graduates.

A study comparing students of similar numerical aptitude scores butenrolled in different types of schools found that those in aided schools hadhigher levels of mathematics achievement (47.8%) than those in private schools

'The vast majority of kindergartens for the 3-to-5-year-olds remainprivately run, while tertiary education, and vocational and technical educationand training are publicly-funded.

3A distinction must be made between -the private schools in the BPS, andschools for British children and international schools.

4 A Perspective on the Education of Hong Kong: Report by a Visiting Panel,November, 1982.

2

(36.6%).5 Aided schools on average have lower student to teacher ratio, and ahigher percentage of mathematics specialists. Aided school mathematics teacherson average had more years of teaching experience, mathematics education, andpedagogical training, and fewer classes per week (Appendix 5).

1.2 Selection and Examination

Where an education system cannot provide universal access at all levels,examinations are often used to allocate educational opportunities. In Hong Kong,selection takes place -at Primary 6, Secondary 3, Secondary 5, and Secondary 7 forplacement at the next higher level.

In Primary 6, selection is made for grammar, technical, and prevocationalstreams, as well as for places in government, aided, and private schools.6 InSecondary 3, students compete for subsidized places in Secondary 4.7 InSecondary 5, students take the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination(HKCEE), which serves a similar function as the former Ordinary or "O" Level ofschool-leaving examination in the United Kingdom. Students who pass fivesubjects in HKCEE, including English and Mathematics, will be certified as havingcompleted secondary education. For the majority of students, it is the terminallevel. The results of HKCEE have been used as criteria for selection byemployers, as well as for admission to teacher training colleges, and varioussub-degree programs in polytechnics and post-secondary colleges.

Students who have performed well in HKCEE can compete for places inSecondary 6 and 7 where they will be prepared for matriculation to degree

5Alan Brimer and Patrick Griffin, Mathematics Achievement in Hong KongSecondary Schools, 1985, p. 84.

6The "Secondary School Places Allocation Scheme" (SSPA) assigns Primary 6students to Secondary 1 places through a mixed mechanism of internal schoolassessment, which is scaled by a centrally administered verbal and numericalaptitude test, and parental choice. Students are assigned on the basis of theirscaled marks to quintile ranges within each geographical region of their primaryschools. Parents are given a list of secondary schools within the samegeographical region to indicate the order of their preference. Students withineach quintile are randomly selected and given a place of the school of firstchoice. The random assignment began from the top quintile. If the school offirst choice is already full, then the student will be allocated to a school ofsecond choice. After all students of the top quintile are placed, allocation ofchildren of the second quintile will begin. This system of allocation enableschildren in the top quintile to enter schools of their first or second choice(usually a place in a government-operated or aided secondary school). Childrenin the lower quintiles are likely to be given bought places at private schoolsthat are low in academic standards.

7Before 1988, the Junior Secondary Education Assessment Test (JSEA), whichcovered mathematics, Chinese, and English, was used to scale internal schoolassessments. Allocation to Secondary 4 places was based on the scaled results.

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programs in universities and polytechnics. Before 1992, there were two tracks ofmatriculation courses: (i) the one-year course (Secondary 6 only) leading to theHong Kong Higher Level Examination for admission to the Chinese University ofHong Kong; and (ii) the two-year course (Secondary 6 and 7) leading to the HongKong Advanced Level Examination for admission to the University of Hong Kong. TheHigher Level Examination was abolished in 1992, and matriculation course are nowuniformly of two years' duration leading to the Advanced Level Examination.

Competition was particularly keen before tha late 1980s, when opportunitiesfor upper secondary were limited and those for tertiary education was even morerestricted. For example, in 1979, only 30% of Secondary 5 students enteredSecondary 6, and only 9% of any age cohort in Secondary 1 reached Secondary 7.8Repetition rates were high, and there had been a general tolerance of a three-year age range in any grades. 40% of the students repeated at least once bySecondary 1.

The combined effects of different modes of financing and competitiveexaminations resulted in selecting a very small minority at the expense of thevast majority in the past. These mechanisms; impacted negatively on thedevelopment of broad scientific literacy, but they were able to concentrateresources on educating a selected few to a high level. This issue will berevisited in the discussion on the determinants of science achievement in Section2.

1.3 Teachers

The requirements for teachers' qualification are different for primary andsecondary schools. Primary schools do not require teachers to have universitydegrees, but government and aided secondary schools do. These variousrequirements have given rise to diverse profiles of primary and secondaryteachers.

Primary school teachers. Throughout the decade of the 1980s and in the1990s, over 93% of the primary school teachers were not university graduates(Appendix 6). They were trained in three Colleges of Education -- Grantham,Northcote, and Sir Robert Black -- , which are run by the Education Department.The Colleges provide full-time, three-year, pre-service programs to Secondary 5graduates, and two-year courses to Secondary 6 or 7 matriculants. The Collegesalso offer part-time, in-service training courses of two or three years' durationto teachers of kindergarten, primary, and junior secondary classes, as well asre-training courses lasting five or seven weeks. (Appendix 7).

In 1991,9 75% of primary school teachers were women. Their average agewas 39. The vacancy rate was 1.6%,' and attrition rate was 9.4%. The

8 Brimer and Griffin, 1985, p. 20.

9Education Commission Report No. 5: The Teaching Profession. June, 1992, p.3.

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feminization of the profession, the older age group, the lesser academicqualification relative to secondary school teachers contributed to a lowerattrition rate and vacancy rate. (Appendices 8 and 9).

Secondary school teachers. A recognized university degree with a subjectspecialty is a requisite to teaching in government or aided secondary schools.But pedagogical training is not a requisite to teaching at the secondary level.Analysis of the 1986 census data shows that salaries for university graduates inthe education sector were among the highest in all major economic sectors,besides the medical profession (Appendix 10). Therefore, teaching was anattractive profession for graduates. During the 1980s, about 20-40% of allgraduates of local universities entered the teaching profession.l1

In the 1980s, about 60% of secondary school teachers were universitygraduates. Most of the non-graduate teachers taught in private schools beforetheir schools were converted to aided schools. Schools which have gone throughthe conversion were allowed to retain the non-graduate teachers to avoidexcessive disruption, even if these exceeded 30% of the established teachingposts permitted by the government. The official target is to have 75% ofteachers being university graduates.

Graduates who wish to obtain pre-service or in-service pedagogical trainingby attending postgraduate education courses at the Faculty/School of Educationin the University of Hong Kong and the Chinese University. There are full-timepre-services courses as well as part-time and evening in-service courses, leadingto Certificate/Diploma of Education. The universities also offer short coursesin curriculum, innovation, resource development, educational psychology, studentguidance and counselling, professional development of teachers and educationaladministration.

In 1991, about 50% of the secondary school teachers were males. Theaverage age of teachers was 34. The vacancy rate was 2.6%, attrition rate 12%,and 9% of teachers were new to the profession (Appendix 8). The betterqualification, the more portable the skills, the higher proportion of males, andthe more youthful age group resulted in a higher turnover rate. Many younggraduates have taught for a few years and then moved on to graduate schools orto other sectors.

1.4 Curriculum. Textbooks, and Allocation of Instructional Time

Curriculum. The primary curriculum "aims to provide a broad, balanced andgeneral education appropriate to the age group and the local environment.111The core curriculum includes Chinese, English, mathematics, social studies,science, health education, music, physical education, and art and craft. Thejunior secondary core curriculum aims "to provide an integrated course for nine

lWu, op. cit. pp. 44-46, and 99-102.

1 Hong Kong 1992, p. 131.

years of universal education."'12 It includes Chinese, English, mathematics,science, social studies, Chinese history, history, geography, economics andpublic affairs, ethical/religious education, and practical and technicalsubjects.

The senior secondary curriculum aims to prepare students for educationbeyond Secondary 5 as well as the world of work. English, Chinese andmathematics remain the core curriculum, but students are streamed into arts andsciences specialization in preparation for the HKCEE (Appendix 11). Sciencestudents are required to take biology, chemistry, and physics. Some will takeadditional mathematics, the prerequisite for studying science in Secondary 6.These subjects are each allocated four periods per week. Arts students will takehistory, geography, economics, or literature, alt:hough biology is taught in someschools to arts students.

The Secondary 6 and 7 curriculum aims at preparing students formatriculation for universities (Appendix 12). While English and Chinese remainthe core subjects, the rest of the instructional time is spent on specializedsubjects in either arts or science stream. The two-year matriculation course,which resembles the British Advanced or "A" LeveL syllabus closely, allocates 8to 12 periods per subject per week.

While the teaching syllabuses for individual subjects at all levels areprepared by the Curriculum Development Council oi the Education Department, thesenior secondary and matriculation syllabuses are coordinated with examinationsyllabuses prepared by the Hong Kong Examinations Authority, an independent body.Because of the importance of examination, curriculum, as well as the teaching andlearning process, are driven by examinations.

Textbooks. Schools are free to choose from any books available on themarket for use in school. However, because of t:he need to help students passexaminations, school-level subject committees invariably choose from thetextbooks recommended by the Education Department.

Hong Kong has a thriving private publishing sector. Because the vastmajority of schools use English as a medium of instruction, a few multinationalfirms such as Oxford University Press, Longman, and Mcmillan, dominate themarket. Local publishers concentrate on Chinese language, literature, andhistory, and on lower grades where instruction is in Chinese. Competition forexperienced authors and for market share is keen. Usually, publishers commissionteachers or university lecturers to author the textbooks according to thesyllabus. British authors living in the United Kingdom or expatriate authors areoften commissioned to write English language, social science, and sciencetextbooks. In recent years, the trend is to usea more and more local Chineseauthors for all subjects except for English language.

For textbooks to be put on the Education Diepartment's recommended list,they have to be submitted to the authorities. Review is conducted by a committeecomprising officials and experts in the subjects; who will judge the textbooks

12Ibid, p. 131.

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according to the curriculum coverage, accuracy, and, in the case of socialscience subjects, for balanced view. The Education Department will convey thesecomments to the publisher, who will then ask the author to address them. Therevised version will be re-submitted. When the Education Department is satisfiedwith the revision, it will put the approved textbooks on the recommended list foradoption by schools. The entire review process takes about nine months. Throughthis process, the intended curriculum is taught to students all over theterritory.

Allocation of instructional time to various subiects. In general, a highproportion of class periods is used for language instruction in order to makechildren proficient in both Chinese and English. This has been done at theexpense of other subjects, including science.

In Primary 1, 33% of the teaching periods are devoted to Chinese languageinstruction, which drops to 24% in Primary 4, 5 and 6. However, the proportionof teaching periods spent on English language rises from 15% in Primary 1 to 24%in Primary 4, 5 and 6. The combination of Chinese and English instructionaccounts for 48% of all teaching period, whereas only 6% of the class periods aredevoted to science throughout six years of primary education (Appendix 13).

At the junior secondary level, Hong Kong schools spend 15% of the teachingperiods on Chinese language, 18% on English language and 10% on science (Appendix14).

At the senior secondary level, 18-24% of the class periods are devoted toEnglish teaching (Appendix 14). Because of streaming, there is more instructiontime for specialized subjects, totalling 30% for biology, physics, and chemistryfor students in the science stream. However, students in the arts stream willnot have exposure to science, and vice verse.13

13To provide a comparative perspective, this paper will make reference tothe educational practices and achievements of Japan and South Korea, both havingstrong technological capabilities and impressive economic performance.

In the mid-1980s, Korean primary schools spend about 20% of the classperiods at Primary 4, 5 and 6 on Korean language, and 13 to 14% on science.English is not taught in primary schools. In Japan, 32% of the class periods aredevoted to Japanese language in Primary 1, which is reduced to 21% by Primary 5and 6, and 10% of the periods are spent on science. English is not instructedin Japanese primary schools.

At the junior secondary level, Japanese schools spend 15% of the teachingperiods on Japanese, 15-21% on Englisk , and 12% to science at the juniorsecondary level. Korean schools spend 13-16% of the periods on Korean language,13% on English, 3% on Chinese, and 13% on science. The impressive mathematics andscience achievement of Korean and Japanese students at the primary and juniorsecondary levels is not unrelated to the instructional time allocated to science.

At the senior secondary level, Japanese schools also practice streaming,but Korea schools make general science subject compulsory to all students.

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2. Science and Mathematics Achievement

2.1 The Goals of Science Education

The education authorities has recognized the importance of science andtechnology in Hong Kong. In 1973, the Board of Education reported58:

"In this technological age, scientific knowledge and methods are appliedto industry to produce goods which are competitive in price and qualityand which satisfy world markets. It is generally acknowledged thatprogress in the economic and social development of a country depends,particularly in the absence of other resources, on its human resources andis directly related to the level of skills and knowledge of its workforce."

This position was subsequently adopted in the White Paper on SecondaryEducation (1974), and the White Paper on Senior Secondary and Tertiary Education(1978). It was also reiterated in the Report by A Visiting Panel (1983). Theimportance of science education in the 1990s is underscored by the recent policydrive to invest in science and technology by increasing research funding,emphasizing university and industry cooperation, and establishing the Universityof Science and Technology.

These official positions, however, have not been reflected in increasedallocation of instructional time to science subjects, or in making science a corecurriculum in senior secondary education. However, because mathematics hasconsistently been tested in all examinations, the level of mathematicsachievement is relatively high. This, in turn, has a positive effect on scienceachievement.

Hong Kong's science curriculum follows the British science curriculum, suchas the Scottish integrated science curriculum and the Nuffield physics projects.Primary science aims at "widening the child's sphere of experience throughexploration of the environment."59 Secondary 1-3 science emphasizes observation;Secondary 4-5 science stresses an interpretative approach with some

Japanese schools spend about 18-24% of periods on English, while Korean schoolsspend 21-24% of the periods on English, 8-14% of the time on Classical Chinese,and 11% of the time on elective subjects of French, Spanish, Japanese andChinese. See Republic of Korea, Education in Korea, 1986 and United StatesDepartment of Education, Japanese Education Today, 1987.

58 The quote is taken from Mark Bray, "Is Ecomomic Growth Linked to Scienceand Technology Education?" in World Bank/British Council, Educating forCapability: the Role of Science and Technology Education, Vol. II, October, 1989.

59Syllabuses for Primary Schools: Primary ScLence. 1981, p. 4.

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quantification of concepts; and Secondary 6 and 7 science demands furtherrefinement of concepts and development of scientific skills.60

Since its introduction in 1973, integrated science curriculum has beenadopted by 98% of secondary schools at the Secondary 1 and 2 levels. AtSecondary 3 level, about 40% of schools teach biology, chemistry, and physics asseparate subjects.61 While the stated aims of science education at every levelinclude both the development of cognitive skills and affective aspects (such asan appreciation of all forms of life, and respect for the environment),assessment objectives often concentrate on the cognitive side alone. On thewhole, science curricula from the senior secondary level on up are very academicin nature. They aim at conveying scientific concepts and principles, anddeveloping cognitive abilities and skills based on the prescribed subject matter.

2.2 Science Achievement by International Comparison

The first systematic effort to analyze science curriculum, survey theclassroom processes, and measure the learning outcomes in Hong Kong was madeunder the aegis of the International Association for the Evaluation ofEducational Achievement (1EA).62

The IEA has conducted two international studies on mathematics and scienceachievement, the first in 1970 and the second in the 1980s. The first study hadrelatively few participants from developing countries. The second study, havingbenefitted from past experience, are massive cross-national efforts to measureinput, process, and output variables for comparative purposes. The IEAconstructed international achievement measures in various mathematics and sciencesubjects. It also developed attitude scales and background informationquestionnaires for students, teachers, and schools principals to gatherinformation on the intended and implemented curriculum, which can be used toexplain differences in the achievement outcomes.

The IEA also constructed a National Case Study questionnaire to gatherinformation on key national indicators of education, such as the age of entry toschool, the average teacher salaries in relation to GNP per capita, and theactual length of the school year in days and hours. The tests were administeredto thousands of randomly selected students in participant countries. Theseinclude advanced industrial, socialist, newly industrialized, and developingcountries. In certain tests, there were nearly fifty countries participating inthe study, although there were fewer countries in other tests.

6 0Syllabuses for Secondary Schools: Syllabus for Science (Forms I-III),1986, p. 7.

61Education Commission Report No. 4: The Curriculum and Behavioral Problemsin Schools, 1990, p. 11.

62Neville Postlethwaite, "Cross National Convergence of Concepts andMeasurement of Educational Achievement." 1988.

9

The Mathematics Study had two populations. Population A was defined as thegrade in which the majority of students would reach the age of 13 by the middleof the school year. In Hong Kong, this population was found in Secondary 2 (theequivalent of Grade 7 in other countries) where 52.6% of the students were 12years old and 31.6% were 13 years old. Population B was defined as the gradewhich precedes university admission. In most cotntries, this is the equivalentof Grades 12 and 13. In Hong Kong, this population was found in Secondary 6 and7, the preparatory course for both the Higher Level and Advanced LevelExaminations. The age groups were the 18- and 19 year-olds.

A stratified sample was taken from schools classified according to threeidentifiers: (i) publicly funded (government and aided) or privately funded; (ii)English-language or Chinese-language; and (iii) boys, girls, or co-educational.However, because there was no private, boys, Chinese-language schools forPopulation A, only eleven strata existed. 5,429 students were drawn from 133classes. For Secondary 6 of Population B, there were not enough private, single-sex Chinese-language schools. As a result, 2,780 students from 101 classes weresampled from nine strata. For Secondary 7 of Population B, 414 students from 30classes were drawn. As English was used exclusively at Secondary 7, the strataincluded only English-language, private and public schools of both single-sex andco-educational student bodies.

The Science Study had three populations. Population 1 was defined as themodal grade of 10-year-olds (Grade 4/5 in most countries), Population 2, themodal grade of 14-year-olds (Grades 8/9), and Population 3, students studyingscience in the final year of secondary education (Grades 12/13). In Hong Kong,these populations are found in Primary 4, Secondary 2, and Secondary 6 and 7.

A stratified sample was taken from 12 stratum defined in the same way asthe mathematics study. However, because some combinations of identifiers did notexist, a stratified sample of 6% of Populations 1. and 2 was drawn from classesthat were divided into 8 to 9 strata. 5,342 Primary 4 students from 146 classes,and 4,973 Secondary 2 students from 132 classes were tested. A stratifiedsample of 50% of Population 3 was taken. About 6,000 Secondary 6 students, and3,600 Secondary 7 students took the science tests which included general scienceand specialized subjects in biology, chemistry and physics. A significant numberof the Population 3 students who took the bio.Logy specialist test did notspecialized in biology.

Data were also collected on student background, teacher characteristics,and school information. These data made possible an examination of the effectson achievement of family background (such as parental education and occupation),students' perception of science and career aspirat:ion, the curriculum coverage,teachers' qualification and experience, and the teaching and learning process.

The mathematics tests were adminis\tered in ].981, and the science tests in1984 and 1985. The Secondary 6 & 7 students who took the mathematics tests in1981 entered Primary 1 around 1971 when primary education was made universal andcompulsory. Other secondary school students who took the tests entered theschool system at various time in the 1970s. They were the beneficiaries of theincreased educational opportunities of the decade. Their levels of achievementreflected the accomplishments and failures of the system as a whole.

10

Hong Kong students' performance is compared with that of their counterpartsin participant countries by the following criteria: (i) the overall pattern ofachievement among various levels of education as indicated by the average score;(ii) the percentage of schools scoring lower than the lowest average score in thehighest achieving country; (iii) between-school variations; and (iv) genderdifferences in science achievement. The following paragraphs will look at eachof these criteria at three levels of education.

Overall pattern of achievement. Hong Kong students' performance at threelevels of education displayed a very similar pattern of achievement as Britishand Singaporean students. The average scores were low at the primary and juniorsecondary levels, but high at the matriculation level. Hong Kong's Primary 4students ranked 17th among 19 participant countries/regions; Secondary 2 studentsranked 20th among 26 participant countries/regions; Secondary 7 students rankedfirst in physics, first in chemistry, and second in biology among 19 participantcountries/regions. Even Secondary 6 students who took the same test as Secondary7 students ranked second in physics, fourth in chemistry, and sixth in biology(Appendix 15).63

This pattern of low scientific literacy during compulsory basic educationyears but high achievement at the university preparatory level reflected HongKong's adoption of British science curriculum and the elitist characteristics ofthe British education system. In contrast, students in Japan and South Koreaperformed exceptionally well at the primary and junior secondary levels,reflecting a generally high level of scientific literacy in Japan and SouthKorea64 (Appendix 15).

The performance of Secondary 6 and 7 students provided good indication ofthe capabilities of a selected group of potential scientists. In Hong Kong, 20%of the age group took physics and chemistry at Secondary 6, and 12% at Secondary7, compared with 37% and 14% of the age-group studying physics and chemistry inSouth Korea, 11% and 16% in Japan, 6% and 5% in England, 7% and 6% in Singapore,and 1% and 2% in the United States.65 Taking into consideration the relativelyhigh proportion of the age-group in Hong Kong taking these courses and that 50%of the Secondary 6 and 7 students took the tests, Hong Kong students' ability tooutperform the more selected group of students in other countries was quite anachievement.

Although only 12% of the age-group in Secondary 6 and 7% in Secondary 7studied biology, many students who took the biology test did not specialize in

s3J. P. Keeves, Learning Science in a Changing World: Cross-national Studiesof Science Achievement: 1970 to 1984, 1992, pp. 7, 13, and 21.

64Although South Korean students at'the pre-university level did not havehigh scores, their average age was 17.11, younger than most of theirinternational peers. Their participation rate was also much higher than mostcountries -- 38% of the relevant age-group studied biology, 37% physics, and 14%chemistry. Ibid, pp. 56-57.

65Ibid, pp. 56-57.

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the subject. Therefore their good performance in biology was quite remarkable.Nonetheless, this achievement has to be evaluated against the fact that theaverage age of Secondary 7 students was 19.2, lCI months older than Secondary 6students, and a few months to a year older than their counterparts in othercountries."6 A maturation effect might be at work as well.

The Rercentage of schools scoring lower than the lowest score in thehighest achieving country. At the primary level, Japanese primary schools hadthe highest average score. In comparison, 77% of Hong Kong schools' averagescore was lower than the lowest school average in Japan, while South Korea hadonly 7% of the schools below the Japanese minimum (Appendix 16).

At the junior secondary level, Hungary had the highest average score. 26%of Hong Kong schools scored below the Hungarian minimum, compared with only 1%of the Japanese schools and 5% of South Korean schools. Since Hong Kong studentshad only one more year to go before finishing compulsory education, their lowlevel of science achievement suggests that scientific knowledge of workersentering the labor force immediately after the period of compulsory education wasvery weak (Appendix 16).

Between-school variance as a oroRortion of student variance67. The greaterthe between-school variance, the greater the difference in school quality. InHong Kong, at the primary level, 34% of the variance in achievement was betweenschools; this level was exceeded only by Singapore and the Philippines. At thejunior secondary level, the between-school variance was 29%, about twice as greatas South Korean schools. This between-school variance is consistent with thedifferent modes of financing and variation in qualify between publicly-funded andprivate-funded schools discussed in Section 1.1. (Appendix 17).

In comparison, in Japan, only 4% of the variance in achievement was betweenschools, indicating that it did not matter which schools junior secondarystudents went to, they would have learned as muclh and achieved as well. Sincelittle of the variance is due to between-schooL difference, the quality ofJapanese schools is even throughout the country. (Appendix 17).

Gender differences in science achievement. Intelligence is assumed to befairly evenly distributed between females and males, but societal selection ofboys for scientific careers often leads to neglect for girls. This is reflectedin boys having higher standard scores than girls in most countries (Appendix 18).

In Hong Kong, a differential in achievement between boys and girls existsfrom an early age, and increased even more significantly with the levels ofeducation. Primary 4 boys performed better than girls, although the variance forboys was greater. Secondary 2 boys exceeded the girls even more. By the timeof matriculation, boys by far outperform7ed girls in physics and chemistry. Inbiology at the matriculation level, however, girls performed better than boys.(Appendix 18).

66Ibid, pp. 56-57.

67IEA Science Achievement in Seventeen Countries, 1988, p. 29.

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The proportion of boys studying each branch of science was far greater thangirls, although the proportion of girls studying biology was 10% higher thangirls in other sciences. The greater standard deviation for boys in every branchof science suggested that more boys than girls who were on the borderline ofacademic ability were persuaded to study science in senior secondary school andwere admitted to science course at the matriculation level.68

2.3 Determinants of Science Achievement

The IEA found that student achievement was positively related to thecurriculum coverage, the time spent on science (class time, laboratory work,tests, and homework), the academic qualification of teachers, and students'attitude towards science. Students' family background was also positivelyrelated to academic achievement at the primary and junior secondary levels, butnot at the university preparatory level because the examination system hadscreened out the average students.69

Curriculum coverage and time-on-task. At the time of the IEA studies,science in the primary school was taught through natural study, which emphasizedbiology but neglected earth science, chemistry and physics (Appendix 19). It wasallocated only two 30-minute periods in the weekly time table. The timeallocation was half to one-third of the international standard. The BritishNational Science Curriculum recommends a maximum of 12.5% of the total teachingcurriculum allocated to science subjects at the primary level, amounting to about4 periods per week. Moreover, primary schools were poorly supplied with scienceequipment, and experimental work was not emphasized. It is hardly surprisingthat Hong Kong students performed poorly because they did not have theopportunity to learn.

At the time of the IEA study, the junior secondary curriculum was based onthe Scottish Integrated Science course. Biology received much coverage, physicsmoderate coverage, and Chemistry very little. Electronics and nuclear power werecompletely neglected (Appendix 19). Nonetheless, secondary schools were wellprovided with scientific equipment, and experimental work was carried out.However, only four periods or 2.7 hours a week were allocated to science teachingat Secondary 1 to 3, as compared with the 15% of the curriculum or six periodsrecommended by the British National Science Curriculum.70

68Jack Holbrook, Science Education in Hong Kong: Achievements andDeterminants. The Education Papers Series No. 6, Faculty of Education, Universityof Hong Kong, 1990, p. 38-42.

"9The source of information of Section 2.2 is Jack Holbrook, ResearchCoordinator of IEA Center, University of Hong Kong. See Science Education inHong Kon-: The National Report of the Hong Kong Science Studv, Vol. 1, 1989, andVol. 2, 1990.

70Ibid, Vol. 2. pp. 131-133.

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The IlEA study found that the scientific literacy was very low at theprimary and junior secondary levels. After only one more year of compulsoryschooling, about 75% of the Secondary 2 students in the mid-1980s would enter theworkforce, and half of those who continue on to the senior secondary level wouldenter the arts stream. When they grow up, they will function as citizens andemployees with very limited understanding of science and technology.

The high level of achievement of Secondary 6 and 7 students in the IEAstudy was, to a large extent, a direct result of the curriculum and time-on-task.The Secondary 6 & 7 curriculum was extremely academic, and the test relevance washigh, resulting in exceptional performance of thLe students.

The teachers. The IEA teachers' survey found that 91% of primary scienceteachers were not university graduates.71 62% of primary school scienceteachers were female, with an average age of 37. Not only were they trained atan earlier time, but the curriculum also required a very small portion of theteaching time to be devoted to science. Moreover, in-service training wasinfrequent. 63% of primary teachers and 42% of junior secondary teachersreported that they had not attended any in-service course in the previous 12months.

Secondary science teachers tend to be younger, over half being between theages of 28 and 37. About 60% of junior secondary teachers were male, and theproportion of male teachers increased dramatical'Ly at the matriculation level,particularly in physics. About half of junior science teachers wereuniversity graduates, and overwhelming majorit;y of science teachers at the

matriculation level were graduates who specialized in science. Given therestricted access to university education in the 1970s and much of 1980s, theseteachers were high achievers who had successfully passed highly competitiveexaminations, and also knew how to coach their students in taking examination.These teachers had a high interest in their subject and were keen to transmittheir knowledge and interest to students. 722 of them reported that theyattended an in-service course in the previous 12 mconths. The situation, however,was very different in private schools, where few university graduates werewilling to work. There, 40% of science teachers in private schools had neverattended in-service training. 72

The differences in academic qualifications, science specialist training,and frequency of in-service training, to a large extent, explained the poorperformance of students at the lower levels and high performance at the higherlevel.

The process of teaching and learning. At Primary 4, science teaching wasteacher-centered. Students learned fact by rote memorization, but not fromobservation, experimentation, or library research. Little or no emphasis wasplaced on problem solving, interpretation, formulation of generation, and model

7lIbid, vol. 1, pp. 74-75.

72Holbrook, Science Education in Hong Kong: Achievements and Determinants.1990, p. 72-82.

14

building, nor on the impact of science on society (Appendix 20). This is notconducive to the acquisition of scientific skills that should be the aim ofscience education.

At Secondary 2, laboratory work was more frequent. However, model-buildingremained weak. Because the textbooks in the majority of school are in English,the teacher spends much time translating and explaining in Chinese. Work sheetsis the main source of instructions. Little attention is paid to inquiry andself-initiative, not even at the Secondary 6 & 7 level.7 (Appendix 20).

The students. Students' attitude towards science varies greatly betweendifferent levels of education. Over 20% of the student sample in Secondary 2expected to leave school after Secondary 2, and to enter semi- or unskilledoccupations. About 40% of them expected to leave school after Secondary 5. About30% had aspiration for tertiary education. Their expectation was found to havematched their science achievement. Students at Secondary 6 and 7 had alreadystudied science for more than 500 hours. Most of them found science enjoyableand relevant to every day life. High achievers in science reported that theyliked science.74

Family Background. It should be noted that about half of Hong Kong'spopulation are immigrants from China, the majority of whom are of peasantorigins. The level of educational attainment in the people had been low. In1976, 26% of the whole population had had no schooling, 43% only primaryeducation, 29% secondary education, and 2.3% post-secondary or universityeducation. In 1988, 13% still had had no schooling, 30% only primary education,47% secondary education, 6% post-secondary education, and 4.5% universityeducation.7 5 Females' level of educational attainment was much lower.76 TheIEA study found that family background affected achievement at the Primary 4 andSecondary 2 levels, but not at the matriculation level because students whoreached that level were already a self-selected group. "

The IEA survey found that 40% of the fathers of Primary 4 students and 55Xof the fathers of Secondary 2 students had only primary education or less. 75%of the fathers of Primary 4 students and 80% of the fathers of Secondary 2students were semiskilled or unskilled workers. The higher the fathers'educational attainment and occupational hierarchy, the better the studentachievement at the primary and junior secondary levels.

73Ibid, pp. 82-99.

74Ibid, pp. 24-29.

75Hong Kong Government, Social and Economic Trends 1967-77 and Social andEconomic Trends 1987-88, Hong Kong.

76Hong Kong Government, Hong Kong Annual Digest of Statistics, 1992, p. 19.

77Ibid, p. 48-50.

15

Mother's occupation was more homogeneouLs in relationship to scienceachievement across various categories. 50% of the mothers of Primary 4 studentsand 65% of the mothers of Secondary 2 students had received only primaryeducation or less. Children whose mothers were engaged in professionaladministrative position performed better.

Sibling size was found to be significantly related to science achievementin Primary 4 and Secondary 2. Those with more siblings performed at a lowerlevel. It is possible that educational opportunities were reduced among largerfamilies of low socioeconomic status. Children in families which possess morebooks or made use of a dictionary were higher achievers in science at Primary 4and Secondary 2.

Parental occupation and education, sibling, size, and the number of booksat home had very little correlation with student achievement at the Secondary 6and 7 level, where students are selected on their academic ability and haveovercome possible family background disadvantages.

Conclusion. The IEA's achievement measurements are relative to those ofother countries, not assessment of internal standards. Information is notavailable on the average standard and the distribution. After the IEA studieshave identified the factors affecting achievement and the attendant problems, itis important to follow up with assessment to monitor progress in the future.

2.4 Mathematics Achievement and its Determinanl:s

The strong relationship between mathematics and science achievement callsfor an examination of mathematics achievement as well. In the IEA Second Study,the performance of Hong Kong Secondary 1 students in arithmetic, algebra,geometry, and measure was at or above the median of the international scores,although they were weaker in statistics. At the matriculation level, Hong Kongstudents' results ranked first among all particlpant countries. Hong Kong'saverage scores of all the subtests (sets and relation, number systems, algebra,geometry, Functions and Calculus, and probability and statistics) were higherthan the highest quartile among fifteen countries (Appendix 21). Hong Kongstudents' exceptional performance at the matriculation level explained partiallywhy they did so well in physics and chemistry tests. The determinants ofmathematics achievement as discovered by the IEA studies are as follows.78

Curriculum Coverage. At the time of the IEA study, Hong Kong had threemathematics syllabi leading to the HKCEE--the tradlitional mathematics syllabus,the modern mathematics syllabus, and the -provisional mathematics syllabus. In1983, the traditional and modern mathematics syllabi were amalgamated. The IEAtest was relevant to Hong Kong's Secondary 1 curriculum, except in geometry, andhighly relevant to the matriculation curriculum. Test relevance explains why HongKong did well in the test. Moreover, Secondary 7 in the British system is

78Information on this subsection is drawr from Brimer and Griffin,Mathematics Achievement in Hong Kong Secondary Sclhools, 1985.

16

considered as the equivalent of the first year of university education in a USbased system, as British-type universities only provide three years of education.This educational structure explains why Hong Kong's higher level curriculum isso demanding (Appendix 22).

The students. Hong Kong's Secondary 1 students were on average youngerthan the international median age, but the standard deviation was also bigger(Appendix 23). Matriculation students were on average older, and the standarddeviation was nearly twice as much as the international standard deviation. Thisreflected the imbalance between age and grade discussed in Section 1.2. Therewas an equal number of boys and girls in Secondary 1 because they were within thecompulsory education age-group. However, at the matriculation level, boysaccounted for 80% of the students. (Appendix 24).

The schools. Hong Kong did not compare favorably with the internationalmedian in most school variables at both Secondary 1 and matriculation levels.On average, the sizes of school and class in Hong Kong were larger than theinternational median. There were fewer teachers per 100 students and fewermathematics specialists in Hong Kong schools. (Appendices 23 and 24).

The parents. In developed countries, parental education and occupationhave been major determinants of achievements. However, these variables had lesseffect in Hong Kong. Among Secondary 1 students, 44% of the fathers wereunskilled or semiskilled workers. 57% of the fathers and 70% of the mothers hadonly primary education or less, compared with the international median of 21% offathers having only primary education or less and being unskilled or semi-skilled, and 22% of mothers having only primary education or less (Appendix 23).This is different from the case of science education.

Among matriculation students, 36% of the fathers were unskilled orsemiskilled workers, and only 14% of the fathers were professionals or managers.65% of the fathers and 81% of the mothers had only primary education or less.In contrast, in the international median, only 6% of the fathers were unskilledor semi-skilled workers and 30% were professionals or managers; 14% of thefathers and 17% of mothers had only primary education or less (Appendix 24).Parental variables, therefore, could not explain, in a simple way, the highlevels of achievement in mathematics among Hong Kong students.

The teachers. The average age of Hong Kong teachers of Secondary 1 was 29;that of matriculation students was 33, compared with the international median of37 and 40, respectively. Not only were Hong Kong teachers younger, they had lessteaching experience (6 and 9 years on average teaching Secondary 1 and Secondary6 and 7, respectively, compared with the international median of 13 and 15).They also had less post-secondary mathematics study (2.3 and 5.8 years, versesthe international median of 5.5 and 7.3 years) and less pedagogical training, butheavier teaching load (20 and 19 hours,\compared with the international medianof 17 and 18.7 hours). (Appendices 22 and 23).

Teaching. learning. and time-on-task. The average hours of mathematicsteaching per class per year were 124.30, less than the international median(130.45) in Secondary 1. It was significantly more (181.60) than theinternational median (148.50) at the matriculation level. On average, Hong Kong

17

teachers spent more time explaining and students listening than the internationalmedian, indicating that Hong Kong classrooms were centered around the teacher.

Hong Kong students were given more homework -- 3.50 hours per class perweek at the junior secondary level and 6.50 hours at the Secondary 6 & 7 level,as compared with the international median of 2.10 hours and 3.70 hours,respectively. Secondary 6 & 7 students in Hong Kong also spent more time ontest, 45 minutes per week versus 33 minutes of the international median. Theamount of time Hong Kong students spent on homework and tests in preparation forexamination appeared to be a strong predictor of their high level of achievement.(Appendices 22 and 23).

Examination and selection. None of the variables examined would provide anysatisfactory explanation of Hong Kong students' mathematics achievement withoutreference to the examination and selection mechanism that drives the students.79

Mathematics has been a major component in the selection and allocation of placesfor Secondary 1, Secondary 4, Secondary 6 and 7. Poor performance in mathematicsin primary school was likely to lead to repetition, and low mathematics scoresat Secondary 3 and Secondary 5 would mean they could not have the opportunity forfurther education. Given that all tests are norm-referenced, repetition has beenan option for the academically less able students to remain in the system untilthey have succeeded in the examination or dropped out. This process weeded outweaker students when they were over the compulsory education age.

The selectivity effect was even stronger at t:he higher level. For example,in 1980, over 48,000 Secondary 5 students took general mathematics in the HKCEE,the school-leaving examination, but only 16,000 of them sat the additionalmathematics examination, which is the prerequisite for studying mathematics inSecondary 6 and 7. About half of the Secondary 7 students sat the Advanced LevelExamination in pure mathematics, and one-third sat the applied math examination.They represented about 4% and 3% of the year cohort in the population. HongKong's students were also on average a few months older than the internationalaverage, and hence, a maturation effect was at work.

Conclusion. Hong Kong.students' high level of mathematics achievement canbe explained by the high test-relevance of the curriculum and the time spent onthe task (instructional time, homework, and tests). The examination system whichconsistently tests mathematics skills at all levels kept teachers and studentsfocus on mathematics. Although the opportunity cost of this focus is not yetknown, one of the results is that the Hong Kong students performed well byinternational standards.

79Brimer and Griffin (1985) concluded that the selectivity effect has animpact on the high levels of mathematics achievement among Hong Kong students.

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3. Recent Developments in Science Education

From the mid-1980s, educational governance has undergone major changes inthe direction of widening local participation in the policy making process. Thefirst step was the establishment in 1984 of the Education Commission, whichincludes representatives from various local education bodies previously notconsulted by the government.

The Education Commission immediately set out to review a wide range ofeducational issues and made policy recommendations regarding pre-schools,tertiary education, private schools, curriculum development, languageinstruction, counselling and guidance, remedial teaching, alternative curricula,assessments, uni-sessional schooling at Primary 5 and 6, corporal punishment, andthe teaching profession. The overall direction of change is liberal andconsistent with progressive educational trends worldwide. For example, access tohigher education has been dramatically increased, greater flexibility andautonomy given to schools and teachers, and corporal punishment legallyabolished.

The impetus of change came from three sources. First, the post-war, HongKong-born generation has moved into positions of responsibility and are eager toshape their own destiny. Second, Hong Kong has reached a level of economicdevelopment that enables it not only to expand education but also improvequality. Third, the integration of Hong Kong's economy with China's, thetransformation from a labor-intensive manufacturing center to an internationalfinancial and commercial center, the increasing international competition, andthe transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong from Britain to China in 1997 havestimulated reform of education in order to meet the challenges of political,economic, and technological changes.

The major reforms that affect science education indirectly are in the areasof financing, assessment and the use of educational research to assist policymaking, improving the professionalism of teachers, and delineating theresponsibility of curriculum development. Within the community of scienceeducators, the result of the IEA studies also stimulated a re-examination of theaims of education and science curriculum. The most visible change is in relatingscience to technology, society and the environment. The following will illustratethese changes in greater details.

3.1 Financing

To address the variation in school quality arising from different modes offinancing, a "Direct Subsidy Scheme" (DSS) was introduced in 1991 to assistprivate schools in the BPS to improve class size, teacher training, and schoolfacilities. A capital assistance loan scheme is devised to help non-profit DSSschools redevelop school buildings and make major structural repairs. This wouldundoubtedly assist private schools to recruit better qualified teachers and toimprove science laboratories and libraries.

19

Under the new scheme, private schools can set their own curriculum,entrance requirements and fee levels. International schools are allowed to jointhe DSS. The BPS would be phased out by the year 2000. Public subsidy isprovided for each student enrolled to private schools that meet specifiedstandards. 80

3.2 Assessment and Educational Research

The intense competition for subsidized places in Secondary 4 has beensubstantially reduced as the government has been extending its subsidies and asthe number of school-age children has been on the decline. In 1988, the publicscaling test in the Junior Secondary Education Assessment Test was abolished, andeligibility is based on internal school assessment.

Beginning in the mid-1980s, standardized Hong Kong Attainment Tests inEnglish, Chinese and mathematics have been carried out from Primary 1 toSecondary 3. The purpose is to help schools assess the achievement of students.In 1990, the Education Commission recommended the. introduction of a framework ofattainment targets and related assessments aimeel at improving the teaching andlearning in schools as well as providing for more effective monitoring andassessment of learning outcomes. Once these target-related assessments aredeveloped, they will supersede the standardized Attainment Tests.

There is also a new trend to conduct research to improve the process ofteaching and learning, and to inform policy making. The universities have beenactively involved in the research enterprise and the Education ResearchEstablishment of the Education Department has also taken on increasing number ofpolicy research. Examples are studies on the curriculum and teaching practicesbetween the various levels of education, the effects of the change of medium ofinstruction in secondary schools, and the curriculum patterns and subjectstreaming at secondary level. The Education Research Establishment alsoparticipated in the IEA international literacy study project. These efforts, ifextended to science education research, will improve science achievement.

3.3 Teachers

To improve the quality of primary educatiLon, the Education Commissionrecommends upgrading about 35% of primary teachling posts to graduate statuswithin 15 years. The purposes are to encourage serving teachers to acquire adegree relevant to the needs of the schools, and to attract high calibre peopleinto primary school teaching.

A worrisome trend in recent years is that the percentage of universitygraduates who entered teaching has declined. For example, the number of primary

80Education Commission Report No. 3: The Structure of Tertiary Educationand the Future of Private Schools, 1988.

20

school teachers who were university graduates was reduced from 1,283 (7%) in 1980to 431 (2.3%) in 1991. For secondary teachers, the decrease of universitygraduates was most dramatic between 1989 and 1991, dropping 65% to 60% within twoyears. (Appendix 6). The Education Commission Report No. 5 reported81

It has become harder in recent years for schools to recruit graduateteachers and an increasing number of those recruited have chosen not toacquire a postgraduate qualification in education, but leave theprofession after a few years. This problem..has two causes. Firstly, therestructuring and growth of Hong Kong's economy has led to a growingmismatch between the demand for graduate manpower and the supply of newgraduates. This has affected schools as much as other employers.Secondly, graduates now have a much wider choice of careers than in thepast. The current expansion of tertiary education will increase thesupply of new graduates from 1994 to the benefit of all professions.Whether schools can attract sufficient new graduates and provide enoughsatisfaction to retain them in the profession will depend on improvementin the working environment and on career opportunities for graduateteachers.

Policy recommendations on improvement of school environment includestrengthening programs for induction of new teachers, improving schoolmanagement, cultivate school and family relations, adding more rooms forspecialized activities, reducing workload through increasing teaching posts,providing career paths through increasing senior teacher posts, andprofessionalization of teaching.82

A number of new support services have been provided to promote teachers'professional development. In 1989, the Education Department set up the Hong KongTeachers' Center with a professional library and news bulletins. The centeroperates under an advisory management committee with wide representation fromschools, teacher organizations and educational bodies. Since its establishment,over a thousand of activities, including a few international conferences, havebeen organized.

Other means to enhance teachers' professionalism and to cater for a diverserange of learning needs and interests is the launching of the school-basedcurriculum project scheme by the Education Department in 1988. The scheme isdesigned to encourage schools "to adapt the centrally designed curriculum to suitthe specific needs of their students."83 Between 1988 and 1990, nearlyUS$200,000 were given in grants to support 89 projects in schools. However" dueto the pressure of public examination, the majority of the projects involvedproducing teaching materials rather than to develop curricula.

81Ibid, p. 34.

82See Education Commission Report No. 5: The Teaching Profession, 1992.

83Education Commission Report No. 4: The Curriculum and Behavioral Problemsin Schools, 1990, p. 12.

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3.4 Reorganizing the Curriculum Development Structure

Curriculum development had been the responsibility of the AdvisoryInspectorate of the Education Department up to 1992. The Inspectorate wasassisted by the Curriculum Development Committee before 1988, and a re-constituted Curriculum Development Council (CDC) afterwards, the latter being anadvisory body appointed by the Director of Education. The CDC drew its membersmainly from the education profession. The CDC comprised a main committee, sevencoordinating committees (kindergarten, primary, secondary, sixth form, specialeducation, prevocational, and textbook), and 69 subject committees. Since itsreconstitution, the CDC has revised and updated the syllabuses for many subjects,and designed a number of new ones. All the junior secondary, senior secondary,and matriculation level science curricula discussed in the appendices, as wellas school-based curriculum scheme, are the works of the newly constituted CDC.

The CDC is part of the Inspectorate, whose responsibilities are dividedbetween curriculum development, school inspection, and organizing in-serviceteacher training courses.84 In view of the fact that curriculum development isa central activity in the education process that clearly requires specialattention and wider participation, the Education Commission recommended that theCDC be reconstituted to include participation of parents and employers, and theCurriculum Development Institute (CDI) be created to serve as a secretariat ofthe CDC, separate from the Advisory Inspectorate. In addition, the CDI is to bestaffed partly by professionals form outside the civil services.

The CDI will assume the following responsibilities: curriculum planning,including research, experimentation, innovation, and evaluation, providing andupdating curriculum guides and subject syllabuses, developing resource materialsand managing resource centers, liaising with the Hong Kong ExaminationsAuthority, the Education Department Advisory Inspectorate and teacher traininginstitutions on the development and evaluation of the curriculum, and reviewingtextbooks. The CDC was reconstituted and the CD] established in 1992.

These recent changes, plus the policy to convert half-day session forPrimary 5 and 6 to full-day schooling,85 are likely to have an impact oncurriculum and instructional time allocation. Wiether more class periods willbe allocated to science education at the primary and junior secondary levels, andwhether science will be made the core curriculum at the senior secondary levelremains to be seen.

3.5 Changes in Science Curriculum

Beginning in the mid-1980s, science education in Hong Kong has undergoneconsiderable change in terms of curriculum coverage and emphasis. Juniorsecondary integrated science curriculum was revised in 1986, senior secondary

4Ibid, p. 167.

e5Ibid

22

physics curriculum in 1988, biology and chemistry in 1992 (Appendices 27-31).Technology-related subjects such as computer studies were introduced in seniorsecondary level in the mid-1980s (Appendix 34). In addition, new matriculationlevel courses, known as advanced supplementary level in biology, chemistry,physics, and liberal studies, were introduced to provide more choices forstudents with a range of abilities and interests. These courses require twoyears of study but only half the teaching time of the advanced level. They aredesigned for students studying related subjects at advanced level (for example,physics), whose main interests lie in other disciplines, but who wish to keep uptheir knowledge in the subject at the advanced supplementary level (for example,biology).

The new curricula, particularly in chemistry, at various levels introducemore socially and economically relevant topics, such as electricity andelectronics in Secondary 3, environment in senior secondary biology and chemistryas well as in liberal studies at the advanced supplementary level (Appendix 41).They also place stronger emphasis on the connection between science, technology,and society. This is not only in tune with the worldwide trend in scienceeducation,86 but is also appropriate to meeting the pressing need to inculcatein students a sense of belonging to Hong Kong so that they will becomecontributing citizens in the future. (See the Appendices 26-31, 36-38, and 41 forthe curricular aims, objectives, and syllabuses of various science subjects atthe primary, junior secondary, senior secondary, and matriculation levels.)

The new curricula also reflect an awareness that science subjects at seniorsecondary and matriculation levels have to cater for students who willspecialized in science and engineering at tertiary level, and those who will haveno further formal contact with science. For example, the Advanced Level Chemistrysyllabus is87

"designed to make possible a course in chemistry which is comprehensive,satisfying and rewarding both to future specialists and to those notcontinuing studies in chemistry. Thus whilst attention should be paid tounderlying concepts, candidates should also be aware of the economic,social, industrial and environmental implications of chemistry. Everyendeavor has been made ... (to reduce) the amount of memorization; it ishoped to put emphasis on understanding and to provide an opportunity forcandidates to investigate for themselves. ... the content is intended to bewide enough to offer candidates experience in the recognition, extension,

86 The recent curricular development in Hong Kong has been influenced by the"Science, Technology and Society" (STS) approach such as the "Chemistry inCommunity" by the American Chemical Society, SATIS by the British Association forScience Education, and Salter's Science by the Science Education Group of theUniversity of York, United Kingdom.

87Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination Regulations and Syllabuses: 1994,1992, p. 124.

23

and interlinking of the pattern which form a distinguishing feature ofchemistry."

The new curricula emphasize the teaching of scientific concepts andprocesses, and promote the activity approach at the primary level and theinvestigative approach at the secondary level. The new approaches encourage theuse of interactive methods (such as the use of structured discussion, role playand simulation, problem-solving, data analysis, surveys, practical work, design,case studies, and decision-making), concept mapping to show the relationshipbetween ideas, relevant daily materials to enhance interest and demonstrate theapplication of scientific principles in real life situations (for example, usingmeat tenderizers and special washing powers to illustrate the power of enzymes).

These new teaching approaches also encourage setting exercises andquestions which require the application of scient:ific concepts to everyday lifesituations. As example of such exercise is "How physics helps with the buildingof the Eastern Harbor Crossing. I (Appendix 42). The recent trend of using localacademics and teachers to write science textbooks has also strengthened sociallyrelevant contents.

Extra-curricular activities, such as science clubs ran after school, inter-school competitions88, young inventor awards, story writing, fairs andolympiads, which have played an important role in promoting the study of science,and in linking science with concerns in the society, have been further encouragedin recent years. Hong Kong's science specialist teachers have an Association forScience and Mathematics Education, with the aim of promoting professionalismamong science teachers and popularizing science to the general public. Thisassociation has been behind many successful extracurricular science activitiesand provides the linkage with overseas organizations such as the InternationalCouncil of Associations for Science Education, and other professional bodies likethe American Chemical Society. It has been playing an active role in promotingthe STS approach.

Conclusion. The extension of financial support to private schools, thereconstitution of the CDC and setting up of the CDI, the introduction of measuresto raise the qualification of primary school teachers and to professionalize theteaching force, the use of educational research to inform policy making, the useof assessment to monitor learning outcomes, and the updating of science curriculaare the necessary steps for improving science edtLcation. In turn, widespreadscientific literacy and good preparation for tertiary level science andengineering education will provide the foundation on which to build thetechnological capability essential to meeting the future challenges. The lEA's

88The Joint Schools Science Exhibiti'bn (JSSE) is a very good example. Beganin 1967, it is an annual event completely organized by students from differentschools, who are elected by their peers. Students are responsible for the entireprocess, from planning, fund raising, developing and exhibiting projects tojudging projects. Projects are judged on their own merit and their ability tocommunicate to the public.

24

Third International Study on mathematics and science achievement, which has yetto be launched, will provide an assessment of the extent of these measures areeffective in improving science education.

25

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Cummings, William K. "Some Reflections on National Differences in MathematicsAchievement" Address Prepared for 67th Annual Meeting of National Council ofMathematics Teachers, Orlando, Florida, 1989.

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Holbrook, Jack B. Science Education in Hong Kong: The National Renort of the HoneKong Science Study. Volume 1: Primarv and Junior Secondary Science. Hong KongNational IEA Center, Department of Education, University of Hong Kong, 1989.

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Kam Fong (Ed.) Popularization of Science and Technologs: What Informal andNonformal Education can do?, UNESCO: Hong Kong, 1989.

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(Advanced Supplementarv Level). Prepared by the Curriculum Development Counciland recommended for use in Secondary 6 and 7 by the Education Department, HongKong, 1991.

Hong Kong Examinations Authority. Hong Kong Certificate of Education ExaminationRegulations and Syllabuses: 1994, 1992.

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27

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International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement. ScienceAchievement in Seventeen Countries: A Preliminary ReTort. Oxford: Pergamon Press,1988.

Keeves, J. P. Learning Science in a Changing World: Cross-national Studies ofScience Achievement: 1970 to 1984. The Hague: IEA, 1992.

=___________. The IEA Study of Science III: Changes in Science Education andAchievement. 1970 to 1984. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1991.

Korean Government. Korean Education Reform Toward the 21st Century, Seoul: ThePresidential Commission for Education Reform, 1987.

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. Education in Korea. Seoul: Ministry of Education, 1986.

Livingstone, Ian D. "Perceptions of the Intended and Implemented MathematicsCurriculum: A Report of the Second International Mathematics Study Conducted bymembers of the International Association for the Evaluation of EducationalAchievement (1EA)." Prepared in part for the U.S. Department of Education.

Postlethwaite, T. Neville and David E. Wiley. Trhe IEA Study of Science II:Science Achievement in Twenty-Three Countries. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1992.

Postlethwaite, T. Neville. 'Cross National Convergence of Concepts andMeasurement of Educational Achievement." Mimeo, 1.988.

Robitaile, David F. and Robert A. Garden (Ed.) The IEA Studv of Mathematics II:Contexts and Outcomes of School Mathematics. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1989.

28

Rosier, M. J. & J. P. Keeves. The IEA Study of Science I: Science Education andCurricula in Twenty-Three Countries. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1991.

Suter, Larry E. "An Examination of Country Differences in MathematicsAchievement: A Synthesis of Research Results from the IEA Second InternationalMathematics Study." Presented at the annual meetings of the AmericanSociological Association, Chicago, Illinois, 1987.

Suter, Larry E. "Selected Indicators of Education of the United States and Japan:An Application of the Center for Education Statistics Outline of Indicators toCross National Comparison." Presented at the 1988 Annual Meetings of theAmerican Educational Research Association in New Orleans, Louisiana, 1988.

Travers, Kenneth J. and Ian Westbury (Ed.) The IEA Study of Mathematics I:Analysis of Mathematics Curricula. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1989.

United States Department of Education. Japanese Education Today. Washington, D.C.U. S. Government Printing Office, 1987.

Ware, Sylvia A. "The Education of Secondary Science Teachers in DevelopingCountries." PHREE Background Paper Series No. PHREE/92/68, Washington, D.C.:World Bank, December, 1992.

"Secondary School Science in Developing Countries: Status andIssues." PHREE Background Paper Series No. PHREE/92/53, Washington, D.C.: WorldBank, March, 1992.

Wolfe, Richard G. "The IEA Second International Mathematics Study: Overview andSelected Findings." Paper presented in an invited symposium on "Findings of theIEA Studies of Mathematics, Science, Writing, and Classroom Environment" atAnnual Meetings of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco,1986.

Wu, Kin Bing. "Higher Education in Hong Kong: Investment in Science andTechnology During the Time of Political and Economic Change." PHREE BackgroundPaper Series No. PHREE/92/70, Washington, D.C.: World Bank, December, 1992.

29

Appendix 1Operating Educational Institutions and Enrollment, 1991

Level . Day Evening

Govt. Aided Private Subtot. Govt. Aided Privt. Subtot Total

Kinder- Schools - 767 767 - - I 767garten

Enroll. - - 193,658 193,658 - - - - 193,658

Primary Schools 50 533 79 662 - 9 9 671

Enroll. 31,996 434,487 49,455 515,938 - - 1,199 1,199 517,137

Secondary Schools 42 324 76 442 - - 45 45 487

Enroll. 38,400 337,342 60,597 436,339 - - 18,033 18,033 453,372

Colleges Schools 4 - 4 - - - - 4ofEducation Enroll. 2,452 - 2,452 2,439 2,439 4,891

Technical Schools - 8 8 _- - 8Institutes Enroll. - 26,554 26,554 29,232 29,232 55,786

Approved Schools - -1 1Post-Secondary Enroll. - - 3,373 3,373 3,373

Polytech., Schools - 4 - 4 - - 4Lingnan, &Baptist Enroll. - 27,537 - 27,537 - 16,807 16,807 44,344

Univer- Schools - 3 - 3 - - - 3sities _

Enroll. - 19,481 - 19,481 - 1,105 1,105 20,586Source: Honz KonAn-nual Digest oT- Statistics, lY992, p . ZUZ .

Appendix 2

Total Enrollment In VariousLevels of Education, 1967-91.

Thousand studonts

Soo ...........................................

400 ...............................................................................

67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 76 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 8384 8586 87 88 89 90 91

Years

- Primary 1-6 Si Scoindary 1-7

University - Other Tertiary

Sourooc: Social & Economio Trends:Annual Digests of 8tatistics; Mono Kong1992.

32

32

Appendix 3

The Distribution of Schools by Source of Funding,1967-91

1967 1977 1991

Primary Schools

Government & aided 693 (43%) 712 (70%) 583 (88%)Private 933 (57%) 310 (30%) 79 (12%)

Secondary Schools

Government & aided 77 (17%) 161 (30%) 366 (82%)Private 368 (83%) 381 (70%) 76 (18%)

Sources: Social and Economic Trends 1967-77, Social and Economic Trends 1978-88;Hong Konz Annual Digest of Statistics, 1992.

33

Appendix 4

Pupil-Teacher Ratios in Primary and Secondary Day Schools by Type of School

1981 1991

Primary

Government 29.4 27.7Aided 29.8 26.8Private 32.3 25.3

Secondary

Government 21.7 21.5Aided 24.8 21.4Private 34.6 21.5

Source: Annual Dieests of Statistics, 1991, and 1992.

34

Appendix 5

Structural Indices for Schools of Similar Average Ability butDifferent Mathematics Achievement Levels

Public-funded School Private School

Numerical Aptitude (X) 27.7 26.5Achievement (X) 47.8 36.3Student/Teacher Ratio 23.5 41.1Z Math Specialists 7.2 5.7Teacher Experience (Yrs) 8.7 7.3Math Education (Yrs) 5.8 3.0Math Teacher Education (Yrs) 1.0 0.1Teaching load (class/week) 32.1 35.8

Source: Mathematics Achievement in Hong Kong Secondary Schools, 1985, p. 84.

35

Appendix 6

The Qualifications of Teachers, 1980-91

1980 (%) 1989 (X) 1991 V4

Primary

University graduate or equivalent 1283 7%. 977 5% 431 2.3%Non-graduate 16654 93% 18277 95% 18320 97.7%

Secondary and Matriculation

University graduate or equivalent 8860 55% 12697 65% 11861 60%Non-graduate 7126 45% 6780 35% 7776 40%

Sources: Hong Kong Annual Digest of Statistics, 1990, p. 210, and EducationCommission Report No. 5: The Teaching Profession, 1992, p. 3.

36

Appendix 7

Enrollment in Teachers' Training Colleges* by type of Course by Gender

Gender 1981 1991

Full-time Pre-service Training

Three-year Initial Course M 337 279F 896 883

Two-year Initial Course M 106 308F 208 881

One-year Advanced Course M 54 30F 108 54

Part-time In-service Training

Three-year secondary course M 65 130F 79 99

Two-year secondary course M 116 60F 254 52

Three-year primary course M - 41F - 322

Two-year primary course M 21 60F 172 52

Refresher/Retraining Courses

Primary M - 12

F - 52Secondary M - 210

F - 152

Sources: Hong Kong Annual Digests of Statistics, 1991 and 1992.

* Teachers' training colleges referred to three Colleges of Education --

Grantham, Northcote, and Sir Robert Black. This table does not cover coursesoffered in Technical Teachers' College or courses offered in Colleges ofEducation on special education and kindergarten.

37

Appendix 8

Profile of School Teachers, 1991

Primary SecondarySchool School

Positions Available 19,065 20,120No. of Teachers 18,752 19,637Vacancy rate (X) 1.6 2.4Average Age 39 34Gender ratio (men:women) 25:75 50:50Z with pedagogical training 85.8 73.3X of degree holders 2.3 60.4Wastage rate (X) 9.4 11.8% of new teachers 5.5 8.9Teacher: students ratio 27:1 20:1

Source: Education Commission Report No. 5: The Teaching Profession, 1992, p. 3.

38

Appendix 9

Reasons for Leaving Teaching, 1991

Primary school teachers Secondary school teachers

Migration 24% 22%Retirement 17% 4%Changed employment 10% 16%Further Studies 14% 18%Other reasons 18% 15%Unknown 17% 25%

Source: Education Commission Report No. 5: The Teaching Profession, 1992, p. 12.

39

Appendix 10

Median Hourly Wage by Subject Specialty and Economic Sector, 1986(Number of Persons in Parenthesis)

(Hong Kong Dollars)

Arts & SocSci. Scienc:e Business Engineering

Social Services 23.81 33.33 33.59 23.80(248) ( 27) (196) ( 62)

Manufacturing 17.88 18.96 28.49 25.40(350) (344) (726) (1,295)

Infrastructure 31.46 22.22 35.18 40.00(196) (132) (349) (1,481)

Trade & Catering 22.59 25.25 31.74 27.78(436) (179) (675) (415)

Business 42.73 35.44 37.04 37.41(558) (148) (1,248) (476)

Government 52.99 47.08 52.09 55.56(347) (121) (330) (583)

Education 50.79 49.88 49.93 54.28(766) (469) (196) (194)

Source: Compiled by the author from the 1986 census data.

40

Appendix 11

Number of Candidates Sat in Selected Subjects* in theHong Kong Certificate of Education Examination, 1991

CoreEnglish Language** 119,610Chinese Language 92,799Mathematics 92,446

Science StreamBiology 34,416Chemistry 33,090Physics 35,668Additional Math 21,892Computer Studies 13,974

Arts StreamChinese Literature 20,248Chinese History 40,841History 22,728Geography 34,082Economics 37,524

Other Popular SubjectsCommerce 10,838Principles of Accounts 18,483Type Writing 10,219Religious Studies 12,687

Other Technical SubjectsElectronics and Electricity 1,481Engineering Science 1,224Design and Technology 855

Source: Hong Kong Annual Digest of Statistics, 1992, p. 213.

* The selected subjects, except the technical subjects, had over 10,000candidates sat at the examination. Re-taking HKCEE in any subject in thefollowing year is permitted. The number of candidates presented here, therefore,included the repeaters. A large number of students who have failed in Englishor obtained a low grade will re-take Eng\lish. For this reason, there are morecandidates in English exam than in any other subjects.

** This does not include English Language (A) which is for students from Chineselanguage schools and the number sat was 6,290.

41

Appendix 12

Results of Advanced and Higher Level Examinations

1971 1976 1981 1986 1991

University of Hong Kong#Advanced Level Examination(Secondary 7)

Candidates entered 4,135 6,244 13,435 21,200 16,545Candidatessuccessfully completingrequirement* 2,357 3,549 8,407 12,357 6,290

Chinese Universi ty+Higher Level Examination(Secondary 6)

Candidates entered 7,326 11,390 L8,336 9,219 2,649Candidatessuccessfully completingrequirement 2,127 3,227 4,429 1,553 630

Source: Hong Kong Annual Digests of Statistics, 1.981 and 1992.

* Because of the limited places in both universities, candidates who hadsuccessfully completed the entrance requirements were not necessarily admitted.

# Starting from 1989, Hong Kong University raises its entry requirement forEnglish by one grade, as a result of which the number of candidates having metthe requirements decreased substantially.

+ Before 1985, the Chinese University used the result of Higher LevelExamination as the sole criteria for admission. After 1985, the ChineseUniversity used an additional admission scheme. Therefore, the statistics onHigher Level Examination after 1985 do not reflect the admission situation in theChinese University.

42

Appendix 13

Minimum No. of Teaching Periods Per Week in Each Subject in Primary School

P. 1 P. 2 P. 3 P. 4 P.5 P. 6

Chinese 11 (33%) 10 (30%) 9 (27%) 8 (24%) 8 (24%) 8 (2X"English 5 (15%) 6 (18%) 7 (21%) 8 (24%) 8 (24%) 8 (3A)Mathematics 5 (15%) 5 (15%) 5 (15%) 5 (15%) 5 (15%) 5 (1M)Health 1 ( 3%) 1 ( 3%) 1 ( 3%) 1 ( 3%) 1 ( 3%) 1 ( 3Science 2( 6%) 2( 6%) 2( 6%) 2( 6%) 2( 6%) 2 6Soc.Studies 2 ( 6%) 2 ( 6%) 2 ( 6%) 2 ( 6%) 2 6 &Z) 2 ( 6QMusic 2( 6%) 2( 6%) 2( 6%) 2( 6%) 2( 6%) 2Physical Ed. 2 (6%) 2( 6%) 2 (6%) 2( 6%) 2( 6%) 2(a)Art & Craft 3 (6%) 3 (10%) 3( 9%) 3( 9%) 3( 9%) 3 (9

Total 33 (100%) 33 (100%) 33 (100%) 33 (100%) 33 (100%) 33(fXU)

Source: Compiled from The Hong Kong Education System, 1981, p. 253.

Note: The total number of class period available is 38 per week in bi-sessionalschools (which constitute the majority of primary schools), and 40 per week inwhole-day schools. The duration per period varies from 30 to 40 minutes; mostschools adopt 35 minutes.

43

Appendix 14

Basic Teaching Periods Per Week in Junior and Senior Secondary Forms

Secondary 1-3 Secondary 4-5

Chinese Language 6 (15%) 6-7 (15-18%)English Language 7 (17.5%) 7-9 (18-24%)Mathematics 5 (12.5%) 6 (15%)

Science 4 (10%)Biology 4 (10%)Chemistry 4 (10%)Physics 4 (10%)

Additional Mathematics 3 (7.5%)

Social Studies 6 (15%) -or Geography 2 ( 5%) 4 (10%)

History 2 ( 5%) 4 (10%)Economics & Public Affairs 2 ( 5%) 3-5 (7.5-12.5%)

Chinese history 2 ( 5%) 3 (7.5%)Chinese Literature 3-4 (7.5%)English Literature 2-3 (5-7.5%)

Practical* 6 (15%) 6-11 (15-33%)

Physical Education 2( 5%) 2 (5%)Music 2 ( 5%) 1-4 (4-10%)Moral or Religious Education 2 ( 5%) 1-4 (4-10%)

Total 42 (100%) 40-42 (100%)

Source: The Hong Kong Education System, 1981. p. 254 & 256; Syllabus for Science(Forms 1-111).

* Practical subjects at the junior secondary level usually include art anddesign, together with home economics or design and technology. At the Secondary4 & 5 level, commercial subjects may be included.Note: Most secondary schools have 40-period weeks (26 hours, 40 minutes).

44

Appendix 15

Rank Order of Achievements in the IEA Science Study as Measured by Mean Scores

10-yr-olds 14-yr-olds 18- & 19-yr-olds in Secondary 6 & 7Primary 4/5 Second. 2/3 Students specialized in

Biology Chemistry Physics

Australia 10 12 11 7 11Canada (Eng.) 5 3 13 13 14Canada (Fr.) 7 13 17 19 19China - 8 - - -England 13 18 3 2 3Finland 2 6 7 15 15Ghana - 23 5 5 10Hong Kong 17 20

(Secondary 7) 2 1 1(Secondary 6) 6 4 2

Hungary 6 1 4 8 4Israel 15 14 10 9 9Italy 8 15 14 13

(Gr. 9) 9(Gr. 8) 22

Japan 1 2 12 6 5S. Korea 3 4 16 18 16Netherlands - 3 - - -Nigeria 19 25 - - -Norway 12 11 8 11 7Papua New Guines - 19Philippines 18 26 - - -Poland 14 10 9 10 8Singapore 16 16 1 3 6Sweden 7 12 12

(Gr. 4/8) 4 5 9 10(Gr. 3/7) 11 17

Thailand - 15 14 17 17USA 9 21 18 16USA (B) 13USA (A) 18

Zimbabwe - 24 - - -

Countries/regions/classes19 26 18 19 19

Source: Learning Science in a Changing World: Cross-national Studies of ScienceAchievement: 1970:1984, 1992. p. 7.

45

Appendix 16

Science Achievement: Percentage of Schools Scoring Lower than the LowestSchool Mean in the Highest Scoring Country

10-yr-olds 14-yr-olds 18- & l9-year-oldsBiology Chemistry Physics

Lowest mean in highest 12.6 14.8 56.6 30.0 50.5scoring country Japan Hungary Singapore Hong Kong Hxg Krg

Australia 37 8 93 4 67Canada (Eng.) 25 6 95 26 93England 61 19 14 0 18Finland 7 2 91 24 93Hong Kong 77 26 47 0 0Hungary 21 0 37 13 45Italy 38 37 100 33 99Japan 0 1 84 14 36Korea 7 5 - - -

Netherlands - 16 - - -Norway 58 1 56 4 44Philippines 83 87 - - -

Poland 66 14 48 13 53Singapore 75 32 0 0 25Sweden 3 1 78 11 82Thailand - 26 - - -U.S.A. 38 30 98 48 89

Source: IEA Science Achievement in Seventeen Countries, 1988, p. 5.

46

Appendix 17

Inter-class Correlation (Rho):The Between-School Variance as a Proportion of Student Variance

10-yr-olds 14-yr-olds 18- & 19-year-oldsBiology Chemistry Physics

Australia .15 .17 .10 .20 .15Canada (Eng.) .12 .14 .20 .25 .23England .17 .19 .20 .21 .12Finland .07 .05 .04 .12 .10Hong Kong .34 .29 - - -Hungary .22 .26 .38 .43 .42Italy .19 .37 .28 .60 .37Japan .04 .04 .39 .62 .42Korea .16 .15 - - -Netherlands - .50 - - -Norway .15 .02 .07 .12 .12Philippines .56 .48 - - -

Poland .22 .34 .32 .43 .46Singapore .39 .56 .11 .28 .07Sweden .03 .08 .18 .17 .08Thailand - .24 -- -

U.S.A. .14 .29 .40 .49 .38

Source: Science Achievement in Seventeen Countries, 1988, p. 29, 42, 51, 52 & 53;Science Education in Hong Konm: Achievements and Determinants, 1990, p. 101.

The intra-class correlation, the Rho, shows the between-school variance as aproportion of student variance. A Rho of .04 (in Japan) means that 4% of thevariance in achievement is between schools, whereas 96% is between studentswithin schools. In other words, the Rho is an "indicator of the extent to whichstudents within each country cluster within schools".

47

Appendix 18

Gender Differences in Science Achievement (Standard Score Difference)

10-yr-olds 14-yr-olds 18- & 19-yr-oldsBiology Chemistry Physics

Australia .27 .28 -.02 .48 .24Canada .22 .38 .28 .40 .43England .20 .36 .19 .32 .04Finland .31 .29 .19 .42 .50Hong Kong .19 .37

(Secondary 6) .01 .34 .45(secondary 7) -.18 .24 .45

Hungary .15 .14 .18 .70 .40Italy .17 .31 .39 .12 .32Japan .06 .31 .20 .34 .30Korea .33 .41Netherlands - .49 - - -Norway .44 .39 .44 .41 .38Philippines .04 .17 - _Poland .24 .33 .17 .44 .59Singapore .27 .39 .49 .41 .47Sweden .24 .38 -.23 .04 .39Thailand - .34 - - -U.S.A. .29 .39 .33 .42 .44

Source: IEA Science Achievement in Seventeen Countries, 1988, p. 62-65.

Note: The higher the standard scores, the higher was the boys' achievement overthe girls. The negative scores indicated that boys' achievement was lower thangirls. Only values greater than the following should be regarded assignificance: 10-yr-olds: 0.17; 14-yr-olds: 0.18; 18- and 19-yr-olds: Biology:0.20; Chemistry: 0.34; and Physics: 0.21.

48

Appendix 19

Science Curriculum Coverage at the Time of the IEA Studies

Content area Primary 4 Secondary 2 Secondary 6&7HK. Intl. HK. Intl. HK. Intl.

Biology

Cell structure & Function 0 1.0 3 2.7 3 3.0Transport of Cell. Material 0 0.1 0 1.6 3 2.8Cell metabolism 0 0.2 3 2.4 3 3.0Cell Responses 0 0.1 0 1.3 3 2.6Concept of the Gene 0 0.2 0 1.1 3 2.9Diversity of Life 3 2.1 3 2.3 3 2.9Metabolism of the Organism 2 1.4 3 2.7 3 3.0Regulation of the Organism 0 0.2 2 1.7 3 2.9Coordination of the Organism 2 1.2 2 1.7 3 2.7Reproduction of Plants 2 2.2 3 2.6 3 2.8Reproduction of Animals 2 2.3 3 2.3 3 3.0Human Biology 0 1.7 3 2.5 3 2.9Natural Environment 3 2.5 2 2.0 3 3.0Cycles in Nature 0 2.1 0 1.9 3 2.9Natural Groups 0 0.2 0 0.3 2 2.4Population Genetics 0 0.1 0 0.3 3 2.6Evolution 0 0.3 0 1.5 3 2.7

Curriculum coverage 14/51-0.27 27/51-0.53 50/51-0.98

Chemistry

Introductory Chemistry 0 1.0 3 2.7 3 2.7Electrochemistry 0 0.1 2 1.7 3 3.0Chemical Laws 0 0.0 0 1.4 2 2.6Chemical Processes 0 0.1 0 2.1 3 2.2Periodic System 0 0.1 0 1.4 3 2.7Energy Relationships 0 0.0 0 1.2 3 2.5Rate of Reactions 0 0.1 0 0.8 3 2.4Chemical Equilibria 0 0.0 0 0.2 3 2.9Chemistry in Industry 0 0.7 0 1.1 2 2.0Chemical Structure 0 0.1 2 2.2 3 2.7Descriptive Inorganic Chem. 0 0.4 2 1.8 3 2.6Organic Chemistry 0 0.7 0 1.1 3 2.6Environmental Chemistry 0 0.3 3 1.3 0 1.2Chemistry of Life Processes 0 0.2 2 1.4 0 1.3Nuclear Chemistry 0 0.0 0 0.2 2 1.6

Curriculum coverage 0/45-0 14/45-0.31 36/45-0.80

49

Science Curriculum Coverage At The Time of the IEA Studies

Content area Primary 4 Secondary 2 Secondary 6&7HK. Intl. HK. Intl. HK. Intl.

Physics

Measurement 0 2.4 3 2.7 3 2.8Time and Movement 0 2.1 2 2.0 3 2.9Forces 0 1.3 2 2.7 2 2.8Dynamics 0 0.3 2 1.9 3 2.9Energy 0 1.6 2 2.6 3 2.9Machines 0 1.7 2 1.9 0 1.5Fluid Mechanics 0 1.0 0 1.8 0 1.2Introductory Heat 0 1.9 3 2.7 0 2.2Change of State 0 2.1 3 2.4 2 2.1Kinetic Theory 0 0.7 3 1.8 3 2.3Light 0 1.2 2 2.2 3 2.5Vibrations and Sound 0 1.2 2 1.8 3 2.5Wave Phenomena 0 0.3 0 0.5 3 2.8Electromagnetic Spectra 0 0.6 0 1.1 3 2.5Static Electricity 0 0.7 2 2.0 3 2.7Current Electricity 0 1.6 3 2.5 3 2.9Electromagnetism 0 1.5 0 2.1 3 2.9Electronics 0 0.1 0 1.0 3 1.8Molecular and Atomic Physics 0 0.2 0 0.5 3 2.2Theoretical Physics 0 0.0 0 0.1 0 1.5

Curriculum Coverage 0/60-0 :31/60-0.52 46/60-0.77

Earth Science

Solar System 0 1.5 2 1.9 - 1.8Stellar System 0 0.9 0 1.1 - 2.0Meteorology 0 2.1 2 1.8 - 2.1Constitution of Earth 0 1.2 2 1.7 - 2.6Physical Geography 0 1.2 2' 1.5 - 2.5Soil Sciences 0 1.1 2 1.2 - 0.9

Curriculum Coverage 0/18-0 10/18-0.56

50

Science Curriculum Coverage At the Time of the IEA Studies

Content area Primary 4 Secondary 2 Secondary 6&7Bio.Chm. Thys.

HK Intl. HK Intl. Hong Kong

History and Philosophy of Science

Historical Development 0 0.3 0 1.2 0 0 0Nature of Scientific Inquiry 0 1.1 0 1.7 0 0 0

Environmental ScienceEnergy Resources 0 1.0 0 1.8 0 0 0Energy Use 0 0.7 0 1.5 0 0 0Environmental Impact 0 1.2 0 1.8 3 0 0Habitat 3 2.1 0 1.7 3 0 0

Technical and Engineering Science

Transport 0 0.9 0 1.2 0 0 0Manufacturing Processes 0 0.8 0 1.0 0 0 0Computers 0 0.1 0 0.2 0 0 0

Rural Science

Animal Husbandry 3 1.3 0 0.7 3 0 0Plant Husbandry 3 1.1 0 1.1 3 0 0Housing and Rural Amenities 0 0.9 0 1.1 0 0 0

Health Science

Personal Health 0 1.7 0 2.0 2 0 0Inter-personal Relationships 0 1.3 0 1.8 0 0 0Community Health 0 0.8 0 1.1 2 0 0

Curriculum Coverage 9/45-0.2 0/45-0 0.35 0 0

Source: Science Education in Hong Kong, vol. 2, 1990, p.1 3 1-1 3 3.

Rating Levels: 3-content area taught with major emphasis; 2-content area taughtwith minor emphasis; l=subgroup of students following different curricula;0-content area not included in curriculum.

51

Appendix 20

Science Process Skills

Process Area Primary 4 Secondary 2 Secondary 6 & 7Biology Chemistry Physics

Knowledge and understanding 2 3 3 3 3Observation 3 3 3 3 3Measurement 1 2 3 3 3Problem-solving 0 .2 3 3 3Interpretation 0 :3 3 3 3Formulation of Generalization 0 2 2 3 3Model Building 0 1 2 2 2Application 1 : 2 2 3Manual Skills 3 3 3 3 3Attitudes, Interests & Values 2 2 2 3 3Historical Background 0 C) 2 2 2Science & Technology 0 0 2 2 2Social & Moral Implications 0 0 2 2 2Limitations of Science 0 Cl 2 2 2

Source: Science Education in Hong Kong, vol. 2, 1990, p. 133.

52

Appendix 21

Hong Kong's Secondary 1 Students' Sub-Test ScoresLocation of Means Amongst Quartiles for Twenty Countries

Arithmetic Algebra Geometry Statistics Measurement

Quartile 1 57.3 49.7 44.8 59.8 57.5Median 50.8 43.0 42.5 57.3 50.5Quartile 3 45.5 38.6 37.9 51.9 47.3Mean 50.5 43.1 41.4 54.7 50.8S.D. 7.5 8.6 7.8 9.1 8.8

Hong Kong Mean 55.1 43.2 42.5 55.9 52.6Hong Kong S.D. 1.5 1.2 1.0 1.4 1.4

Source: Mathematics Achievement in Hong Kong Secondary Schools, 1985, p. 132.

Hong Kong's Secondary 6 and 7 Students' Sub-Test SoresLocation of Means Amongst Quartiles for Fifteen Countries

Sets & Number Algebra Geometry Functions ProbabilityRelat. System & Calculus Statistics

Ql 71.8 59.4 66.0 48.5 54.6 63.7Median 61.4 46.6 56.7 41.8 45.5 45.6Q3 51.2 40.3 46.9 32.6 28.3 38.4Mean 61.6 49.5 57.4 42.4 44.1 49.5S.D. 12.7 12.9 11.6 10.4 14.5 13.2

HK Mean 79.5 77.7 78.3 65.1 71.2 72.6

Source: Mathematics Achievement in Hong Kong Secondary Schools, 1985, p. 136.

53

Appendix 22

Percentage of Items Rated Relevant to the Math Curriculum

Hong Kong Japan

Secondary 1 Students

Arithmetic 100 93Algebra 90 97Geometry 66 88Measurement 90 100Statistics 94 100

Secondary 6 & 7 Students

Sets 100 76Number 100 94Algebra 100 82Geometry 96 -Analysis 100 100Statistics 100 86Finite Math 100

Source: Mathematics Achievement in Hone Kong Secondary Schools, 1985, p. 43 andp. 45.

54

Appendix 23

Quartiles of Measures of Population A Amongst Twenty Countries

Variable International Median Hbng Krg Iesl

The Student SampleMean age in months 172.10 158.80Standard deviation of age 7.35 10.90

The SchoolsStudents per school taking Math 221.00 310.00

Total school roll 614.00 1399.00No. of students in target class 26.10. 43.30No. of school days per year 190.35 204.00Time per school day (min) 302.00 302.00No. of teachers/100 students 6.00 3.20No. of teachers teaching some math 1.10 0.70

No. of teachers teaching math only 0.50 0.20No. of specialist math. teachers 0.60 0.30

The Parents% of fathers - unskilled/semi-skilled 21.10 44.40% of fathers - primary education. or less 21.85 57.20. of mothers - primary education or less 22.05 69.40

The Teachers% of male math teachers 43.80 57.70Avge age of math teachers (yrs) 36.95 28.80

Avge length of teaching (yrs) 13.05 6.50Avge length of teaching Math (yrs) 7.65 4.30Avge post-second. math study (sems) 5.50 2.30Avge math. pedagogy (semester) 1.70 1.80Avge general pedagogy (semester) 2.90 1.60% who also taught science 25.05 47.70

Avge hours teaching per week 17.05 20.30Avge hours teaching math per week 13.15 12.90Avge hours teaching classes per week 8.60 11.90

Teaching and LearningAvge hours of math per class per year 130.45 124.30Avge hours of math per class per week 3.55 3.60Avge hours of homework per class per week 2.10 3.50Avge teacher time on preparation/class (min.) 81.30 75.90Avge teacher time explaining new concepts 65.25 86.60Avge time/student/week listening (min) 64.30 100.70Avge teacher time on grading/week (min) 81.05 119.70Avge time per student/week on tests (min) 32.70 33.20

Source: Mathematics Achievement in Hong Kong Secondary School, 1985, p. 133.

55

Appendix 24

Quartiles of Measures of Population B Amongst Fifteen Countries

Variable International Median Hxg Kong evel

The Student SampleMean age in months 217.60 222.40Standard deviation of age 6.80 12.30X of male students 59.70 79.30

The SchoolsNo. of Pop. B students per school taking Math 90.70 77.20Total school roll 940.90 1411.90No. of Pop. B students not taking Math 32.30 60.50No. of students in target class 21.90 27.30No. of school days per year :191.50 196.80No. of teachers/100 students 5.70 3.70No. of teachers teaching some math 1.00 0.80No. of teachers teaching math only 0.60 0.30No. of specialist math. teachers 0.80 0.40

The ParentsX of fathers - unskilled/semi-skilled 6.10 35.90z of fathers - professional/managerial 30.40 13.90Z of fathers - primary ed. or less 14.35 65.10X of mothers - primary ed. or less 17.15 80.90

The TeachersZ of male math teachers 66.10 77.50Avge age of math teachers (yrs) 40.15 32.60Avge length of teaching (yrs) 15.20 9.10Avge length of teaching Math (yrs) 9.90 6.40Avge post-second. math study (sems) 7.30 5.80Avge math. pedagogy (semester) 1.90 1.70Avge general pedagogy (semester) 2.00 1.20Avge hours teaching per week 18.70 19.20Avge hours teaching math per week 15.00 18.50Avge hours teaching classes per week 7.80 10.90

Teaching and LearningAvge hours of math per class per year 148.50 181.60Avge hours of math per class per week 4.40 6.30Avge hours of homework per class per week 3.70 6.50Avge teacher time on preparation/class (min.) 119.30 162.30Avge teacher time explaining new concepts 1:10.90 182.40Avge time/student/week listening (min) 1:L3.80 213.70Avge teacher time on grading/week (min) 101.10 105.80Avge time per student/week on tests (min) 32.60 44.90

Source: Mathematics Achievement in Hong Kong Secondary School, 1985, p. 137.

56

Appendix 25

Science Curriculum Revision

Previous Syllabuses New Syllabuses

Primary 1981 1984

Junior Secondary 1976 1986

Senior SecondaryBiology 1976 1992Chemistry 1976 1992Physics 1975, 1984 1988

Source: Curriculum Forum, Vol. 1, Issue 1, March, 1991.

57

Appendix 26

Primary School Science

Aims and Objectives

Knowledge and understanding(1) Acquire through observation, experience and activity some basic

understanding of their environment;(2) Do not accept opinions which are not basecl on evidence;(3) Develop some knowledge of the fundamental skills and techniques of

gardening, land use, and improving the environment.

Attitudes(1) Develop an interest in observing and investigating their surroundings.(2) Develop a curiosity that leads to asking the questions of 'why" and "how".(3) Develop a desire to contribute to the care and conservation of the

environment.

Primary Science Syllabus

Prrimary 1

Unit 1 Find out about ourselves and our worLd.Unit 2 Find out about the animal world.Unit 3 Find out about the plant world.Unit 4 Find out about the environment in our neighborhood and some of the

readily seen natural phenomena (sun, moon, weather).Unit 5 Matter and energy in daily life (sound, tools).

Primary 2

Unit 1 Observe natural phenomena (sun's position, four seasons, rainbow).Unit 2 Animals in the locality.Unit 3 Common plants of Hong Kong.Unit 4 Natural objects in man-made environments (aquaria, park).Unit 5 Games to develop curiosity (three states of water, proof that air

exists, magnets, battery).

Primary 3

Unit 1 Observe some common animals and report findings.Unit 2 Observe plants and report findings.Unit 3 Observe natural phenomena and report findings.Unit 4 Conserving features and plants in parks.Unit 5 Find out about energy (sources of heat:, how heat and sound travel).

Primary 4

Unit 1 Observe and compare common animals anid report findings.Unit 2 Observe and compare common plants and report findings.Unit 3 Raise animals and grow plants.

58

Unit 4 Perform experiments and observe natural phenomena (rotation of sun).Unit 5 Perform experiments and observe matter and energy.

Primary 5

Unit 1 Observe, study and compare common animals and report findings.Unit 2 Observe, study and compare common plants and report findings.Unit 3 Explore the countryside.Unit 4 Investigate environment and energy (static electricity, conversion

of electricity into heat energy, magnetic field around a coil ofinsulated wire, safety in electricity use, light reflection andrefraction).

Unit 5 Investigate natural phenomena (moon light, moon's phases, formationof fog, dew, frost, wind, and causes of thunder and lightning).

Primary 6

Unit 1 Learn more about animals (reproduction and preservation of animals).Unit 2 Learn more about plants (adaptation of plants to different climatic

and environmental conditions).Unit 3 Problems of environmental pollution.Unit 4 Space (solar system, space exploration, eclipse of the sun and moon)Unit 5 Use of simple machines in work (the lever, the inclined plane, the

roller, the cog-wheel or toothed wheel and the pulley).

Source: Syllabus for Primary Schools: Primary Science, 1981.

59

Appendix 27Junior Secondarv Integrated Science

Aims

To assist students acquire:(1) some knowledge of the empirical world around them;(2) the vocabulary and grammAr of science;(3) an ability to observe critically;(4) an ability to solve problems and think scientifically;(5) an understanding for the relevance of science to the world beyond school

and to the needs of a changing society; and(6) an awareness of the culture which is science.

Objectives

Knowledge and Understanding

(1) Knowledge of some facts and concepts concerning the environment.(2) Knowledge of the use of appropriate instruments in scientific experiments.(3) An adequate scientific vocabulary.(4) An ability to communicate using this vocabulary.(5) Comprehension of some basic concepts in science so that they can be used

in familiar situations.(6) Ability to select relevant knowledge and apply it to new situations.(7) Ability to analyze data and draw conclusiorns.(8) Ability to think and act creatively in science.

Attitudes

(1) Awareness of the inter-relationship of the different disciplines ofscience.

(2) Awareness of the relationship of science to other aspects of thecurriculum.

(3) Awareness of the contribution of science to the economic and social lifeof the community.

(4) Interest and enjoyment in science.(5) An objectivity in observation and in assessing observations.

Practical Skills

(1) Some simple scientific skills.(2) Some experimental techniques involving several skills.

60

Junior Secondary Integrated Science Syllabus

Estimated No. of Periods

Secondary 1

1. Introducing Science 18Laboratory TechniquesMaking Observations and recording results

2. Looking at Living Things 14Investigation of a living organismDiversity of life formsClassification by simple criteria

3. Energy 10Different forms of energyEnergy inter-conversions and energy convertersEnergy and man

4. Matters as Particles 20Solid, liquid and gasEvidence leading to the particle nature of matterA simple particle model of matterExplanation of some properties in terms of the particle modelElements and compounds

5. Solvents and solutions 26States of waterDissolving and solubility

6. Cells and Reproduction 24Use of the microscopeAnimal and plant cellsReproduction in animalsReproduction in plantsGrowth and development

112

Secondary 2

7. Living things and air 24Oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxidePhotosynthesis and respiration

8. Making use of electricity 24Simple circuitryHeating effect of currentIntroduction to domestic electrici tyElectromagnet and motor effect of currentChemical effect of current

9. Making Heat Flow 10Method of heat transferMethods of prevent heat loss/heat gain

61

10. Hydrogen, Acids and Alkalis 12HydrogenAction of metals on water and acidsAcids and alkalis

11. Detecting the Environment 28The eyeSound and the earTaste and smellSenses of skinThe brain and the sense

12. Forces and Movement 18ForcesSimple machinesWork and energy

112

Secondary 3

13. Food and Transport 37FoodToothDigestion and absorption in mammalsTransport in mammalsWater balanceAbsorption and transport of water in plants

14. Materials from the Earth 37Rock and soilMetals from the earth's crustFuelMinerals from the sea

15. Electricity and Electronics 37ElectrostaticsPushing chargesDynamo effectDomestic electricityDischarge through gasCurrent through a vacuumSome useful electronic componentsSwitchesElectronic logic gates

112

Source: Hong Kong Curriculum Development; Committee, Syllabus for Science (FormsI-III), 1986.

62

Appendix 28

Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examinationin Mathematics and Science Subiects for 1994

|BioloZy

Paper I (60% marks, 1 1/2 hours) Paper II (40% marks, 1 hour)Answer 3 out of 4 questions. Answer all multiple-choice questions

Chemistry

Paper I (60% marks, 1 1/2 hours) Paper II (40% marks, 1 hour)Section A: Compulsory questions. Answer all multiple-choice questions

Section B: Answer 3 out of 4questions.

Phvsics

Paper I (60% marks, 1 1/2 hours) Paper II (40% marks, 1 hour)Answer 6 out of 7 questions. Answer all multiple-choice questions

General Mathematics

Paper I (60% marks, 2 hour) Paper II (40% marks, 1 1/2 hours)Section A: answer all 6 to 8 Answer all multiple-choicequestions of an elementary type. questions.Section B consists of harderquestion, choice 5 out of 7.

Additional Mathematics

Paper I (42% marks, 2 hou'rs) Paper II (48%, 2 hours)Answer all 6 to 8 questions. Answer 3 out of 5 questions.

Computer Studies

Paper I (50% marks, 2 hours) Paper II (50% marks, 2 hours).Section A: Answer all multiple- 4 long questions, one of which will

choice questions. be an integration of various topicsSection B: Answer 4 out of 6 set in the form of a case study.questions.

Source: Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination Regulations andSyllabuses: 1994, 1992.

63

Appendix 29

Senior Secondary Bio]oZy

Aims

Overall, the aim of senior secondary biology education is to provide a worthwhileeducational experience for students not intending to study biology at a higherlevel and a suitable preparation for further studies in biology and relateddisciplines.

Knowledge and understanding(1) To develop an understanding of biological concepts and principles.(2) To develop an understanding of the scientific method and its application.

Attitude(1) To promote an interest in the study of living organism and a respect for

life.(2) To develop an awareness and appreciation of the significance of biological

knowledge in personal, social, environmental and technological contexts.(3) To promote an appreciation of the importance of experimental and

investigatory work in the study of biology.

Practical skills(1) To develop observational, manipulative, experimental and communication

skills.

Assessment objectives

(1) To recall and understand biological facts and principles.(2) To apply this knowledge to explain observations and to solve problems

which may involve unfamiliar situations.(3) To apply this knowledge in making logical deductions.(4) To observe and describe objects and phenomena accurately.(5) To interpret and analyze simple biological experimental data.(6) To detect errors and to suggest improvements in techniques and to devise

suitable experiments.(7) To formulate generalizations in the light of both first-hand and second-

hand evidence.(8) To illustrate information by means of graphs, tables, drawings and

diagrams.(9) To formulate working hypotheses and design tests for them, using controls

where appropriate.(10) To select and organize relevant information and communicate this

information coherently.(11) To apply biological knowledge to solve problems, including those of a

personal, social, environmental, economic and technological nature.

64

SECONDARY 5 BIOLOGY EXAMINATION SYLLABUS 1994 Suggested Practical Work

Section 1. General Variety of Living Organism

1.1 Diversity of organisms Sorting specimens of plants and animals brought by1.2 Classification students.

Section 2. The Cell Microscopic examination of suitable types of plantsand animals cells.

2.1 The basic structure of a cell. Detect the presence of catalase in plant and animal2.2 Life processes in a cell. tissues.

Investigate the effects of temperature and pHon enzyme activities.Experiment to show osmosis using dialysis tubingand living tissues.

2.3 Cell division. Observe mitosis in root tip squash or usingphotomicrographs/projection slides.

2.4 The cell as a basic unit of life. Examine a dissected mammal and an angiosperm.08

Section 3. Mainrenance of life

3.1 Food and nutrition Observe mucor/rhizovus and the tapeworm.(a) Modes of nutrition Food tests:(b) Food requirements of humans (food Benedict's test for reducing sugar; iodine test for

substances and a balanced diet). starch, 'spot' test and emulsion test for fat, andbiuret test for protein.Detection of vitamin C in food.

(c) Nutrition in mammals: Examine the vertical section of an incisor tooth.(i) Ingestion and digestion. Examine human dentition.

Investigate the effect of acid on a tooth.Show the differential permeability of dialysistubing to starch and glucose.Show the action of amylase on starch.Examine the alimentary canal and associated glandsof a dissected animal.

Nutrition in plants (photosynthesis; mineralrequirements in plants).

Demonstrate peristalsis using a model.Investigate the effect of bile salt on oil.

(ii) Absorption. Examine a transverse section of the small intestine(iii) Assimilation. to show the structure of a villus.(iv) Egestion.

(d) Nutrition in plants: Test for starch in green leaves.(i) Photosynthesis. Investigate the necessity for light, chlorophyll,(ii) Mineral requirements in plants. and carbon dioxide.

Examine leaf under microscope.

3.2 Respiration and gaseous exchange Demonstrate heat production by germinating seeds(a) Respiration using thermo flasks and by animals using

differential air thermometers.Experiment to show the release of carbon dioxide byrespiring animals and germinating seeds usinghydrogencarbonate indicator solution.Experiment to show the fermentation of glucose byyeast with the production of ethanol and carbon

a% dioxide.

(b) Gaseous exchange in humans:(i) Structure of human breathing system. Examine the breathing system of a dissected animal.(ii) Process of gaseous exchange. Compare oxygen content of inhaled and exhaled air

by noting the time or burning of a candle inside agas jar.Compare carbon dioxide content of inhaled andexhaled air, using limewater or hydrogencarbonateindicator solution.Demonstrate air sacs in mammals using slides.Illustrate the action of the diaphragm andintercostal muscles using models.Compare the rate of breathing before and afterexercise.Estimate the vital capacity of the lung.Demonstrate the presence of tar in cigarette smoke.

(c) Gaseous exchange in plants: Experiment to study the effect of light intensityon carbon dioxide exchange in plant usinghydrogencarbonate indicator solution.

3.3 Water and organisms(a) Water relations of the organisms:

(i) In animals. Investigate the effect of different concentrationsof saline on red blood cells of a small animal.

(ii) In plants. Investigate the effect of sucrose solution andwater on the cells of Spirogyra/or the epidermalcell of a leaf.Measure differences in length/weight of raw potatostrips in concentrated sucrose solution and water.Experiment to show that water is lost duringtranspiration.Demonstrate the factors affecting transpiration bymeans of a simple potometer and see its limitation.Cobalt chloride paper experiment.Observe the release of air bubbles from leaves inhot water.Microscopic examination of a transverse section ofroot of a young dicotyledonous plant.

3.4 Transport irforganism(a) The circulatory system in mammals: Microscopic examination of a blood smear.

(i) Blood. Investigate the effects of oxygen and carbondioxide on citrated blood of a chicken.Detect the presence of glucose in blood plasma.

(ii) The heart and blood vessels. Microscopic examination of the capillary flow in afish's tail fin, tadpole's tail or frog's web.Examine the main arteries, veins, (transversesections as well) and heart of a dissected mammal.Demonstrate the presence of the valves in the veinsof the forearm.

(b) Transport in flowering plants. Microscopic examination of transverse sections of aroot, stem and leaf of a young dicotyledonousplant.Dye experiment -- uptake of eosin solution in aherbaceous plant.

3.5 Support and Movement(a) Support in mammals. Examine the skeleton of a mammal.(b) Support in plants. Compare the distribution of supporting tissues of a(c) Locomotion in mammals. young dicotyledonous stem and a woody stem.

Use a model to illustrate the action of opposingmuscles.Examine the movement of knee/elbow and hip/shoulderjoints.

3.6 Integration and response.(a) Detection of environmental conditions in Examine the model of the eye.

mammals: Dissect an ox eye.(i) Sight. Use a simple set-up to demonstrate the formation of

an inverted image on the retina.Use thick and thin lenses to focus on near anddistant objects to demonstrate the need foraccommodation.Use a model of the eye to demonstrate the causes ofshort and long sight and their correction.

co Test for color blindness using charts.(ii) Hearing. Examine the model of the ear.(iii) Balance. Investigate the touch discrimination of different(iv) Smell and taste. regions of the skin.(v) Touch and heat. Investigate the heat sensing ability of the skin.

(b) Growth response of plants. Experiment on geotropism of roots.Use the clinostat.Experiment on phototropism of shoots.

(c) Coordination in mammals:(i) Nervous coordination. Examine neurones from a slide/photomicrograph/

model.Examine a mammalian brain or model of a brain.

(ii) Hormonal coordination.

(d) Homeostasis in mammals:(i) Excretion and osmoregulation. Examine a prepared dissection of the urinary system

of a mammal.Examine a longitudinal section of a kidney or amodel of a kidney.

(ii) Regulation of temperature. Microscopic examination of mammalian skin.(iii) Regulation of glucose level in Examine a model of skin.

blood.3.7 Body defence

(a) Physical and chemical barriers againstinfection.

(b) Functions of blood in body defence.

Section 4. Development of Organism and continuityof Life,4.1 Reproduction.

(a) Asexual reproduction. Observe binary fission of amoeba using slides orphotomicrographs.Observe the budding of yeast.Examine mycelium with sporangia and spores inmucor/rhizopus. Examine a specimen of one of thefollowing" a bulb, corn, rhizome, or stem tuber.Propagation by stem or leaf cutting.

(b) Sexual reproduction in flowering plants Examine a flower e.g. bauhinia or cassia.(flowers; pollination and Observe the growth of pollen tubes in a sugaryfertilization; seeds and fruits). medium.

Examine a pod of bauhinia or cassia.Examine the germination of a bean seed.Investigate the conditions for seed germination.

(c) Sexual reproduction in human(reproductive system; development of Examine the reproductive system in a human model orthe embryo; birth control). a dissected mammal.

Observe slides/photomicrographs of mammalian spermcells and eggs.Examine a mammalian foetus with placenta.

4.2 Growth and development.(a) Growth (cell division and enlargement). Measure the growth in length of the main root of a(b) Development (specialization of cells). seedling using marking ink.

Section 5. Genetics

5.1 Genes and inheritance Observe melosis as shown in testis squash of the5.2 The pattern of inheritance grasshopper or in photomicrographs or projection5.3 Variation slides.

(a) Causes Observe maize cobs with grains of different colors.(b) Significance Observe variation in human.

Section 6. Inter-relationship of Organism withEach Other and With Their Environment,

6.1 The ecosystem. Investigate an ecosystem, e.g. a balanced aquarium.Observe living organism either in the field or lab,

6.2 Energy flow within an ecosystem. leading to the construction of simplified foodwebs. It is desirable to relate this to the work on

6.3 Cycling of materials. classification (Section 1.2).6.4 Ecological interdependence of organisms. Use pictures or living specimens to show the

different relationships: crabs with barnacles, or-J epiphytes or tree trunks, lichens or nitrogen-o 6.5 Human and microorganisms. fixing bacteria in leguminous plants.

6.6 Human's effect on the environment(a) land use -- possible deforestation, soil

erosion, destruction of natural habitats,loss of species. increase in pestpopulation.

(b) pollution -- smoke and exhaust fumes,domestic, agriculture and industrialwastes, noise.

(c) conservation -- recycling of usedmaterials and pollution control,biological principle of sewage treatment,and individual's contribution.

Source: Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination Regulations and Syllabuses: 1994. 1992, pp. 37-64.

Appendix 30

Senior Secondarv Chemistry

Assessment objectives

(1) Knowledge of the fundamental chemical concepts, terminology andconventions.

(2) An understanding of the use of common apparatus and materials inperforming experiments.

(3) An awareness of safety problems connected with the use of chemicals in thelaboratory and in daily life situations.

(4) An ability to draw relevant conclusions from experimental data.(5) An ability to understand, communicate and interpret scientific information

presented in written, numerical, tabular or graphical form.(6) An ability to apply concepts and principles in chemistry to given or new

situations.(7) An appreciation of the relevance of chemistry in daily life.(8) An understanding of the role of chemistry in society and in industry.

71

SECONDARY 5 CHEMISTRY EXAMINATION SYLLABUS 1994 Suggested Practical Work

Section 1. Atomic Structure, Chemical Bonding and Note: P - pupil work, D - demonstration.the Periodic Tablel

1.1 Evidence for atomic nature of matter.1.2 Symbols for elements.1.3 Constituents of atoms (electron, proton, and

neutron) and their arrangement in the atom.1.4 Atomic numbers.1.5 Mass number.1.6 Isotopes.1.7 Relative atomic masses.1.8 Electronic configuration of elements of atomic

numbers 1 to 20.1.9 Electrovalent bonding and covalent bonding. P. Experiments with substances including distilled

water to discover which are conductors and whichare not.

D. Electrolysis of melts.P. Electrolysis of solutions.P. Inspect series of compounds (e.g. copper, salts,

nickel salts, chromates, dichromates andpermanganates.

PM.-igration- or colored ions.P. Build lattice models of NaCl.P. Study the differences between the systems of

hydrogen chloride in water and in drymethylbenzene.

P. Build models of molecules.P. Build lattice models of diamond and graphite.

1.10 Metallic bond.1.11 Electronic configuration and the periodic D. Action of sodium and potassium on water.

table. P. Action of magnesium and calcium on water.D. Burning sodium and potassium in chlorine.P. Build models to show the arrangement of atoms

for selected elements.

1.12 Some compounds of the elements of short P. Simple test tube experiments on the acid-baseperiods e.g. chlorides and oxides. properties of oxides.

P. Action of water on some chlorides across aperiod.

Section 2. The Moles, Chemical Formulae, andChemical Equations

2.1 The Mole and the Avogadro's Number. P. Weigh a mole or fraction of a mole of substancese.g. sulphur, carbon, copper.

2.2 Chemical formulae. D/P. Reduction of CuO by town gas/hydrogen oroxidation of magnesium ribbon to magnesiumoxide.

2.3 Avogadro's Law. P. Direct determination of the densities of somegases and the possibility of finding themolecular mass of an unknown gas.

2.4 Calculations involving the mole concept andincluding gas volumes.

W 2.5 Equations and their use in chemical P. Experiments to show the chemical equationscalculationis. result from quantitative experimental

investigations.

Section 3 Acids. Bases and Salts

3.1 Characteristics of acids and bases.P. Action of dilute sulphuric, hydrochloric,

nitric, ethanoic acids on a selection ofmetals, metal oxides, hydroxides, carbonates,hydrogencarbonates and aqueous ammonia.Isolation of salts formed.

P. Precipitation of hydroxides to show presence ofOH-(aq) ions in solutions of bases.

P. Action of acid and alkali on oxides andhydroxides of aluminum, zinc and lead.

3.2 The hydroxonium ion.3.3 pH as a scale of acidity and alkalinity, and P. Estimation of pH of various solutions using pH

a measure of hydrogen ion concentration. paper.

3.4 Strength of acids and alkalis. P. Compare the conductivities and pH values ofequimolar solutions of a weak and a strong acid,and a weak and a strong alkali.

3.5 Neutralization. P. Follow course of neutralization and determineheats of neutralization by thermometrictitration using simple apparatus.

3.6 Simple volumetric work involving acids and P. Determination of concentration of acid orbases. alkali solutions.

3.7 Salts.3.8 Simple tests for some ions in salts. P. Flame tests for some ions in salts.

P. Hydroxide tests.

Section 4. Reactivity of Common Metals and RedoxReactions

4.1 Action of metals on oxygen, water and acids. P. Action of metals on oxygen, water and acids.4.2 Displacement of one metal by another. P. Experiments to discover which metal will

displace others from solutions of their salts.D/P. Action of heat on silver oxide.

4.3 Reduction ofoxides. P. Reduction of various metal oxides by carbon.. 4.4 Redox reactions. P. Study of redox reactions.

4.5 Chemical cells. P. Set up simple cells.F. Compare the structure of a new dry cell and a

used dry cell.

4.6 Electrolysis. P. Electrolysis of (1) dilute sulphuric acid usingplatinum electrodes; (2) sodium halidesolutions containing indicator using carbonelectrodes; (3) copper (II) sulphate solutionusing copper electrodes.

4.7 Corrosion of metals and their protection. P. Compare corrosion of iron in distilled waterand sea water.

P. Experiments on corrosion in gels containingindicators.

P. Electroplating experiments.P. Corrosion of aluminum.

Section 5. The Halogens,

5.1 The halogens. D. Prepare chlorine from conc. HC1 and NaCl.D. Reaction of chlorine with water, metals,

non-metals, dilute alkali solutions,hydrocarbons, solution of other halides,reducing agents, dyes and pigments.

P. Reaction of bromine water with iodides.

5.2 Halides P. Action of acidified silver nitrate solution onsolutions containing chloride, bromide andiodide ions.

D/P. Action of conc. H2SO4 on solid sodiumchloride, sodium bromide and sodium iodide.

Section 6. Sulphur and its Compounds

6.1 Sulphur D/P. Heating of sulphur.D. Burning of sulphur.

6.2 Sulphur dioxide. P. Prepare sulphur dioxide by the action ofdilute hydrochloric acid on sodium sulphite.

P. Experiments on sulphur dioxide on itssolubility and nature of its aqueous solution,and ability to support combustion.

6.3 Sulphites as electron donors and use of P. Action of S02 on aqueous solution ofsulphites as bleaching agent, disinfectant, potassium permanganate, potassium dichromate,and preservative. and chlorine, bromine and iodine.

P. Test for S042-(aq) using acidified Ba2+(aq).

P. Bleaching action of sulphurous acid.

6.4 Sulphuric acid -- manufacture by the contact D/P. Action of concentrated sulphuric acid on aprocess. Properties are: involatility relative solid chloride; a solid nitrate; copper (II)to other acids, dehydrating action; and sulphate crystal; cane sugar; copper; zinc;oxidizing ability. carbon; sulphur.Emphasize danger of working with sulphuric

acid.

Section 7. Nitrogen and its Compounds

7.1 Nitrogen as an unreactive element. D. Sparking air.7.2 Ammonia. P. Test-tube experiments on the action of sodium

hydroxide on ammonium salts.P. Solubility of ammonia.P. Reactions with acids and salt solutions.D. Thermal decomposition of ammonia using gas

syringes.D. Gas syringe method of direct synthesis using

heated iron wool as catalyst.D. Burning of ammonia.D. Passing ammonia over hot copper (II) oxide.

Collection of nitrogen and water.D. Catalytic oxidation using platinum or copper.

7.3 Ammonium compounds - use as fertilizers. P. Action of heat on ammonium compounds._j 7.4 Nitric acid as an acid and an oxidizing agent. P. Action of 2 M nitric acid and very dilutenitric acid on magnesium/calcium.

D/P. Action of moderately concentrated nitric acidand concentrated nitric acid on copper to showdifferent oxidation processes.

D,P. LAction o0f concentrated nitric acid on sulphurdioxide and iron (II) salts.

P. Action of heat on various nitrates.7.5 Nitrates. P. Brown ring test on solutions containing nitrate

ions.

Section 8. Fuels and Related Carbon ComvoundsP Destructive distillation of coal or wood.

8.1 Sources of fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal). P Fractional distillation of crude oil.8.2 Conversion of materials into useful fuels. P. Making models of some hydrocarbon molecules.8.3 Using petrol. P. Reaction of Br2 with an alkane.

P. Show charts and models on the internalcombustion engine to explain the chemicalreactions involved and how the engine functions.

8.4 Pollution problems associated with combustion D. Effect of carbon monoxide on blood.of fuels. D. Burning of carbon monoxide.

Testing of car exhaust gases.P. Project work on pollution in Hong Kong.

8.5 Alkanols (as fuels and solvent). P. Fermentation of sugar and fractionaldistillation of products. Show presence ofethanol by burning.

P. Properties of ethanol: solubility in water;solvent for other compounds; reaction toindicators; electrical conductivity; reactionwith sodium; oxidation to ethanoic acid.

8.6 Alkenes (as a major product from P. Passing ethanol vapor over heated porcelain.petroleum industry). P. Tests for inflammability and unsaturation.

D. Show charts and specimens on polyethene.

Section 9. Detergents and Soans.-14

9.1 Detergents (manufacture of detergents linkedwith petrol industry; the cleaning action of P. Preparation of a detergent.detergents and their structure). P. Experiment with commercial detergents: pH

values, presence of soap; emulsifying action.9.2 Soaps

P. Preparation of a soap from fat or oil.9.3 Esters (uses in foodstuffs, manufacture of

soaps, and as solvents). P. Soap used as an emulsifier.P. Preparation of an ester.P. Hydrolysis of ethyl ethanoate.

Section 10. Polymers

10.1 Characteristics of synthetic polymers D/P. Testing strength and ease of melting of(awareness of simple tests on plastics. samples such as polythene, PVC, polystyrene,Meaning of thermoplastics and thermosetting perspex, nylons, ureamethanal, rayon.plastic; use of plastics). P. Action of soda-lime on nylon.

10.2 Making polymers (meaning of addition and P. Making polystyrene and/or perspex; nylon;condensation polymerization. Types of urea-methanal plastic.compounds that undergo polymerization. P. Making rayon by dissolving cotton wool andExamples and uses of polymers. Regeneration regenerating.of polymers.)

10.3 Production of plastic items (various moulding D. Show charts and models on injection moulding,methods; economic importance and pollution vacuum moulding processes. Show charts,problems associated with plastics). specimens and items made from plastics in Hong

Kong.

Section 11. Rates of Chemical ReactionsD/P. Test-tube experiments on precipitation

11.1 Rates of reactions. reactions, dilute acid on metals, rusting ofiron to show different rates.

P. Action of acid on metal/marble, measuring thevolume of gas evolved against time.

P. Action of dilute HCI on marble chips andpowered calcium carbonate, respectively.

0 11.2 Factors affecting rates of reaction P. Equal volumes of HCI of the same concentration(particle size, concentration, pressure, added to sodium thiosulphate solutions of thetemperature, and catalyst on reaction rate same volume but different concentrations.based on simple model of collision between P. Action of dilute HCl on sodium thiosulphateparticles). solution at different temperatures.

P. Catalytic decomposition of H202 by manganese(IV) oxide.

Section 12. Chemical Equilibrium

12.1 Dynamic equilibrium (reversible reactions; P. Effect of alternate addition of acid and alkaliresulting from two opposing reactions to bromine water.proceeding at equal rates).

12.2 Factors influencing the position ofequilibrium. P. Effect of changes in concentration of reactants

12.3 Equilibrium in practice (concept applied to P. Effect of temperature.industrial situations such as the contact

process and the haber process).

Source: Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination Regulations and Syllabus: 1994, p. 1992, p.69-90.

Appendix 31

Senior Secondary Phvsics

Assessment Objectives

(1) Knowledge of physical laws, principles, and concepts and the inter-relationships between them.

(2) Skills and attitudes required for scientific investigation andcommunication.

(3) The ability to apply the knowledge acquired to problem-solving situations.(4) Understanding of the social and economic implications of the development

of physics.

79

SECONDARY 5 PHYSICS EXAMINATION SYLLABUS 1994 Suggested Experimental Work

Note: P - pupil work; D - demonstration.Section I. Optics

1.1 Reflection. P. Law of reflection.Image formation by plane and spherical mirrors. P. Reflection of light by cylindrical concave and

convex mirrors with ray boxes.P. Practical study of image formation by spherical

mirrors (including simple measurement offocal length through image formation on ascreen of an object at infinity.

1.2 Refraction. P. Law of refraction.D. Examples of refraction.P. Critical angle and total internal reflection

using semicircular block.P. Construction of a prismatic periscope.

00o Lenses. P. Refraction of light by cylindrical convex and

concave lenses.P. Practical study of image formation by spherical

lenses (including simple measurement of focallength by capturing image on a screen of anobject at infinity).

Magnification. P. Measurement of magnification by illuminating aperspex ruler and obtaining the image on ascreen.

1.3 Optical instruments and the human eye.

Magnifying glass.Optical system of the human eye. D. Model eye kit experiments.Simple camera.Telescope and microscope. D. Astronomical telescope.

D. Large model of a microscope.

Section 2. Heat.

2.1 Temperature, heating and internal energy.

Thermometers and temperature scale. D. Immersion heater experiments with liquid inInternal energy and heating. polystyrene cups and metal blocks.Heat capacity and specific heat capacity. P. Mixture of hot and cold water in polystyrene

cups.2.2 Change of state.

Fusion and boiling. P. Cooling curve of octadecan-l-ol.Specific latent heat of fusion and P. Specific latent heat of fusion of ice using lowvaporization. voltage immersion heater.

D. Specific latent heat of vaporization of waterusing mains heater.

Effect of pressure on boiling point. D. Boiling water under reduced pressure.Evaporation.

Xa 2.3 Kinetic theory.

Structure of solid, liquid and gases. D. Demonstration model of a solid.D. Teaching model to represent a liquid.D. Model of air molecules: three dimensional model

for kinetic theory.P. Brownian motion of smoke in air: evidence of

air molecules in motion.

2.4 Gas law. D. Air heated but not allowed to expand: increaseof pressure with temperature.

D. Calibration of a Bourdon gauge in N m-2 using aloaded syringe or a syringe pulled by a springbalance.

Pressure law. D. Measurements on air being heated: variation ofCharles' law. pressure with temperature.Absolute scale of temperature. D. Air expanding at constant pressure: Charles

law.Boyle's law. D. Boyle's law.General gas law.

Section 3 Mechanics

3.1 Displacement, velocity and acceleration. P. Using ticker-tape timer. How long is one tick?How many ticks in 3 seconds?

P. Recording a pupil's motion.P. Use of tape charts to analyze pupil's ownmotion.

Graphical representation of uniform motion.Equations of uniformly accelerated motion. P. Motion of cart coasting downhill.Vertical motion under gravity. P. Investigate the motion of a falling object:

free fall with timer and tape.Vector and scala quantities. D. The 'guinea-and-feather' experiment.

3.2 Inertia, force and motion.Newton's first law. D. Downhill and uphill motion. Galileo's thought

experiment done with a rolling ball.D. Frictionless motion.D. Feeling inertia.

co D. Tricks that illustrate inertia.Friction. D. The motion of a sliding block on inclined rough

surface.Newton's second law. P. Short preview: pulling trolleys.

P. Force and acceleration: Newton's second law.D. Graph to show the story of the tapes.P. Accelerating more passengers: the cunning test

Definition of the newton. F versus M.Mass and weight.Force as a vector. D. The 'wig-wag': inertia balance.The resolution and vector addition of force. P. Spring balance experiment to illustrate thePressure and its units. vector addition of forces.

3.3 MomentumConservation of linear momentum. D. Elastic collision of trolleys.

D. Sticky collision: inelastic impacts.D. A line of colliding balls.

Action and reaction. P. "If I pull you, you pull me, if I push you, youNewton's third law. push me." Newton's third law,

action - - reaction.D. "Push and go' toy placed on cardboard resting

on polystyrene beads.

3.4 Moment of a force about an axis. P. Law of moments.

3.5 Work, energy and power.Gravitational potential energy,Kinetic energy. D. Massive pendulum to show energy changes.Energy conservation in collisions. D. Kinetic energy disappears: inelasticPower. collisions.

3.6 Machines. D. Block and tackle, lever, and screw jack.

3.7 Archimedes' principles. D. Archimedes' Principle.

co

Section 4 Waves.

4.1 Wave motions.Transverse and longitudinal travelling waves. D. Use of a slinky and/or other long spring toRelationship between speed, frequency and introduce a variety of characteristics of wavewave length. motion.Stationary waves.

D. Generation of stationary wave patterns using a4.2 Water waves. signal generator and vibrator.

Reflection. D. Circular pulses.D. Straight pulses.D. A pulse meets a wall - reflection.D. A train of waves: vibrator to generate

Refraction. continuous waves.D. Freezing the wave pattern with a stroboscope.D. Waves that change their speed: refraction of

ripples.

Diffraction. D. Waves passing through a gateway: diffraction.D. What does a very short wall do to waves?

Diffraction by an obstacle.Interference. D. Waves from a pair of sources, using the

vibrator; interference.D. Two narrow gateways to act as a pair of

sources: interference using two slits.4.3 Nature of light. D. Light from a pair of slits: Young's fringes.

Wave-like behavior.

4.4 Electromagnetic spectrum.Visible spectrum. D. The spectrum (band of colors).Electromagnetic waves. D. Radiation: energy among colors.

D. Experiments analogous to water wave using 3 cmmicrowave apparatus.

4.5 Sound. D. Interference using sound waves.Pitch, loudness and quality of a note. D. Demonstrations of sound waveforms using musical

instruments and a microphone linked to an| oscilloscope.

Section 5. Electricity. Magnetism and Electronics.

5.1 Electrostatics.Electric charge. D. Electric ch,arges and forces.Conductors and insulators.Electric fields. D. Electric field patterns.Earthing.Applications.

5.2 Circuits.Electric current.Electromotive force and potential difference.Resistance, Ohm's law. P. Measuring resistance with a voltmeter and an

ammeter.P. Ohm's law.P. Temperature change and resistance.

P. Relationship between the resistance of aconductor and its length and cross-sectionalarea.

Resistors in series and parallel.Electrical energy and power. D. Household appliances connected to a kW h meter.Domestic wiring and electrical safety.

5.3 Magnetic effects of a current.Magnetic fields associated with current P. Look at the magnetic field of a large currentcarrying conductors. in a straight wire.

P. Oersted's experiment.P. Magnetic field of hoop-coil carrying current

apparatus.P. Magnetic field of current in a long close-wound

coil.Permanent magnets. P. Fields of bar magnets.

P. Slab-shaped magnets.Electromagnets. P. Large electromagnet: forces.

co P. Field of big electromagnet.U' D. Model electric bell.

Force on a current carrying in a magnetic P. Wire carrying current across a magnetic field:field. exploring the force.

D. Catapult field.Simple d.c. motor. D. Making an electric motor.Moving-coil meter. D. Making an ammeter: model moving coil meter.

D. Making an ammeter.D. Making a voltmeter.

5.4 Electromagnetic induction P. Moving magnet and coil: investigatingInduced e.m.f. electromagnetic induction.Lenz's law.

Simple a.c. and d.c. generators. D. The mysterious machine: model dynamo.The dynamo. D. Bicycle dynamo and lamp.

D. Bicycle dynamo and milliammeter.D. Bicycle dynamo and oscilloscope.

Transformer. P. Simple transformer with d.c. supply and switch.P. Simple transformer with a.c. supply.D. Winding a transformer turn by turn.

The transmission of electrical energy in Hong D. Power or transmission lines.Kong.

5.5 Electronics.Cathode ray oscilloscope. P. Use of the oscilloscope as a d.c. and a.c.

voltmeter and for wave form display.Devices and logic gates. P. Use of time base for frequency measurement.Applications.

P. Investigate truth tables for the gates.P. Examine some of the applications, e.g. motor

Section 6. Atomic Physics. control and latched alarm.co

6.1 Radioactivity I.Bequerel's discovery. D. Blackening of photographic plat or

polaroid/dental film.Methods of detection. P. Diffusion cloud chamber.

Nature and properties of alpha particles, beta D. Display of cloud chamber photographs.particles and gamma radiation. D. Experiments with gamma particles: range and

stopping.D. Radiations and counters.D. Bending beta particles' tracks.

Background radiation. D. Background radiation using a GM counter.

Biological hazards.

6.2 Rutherford's atomic model. D. Scattering analogues.

Protons, neutrons, and isotopes.

6.3 Radioactivity II. D. Coin or dice decay analogues.

Radioactive decay and half-life,Change of A and Z.Use of radioisotopes.Nuclear energy (social, economic, and moralimplications of the development of nuclearenergy).

Source: Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination Regulations and Syllabuses: 1994, 1992, p. 314-337.

0o

Appendix 32

Senior Secondary General Mathematics Examination Syllabus

1. Percentages.

2. Manipulation of formulas.Factorization of simple expressions.L.C.M. and H.C.F.Simple algebraic fractions.Polynomials in one variable.Notation for functions.Remainder theorem.Graphs of f(x) - ax + b and f(x) -ax2 + bx + cLinear equations in one unknown.Quadratic equations in one unknown.Simultaneous equations in two unknowns.Simple problems leading to the above equations.Distinction between equations and identities.

4. Approximate solution of simple equations in one unknown by the graphicalmethod and improvement of accuracy by the method of bisection.

5. Linear inequalities in one or two variables and their graphicalrepresentation.

6. Laws of rational indices.Simple properties of logarithms.Simple manipulations of surds including rationalization of expression of theform 1

7. Ratio, proportion and variation.

8. Arithmetic and geometric progressions.

9. Simple problems in probability.

10. Organization and representation of numerical data.Measures of central tendency: Mean, mode and median.Measures of dispersion: range, inter-quartile range, mean deviation,standard deviation.Applications of standard deviation.

11. Measure of angles in degrees and radians.The functions sine, cosine, tangent in the interval ) to 2i radians (0° to3600) and their graphs.The relations tan A - sin A and

cos Asin 2 A + cos 2 A - 1

88

12. Easy trigonometric equations.

13. Sine and cosine formulas. Problems in two dimensions. Easy problems inthree dimensions.

14. Mensuration of common plane figures and solids.Length of arcs and area of sectors of a circle.Similar plane figures and solids.

15. Plane rectangular coordinates.Distance between two points. Internal division of a line segment.Slope (gradient) of a straight line. Equation of a straight line indifferent forms.Condition for two line to be parallel or to be perpendicular.Intersection of lines.Equation of a circle.Intersection of a circle and a straight line.

16. Knowledge and application of the following topics in elementary planegeometry: angles, isosceles and equilateral triangles, similar and congruenttriangles, pythagoras' theorem and its converse. parallelograms,rectangles, squares and rhombuses, mid-point and intercept theorems,circles, and cyclic quadrilaterals.

Source: HonE Kong Certificate of Education Examination Regulations andSyllabuses: 1994, 1992, pp. 263-269.

89

Appendix 33

Senior Secondary Additional Mathematics Examination Syllabus

1. The six trigonometric functions of angles of any magnitude and theirgraphs. Formulas for sin(A+B), cos(A+B) -and tan (A+B), sum and productformulas. General solution of simple trigonometric equations. Problems intwo and three dimensions.

2. Quadratic functions and quadratic equations. Discriminant and complexroots. Inequalities in one variable. Use of the absolute value sign.

3. Complex numbers in standard form and polar form, and their manipulation.Argand diagram, conjugate, modulus and argument. De Moivre's theorem andits applications.

4. Mathematical indication and its simple applications.

5. The binomial theorem for positive integral indices.

6. Plane rectangular coordinates. Area of rectilinear figures. Anglebetween two lines, distance from a point to a line, family of straightlines. Equations of tangents to a circle. Family of circles. Parabola,ellipse and hyperbola. Simple locus problems.

7. Vectors in the two-dimensional space. Unil vectors and the zero vector.Position vectors. Representation of a vector by ai +bj and by a directedline segment. Sum and difference of vectors. Multiplication of a vectorby a scalar. Scalar product (dot product) of two vectors. Application ofvector method to problems involving parallelism, perpendicularity anddivision of a line segment.

8. Differentiation from first principles. Differential of powers of x andtrigonometric functions. Differential of a sum, a product and a quotientof functions. Differentiation of a composite function and an implicitfunction. Second derivatives. Application of differentiation to smallincrements, gradients, rates of change, tangents and normals to a curve,maxima, and minima, and sketching of simple curves.

9. Indefinite integration as the reverse process of differentiation.Integration of simple functions. Integration by simple change ofvariable. Definite intervals and their simple properties. Applications infinding plane areas and volumes of solids of revolution.

Source: Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination Regulations andSyllabuses: 1994, 1992, pp. 28-32.

90

Appendix 34

Senior Secondary Computer Studies Examination Syllabus

1. Information processing

1.1 Examples of data processing systems1.2 Concepts of data processing systems.1.3 Computers in an information age.1.4 Data control in a data processing system.1.5 Computer files.1.6 Modes of operations.1.7 The impact of a computer-based system on the individual, on organization

and on society.1.8 Microcomputers and application software.

2. Computer systems

2.1 The idea of a stored program2.2. A typical computer system2.3 The representation of data within the computer2.4 Computer operations2.5 Programming languages2.6 The operating system

3. Programs

3.1 Algorithms and design techniques3.2 Knowledge of one of the high level languages BASIC or Pascal.3.3 Programming.

Source: Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination Regulations andSyllabuses: 1994, 1992, pp. 107.

91

Appendix 35

Advanced Level Examination inMathematics and Science Subjects for 1994

Written Examination Practical Examination

Biology

Written (66.6% mark) Practical (33.3%, 3 hours)Paper I (3 hours)A Compulsory short questions 13.3%B Compulsory data response &

interpretation questions 20%Paper II (3 hours)A & B Choice of 2 out of 3 essay

questions 26.6%C Choice of 1 out of 4/5 questions 6.6%

Chemistrvy

Written (80% mark) Practical (20% mark, 3Paper I (3 hours) hours).A Compulsory short questions 60% Candidates take theB Compulsory practical questions 20% examination in groups. TheC Choice of essay questions 20% questions for each group

Paper II (3 hours) .are not the same. AllA Based on Section I of syllabus 33.3% candidates may be requiredB Based on Section II of syllabus 33.3% tro submit their lab booksC Based on Section III of syllabus 33.3% for inspection.

Physics

Written (85% mark) Practical (15% mark, 1Paper I (3 hours) hour)Compulsory structured-type questions

42%Paper II (3 hours)A Multiple choiceB Choice of 3 out of 5 essay-typequestions 43%

92

Pure Mathematics

Paper I (50% mark, 3 hours)A Compulsory 6-8 questions 40%B Choice of 4 out of 6 questions 60%

Paper II (50% mark, 3 hours)A Compulsory 6-8 questions 40%B Choice of 4 out of 6 questions 60%

ApRlied Mathematics

Paper I (50% mark, 3 hours)A Compulsory 6-8 questions 40%B Choice of 4 out of 6 questions 60%

Paper II (50% mark, 3 hours)A Compulsory 6-8 questions 40%B Choice of 4 out of 6 questions 60%

Source: Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination Regulations and Syllabuses: 1994,1992.

93

Appendix 36

Advanced Level Biolcgy

Aims

Knowledge and understanding(1) To develop the power to think creatively, analyze critically and

scientifically on biological issues, to make rational decisions, and tocommunicate effectively.

(2) To develop observational, manipulative and experimental skills.(3) To develop the ability to retrieve appropriate information from proper

sources, and to develop self-confidence in self-learning.(4) To acquire a knowledge and understanding of basic biological principles.

Attitude(1) To develop appreciation of the wonders of the living world and to promote

respect for all living things.(2) To broaden and stimulate interest in learning biology.(3) To develop an awareness of and concern for biological issues in personal,

social, environmental and technological contexts.(4) To prepare student to become responsible ciLtizens in a changing world.

Assessment Obiectives

Written examination tests the abilities:(1) to recall and understand biological facts and principles;(2) to apply this knowledge to explain observations and to solve problems

which may involve unfamiliar situations;(3) to apply this knowledge to make logical deductions;(4) to observe and describe objects and phenomena accurately;(5) to interpret and analyze simple biological experimental data;(6) to detect errors and to suggest improvements in techniques and to devise

suitable experiments;,(7) to formulate generalizations in the light of both first-hand and second-

hand evidence;(8) to illustrate information by means of graphs, tables, drawings and

diagrams;(9) to formulate working hypotheses and design t:ests for them, using controls

where appropriate;(10) to select and organize relevant information and communicate this

information coherently; and(11) to apply biological knowledge to solve problems and to make judgements,

including those of a personal, social, environmental, economic andtechnological nature.

Practical examination tests the abilities:(1) to make observations on living and preserved specimens and record them

accurately in writing or by using clear diagrams or drawings;(2) to use the pertinent features of specimens as a basis for their

identification;

94

(3) to carry out an animal dissection;(4) to carry out floral dissections;(5) to carry out microscopic preparations: simple staining, temporary

mounting, and examination of suitable animal and plant tissues;(6) to carry out simple biochemical tests, e.g. food tests;(7) to perform simple physiological experiments, record the results suitably

and accurately, and interpret the data intelligently; and(8) to comment on a collection of specimens by suggesting inter-relationships

between them and also between the specimens and their habitat.

Advanced Level Biologv Examination Syllabus

Section 1. The Variety of Living Organisms

1.1 The variety of lifeviruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoans, algae, bryophytes, ferns, gymnosperms,angiosperms, cnidarians, platyhelminthes, annelids, arthropods, molluscs,echinoderms, chordates.

1.2 Classification

Section 2. The Cell

2.1 The chemical constituents of cellscarbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleotides and nucleic acids, inorganiccomponents.

2.2 Cell structure2.3 Membrane permeability2.4 Enzymes -- as organic catalysts; factors affecting enzyme activity

Section 3. The Functioning of Living Organisms

3.1 Nutrition(a) Modes of nutrition(b) Autotrophic nutrition

(i) Photosynthesis -- photochemical reactions, carbon fixation, siteof photosynthesis, factors affecting photosynthesis.

(ii) Mineral nutrients required by photosynthetic plants(iii) Chemosynthesis.

(c) Heterotrophic nutrition(i) Holozoic nutrition -- ingestion, digestion, absorption and

assimilation, egestion, a balanced diet.(ii) Saprophytic nutrition(iii) Parasitic nutrition

3.2 Respiration(a) Cell respiration

(i) Glycolysis(ii) Krebs cycle(iii) Oxidative phosphorylation(iv) Anaerobic respiration

95

(b) Energy release(c) Gaseous exchange between organisms and environment

(i) Gaseous exchange in mammals(ii) Gaseous exchange in other organisms

3.3 Transport in organisms(a) The circulatory system in mam=als(b) Transport in angiosperms

3.4 Support and movement(a) Support in animals(b) Support in plants(c) Locomotion in animals(d) Movement in plants

3.5 Perpetuation of species(a) Asexual reproduction(b) Sexual reproduction

(i) The structure and function of flowers(ii) The reproductive system in mamma:Ls(iii) The transfer of gametes and fertilization(iv) The formation of the seeds and fruits(v) The germination of seeds(vi) The mammalian foetus and the newborn

3.6 Growth and development(a) The measurement of growth(b) Primary and secondary growth in plants(c) Metamorphosis in animals(d) The control of growth and development

3.7 Response and coordination(a) The detection of environmental conditions - skin, eye, ear(b) Response to the environment(c) Nervous coordination in mammals(d) Hormonal coordination in mammals(e) Phytohormones

3.8 Homeostasis(a) Regulation of water and mineral salts(b) Regulation of body temperature(c) Regulation of blood glucose level(d) Defense against disease in mammals.

Section 4. Genetics and Evolution

4.1 Genetics(a) Nature and action of the gene(b) The role of gametes in inheritance(c) The inheritance of discrete characters.(d) Discontinuous and continuous Nvariation of characters(e) Mutation

4.2 Evolution(a) Evidence of evolution(b) The mechanism of evolution(c) Plant and animal breeding

96

Section 5. Inter-relationships of Organism with Each Other and with theirEnvironment.

5.1 Pollutions5.2 The ecosystem

(a) Concept of the ecosystem(b) Energy flow and nutrient cycling in the ecosystem(c) Interdependence of organisms(d) Succession

5.3 The economic significance of microorganismsUseful and harmful microorganisms. Biodeterioration of food. Thebiological principles of food preservation using physical and chemicalmethods. Microorganism as disease agents (white rust, cholera, AIDS andhepatitis B). Methods and cost to control the spread of diseases, such aspersonal hygiene, sewage treatment and crop protection.

5.4 Human's impact on the environment(a) Resource exploitation(b) The effects of agriculture(c) Pollution - atmospheric and water

5.5 Human's responsibility for environmental protection and conservation.

Source: Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination Rezulations and Syllabuses: 1994,1992, pp. 50-87.

97

Appendix 37

Advanced Level Chemistry

Aims

(1) To present chemistry not only as a body of knowledge, but also as a fieldof enquiry, and to bring candidates to recognize the intellectualdiscipline which it provides.

(2) To foster imagination, and the acquisition of knowledge and experimentalskills.

Assessment Objectives

Written examination tests the following:(1) Basic concepts

-a. knowledge of chemical facts, principles, methods and terminology;b. ability to understand and interpret scientific information presented

in verbal, mathematical, diagrammatic or graphical form and totranslate such information from one form to another;

c. ability to formulate and test hypotheses;d. ability to interpret phenomena in terms of models, laws and

principles; ande. ability to solve problems which are unfamiliar.

(2) Experimental investigationa. manipulative skills to carry out experimentation from written

instructions;b. skill in observation and recording oi: observation;c. ability to suggest apparatus and procedures for carrying out

experiments; andd. ability to interpret results in terms of principles, awareness of

safety aspects.(3) Interpretation and application

a. organize ideas and facts and present them clearly;b. critical approach to information and ideas; andc. understand and appreciate the applications of chemical knowledge in

other scientific and technological studies, industries and society.

Practical examination tests the following:(1) preparative and investigative work linked to Sections I-III;(2) techniques and principles involved in quantitative volumetric analysis

concerning acid-base reactions, oxidation-reduction reactions andequilibria studies in aqueous solution; and

(3) make accurate observations, interpret data, devise experimentalprocedures.

98

Advanced Level Chemistry Examination Syllabus

Section I. Physical Chemistry

1. Atomic Structure.

1.1 Atoms, molecules, ions and electrons.1.2 The nucleus of the atom.

Isotopic mass and relative atomic massRadioactivity.

1.3 Electronic structure of atoms.Patterns of energy levels of the hydrogen atom.First ionization energies in relation to the Periodic Table.Successive ionization energy.Electron shells and sub-shells: ls, 2s, 2p, etc.Building up of electrons in atoms.Electronic configuration in relation to the Periodic Table up to Kryptonand including the first transition series.Electron affinity.Atomic orbitals.

2. Energetics and Bonding.

2.1 Conservation of energy.Enthalpy changes.Standard enthalpy change of formation.Applications of Hess's law.

2.2 Energetics of formation of covalent molecules.Bond energy terms: how their values are found and how they are used.

2.3 Energetics of formation of ionic crystals.The Born-Haber cycle.Simple model for ionic crystals and theoretical value of lattice energy.

2.4 Solvation.Processes involved in solution - enthalpy change of solution and itsrelationship to lattice energy and hydration energy.Volume changes on solution and their possible explanation.

3. Electronic Theory and Chemical Bonding.

3.1 Ionic bonding.Formation of ions -tendency for atoms of elements in Groups I, II, VI andVII to attain noble gas structure.Stoichiometry of reactions in which ions are formed - consideration interms of electron transfer.Formation of giant structure from ions.Ionic radii, trends in values in relation to the Periodic Table.

3.2 Covalent bonding.Electron sharing.Covalent radii, trends in values in relation to the Periodic Table.The dative covalent bond.

3.3 Bonding intermediate between ionic and covalent.Incomplete electron transfer in ionic compounds.

99

Polarity in covalent bonds.Concept of dipole moment.Relation of shapes of ions/simple molecules to electron distribution - bondpair/lone pair interactions.Multiple bonds and delocalization of elecl:rons.

3.4 Metallic bonding.

4. Intermolecular Forces.

4.1 Polarity of molecules.Dipole-dipole interactions.

4.2 Van der Waals forces.4.3 Hydrogen bonding.

5. States of Matter.

5.1 The gaseous state.Ideal gas equation and its limitations.Kinetic theory.Dalton's law of partial pressures.Distribution of molecular speeds in a gas.Effect of temperature change on molecular speeds.

5.2 The solid state.Structure of metals.Ionic giant structure.Covalent giant structures.Coordination number.Molecular crystals.Relations between structure and physical piroperties for giant structuresand molecular crystals.

6. Equilibria.

6.1 Phase equilibria.One component systems.Two component systems - ideal and non-ideal.Three component systems - the distribution law.

6.2 Chemical equilibria.(a) The equilibrium law.

Equilibrium constants.(b) Homogeneous and heterogeneous equilibria.

Effect of temperature, pressure and concentration changes onequilibria.

(c) Redox equilibria: metal ion, metal systems.Use of these systems as sources of electrical energy.Potential difference of electrochemic.al cells and variation of thiswith resistance in the external circuit.Cell electromotive force (c.e.f) and its measurement.Standard electrode.Relative electrode potentials.Effect of concentration change on electrode potential values.Standard reduction potentials.

100

The redox potential series.Use of standard reduction potentials to calculate standard celle.m.f.'s and to predict possible reactions in which ions areinvolved.

(d) Acid/base theories.pH and its measurements.The ionization of water and KWStrong and weak acids/bases.Dissociation constants for weak acids (K.) and weak bases (K1).Buffer systems and their uses.Indicators: simple theory of their action and pH ranges of theircolor changes.

(e) Equilibria involving complex ions.Stability constants.

7. Rates of Chemical Reactions.

7.1 Rates of reaction.Factors which affect the rate of reactions.

7.2 Order of reaction.7.3 Interpretation of physical measurements made in following a reaction.

Interpretation of physical findings at the molecular level: collitienry.Activation energy.Transition state.

7.4 Homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis.7.5 Use of kinetic studies.

Section II: Inorganic Chemistry.

8. Principles of chemical periodicity.

8.1 Periodic relationships among these elements: variation in physicalproperties with atomic number.Variation of ionization energy as an additional evidence of periodicity.

8.2 Periodic relationships among the oxides, chlorides and simple hydrides ofthe elements Li to Cl.

8.3 The stoichiometric composition of the oxides, chlorides and simple hydridesof the above elements.Reaction of the oxides, chlorides and hydrides with water.The nature of bonding in the chlorides and hydrides of the elements Li toCl, and its effect on their chemical behavior.Methods of preparation of chlorides of the elements Li to S.

9. Study of the Elements in some groups of the Periodic Table.

9.1 The alkali metals and alkaline earth metals: comparative study of theelements and some of their compounds.Selected properties of the elements Li, Na, K, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba and some oftheir important compounds.The fixed oxidation state of the ions formed by the above elements.Trends in atomic and ionic radii.

101

9.2 The halogens: comparative study of the chemistry of chlorine, bromine andiodine. The idea of variable oxidation states. The reaction betweenhalides and sulphuric (VI) acid, phosphordic (V) acid, and silver ions.The acidic properties of the hydrogen halides. The interrelation betweenhalide, halate (I) and halate (V). Redox reactions involving halogen andhalide.

9.3 The group of elements carbon to lead. Variation in some physicalproperties of the elements: melting point, boiling point, enthalpy changeof atomization, ionization energy. Composition, hydrolytic behavior andrelative stability of chlorides. Properties of oxides: composition andstructures, their acidic, basic or amphoteric nature, relative stabilityof higher and lower oxides. The hydrides of the elements carbon to lead.

10. Chemistry of the tra-nsition metals.

10.1 The position of transition metals in the Periodic Table in relation totheir electronic configurations. Transi tion elements as the d-blockelements. Comparison of important physical properties of the elements inthe first transition metal series.

10.2 Variable oxidation states: study of some common transition metal oxidesand chlorides. The relative stability of oxidation states of transitionmetals. The energetics of the formation of ions in different oxidationstates.

10.3 Complex compounds of the transition metals: a study of theirstoichiometry, stability and stereochemistry. The formation andstoichiometry of complex compounds. Bonding in complex ions: dativecovalence. The stability of complex ions. The stereo structure ofcomplex ions.

10.4 The catalytic behavior of transition ietals and their compounds.Catalysts in industrial reactions.

Section III: Chemistry of Carbon Compounds.

11. Structure and shape of organic molecules.

11.1 Saturated compounds - tetravalent carbon in saturated acyclic and cycliccompounds.

11.2 Unsaturated compounds - double and triple bonds. Spatial distribution ofbonds in open chain compounds (ethene and ethyne) and cyclic compounds(cyclohexene). Relationship between electronic structure and unsaturatedcharacter.

11.3 Aromatic compounds - benzene as an examplet. Electronic structure andspatial distribution of bonds. Stability of structure leading to aromaticcharacter outweighing unsaturation. Comparison of reactions of benzenewith those of hexane, cyclohexane \and cyclohexene.

11.4 Functional groups - study the electronic configurations of oxygen,nitrogen, and halogens. Effects of functional groups and the relativesize of carbon chains on physical properties in homologous series.

11.5 Determination of structures - calculation of empirical formula fromanalytical data. Molecular formula. Structure deduced from reactions offunctional groups and physical properties.

102

11.6 Isomerism. Structural isomerism: unbranched and branched chains,disubstituted benzenes, ethers and alcohols, ketones and aldehydes, acidsand esters. Stereoisomerism. Chirality and optical activity.

12. A Study of organic reactions.

12.1 Ways of breaking covalent bonds: homolysis, heterolysis.12.2 Types of reactive species which can attack organic compounds: free

radicals, electrophiles, nucleophiles.12.3 Types of organic reactions: nucleophilic substitution, electrophilic

addition, free radical addition, and nucleophilic addition.

13. Chemistry of the functional groups

13.1 Hydrocarbons. Natural sources of alkanes, alkenes and aromatichydrocarbons. Addition reactions of alkene. Ozonolyses of alkenes.Polymerization of alkenes. Nitration and sulphonation of aromaticcompounds.

13.2 Halogeno-compounds. Substitution of halogen. Comparisons of rates ofhydrolysis of haloalkanes and halo-arenes. Elimination of halogens andhydrogen halides to form alkenes and alkynes. Polymerization ofhaloalkenes. Applications of halogeno-compounds.

13.3 Hydroxy-compounds. Comparison of properties and reactions of the hydroxylgroup when attached to a saturated carbon framework and to an aromaticnucleus. Oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols. Alkanediols.

13.4 Carbonyl compounds. Simple methods of formation. Addition reactions,condensation reactions, aldol condensation and Cannizzaro reaction.Oxidation and reduction.

13.5 Carboxylic acids and their derivatives. Formation of carboxylic acid.Reason for acidity and influence of substituents on acidity. Thermaldecomposition of carboxylates. Reactions of the carboxyl group. Reactionof acid derivatives.

13.6 Amino-compounds. Formation of amino-compounds. Amino-compounds as bases.Reactions of amino-compounds. Use of derivatives for characterization.

13.7 Amino acids, polypeptides and proteins. Amino acids. Polypeptides andnatural proteins.

Source: Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination Regulations and Syllabuses: 1994,1992, p. 124-191.

103

Appendix 38

Advanced Level PhvsSics

Aims

Cogni tive(1) Establish a conceptual framework for physics and provide an understanding

of its methodology.(2) Encourage a balance between an experimental and a theoretical approach to

physics.(3) Develop skills relevant to the application of physics, such as

experimental design, experimental technique, problem solving mathematicalanalysis, analytical and critical appraisal and communication.

Affective(1) Develop interest, motivation, and a sense of achievement in the study of

physics.(2) Develop an appreciation of the nature and developments in physics, and an

awareness of the applications of physics to everyday life and in thefields of engineering and technology.

(3) Develop moral and social values and readiness to becoming responsiblecitizens in a changing world.

Assessment Objectives

Written examination tests the abilities:

(1) to recall and show understanding of factual knowledge, terminology,definitions, conventions, experimental methods, laws and models.

(2) to demonstrate experimental techniques: planning and execution ofexperiments, analysis and presentation of results and simple treatment oferrors.

(3) to apply physics knowledge in problem solving and experimentalinvestigation, including qualitative and numerical, theoretical andpractical techniques.

(4) to communicate by compilation of clear concise accounts of experimentalwork and theoretical treatments, including interpretation andtransposition of data, and use of models to explain phenomena.

(5) to evaluate by analyzing situations or data, and to make decisions on thebasis of such judgements.

Practical examination tests the following techniques:

(1) to read to the maximum accuracy of linear and angular scales, to usevernier scales, and to time by stop-watch or stop-clock.

(2) to focus and locate images accurately (using pins, ray boxes, etc.)(3) to connect up and check electrical circuits from a circuit diagram, and to

draw a circuit diagrams for a given simple circuit, already connected up.

104

(4) to take precautions for protection of galvanometers using series and shuntresistance, technique of starting with low galvanometer sensitivity inpotentiometer and bridge circuits, and increasing it near balance.

(5) to display results in tabular and or graphical form, to plot accuratelywith suitable choice of scales, and to transform formulae into a lineargraphs.

(6) to be familiar with scientific procedures -- make rough preliminarymeasurements and calculate, and record carefully all actual measurementsmade without the need to make a fair copy later.

(7) to appreciate order of accuracy of common measurement and to be able toquote results to the number of significant figures reasonably in keepingwith their estimated accuracy.

(8) to estimate errors.

Math knowledge required

Competence in the following mathematics concepts is required for the correcthandling of physical concepts and models.

(1) Indices: integral, negative and fractional. Logarithm to bases 10 and e.(2) Use of the approximation.(3) The exponential function.(4) The sin, cos, tan, cot functions. Use trigonometric formulae in

straightforward calculation.(5) The derivative as a limit - interpretation as a gradient of the tangent to

a curve; velocity at an instant in non-uniform motion, and as a rate of.change in general, either in time or space. The second derivative.

(6) Differentiation.(7) Calculation of maximum and minimum in simple cases involving the above

functions.(8) Integration as the inverse of differentiation. The definite integral as

the limit of a sum.

105

Advanced Level Physics Examination Syllabus

Section 1. Mechanics

1.1 Force. Work (as a measure of energy transfer). Power. NewtonianMechanics. Conservation of linear momentum. Transformations betweenpotential energy and kinetic energy. Resolution of coplanar vectors.

1.2 Projectile motion.

1.3 Circular motion.

1.4 Simple harmonic motion.

1.5 Resonance. Forced vibration and damping.

1.6 Applications of the principle of conservation of linear momentum in oneand two dimensions.

1.7 Conditions of equilibrium of a rigid body. Rotational motion of a rigidbody about a fixed axis. Koment of inertia and its physical significance.Angular momentum and its conservation. Torque. Energy stored in arotating rigid body.

Section 2. Wave Motion

2.1 Wave propagation. Nature of motions in longitudinal and transverseprogressive waves. Relation between V, A and f. Velocity of propagationof mechanical waves along stretched strings or springs and in solids.

2.2 Wave phenomena. Huygen's principle. Reflection. Refraction.Polarization. Superposition. Beats. Diffraction. Interference.

2.3 The electromagnetic spectrum.

2.4 Stationary waves. Modes of vibrations of strings and air columns.Harmonics and the quality of sound.

2.5 Acoustics. Intensity and loudness. The 4ecibel. Velocity of sound.Doppler effect.

2.6 Optical instruments. Magnifying glass. Microscope. Refracting telescope.Grating spectrometer.

Section 3. Fields. Electricity and Elec,tromagnetiLsm

3.1 Gravitational fields. Inverse square law. Field strength g.Gravitational potential V. Kepler's laws.

3.2 Electric fields. Electric field E. Electric potential V.

106

3.3 Storage of charge by capacitors. Capacitance. Charging and dischargingof capacitors. Energy of a charged capacitor.

3.4 Current electricity. Electromotive force. Resistance. Ohm's law.Resistivity. Variation of resistance with temperature. Potentiometersand applications. Shunts and multipliers for electrical meters.

3.5 Electromagnetism. Force on a current carrying conductor in a magneticfield. Magnetic field 6. Force on a moving charge in a magnetic field.Hall effect. Measurement of magnetic fields. Magnetic fields around along straight wire, and inside a long solenoid, carrying current. Torqueon a rectangular current carrying coil in a uniform magnetic field. Movingcoil galvanometer. Electromagnetic induction. Simple a.c. and d.c.generators d.c. motor and back e.m.f. Eddy currents. Transformer. Self-induction.

3.6 Alternating currents. r.m.s. and peak values. Sinusoidal a.c. in pure R,C and L taken separately. Phase lead and phase lag. Reactance. Seriescombination of L, C and R. Impedance. Power factor. Resonance inparallel LC circuit.

3.7 Electronics. Diode. Power supplies. The NPN silicon bipolar junctiontransistor. Input, current transfer, collector, and input/output voltagecharacteristics in the common emitter configuration. Currentamplification factor B. Linear voltage amplification. Analogue systems,amplification and feedback using a common operational amplifier.

Section 4. Matter

4.1 Gases. Ideal gases. A model for a gas: the kinetic theory. Use of modelto provide a micro-scopic interpretation of macroscopic phenomenal. Realgases.

4.2 Solids. Structures. Physical properties. A model for a solid. Use ofthe model to provide microscopic interpretations of macroscopic phenomena.

4.3 Fluids. Fluids in motion. Bernoulli's principle.

4.4 Heat and energy. Conservation of energy. Its transformation from oneform to another. Degradation of other forms to thermal energy.

4.5 Electrons. Electron beams: production and properties. The electron-volt.Determination of e/m. The cathode ray oscilloscope.

4.6 Extra-nuclear structure of the atoT. Evidence for energy level. Evidencefor light quanta. Photon. Emission and absorption spectra. X-rays.Continuous spectra. Stimulated emission of radiation.

4.7 Radioactivity. Properties of alpha, beta and gamma radiations.Detectors. Random nature of decay. Natural nuclear transformation.Exponential law of day. Half-life. The Becquerel. Radiation hazards.Isotopes.

107

4.8 The nucleus. The Rutherford model ol- the atom. The mass-energyrelationship. The unified atomic mass unit (carbon scale). Bindingenergy. Energy release in fission and fusion.

Source: Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination Regulations and Svllabuses: 1994.,1992. pp. 480-500.

108

Appendix 39

Advanced Level Applied Mathematics Examination Syllabus

Section I. Theoretical Mechanics

1 Vectors in R2 and R3.Vector addition and subtraction. Multiplication by a scalar. Resolution ofvectors. Position vectors and unit vectors. Scalar product andorthogonality. Vector product and parallelism. Triple products.Differentiation with respect to a scalar variable. Integration withrespect to a scalar variable.

2 Statics.Force. Moment and couple. Resultant of system of forces. Equilibrium ofparticles and rigid bodies under a system of coplanar forces.

3 Kinematics.Motion of a particle in a plane. Relative motion. Resolution of velocityand acceleration along and perpendicular to radius vector.

4 Newton's laws of motion.The three laws of motion. Work. Energy, momentum and their conservationlaws. Rectilinear motion of a particle. Simple harmonic motion. Dampedand forced oscillations. Motion of a particle in a plane. Motion ofprojectile under gravity. Circular motion. Motion in a vertical circle.

5 Impact.Direct and oblique impacts. Elastic and inelastic impacts.

6 Friction.Laws of static and kinetic friction. Coefficient of friction. Angle offriction. Limiting positions of equilibrium.

7 Motion of a rigid body.Rigid body as a system of particles. Center of mass. Moment of inertia.Parallel and perpendicular axes theorems. Angular momentum. Potentialand kinetic energy. Motion of a rigid body parallel to a fixed plane.

Section II. Differential Equations

1 First order differential equations.Solution of (a) equations with variables separable, and (b) linearequations.

2 Second order differential equations.Classification of types. Principle of superposition. Solution ofhomogeneous equations with constant coefficients. Solution of non-homogeneous equations with constant coefficients. System of two firstorder differential equations.

109

Section III. Numerical Methods

1 Interpolation.Interpolating polynomials.

2 Approximation.Treatment of round-off errors; their estimation and algebraicmanipulation. Approximation of functions using Taylor's expansion.

3 Numerical integration.Trapezoidal rule, Simpson's rule, and their composite formulas.

4 Numerical solution of equations.Method of false position and Secant method. Method of fixed-pointiteration. Newton's methods.

Section IV. Probability and statistics

1 Basic statistical measures.

2 Probability laws.Sample points, sample space and events. Equally likely events. Ways ofcounting. Sum and product laws. Mutually exclusive events andindependent events. Conditional probability. Bayes' Theorem.

3 Probability distributions.Random variables. Binomial and normal disitributions.

4 Statistical inference.Estimate of a population mean from a random sample. Confidence intervalfor the mean of a normal population with known variance. Hypothesistesting.

Source: Advanced Level Examination Syllabuses: 15994, 1992, p.18-38.

110

Appendix 40

Advanced Level Pure Mathematics Examination Syllabus

1. Mathematical induction.

2. Inequalities.

3. The binomial theorem for positive integral indices.

4. Complex numbers.De Moivre's theorem for rational indices.

5. Polynomials with real coefficients in one variable.Rational functions.Polynomial equations with real coefficients in one variable.

6. Vectors in R2 and R3.Applications of vectors in geometry.

7. Matrices.Square matrices of orders 2 and 3.Applications to 2-dimensional geometry.

8. System of linear equations in two or three unknowns.

9. Rectangular Cartesian and polar coordinate systems in a plane.Conic sections and plan curves in rectangular coordinates.

10. Functions and their graphs.Elementary functions.

11. Intuitive concept of limit, and based on that, continuity anddifferentiability.

12. Differentiation.Applications of differentiation.

13. Integration.Methods of integration. Applications of integration.

Source: Advanced Level Examination Syllabuses: 1994, 1992, p. 536-541.

111

Appendix 41

Advanced Supplementary Level Liberal Studies Examination Syllabus

Modules No. of Periods

I. Hong Kong Studies 90

Issue 1. Education 30Issue 2. Trade, industry and finance 18Issue 3. Implementation of the Sino-British Joint Declaration 18Issue 4. The legal system and enforcement of thie law 24

II. Environmental Studies 90

Issue 1. 261.1 Greenhouse effect 41.2 Ozone layer 41.3 Acid rain 41.4 Protecting the land and sea against human encroachment 61.5 Pesticides and fertilizers 41.6 Protecting endangered plant and animal species 4

Issue 2. 282.1 Traditional energy sources 42.2 Nuclear energy 42.3 Alternative energy sources 42.4 Traditional sources of minerals 62.5 Plastics as an alternative to natural materials 42.6 Living resources 6

Issue 3 363.1 Dealing with air/noise pollution 43.2 The impact of the motor vehicle 43.3 Water pollution and waste disposal 63.4 Refuse disposal and litter problems 63.5 Indoor environment 23.6 Effects of continued reclamation 43.7 Urban renewal and land use in the New Territories 63.8 Country parks and protected areas 4

III. Human Relationships 90

Issue 1 Self-awareness and self-esteem 10Issue 2 Life skills 20Issue 3 Parental roles in Hong Kong 14Issue 4 Peer acceptance and rejection and peer pressures 16Issue 5 Siblings, employment and marriage 20Issue 6 Community involvement and building 10

112

IV. The Modern World 90

Issue 1 The great powers, and impact of Japan andEuropean Community 18

Issue 2 Military, political and economic groupings 16Issue 3 The United Nations Organization 16Issue 4 The developing world 22Issue 5 The forces that are shaping the modern world 18

V. Science. Technology and Society 90

Issue 1 The nature of science and technology 6Issue 2 Science, Technology and Society2.1 Information technology 142.2 Medical technology 202.3 Food and agriculture 122.4 Space exploration 62.5 Industry 102.6 Transport 62.7 War and peace 82.8 Science and the future 8

VI. China Today 90

Issue 1 Socialism versus capitalism 10Issue 2 Modernization 40Issue 3 The legal system 12Issue 4 The role of the Communist Party, the army and citizens 18Issue 5 Life in China 10

Source: Syllabuses for Secondary Schools: Liberal Studies (Advanced SuDDlementarvLevel), 1991.

113

Appendix 42

Physics STS Unir 02

FALUING OBJECTS CAN KILt

Throwing objects from a height by careless or inconsideratepeople has beconm a social problem in Hong Kong (Fig.'). FallingThe number of cases reported to the police has bemn Fincreasng rapidly in the past few years (Table 1). In thefibt half of 1991, at least two pekilns were kised and mmiy br k swere serious injurd by failing object. baby The maximum penalty for throwing objects from buildings; BiSis 6 month's jail and a fine of $10,000. By TOMMY LEWIS

A BABY girl was killed inEstiumting the force of impact her pushcat when she washit by a falling brick believed

to have been throw from aThi force of impact F depends on Sh Tin homin estste

* tie mass m of the falling object aftenon.* the impact speed u Eih-mto Ts s* the rebound speed v P* the tm of impact t on himng the ground or a perscn

The force can be calculated using the formula Fig.1

-Ft = mv - mu|

So F is large if m is large, v and u are high and t is smaiL

Speed of falin objecs Table I Can offai,4 obj.taIf air resistance is negligible, all objects, whether large or (Figw. frs di Roym HoqsmaL, fall wifth an aceleratmo of 10 ms2. This is a vary KOM POUc)lrge accelpaio. An object soon reaches a rather high Ycw No. of No. atspeed after faling through even a short disae. -u PMcun

The speed of falling object can be calculated using the -

equatons for uniformly accelerated mocon: 1986 218 871987 360 1511988 385 1601989 371 181

v = u + gt whee u = initial speed 19 381 181v - final speed

s = za + g g = acc leation due to gmavityt=

i 9 =2u¼ + 2gs s = disuce fall114

*Reprinted with permission of T.K. Tao

Physics STS Unit 02 Page 2

Exercise 1Give an estimate of the heixt of the 10th floor of a buildingabove the ground (Fig.2). Then calculate the speed ofimpact of a can of Coke dropped from the 10th floor ontothe ground. Convert this sped to km h-' (1 m = 3.6kmkh-f) 50 lanh7' is the speed limit on an ordinary road. -;

Height = ..... m ...... M i

Applying equation: ..........

=> Impact speed v= ............ ms'E

.................kmh

Time of impactYou can do an experiment to give you an idea of how smallthe time of impact is.

Experimn Fig.2.

1. Set up the apparatus shown in Fig.3. Set the timer-scalerso that it starts timing when the Coke can comes incontact with the piece of tin-foil on the ground, andstops when the can leaves the tin-foiL

2. Drop the can several times from a height of about 2 mto hit the tin-foil on the ground. Record the avengedimpact time.

Impacttime ............. s

3. Also drop a large ball-bearing, a tnnis ball (wrappedwith tin-foil), etc. to measure the impact time with theground.

,,connectinT imer- saler.

(set at rnak -to-start t/ t rig\ brceak-to-stop modc) / objcCt AV \

tin-foil stuckon the floor Fig.3

Physics STS Unit 02 Page 3

DiscussionWhat do you think the impact time would be if the can isdropped from the 10th floor of a building and lands on aperson? Give an estimate.

impact time = .............. s

Exercise 2You will estimate the impact force on the ground of a canof Coke dropped from the 10th floor of a building. You willneed escmates of the following quantities:

mass of can m = . kg

mpact dme t = .s

Impact speed u =....... m s-i

Rebound speed v - 0 mng'(The rebound speed is assumed to be very smallcompared with the impact speed. It is taken as zero.)

Applying the equation Ft = my - mu

Impact force F = .N

The impact force is e..... tims the weight of the can.

Exerdse 3Assume that the rebound speed is one-fifth (20%) theimpact speed. Repeat the above estmaion.

Impact force F = ...... N

The impact fore is .times the weight of the cam

Di.sculeuExplain why falling objects can kilL.What can be done to prevent people from through objectsfrom high-nrs buildings? What have been done by theGovemment? What more can be done?

* P.L Tao 1991

116