Hand-outs in STS:

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY FROM 18TH CENTURY TO 19TH CENTURY

Science, Technology and the Growth of Industry.

The growth of industry and the development of science and technology from the 18th to 19th century may be divided into three periods: the Latent Era (1690-1760), the Revolutionary Era (1760-1830), and the heyday of Capitalism Era (1830-1895).

I. Latent Era- The initial impetus of the Scientific Revolution seemed to falter and die away towards the

middle of the 18th century. - The temporary pause might due to the following reasons:

1. The prestige of Isaac Newton and the very finished and character of his work “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy or Principia surpassed his contemporaries by a very large distance.

2. Social and economic factors such as new generations of merchants who were not yet conscious of the possibilities and potential of science.

- During this era, the new science and the capitalist method were still largely separated.

II. Revolutionary Era- This era covers years as decisive in science as well as politics.- It includes the industrial revolution in Britain and the political revolution in America and

France.- This era was crucial for humanity a decisive turn was taken in many conquest and mastery

of nature in the substitution of multiple mechanisms for the human and of steam power for the weaker force of animal and man and the varying and localized power of water.

- The new government in France after the French revolution occupied themselves in improving science.

First task: The reform of weights and measures and the establishment of the metric system in 1799.

Second task: The creation of modern scientific education.- Science had been incorporated into universities in France, England and Germany. - In France, the Ecole Polytechnique gave models for the scientific teaching and research

institution of the future.o Ecole Polytechnique - (commonly known as Polytechnique ) is a French public institution

of higher education and research, located in Palaiseau near Paris. It was established in 1794 by the mathematician Gaspard Monge during the French Revolution, and became a military academy under Napoleon I in 1804. In the first two years were devoted exclusively to basic sciences, while engineering subjects were taught in the third year.

- Some students of the new educational institutions included and were destined to make significant co contribution to science such as Gay Lussac, Malus, Fresnel and Coulomb.

o Joseph Gay Lussac –French chemist known mostly for two laws related to gasses and for his work on alcohol –water mixtures which led to degrees-Gay Lussac used to measure alcoholic beverages in many countries.

o Etienne-Louis Malus-discovered that light when reflected becomes partially plain polarized. It’s rays vibrate in the same plane.

o Augustin-Jean Fresnel-contributes significantly to the establishment of the theory of wave optics. Best known as the inventor of Fresnel’s lens.

o Charles-Augustin de Coulomb-known for Coulomb’s Law (the electrostatic force of attraction and repulsion).

- Napoleonic wars had directly beneficial to science. Napoleonic Wars were a series of conflicts fought between France under the leadership of Napoleon Bonaparte and a number of European nations between 1799 and 1815.

- Napoleon took personal charge of the administration of science he took whole scientific expedition with him to Egypt and attended scientific meetings.

- The Napoleonic war did not extent into the field of science but serve to promote scientist of different countries.

- By 1750 in England the textile industry came deal with cotton imported from India.- In 1764, James Hargreaves introduced the spinning jenny, which increased the amount of

cotton yarn that could be spun. - In 1769, Richard Arkwright introduced the water frame, which produced stronger warp

yarn. - A decade later in 1779, Samuel Crompton combined the jenny and the water frame into

one machine called the spinning mule. The mule could produce 300 times as much yarn as a person on a spinning wheel.

- These machines produced more yarn than weavers could handle until 1787, when Edmund Cartwright invented the power loom. The industry spread to the weaving side with Cartwright’s power loom to include wool and linen.

- The market for textile determined the outbreak of the industrial revolution in particularly favorable circumstances offered by Britain.

- The market for textile machinery, textile processing and industrial products stimulated the chemical and iron industries.

- The ever-increasing supply demand of coal provided changes in mining and transportations.- The industrial revolution began to rely on coal to produce the high temperatures needed to

smelt iron. Eventually it also became a source of heat for the steam engine.- The main innovation in transportation of 19th century was railroad. The railroads were

driven by coal-burning, steam-power locomotives and provide quick, cheap transportations to places inaccessible by water.

- The agricultural development was a mixture of empirical breeding, crop rotation and mechanization.

III. CAPITALISM ERA- The contribution of science to technological advancement in the 18th century was basically

modest. The most important exception is the case of steam engine which originated as an attempt to solve the technological problem of draining water from tin and coal mines.

- The 19th century marked a crucial turning point in science-technology relationship.- In the second half century, products in most industries would not come to into being

without the knowledge coming from scientific activities. These industries were the so called science-based industries.

- These included the most prominent coal-tar dye manufacture and the electrical power generation and its machinery.

- By the middle of the 19th century chemistry was far advanced in its technological applications especially in Germany where there was a strong tradition of chemical research and training.

- The fundamental scientific researches were done by well-trained academic chemist exposed to emerging technological-industrial problems.

- This marked the birth of the industrial research laboratory where the direction of research was determined by the specific needs of the firm.

- In the case of electrical power and machinery industries Michael Faraday discovery was 50 years advanced of its technological implications.

- Prior scientific discoveries were adapted to practical problems and commercial requirements.

- The construction of public power system starting in 1880 made use of current generating dynamo a direct application of Faraday’s discovery in 1831. In 1821 he used a magnet and a wire carrying an electric current to produce mechanical motion, thereby creating an electric motor. Ten years later, using magnetism and mechanical motion to produce an electric current, Faraday invented the dynamo or generator.

- The exploitation of this discovery was an answer to Thomas Edison desire to replace gas lightning with independently controlled residential electrical lightning system using his successful invention of incandescent electric light bulb.

- The later part of 18th century was to see the coming together of the scientific advancement and capitalist innovations that set forth forces which were later to transform capitalism and science together with the lives of the people of the world.

Prepared by:

LEIZEL A. DESPI BSED 2C