science vocabulary: examining the impact of concept...
TRANSCRIPT
Running Head: SCIENCE VOCABULARY
Science Vocabulary: Examining the Impact of Concept Definition Mapping and Multiple
Exposures on Fifth Grade Students' Science Vocabulary Achievement
Stephanie Woolard
East Carolina University
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Abstract
This action research study investigated the impact of a 5-week instructional intervention that aimed to
boost fifth grade students’ science vocabulary achievement. The comparison group experienced
traditional definition-based instruction, while the treatment group participated in vocabulary instruction
based on concept definition mapping and multiple exposures. It was hypothesized that the intervention
participants would demonstrate higher vocabulary growth, determined by pre- and posttests. The results
indicated a significant difference in vocabulary achievement (p < .001) with the treatment group
producing larger mean gain scores than the comparison group. The results suggest concept definition
mapping as an effective vocabulary instructional tool.
Keywords: science vocabulary, concept mapping, multiple exposures
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Teachers consistently see a relationship between low reading comprehension and poor vocabulary
development, predominantly in intermediate grades, where the academic language in content area text
becomes increasingly difficult. Hairrell, Rupley, and Simmons (2011) conducted a systematic review of
vocabulary research literature, finding evidence of a strong association between vocabulary knowledge
and reading comprehension, especially in the upper elementary grades and beyond, where the majority of
text read is informational. A growing awareness is taking place in reading education of the importance of
academic language proficiency, specifically academic vocabulary, for supporting understanding in the
content areas. The Common Core Standards, adopted by North Carolina, along with 44 other states in
2012, include literacy strands interwoven into the content areas, compelling teachers to increase their
focus on vocabulary instruction (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of
Chief State School Officers, 2010). Teaching vocabulary is challenging for many teachers, yet a vital skill
for students.
Unfortunately, vocabulary instruction in many content area classrooms still consists of outdated
methods, such as copying definitions from the glossary and writing them in a sentence. This “one size fits
all” method is often ineffective in promoting long-term retention of word meanings. According to
Greenwood (2002), “Looking up words or committing definitions to memory leads, at best, to a
superficial understanding and rapid forgetting of words” (p. 258). In contrast, Dole, Sloan, and Trathen
(1995) identified “extensive practice with words, breadth of knowledge about words including both
definitional and contextual knowledge, and active student engagement leading to deep processing of
words” (p. 543) as features of effective vocabulary instruction. Students must possess a deep
understanding of the word and its meaning to gain comprehension of its use, which is not likely to occur
through definition instruction alone.
The purpose of this action research project was to investigate the impact of concept definition
mapping and multiple exposures on fifth grade students’ science vocabulary achievement compared to
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traditional vocabulary instruction. A concept definition map is a graphic organizer that helps students
deepen their understanding of a word or concept and develop new vocabulary. The importance of multiple
exposures to new words was examined through extended practice using sorts, word cards, and games. A
literature review follows that examines the importance of academic vocabulary development, prevalent
practices in vocabulary instruction, and the role of vocabulary instruction in the content areas.
Literature Review
Research has shown that vocabulary proficiency supports text comprehension in all areas. The
National Reading Panel (2000) states vocabulary knowledge is essential in literacy development and,
therefore, scholastic success. Furthermore, research has proven that vocabulary knowledge is strongly
associated with reading comprehension in the intermediate grades where the majority of text read is
informational (Larson, Dixon, & Towsend, 2013; Stahl & Fairbanks, 1986). Consequently, intermediate
grade students must possess strategies to understand and use words in order to make sense of increasingly
difficult academic texts. This literature review will highlight vocabulary instructional strategies with a
focus on direct instruction of specific words.
Academic Vocabulary
According to the Common Core State Standards for English Language Arts and Literacy in
History/Social Studies, Science, and Technical Subjects (National Governors Association Center for Best
Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers, 2010), fifth grade students will acquire and accurately
use grade-appropriate general academic and domain-specific words and phrases. This poses the question,
what terms fall into the domain of academic vocabulary? Flynt and Brozo (2008) define “academic
vocabulary” as “word knowledge that makes it possible for students to engage with, produce, and talk
about texts that are valued in school” (p. 500). As students move through the upper elementary and
intermediate grades, they must expand their word knowledge beyond everyday language to the more
complex, content specific vocabulary needed for learning in school.
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In order to better prepare future teachers to develop students’ academic language vocabularies,
The American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (as cited in Nagy & Townsend, 2012)
reports teacher training programs at many universities are emphasizing academic language instruction.
Pre-service teachers’ lesson plans must identify the language demands of the texts and instruction and
offer specific means for helping all students manage these demands. One way to identify language
demands and select words for direct instruction is to use Beck, McKeown, and Kucan’s (2002) system of
categorizing vocabulary according to complexity and frequency of use. They suggest the following three
levels of vocabulary: Tier 1 words are basic, every day, high frequency words; Tier 2 words are frequent
for mature, literate individuals; and Tier 3 words are low-frequency and limited to specific fields of study
or professions. Examples of these words are displayed in Figure 1.
Tier 1 Tier 2 Tier 3
eat consume masticate
food nutrients sustenance
garbage litter refuse
skin pelt epidermis
guess predict prognosticate
Figure 1. Three levels of vocabulary (DeLuca, 2010, p. 28). This figure gives examples of tier 1, 2, and 3
words.
Science textbooks are laden with academic vocabulary requiring comprehension of both Tier 2
and Tier 3 terms, most of which students have not previously encountered in their readings or everyday
conversations. Knowledge of these words is essential for students to comprehend text and engage in
discussion that will extend their understanding of science content (DeLuca, 2010).
When words are categorized into different levels of complexity, it becomes apparent that not all
content words should be treated equally or taught in the same manner; i.e. copying words from the
glossary and writing them in sentences. Words frequently encountered in everyday reading will not
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require the same level of instruction as the challenging academic words that are seldom seen in common
literature (Cunningham, 2009).
Instructional Strategies
Graves (2000) advises that an effective middle-grade vocabulary program should systematically
include teaching individual words, teaching strategies for learning words independently, and word play to
enhance motivation. Additionally, research suggests direct instruction of individual words, multiple
exposures to words, morphemic and contextual analysis, and active engagement in word study as effective
methods of vocabulary instruction (Baumann, Kame’enui, & Ash, 2003; Cunningham, 2009; Jenkins,
Matlock, & Slocum,1989; and Stahl & Fairbanks, 1986). There is an overwhelming amount of literature
supporting and/or rejecting each one of these strategies; however, it becomes clear that knowledgeable
teachers generally opt to use a combination of instructional strategies chosen with the needs of the
students and the instructional goals in mind. Teacher judgment can be used to determine which strategies
would work best in the context of their individual classrooms (McKeown, Beck, Omanson & Pople,
1985). There has not been sufficient data to prove one strategy for teaching vocabulary is better than
others; rather, using a combination of strategies will have the greatest effect on achievement. Providing
students with a repertoire of tools to determine the meaning of unfamiliar words is clearly a better choice
than relying on one or two strategies. These “tools” or keys to unlocking vocabulary are discussed in more
detail below.
Direct and indirect instruction. A distinction can be made between two common instructional
approaches for increasing word knowledge: strategies for teaching specific words and strategies to learn
words independently. Direct instruction means teaching specific words, such as pre-teaching vocabulary
prior to reading a selection. Direct instruction of specific words can include teaching the multiple
meanings of some words, different word associations (such as antonyms and synonyms), and word
concepts (such as related concept words and categories of words). It is estimated that students can be
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taught explicitly some 400 words per year in school (Beck et al., 2002). Another example of direct
instruction involves the analysis of word roots and affixes (suffixes and prefixes).
Advocates of explicit instruction of specific words argue that when words are systematically
taught, comprehension of text containing those words increases; therefore, words vital to understanding
text, including content vocabulary, should be directly taught (Cunningham, 2009). Tier 3 domain-specific
words often require direct teaching of definitional and contextual information. Students may not possess
adequate background knowledge of the topic under study to independently make connections to
previously known words. This is especially true within the content areas. In many subjects, such as
science, there are few context clues to help students figure out the meanings of unknown words; therefore,
it is imperative that content vocabulary be directly taught. However, one cannot teach students all of the
words they need to learn. Vocabulary instruction must therefore include indirect instruction methods as
well; such as, exposing students to a variety of words and encouraging wide reading.
The second popular approach to facilitating vocabulary acquisition is teaching students the skills
required to decipher the meaning of unknown words encountered in text (Jenkins et al., 1989). It is
necessary that intermediate grade students be taught these skills; as they begin to read more and read
increasingly difficult texts, the numbers of unknown words they will encounter grows tremendously.
There is not enough instructional time in the school day to directly teach the meaning of each new word a
student will encounter while reading content area text. If students’ ability to learn the meaning of
unknown words through context or morphological decoding can be improved, their vocabulary will grow
exponentially.
Active engagement. Direct teaching of Tier 2 and 3 words should include activities to actively
engage students in vocabulary learning such as word mapping, word cards, and sorts. In reviewing
research on vocabulary instruction, Bryant et al. (2003) concluded that, “interventions that engage
students interactively with memory devices and graphic depictions [e.g., word maps] and that are paired
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with direct instruction seem most promising in promoting word-meaning knowledge and reading
comprehension of passages” (p. 127). Furthermore, Kim, Vaughn, Wanzek, and Wei (2004) found
learning new and challenging vocabulary encountered in specific content-related texts, such as those used
in science and social studies classes, may be best facilitated by providing direct instruction that focuses on
simple definitions, examples and non-examples, and the use of concept maps. Graphic organizers, such as
concept maps, are key tools for learning specific word meanings. They increase the depth of processing
by requiring students to examine the relationship between words and make connections to already known
information, thereby promoting retention and application of word knowledge.
Additionally, Car and Wixson (1986) theorize effective vocabulary instruction requires active and
positive student participation. Another way to accomplish this is through using word games to provide
practice. Marzano, Pickering, and Pollock (2001) concluded that allowing students to practice, review,
and apply knowledge enhances a student's ability to reach a level of expected proficiency for a skill or
concept. Games serve to improve motivation and provide opportunities to improve language skills. Active
vocabulary practice is essential to intermediate students’ academic success, as it helps develop academic
language, therefore aiding comprehension of academic texts.
Concept definition mapping. A concept definition map is a graphic organizer that helps students
to enrich their understanding of a word or concept and to develop new vocabulary. It is a graphic way to
focus attention on learning the meaning of and relationship between words. Concept definition helps
students learn and understand key terms by examining details, comparisons, and characteristics from the
text. Students describe what the concept is and is not and cite examples of it. This process is especially
effective when students work with abstract concepts or text with technical or difficult vocabulary
(Schwartz, 1988). Concept definition maps are excellent study guides and memory aids for students.
Activities such as categorizing and mapping relationships between words and concepts encourage
active engagement in word study by promoting deep processing of new word meanings (Baumann et al.,
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2003). The strategy works well in collaborative groups as students interact with peers to activate prior
knowledge, ask and answer questions, and make meaningful connections while generating a map. The
strategy can also be modeled and practiced in order to encourage students to use this strategy
independently when encountering difficult or lengthy text. Constructing a concept definition map allows
students to spend more time and thought on key vocabulary words. Using a set of content vocabulary,
students can work independently or in groups to discover the word’s definition, find related words,
identify the word used in context in the textbook, and draw a picture that symbolizes the word’s meaning.
Having students draw pictures incorporates the use of higher-order thinking skills, as they are required to
symbolize abstract ideas. It also provides the teacher with an opportunity to assess students’
understandings of the word’s meaning (DeLuca, 2010).
Word cards. Equally important, word cards are a powerful way for students to think about words.
Although there are many different variations, word cards are typically developed using five by seven inch
index cards divided into four quadrants. In creating word cards the students generate characteristics,
student-created definitions, examples, and non-examples. Thinking of non-examples helps students clarify
and deepen the concept. Vocabulary cards based on the Frayer model (e.g., Frayer, Frederick, and
Kalausmeier, 1969) encourage learners to think about new vocabulary through definition, contrasts, and
visual representations. Likewise, Cunningham (2009) suggests having students illustrate the term on the
word card, as it requires them to think about the word using a different part of their brain. In general,
students benefit from simply worded definitions and multiple exposures of the target word in differing
contexts, including student-generated contexts (Stahl & Fairbanks, 1986). Word cards are an effective
strategy because they take little time and effort to complete. They help students consolidate their
understanding of vocabulary terms by focusing on the terms longer than a few seconds (Frey & Fisher,
2009). In addition, word cards provide students with multiple opportunities to interact with new words
and review key terms.
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Word sorts. Word sorts help students discover the relationships between and among groups of
words by requiring students to group related words into categories (Frey & Fisher, 2009). Concept sorts
provide a way to actively examine key vocabulary in particular areas of study, and to introduce and
organize concepts and examples. A concept sort is a vocabulary strategy used to acquaint students with
the vocabulary of a new topic. Teachers provide students with a list of terms or concepts from the text.
Students then place the words into different categories by considering the attributes or properties
represented by each word. The fundamental contrast is one of “those that fit and those that do not.”
Closed sorts come with categories furnished in advance by the teacher, while open sorts require the
student to develop original categories (Bear et al., 2012). Word sorts used with upper elementary and
middle grades students are often open. These sorts provide the maximum amount of flexibility to the
learner as he/she contemplates possible categorical arrangements (Frey & Fisher, 2009).
Sorts provide formative assessments of reading, vocabulary, and concept knowledge. The ways
students sort and describe their sorting is a means to learning what students know about a topic. When
used before reading, concept sorts provide an opportunity for a teacher to see what his or her students
already know about the given content. In open sorts, do they develop sorts that are on target? Can they
contribute other examples? In what ways do they reflect on the rationale for their sorts? How do these
reflections change over the course of the unit of study? Word sorts are especially useful in science classes
as a way for students to build and demonstrate vocabulary knowledge as students revisit definitions
several times and negotiate their meaning (DeLuca, 2010). When used after reading, sorts help teachers
assess their students' understanding of the concepts presented.
Multiple exposures. The positive influence of repeated encounters with new words is well
documented. According to Apthorp (2006), when the number of encounters of new words is manipulated,
students perform better on vocabulary tests if the exposure to those words is at least six times. Likewise,
Stahl (1986) stated providing students with multiple repetitions of the same information about each
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word’s meaning (“drill and practice”) and providing students with multiple exposures to a word in
different contexts or settings both appear to significantly improve comprehension, where only providing
one or two exposures to a word seems not to affect comprehension significantly. This explains why
students have difficulty recalling words on tests when they were introduced by definition, followed by
brief conversations regarding context, then not discussed again. Cunningham (2009) presents the analogy
that learning word meanings is a lot like getting to know people. As with words, there are people you
spend a lot of time with and know extremely well, others you are acquainted with, and some you have
little contact with and do not know well. Knowledge of people depends on the experiences you have with
them. The people you know the most about are the ones you spend most of your time with, often family
members and close friends. In the same way, learning words varies according to how much time you
spend with them and the types of experiences you share. Students develop meanings for words through
multiple and varied encounters with those words (Cunningham, 2009).
Morphology and Context. Both morphemic analysis and contextual analysis are historic staples
of vocabulary instruction. Morphemic analysis consists of examining the meaningful parts of words (roots
and affixes) while contextual analysis involves inferring word meanings by considering the surrounding
words and phrases. Good readers often use context clues to determine the meanings of unfamiliar words,
if they are available in the text. They can locate other words and phrases in a passage that give clues about
what an unknown word means. However, relying too heavily on contextual analysis instruction may be
detrimental to struggling readers, who attend so closely to decoding words that context is minimalized.
Contextual and morphemic cues constitute the primary information facing readers when they
encounter unfamiliar words (Nagy & Scott, 2000.) In other words, readers skillful in applying morphemic
and contextual analysis have the potential to acquire the meanings of numerous unfamiliar words in an
independent manner. Interestingly, children achieve vocabulary knowledge despite the fact that explicit
instruction of words is not emphasized in school. Morphological analysis, where students break words
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down into morphemes or word parts (bases, prefixes, and suffixes) in order to decipher an unknown word,
could explain this occurrence. When students encounter unknown words they can use knowledge of word
parts to help determine the meaning. This is especially true when reading content textbooks, because these
texts often contain many words that are derived from the same word parts. For example, the Greek root
“bio” (meaning “life, living organisms”) reappears again and again in a typical middle school life science
textbook (e.g., biology, biologist, biodegradable). Students who know the meaning of the root “bio” will
also be able to decipher the meaning of related words.
Graves and Hammond (1980) taught intermediate grade students the meaning of prefixes in the
context of one set of vocabulary words. Those students were then able to generalize the knowledge to new
vocabulary words. Similarly, Baumann et al., (2003) used the context of social studies textbook lessons in
the classroom to compare the effects of vocabulary instruction that integrated teaching about external
context cues and morphological instruction. The morphological instruction in this study focused on 15
prefixes and five suffixes and how to use the meaning of these word parts in conjunction with root words
to learn the meaning of new vocabulary words. These studies provide evidence of moderate to small
effects on word learning skills through contextual and morphological instruction; however, if one’s goal is
to teach specific words well and to enhance comprehension of a given text that contains them, then the
most efficient mechanism is explicit instruction in those words.
Vocabulary instruction is vital to students’ ability to successfully comprehend content area text.
Without this fundamental skill, students will be unable to understand course content resulting in damaging
effects to their achievement and self-confidence as readers. This is especially true in science classrooms
since academic vocabulary and novel terminology are central features in this subject area. Since most
teachers and students utilize textbooks and other informational text as primary sources of information, it
is apparent that learning vocabulary should be a major focus in K-12 science.
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Vocabulary instruction experts all recommend a multi-component approach to developing
vocabulary knowledge. Stahl’s (1999) model sees vocabulary instruction as an ongoing process that
incorporates different approaches: include both definitional information and contextual information about
each word’s meaning, involve children more actively in word learning, and provide multiple exposures to
meaningful information about the word. Concept maps are one way to integrate these strategies while
allowing students to spend more time and thought on key vocabulary words and connect new learning to
previous knowledge. Meanwhile, active academic vocabulary practice provides multiple exposures and
helps intermediate grade students actively engage with and use the challenging academic language of the
content areas.
This literature review has established that vocabulary acquisition has many facets and dependence
on a single vocabulary instruction method will not result in optimal learning. The question is raised then,
how can a combination of instructional strategies be taught in a manner that engages students and
corresponds with content area instruction? Therefore, the following research question was investigated,
“How will concept definition mapping and multiple exposures improve fifth grade students’ science
vocabulary development compared to traditional methods?” The methodological details of this line of
inquiry follow.
Methodology
This study employed a quasi-experimental pretest/posttest comparison group design to determine
if active engagement with new vocabulary through concept definition mapping, along with multiple
exposures would increase students’ science vocabulary development and retention. To prevent the
disruption of the academic routine already in place, students were not randomly assigned to each of the
two groups: treatment group and comparison group. Instead, two fifth grade classes, receiving science
instruction from the same teacher, were assigned to either the treatment group receiving the intervention
of concept definition mapping with multiple exposures to vocabulary or to the comparison group who
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continued to follow the existing method of traditional vocabulary instruction. Both groups were
administered a teacher-made vocabulary test (Appendix A) containing specific content-area words at the
beginning and end of the study. A comparison of pretest and posttest scores determined the degree of
growth in vocabulary acquisition (Table 1).
Table 1
Quasi-experimental, Nonrandom Selection, Pre-Posttest Comparison Group Design
Group Pretest Treatment Posttest
Treatment O X1 O
Comparison O O
Note: O = observation
The independent variable is the type of vocabulary instruction, which is assigned two levels; the
intervention consisting of concept definition mapping and multiple exposures and traditional definition-
based instruction. The treatment group received instruction two days a week during science class based on
a model of active engagement with words, followed by multiple opportunities to work with new words on
a daily basis during school and at home. The comparison group continued to receive traditional
vocabulary instruction from their science teacher during the prescribed class time. The dependent
variable, content area vocabulary achievement, is defined as a score on a teacher-made unit vocabulary
test.
For the purposes of this study, the following operational definitions were given: traditional
vocabulary instruction followed curriculum mapping developed by teachers in conjunction with district
personnel and following the NC Department of Public Instruction’s essential standards for science
instruction in fifth grade. It included teacher-led discussion, combined with recording definitions and
student-developed sentences in a science journal. Science instruction occurred during a daily 45-minute
block. The treatment vocabulary instruction was defined as active engagement with vocabulary using a
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concept definition map completed in expert groups, followed by sharing with home groups in a jigsaw
activity along with multiple exposures to new words through games and sorts.
Participants
Participants in the study were two fifth grade classes taught by the same science teacher. The
morning class received the intervention and the afternoon class was the comparison group. Both classes
were heterogeneously grouped by school administration prior to beginning the school year. The treatment
group consisted of 23 students, while the comparison group contained 22; however, consent and assent
were obtained for 21 students in the treatment group and 20 students in the comparison group, for a total
of 41 participants. The treatment group was comprised of 13 females and eight males aged 10 – 12; seven
students were African American, 12 were Caucasian, one was Hispanic, and one of Asian descent. Of
those 21 students, seven were identified as academically and intellectually gifted (AIG). The comparison
group included 12 females and eight males aged 10 – 11; seven students were African American, eight
were Caucasian, four were Hispanic, and one identified as other. Two students in the comparison were
identified AIG, and one student had limited English proficiency.
The researcher is not currently teaching, therefore she was not the teacher of record for either
class. She holds a Bachelor of Arts in Elementary Education and is currently working toward obtaining a
Masters of Education in Reading. She has five years of previous professional experience teaching third
grade. The cooperating classroom teacher holds a Bachelor of Arts in Elementary Education and has 27
years of professional experience. The researcher chose to work with this teacher after having worked with
her on previous occasions and having knowledge of her teaching and classroom management styles. The
classroom teacher was present during the lessons and assisted monitoring students’ understanding while
they worked in groups.
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Setting
The participating school is a Title I school with 63 percent of students receiving free or reduced
lunch. The total school population is 614 students and the average class size for fifth grade is 20 students.
This elementary school serves the entire fourth and fifth grade population of the town in which it is
located and is therefore representative of the population of this small town. The classroom of study is
designated as a math and science class. There are five desktop computers available in the classroom,
along with a projector, Smart Board, and document camera. The teacher has a set of classroom
dictionaries and thesauruses available, although they are out of date. The desks in the classroom are
arranged in six groups of four to five desks placed together to form a table to facilitate cooperative
learning.
Research Procedures
The intervention entailed a combination of two strategies: the integration of concept definition
mapping along with multiple exposures to new vocabulary. Word mapping activities help students
conceptually associate and apply new word meanings in relation to prior knowledge. Harmon (1998)
listed eight techniques that teachers use to clarify word meanings for students: synonyms, brief
descriptions, examples and non-examples, rephrasing, repetition, associations, and unique expression. The
vocabulary intervention in this study made use of a concept definition map developed by the researcher,
based upon Harmon’s (1998) suggestions, the Frayer Model (Frayer et al., 1969), and the Basic Concept
of Definition map by Schwartz (1988). With the exception of repeated exposures to the same word, the
map satisfied Harmon’s criteria for effective vocabulary instruction. McKeown et al.(1985) conducted a
study documenting the positive influence of repeated encounters with new words; therefore, repeated
exposure was given during the intervention by providing students with sorts, games, and word cards to be
used for practicing each week’s new terms.
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The study spanned seven weeks, beginning January 13, 2014 and ending March 3, 2014 with the
actual intervention being given over a five-week period. Instruction took place two days a week, lasting
approximately 40 minutes per session. During the five-week intervention period, 40 vocabulary words
from the body system unit were introduced, four new words each day, two days a week. Because of a
conflict between the intervention timeline and the class pacing, along with a significant loss of
instructional days due to inclement weather, the treatment and comparison groups only studied half of the
vocabulary words during their regular science instruction block. This did not affect the treatment group;
the pacing of science instruction from the classroom teacher aligned with the instruction received by the
comparison group. The treatment group was simply ahead in the number of vocabulary terms they had
learned. On the date of the posttest, however, the comparison group had only been exposed to the first 20
vocabulary words during regular instruction.
Date Intervention Instruction
January
13 - 17
Pretest of unit vocabulary, Introduction to concept map and
jigsaw strategy.
January
22-24
Week 1 Vocabulary Terms: Infection, Nutrients, Sternum,
Stethoscope, Pulmonary, Cardiac, Heart Rate, Aorta Circulatory System
January
27-31
Week 2 Vocabulary Terms: Abdomen, Cells, Cranium,
Lumbar, Membrane, Organs, Spinal Cord, Thoracic
February
3-7
Week 3 Vocabulary Terms: Flexible, Fuse, Allergic, Dander,
Energy, Exhaust, Flu, Germs
February
10-14
Week 4 Vocabulary Terms: Pneumonia, Bronchitis, Lobes,
Bronchial, Bolus, Chyme, Dissolve, Gastric Digestive System
February
18-21
Week 5 Vocabulary Terms: Saliva, Stool, Urine, Villi,
Peristalsis, Alimentary Canal, Fiber, Digest
March
3
Posttest of unit vocabulary
Figure 2. Intervention and instruction timeline. This figure shows the dates of the intervention, the
vocabulary terms, and the classroom instruction occurring during the intervention timeframe.
Each week students were randomly placed into groups of four or five students to complete a
concept map (Appendix B). Information recorded on the map included: the word in context, a student
definition, the textbook definition, a synonym, a non-example, and a mnemonic (memory) device, picture,
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or example. Students were introduced to four new words each day, two days per week. Students were
randomly assigned to a different expert group each week containing five to six students. Each group was
responsible for mapping one word. Students worked collaboratively to complete the map in the time
allotted. During this time the researcher and the classroom teacher observed students’ interactions and
assisted as needed. Each student in the group completed a map with the same or similar information as
agreed upon by the group. When time was up, students broke apart into a jigsaw session to share their
map with a new group of students (home group).
Jigsaw is a cooperative learning strategy that enables each student of a “home” group to specialize
in one aspect of a topic, or in this case one vocabulary word. Students met with members from other
groups who are assigned the same word, and after mapping the word, returned to the “home” group to
share the word with their group members. Just as in a jigsaw puzzle, each piece--each student's part--was
essential for the completion and full understanding of the final product. If each student's part was
essential, then each student was essential. This made the Jigsaw instructional strategy effective. The
purpose of Jigsaw was to develop teamwork and cooperative learning skills within all students. In
addition, it helps develop a depth of knowledge not possible if the students were to try and learn all of the
material on their own. Finally, because students were required to present their findings to the home group,
the jigsaw strategy often disclosed students’ own understanding of a concept, as well as revealed any
misunderstandings.
Students were provided with a vocabulary journal, which included a note-taking chart for new
vocabulary, where they recorded the terms being shared during the jigsaw session (Appendix C). Also
included in the vocabulary journal was a Vocabulary Knowledge Rating Chart (Appendix D). Before each
week’s instruction began, students rated their knowledge of the weeks’ eight instructional words; they
repeated this self-assessment at the end of each week’s instruction.
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In addition to the concept mapping activities, each student received a bag at the beginning of the
week containing a word game or sort using the same words defined during the week’s concept mapping
activities (Appendix E). Each morning students had 25 minutes between the first bell and beginning
enrichment groups. Students were able to take out their bag of words and work with them independently
during this time. They were also able to take out the bag between lessons if they had completed all of their
work. Additionally, students were allowed to take the bags home and were encouraged to show them to
their family members.
Data Sources and Data Collection Procedures
The following data sources were collected and analyzed for this action research study: science
vocabulary pretests and posttests, vocabulary knowledge rating surveys, and a researcher log. A unit
vocabulary pretest was given during the first week of the study to both the treatment and control groups.
A posttest was administered during the seventh week of the intervention to determine the change in
students’ vocabulary achievement. The pretest and posttest were developed by the researcher in
conjunction with the classroom teacher and in accordance with the NC Essential Standards in Science
(Public Schools of North Carolina, Department of Public Instruction, 2010). The test consisted of 40
multiple choice questions similar in format to the Science End of Grade Assessment.
A vocabulary knowledge rating survey was given to the treatment group at the beginning and end
of each week of instruction. Students rated their familiarity with the week’s eight words by assigning each
word a rating of one to four. One being, “I’ve never heard of the term,” 2 for, “I’ve seen or heard of this
term before,” 3 standing for, “I think I know this term,” and 4 meaning, “I know this term and can explain
it.” On the chart provided, students placed a check mark in the box corresponding with how well they
knew each term. The researcher did not have access to the comparison group, and therefore did not
administer this weekly self-assessment to those students.
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Finally, a researcher log was used throughout the study to record observations, notes, and
reflections. The researcher kept anecdotal notes of students’ responses to the intervention and vocabulary
knowledge, determined by observation and questions posed to individual students and groups during the
concept mapping activities. She also reflected on the information students provided on the weekly
Vocabulary Knowledge Rating Survey. Strategies used during instruction, unexpected occurrences,
absences, and challenges were recorded in the researcher log. The log was also used as tool to document
conversations between the students and the researcher, students and other students, the classroom teacher
and students, and the classroom teacher and the researcher. The journal served to note student
participation levels for each lesson and activity. Overall reflections on individual lessons determined next
steps, which were also documented in the researcher log. Data sources are displayed in Figure 3.
Independent Variable: Vocabulary Instruction
Dependent
Variable
Treatment Group: Concept
Mapping, Multiple Exposures
Comparison Group:
Definitions/Sentences in Science
Journal
Vocabulary
Achievement
-Teacher-made Unit Vocabulary
Pre/Posttest
-Vocabulary Knowledge Rating Survey
-Researcher Log
Teacher-made Unit Vocabulary
Pre/Posttest
Figure 3. Variable/data sources chart. This chart shows the variables and data sources in the study.
Data Analysis
At the conclusion of the study all students were administered a posttest in the form of a teacher-
made unit vocabulary test. Scores were analyzed for improvement and to analyze the effectiveness of the
intervention. Growth was measured by calculating the increase in scores on each test. The growth in
vocabulary achievement for each group was analyzed by calculating the mean gain score and standard
deviation of each group on the pretest and posttest. The mean gain scores for each group were further
analyzed using an independent samples t-test to determine if a statistically significant difference in
achievement existed between the two groups.
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The vocabulary knowledge rating surveys were analyzed for each student to determine growth in
word knowledge as self-assessed by students. The researcher totaled the students’ pre- and post-
knowledge survey scores each week to determine the students’ self-assessed growth. The mean self-
assessed growth for the treatment group was calculated and a paired t-test was used to analyze the
students’ pre- and post- knowledge ratings to determine if their self-assessed gains were a result of the
intervention.
Observational notes and reflections from the researcher log were systematically analyzed and
interpreted to search for categories and themes in the data. All notes, recorded researcher and student
behaviors, instructional procedures, researcher reflections, interview questions, and open ended survey
items were compiled and coded by the researcher. After initially reading through the text and identifying
six codes or categories, the researcher further narrowed the data into two main themes by analyzing ways
in which the categories were related to the research question.
Validity. There were many possible intervening variables, one of which was subject
characteristics. Some children come to school with experiences that broaden their base vocabulary
knowledge, while other children do not have these advantages. This threat was controlled by the pretest
design. Although placement in each group was not random, the heterogeneous grouping of children
according to gender, race, and ability at the beginning of the year controlled other subject characteristic
threats.
The testing threat was caused by the pre and posttest design. In order to lessen this threat, the order
of the questions was randomized so that both tests were not identical. Also, since the same tests were
given to both groups, the threat was presented equally between the two groups.
Another threat to internal validity was attitude of subjects; extra attention and help given to the
treatment group could have lead students to feel they were cared about, possibly resulting in positive
effects on achievement. This phenomenon, commonly called the Hawthorne effect, can skew results as
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recipients of the treatment intervention may perform better because of the novelty of the intervention,
rather than the specific nature of the intervention.
Lastly, because the researcher implemented the intervention in the treatment class, the
implementer threat was a major threat to validity in this study. The enthusiasm of the researcher in
implementing the intervention may have interfered with determining if the it was responsible for the
results. This threat was controlled as much as possible by involving the classroom teacher as a co-
instructor for all lessons, thereby reducing the chances of an advantage to either instructional method. The
results of this study cannot be generalized to other classes/students; it is only specific to the students that
received the intervention.
Findings/Results
At the conclusion of the five-week intervention, the following three data sources were analyzed:
science vocabulary pretests and posttests, vocabulary knowledge ratings, and a researcher log. The results
are presented below.
Vocabulary Pre/Posttest
An analysis of the pretest data (Figure 6) suggested there was not a significant difference amongst
pretest scores for both groups. The mean missed items for the treatment group was 18.10 with a standard
deviation of 5.75, while the mean missed items for the comparison group was 18.90 with a standard
deviation of 6.95. Although the classroom teacher reported that the treatment group was stronger
academically, the pretest data did not support this assertion. Therefore, we can conclude that a difference
in mean growth scores is a result of the intervention rather than a difference in ability level.
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Figure 6. Two-Group Vocabulary Pretest. This figure compares the vocabulary pretest scores of the
treatment and comparison groups.
Students from both the treatment group (N = 21) and the comparison group (N = 20) completed a
40-item vocabulary pretest and posttest that included all of the intervention vocabulary. The descriptive
statistical analysis (Table 2) showed that for the treatment group (N = 21) the mean gain score was 7.67
with a standard deviation of 4.20. The mean for the comparison group (N = 20) was 3.6 with a standard
deviation of 3.68.
At the conclusion of the five-week intervention period, the treatment group had been introduced to
all of the vocabulary for the body system unit (40 terms). Due to pacing and missed instructional time
resulting from school cancellations, the comparison group only received instruction covering the first two
chapters of the unit (20 terms). Therefore, the mean gain scores for both groups were analyzed using the
20 question subset of words that were taught to both classes during the intervention timeline. For this
subset, the descriptive statistical analysis (Table 2) showed the mean gain score for the treatment group
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was 5.62 with a standard deviation of 2.13; whereas, the mean gain score for the comparison group was
2.55 with a standard deviation of 2.58.
Table 2
Pre/Posttest Mean Gain Scores
Mean SD
Treatment 7.67 4.20
Comparison 3.6 3.67
20 Item Subset Mean Gain Scores
Mean SD
Treatment 5.62 2.13
Comparison 2.55 2.58
Notes: Treatment N=21; Comparison N-20
The mean difference (Figure 4) between the vocabulary achievement in the treatment group and
the comparison group as determined by the pretest/posttest was 4.07 with a standard error difference of
1.24. For the 20 question subset of words introduced to both the treatment and comparison groups during
the intervention period, the mean difference in vocabulary knowledge was 3.07, with a standard error
difference of .74.
Figure 4. Vocabulary Achievement. This figure illustrates the difference in mean gain scores for both the
original vocabulary pretest/posttest and the 20 question subset.
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The mean gain scores from both groups were analyzed with an independent samples t-test to
determine if the vocabulary instructional intervention impacted student achievement. Data were entered
into Del Siegle’s spreadsheet for analysis (Appendix F). Table 3 displays the results in equal variance
since the samples were similar in size. The results imply that there was a significant difference in
vocabulary achievement between the two groups (p < .05), with students in the treatment group learning
significantly more science vocabulary.
Table 3
Equal Variance Independent Samples t-test
Mean Difference SE t-value df two-tailed p
Pre/Post Test 4.07 1.24 3.29 39 .0021
20 Item Subset 3.07 .74 4.16 39 .0001
Note: Significant at the p < 0.05 level.
Vocabulary Knowledge Rating
Students’ vocabulary knowledge rating surveys were analyzed to determine students’ perceptions
of their own vocabulary knowledge growth. The knowledge rating surveys were only conducted with the
treatment group. It was not possible to ask the comparison group due to setting constraints. A paired t-test
was used to determine the statistical significance of students’ self-assessed gains, based on the pre-and
post-knowledge ratings. Students rated themselves on a scale of 1 – 4 for each word, the total of their
ratings fell in the range of 40 – 160. The descriptive statistical analysis (Table 4) shows for 21 students in
the treatment group, the mean score on the pre-survey was 97.71 with a standard deviation of 18.07, while
the mean score on the post-survey was 138.76 with a standard deviation of 14.96. The mean difference
was 41.05. Because p < .00, it can be concluded that the students’ self-assessed gains (Figure 5) were a
result of the intervention implementation.
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Table 4
Knowledge Rating Survey Mean Gain Scores
Mean SD
Pre-Survey 97.71 18.07
Post-Survey 138.76 14.96
Mean Difference SE t-value df two-tailed p
41.05 2.77 14.81 20 3.0312E-12
Figure 5. Vocabulary Knowledge Ratings. This figure illustrates the mean scores of the paired t-test for
the vocabulary knowledge rating pre and post-surveys.
Researcher’s Log
Data analysis was an ongoing process throughout the study. The researcher observed and took
notes during and after each intervention lesson, beginning on day one of intervention implementation and
continuing through the last day of instruction. She reflected daily on intervention activities and data
collected, using those reflections to plan subsequent lessons. Student input was highly valued as a guide
to develop interactions that would be engaging and meaningful to the students. After the qualitative data
were compiled and sorted, they were broken down into categories through a coding process that identified
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patterns in the data. Results from this analysis suggested two main themes that supported the research
question.
Theme 1: Students benefitted from purposeful talk in collaborative groups. From the
beginning of the intervention, the students demonstrated a preference for working together in groups.
Regardless of whether the researcher or the students chose the groups, they were able to work together to
complete the word map while having discussions about the word’s meaning and personal connections.
The group dynamic allowed for collaborative discussions about the relationship between words and
resulted in the sharing of a variety of experiences. It was exciting to see students working together and
connections being made because of classmates’ contributions to the discussion. At the conclusion of the
intervention, the researcher asked students what their favorite part of the intervention was and the
overwhelming response was, “working in groups.” It seems reasonable that if students were enjoying the
activity more by working in groups, they were learning more as well. One student commented, “I like
working in groups because you have your friends to help you when you don’t understand.” On the other
hand, one student noted “we would sometimes not get along. I sometimes had to do all the work.”
The researcher noted that students initially struggled to take initiative during group discussions.
She found that she would be the one leading and prompting discussion as she circulated through the room
while students were working on their word maps. The researcher also noted that some of the discussions
concerning new vocabulary were only surface level, if not encouraged and supplemented by the
classroom teacher or herself. She did not find this behavior unusual, as the students were not used to
working in groups. Although this behavior did improve toward the end of the intervention period,
developing the group work dynamic would be a goal for future lessons.
Theme 3: Students demonstrated enquiry and engagement with high order questions. One
thing the groups all did exceedingly well was asking questions. It was remarkable to see students
discussing a term together and asking their teachers questions, as well as questioning their peers. For
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example, while students were working on their word maps in expert groups, the researcher noticed two
students deep in conversation. When she walked to their table, Amy (pseudonym) asked, “Is fiber the
same thing as fiber bars? My mom eats those a lot.” While students continued to have difficulties with
non-examples and another form of the word throughout the intervention, they did not hesitate to raise
their hands and ask if their thinking was correct. During the fourth week a group of students listed
pneumonia and flu as non-examples for bronchitis. They raised their hands and asked the researcher if it
was correct, she responded by asking them to explain why they put those words as non-examples. Brock
(pseudonym) answered, “They are in the same category as bronchitis because they are illnesses, but they
are different.” His answer demonstrated a good understanding of non-examples and showed that they
understood that bronchitis, pneumonia, and flu are all illnesses.
The classroom teacher also noticed a marked improvement in the class discussions that took place
during the science instruction period. She noticed that the dialogue was richer in the treatment class,
stating “The students are asking more pointed and high level questions about topics and terms that have
been brought up during the intervention.” She felt that this was due, in part to the students having more
confidence with the vocabulary terms. She stated that the prior knowledge they had of the vocabulary
words due to the intervention helped to make things click. She was able to “see a light come on in their
eyes” when instruction connected to the intervention vocabulary. Having students discuss the content in
this way proved valuable and was possibly one of the project’s greatest successes.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to determine how concept definition mapping, along with multiple
exposures to new vocabulary would improve fifth grade students’ science vocabulary development
compared to traditional instruction. The study sought to determine if students’ vocabulary test scores, as
well as their self-knowledge ratings, improved throughout the study as a result of the intervention. The
results of the treatment group’s vocabulary pre and posttests were matched with the comparison group’s
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to determine if the intervention did or did not have an impact on students’ learning. Although both
groups’ mean scores for vocabulary increased from the pretest to the posttest, the treatment group
experienced a significant increase attributable to the intervention.
The qualitative data supported the quantitative findings that concept mapping, completed in
cooperative groups, and multiple exposures to words increased students’ vocabulary knowledge and
retention. Themes or patterns from the qualitative data highlighted key student behaviors and reactions to
the intervention. Emerging themes generated within the researcher’s log indicated that students in the
treatment class benefited from the group dynamic.
Purposeful discussion within the groups allowed students time to process their thinking, connect
with the topic, and engage with peers to build new ideas. Learning from and responding to other students’
experiences triggered new ideas and connections with the vocabulary terms. These discussions persisted
from small groups to a whole-class setting, where the significance of the intervention was manifested.
Teachers can “deepen the ownership” of vocabulary terms by having students discuss the words often and
in various contexts (Larson et al., 2013). Multiple exposures to terms through discussion support the
development of students’ academic language base. Discussion is an important strategy for enabling
students to adopt and correctly use new terms in their own dialog.
Students in the treatment group demonstrated signs of active engagement through participation in
class and group discussions, activities, and games. In contrast, some students’ level of participation was
low, which suggests the need for clear classroom management and well-structured activities to ensure
maximum involvement. For example, Miles (pseudonym) would often decline to participate in
discussions or complete his word map when he was not placed in a group with his friends. As a result of
this and similar behavior, the researcher felt it necessary, at the end of the second week of the
intervention, to reinforce expectations for behavior and participation. She reminded students that due to
the nature of the jigsaw activity, if they did not participate in the expert group discussions and record the
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information on their map, the members of their home group would not have the best information to record
in their vocabulary journals.
An advantage of the study, as noted by the classroom teacher, was that it benefited a wide range of
students with differing abilities. Regardless of previous classroom performance levels, every student in
the treatment group experienced gains. The classroom teacher identified one particular student, Sam
(pseudonym throughout), who benefitted immensely from the intervention. Sam struggles academically in
every subject, though he is attentive in class and tries his best. Sam scored 33 percent correct on the
vocabulary pretest and 63 percent correct on the posttest, for a 30 percentage point gain in vocabulary
knowledge. Sam’s vocabulary knowledge rating also indicated that he felt exceedingly more confident
with the terms after the intervention, showing a 52 point increase (pre-survey = 62, post-survey = 114).
Another student who benefitted from the intervention was Chuck (pseudonym throughout), an
academically gifted student who was verbally engaged during the intervention activities. Chuck’s
vocabulary knowledge rating pre-surveys scored 105, which was higher than many of the students in the
class, indicating that he had some background knowledge of many of the terms (typical for a gifted
student). His post-survey score showed an impressive increase of 55 points, demonstrating that he was
able to build upon his already existing knowledge. Chuck scored 48 percent correct on his vocabulary
pretest and 88 percent correct on the posttest. While Chuck did not have the highest score in the class, his
science vocabulary improved by a remarkable 40 percentage points in only five weeks.
The present results add to the body of evidence supporting the efficacy of vocabulary instruction
that emphasizes active engagement through purposeful discussions and word work. Previous research
stated that, in order for vocabulary instruction to be effective, the students must be engaged in the learning
process and they must have multiple encounters with the words in a variety of ways (Baumann, 2009).
The research design of this study incorporated both of these strategies, which demonstrated positive
results within the constraints of a limited timeframe. Further, previous research identified vocabulary
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instruction involving explicit modeling of key strategies within context as an effective strategy for
increasing comprehension.
Procedures that were employed within this study were directly informed by evidence-based
practices generated through previous research. For instance, Lubliner and Smetana (2005) noted that
traditional dictionary-based, rote-memorization vocabulary instruction was ineffective. Alternative
research suggests instruction using synonyms, brief descriptions, examples and non-examples, rephrasing,
repetition, associations, and unique expression as an effective vocabulary instructional strategy (Harmon
1998). Therefore, the comparison group continued to receive traditional dictionary-based instruction
while the treatment group received interactive instruction in the form of a concept definition map based
on Harmon’s (1998) suggestions.
For many years, the practice of having students look up words, write down definitions, and
memorize those definitions was the main strategy teachers used to teach vocabulary. We now know that
dictionary-based and rote-memorization vocabulary instruction does little to boost overall comprehension
achievement. That does not mean that students should not use dictionaries; however, their use should be
targeted and students must be taught how to use a dictionary and choose the right definition. For example,
during the intervention students were encouraged to use a dictionary to find synonyms. They also looked
at the words surrounding their word to find other forms of the word (with different word endings). To
remember the meaning of a new word, it is better for students to reword the definition in their own words,
to identify synonyms and antonyms for the word, and to use the word in their own meaningful sentence.
Limitations
The findings of this study must be considered with the following limitations. The first limitation
was the small sample size. It is difficult to generalize findings for an entire population based on a sample
size of 41 students; therefore, replication in other schools is needed. The final sample was also not
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representative of a diverse population, which could have limited the findings of this study. A larger, more
ethnically-diverse population could have demonstrated different results.
Secondly, results are restricted to vocabulary instruction infused into science curriculum and
materials. Most of the evidence-based research was conducted in the context of language arts instruction
and involved words specifically selected to supplement the specific instructional strategy being taught.
Thus comparing these results to the previous research referenced in this study may be misleading. More
research needs to be conducted with content area vocabulary.
The length of the study presented a third limitation. Although growth was demonstrated during the
five-week period, a longer intervention may have yielded greater results. A longer study with mini-lessons
interspersed within the intervention may contribute to a deeper understanding of vocabulary and strategies
to decode new terms. Participants would benefit from more time to absorb the strategies and activities
used within the study.
Interruptions beyond the researchers control also contributed to limitations within this study.
Make-up sessions were not conducted during the intervention; therefore, if a student was absent they did
not receive increased or in-depth exposure to the terms for that day. Inclement weather disrupted the
consistency of intervention activities. Therefore, any growth that resulted may have been due to a general
increase of knowledge attributable to environmental factors or regular classroom instruction and not a
direct result of the intervention activities. Finally, given the complexity of measuring vocabulary
knowledge and acquisition and the study’s reliance on researcher-developed measures, the type of test
administered should be considered when interpreting effect sizes.
Implications for Educators
This study emphasizes the need for vocabulary instruction to be an integral part of content area
instruction as students begin to use reading as a learning tool. Beginning in the intermediate grades (4-5)
and continuing into middle and high school, students are exposed to more domain-specific language in
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their content area subjects. In any given text or unit of study, there will be words that are essential to
understanding the topic; therefore, content area teachers should carefully and deliberately select words for
instruction and provide students with multiple exposures to words in different contexts. Furthermore,
findings from this study imply that interactive vocabulary instruction, consisting of concept definition
mapping, especially in a collaborative group setting, is effective for increasing vocabulary knowledge and
retention. Social interaction has clear benefits for vocabulary development; students are able to use newly
acquired terms in engaging contexts. When students have the opportunity to work together, they are more
likely to be actively engaged and have more positive attitudes (Almasi, 1995). Therefore, the researcher,
the classroom teacher, other educators may choose to use this strategy in the future as a result of its
success.
Informal assessments in the form of word sorts, knowledge rating surveys, and observations are
essential to determining students’ level of vocabulary knowledge. It is helpful for content area teachers to
be aware of students’ self-assessed stages of knowing words so that they can plan their instruction with
consideration to students’ background knowledge or lack thereof. Assessment of vocabulary knowledge,
even in the content areas, should be tied to instruction and should consist of more than just a word list and
definitions. Concept definition maps, as one example, can be used to assess students’ vocabulary
development in the content areas.
Research indicates that textbooks that are used throughout upper elementary and secondary
content classrooms strongly emphasize traditional approaches to vocabulary instruction (Harmon, Hedrick
& Fox, 2000). The traditional approach to vocabulary instruction, which includes activities such as
matching words to their definitions and “fill in the blank”, is ineffective primarily because it relies upon
memorization, rather than personal connection or active involvement with words.
Although there are many different methods for teaching vocabulary words to students, McKeown
et al. (1985) suggest that integration of multiple methods, rather than a single method is the best approach.
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Carr and Wixson (1986) provided guidelines for vocabulary instruction by suggesting that teachers help
students relate vocabulary to their background knowledge, provide experiences beyond memorization and
definition alone, provide active student involvement, and foster strategies for independent vocabulary
acquisition. All of the techniques utilized in the intervention relate to these guidelines and encourage
student achievement and motivation.
Teachers should spend time exploring strategies for effective vocabulary instruction in order to
determine which guiding principles work best for their students and content area. Concept definition maps
can be customized to work in different content areas, include various techniques, and focus on areas of
strength and weakness in order to promote student growth. For example, after noticing that most of the
science terms did not have antonyms, the researcher modified the word map by changing antonyms to
non-examples. Also, the researcher often noticed that students’ original sentences were superficial, for
example, one student wrote, “I had the flu.” These surface level sentences do not accurately convey the
meaning of the word. Based on this observation and the classroom teacher’s comments, the researcher
recommends having students write an operational definition (in their own words) instead of writing a
sentence with the word.
Bryant et al. (2003) concluded that, “interventions that engage students interactively with memory
devices and graphic depictions [e.g., concept maps] and that are paired with direct instruction seem most
promising in promoting word-meaning knowledge and reading comprehension of passages” (p. 127).
Additionally, in 1986, Stahl recommended giving “both context and definitions,” which can be provided
not only through definitions but also through synonyms, antonyms, prefixes, suffixes, roots classification,
etc. (p. 663). While the concept definition map accomplished all of these things, a suggestion would be to
also incorporate direct instruction of concepts, such as morphology, deciphering words from context, and
finding synonyms and non-examples in order to scaffold students’ understanding of these strategies.
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Lastly, teachers will benefit from time within professional development to learn and practice new
vocabulary strategies to implement in the classroom (Baumann, 2009). Language arts and reading
teachers are not the only educators who expose students to new vocabulary; therefore, all educators
should be aware of the most effective vocabulary instructional methods.
Future Directions for Research
Further research is needed to determine which instructional method and/or activity within the
study proved the most effective for increasing vocabulary knowledge. Students named group work as the
most helpful feature of the intervention; however, it would be interesting to know the specific impact of
multiple exposures to words through practice with matching words and definitions. On the second day of
the intervention, a group received the word aorta. When the researcher arrived at their table Beth
(pseudonym throughout) proudly stated, “The aorta is the largest blood vessel in the body.” The
researcher commented, “It looks like someone has been playing their concentration word game,” to which
she enthusiastically nodded, “yes”. The classroom teacher pointed out that Beth is an average student who
has a good support system at home. Beth’s knowledge of the word aorta indicated that using the word
cards at home was advantageous.
Further research is needed into the effectiveness of specific elements of the concept definition
map. Was there a component that was not particularly beneficial? Could it be replaced with a more useful
strategy? Future research should be conducted with several separate classes instructed by different
teachers in different schools to increase the generalizability of the findings. Because small samples are not
representative of a general population, conducting the study with a greater number of subjects could
generate results that further support the research.
A major concern for classroom teachers is the amount of time direct vocabulary instruction
requires and how it may limit other classroom activities. Future research should focus on the amount
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(both time and duration) of vocabulary instruction necessary to accelerate vocabulary acquisition. In
addition, the best ways to measure vocabulary knowledge needs to be explored.
Lastly, consideration should be given to the challenges of vocabulary instruction in the content
areas, such as word selection and differing methods of instruction. Given the potential effect of
vocabulary instruction on comprehension, these strategies are worthy of further investigation.
Conclusion
Effective vocabulary instruction is vital to students’ ability to successfully comprehend content
area text. Results from this study show active engagement with words through the use of concept
definition mapping will significantly increase students’ content vocabulary knowledge. Apthorp (2006)
reports programs of vocabulary instruction that emphasize concept relatedness are effective for
vocabulary development and improved reading comprehension. The impact on the students included in
the study is clear, their vocabulary knowledge increased significantly.
Stahl’s (1999) model sees vocabulary instruction as an ongoing multi-component approach:
include both definitional information and contextual information about each word’s meaning, involve
children more actively in word learning, and provide multiple exposures to meaningful information about
the word. Concept definition maps are one way to integrate these strategies while allowing students to
spend more time and thought on key vocabulary words and connect new learning to previous knowledge.
Meanwhile, active academic vocabulary practice provides multiple exposures and helps intermediate
grade students actively engage with and use the challenging academic language of the content areas.
Reflection
As I reflect on my journey through the action research process, I realize that I have grown
tremendously as a researcher and a teacher. Progressing from conducting the literature review to
designing and implementing the study, I have experienced a wealth of growth and learning. I learn best by
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performing tasks, and being an active researcher allowed me to critically analyze existing research and
theories by implementing them in a classroom setting.
Through completing the action research process, I have gained an immeasurable amount of
content knowledge about vocabulary instruction as it relates to vocabulary acquisition and
comprehension, particularly in the content areas. Learning about action research has taught me to notice
things in my classroom that are not working as well as I’d like and how to take action to change them. To
do so, I need to explore research-based strategies and implement them in my own classroom to prove their
effectiveness. I now have data that proves that a concept definition map consisting of various research-
based vocabulary teaching strategies, improves content vocabulary achievement.
I chose to focus on academic vocabulary because it has always been an area of weakness for my
students. Within the content areas vocabulary is the key understanding text. My instructional strategy
previous to this study consisted of having students define vocabulary words from the glossary. I now
recognize that my students’ difficulty with learning and retaining content vocabulary was not their own
failure but mine. After conducting my research I realized that my outdated method of instruction did
nothing to create successful vocabulary learners.
Through my research, I learned that word learning is a complicated process. It requires giving
students a variety of opportunities to connect new words to related words, analyze word structure,
understand multiple meanings, and use words actively in authentic ways. I feel that the goal of vocabulary
instruction should be to build students’ independent word learning strategies that can empower them for
lifelong learning. In order to accomplish this in the future, I will provide direct instruction that is
intentional and varied, along with opportunities for interactive learning and discovery.
Through my teaching practice, I found that offering opportunities for collaborative learning is an
excellent way to get students involved in the learning process. The students identified group learning as
the most beneficial aspect of the study, which speaks volumes to the advantages of collaborative learning.
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Incorporating students’ preferred method of learning into the instructional routine on a regular basis is not
only academically beneficial, but also provides motivation for learning. Students were much more
involved in activities that were different from what they saw as “regular classroom activities,” such as the
jigsaw activity and group discussion. The fact that students were having fun while learning vocabulary
did not diminish the meaningfulness of the activities, but rather enhanced their effectiveness.
A surprising result of the study was learning the importance of purposeful talk for students’
understanding. Group and class discussion was not a planned aspect of the intervention during this study;
however, it emerged as a clear theme during quantitative data analysis. Students made connections by
sharing their background knowledge and experiences. Their new vocabulary knowledge consequently
carried over into their class discussions resulting in richer dialog about the human body. As a result, my
future goal is to create a classroom environment in which there are a great deal of open ended questions
and extended exchanges among students. An important focus of the Common Core Speaking and
Listening standards is academic discussion in one-on-one, small group, and whole class settings.
Informal discussions that take place as students collaborate to answer questions, build understanding, and
solve problems are an important way such talk occurs.
The results of this study have encouraged me to continue exploring methods for vocabulary
instruction and to incorporate those strategies into instruction. I do not want to be a teacher who relies
solely on looking up words in the glossary as a method for vocabulary instruction; my data has proven
that this strategy does not work. The results of my study will be shared with other literacy and content
area teachers to enhance the vocabulary growth of students in all areas. Although teachers may find it
difficult to make time in the academic schedule for direct instruction of vocabulary and decoding
strategies, it is vital to students’ grasp of content area knowledge, making vocabulary instruction a key
component of any classroom routine. This intervention was designed to enhance student’s academic
vocabulary development through a combination of research-based instructional strategies. In the future, I
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39
will incorporate these strategies, individually and in combination, into my instruction in order to provide
students with the vocabulary knowledge they need to succeed in my classroom and in all future
endeavors.
SCIENCE VOCABULARY
40
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45
Appendix A
Pretest and Posttest of Science Vocabulary
Name: ____________________
Date: ____________________
Body Systems Vocabulary Pretest
Directions: Circle the correct answer.
1. Anything having to do with the lungs or breathing.
a. allergic b. pulmonary c. lobes d. cardiac
2. Solid waste matter as it is ready to leave the body through the rectum
a. urine b. stool c. bolus d. fiber
3. A thin layer that forms a covering, lining, or boundary of a structure.
a. membrane b. cells c. bone marrow d. bolus
4. To blend or join together.
a. fiber b. dissolve c. fuse d. exhaust
5. A severe infection of the respiratory system causing fever, body aches, and the build-up of mucus.
a. pneumonia b. flu c. exhaust d. allergic
6. Having to do with the bronchi that lead from the trachea (windpipe) to the lungs.
a. abdomen b. bolus c. bronchial d. aortic
7. Liquid containing excess water, salt, and other substances not needed by the body and removed from
the blood by kidneys.
a. saliva b. urine c. stool d. exhaust
8. To break down (food) in the alimentary canal into substances that can be absorbed and used by the
body.
a. exhaust b. digest c. stool d. chew
9. The attack on the healthy parts of your body by germs.
a. heart rate b. cardiac c. infection d. gastric
10. The part of the body, often called the belly, that contains the digestive organs.
a. bolus b. abdomen c. cranium d. spinal cord
11. Body parts, such as the heart, liver, or lungs, that perform certain functions.
a. gastric b. organs c. cells d. membrane
12. Having a reaction to certain substances, such as dust, plants, some foods, or animal fur leading to
sneezing, runny eyes and nose, or difficulty breathing.
SCIENCE VOCABULARY
46
a. dander b. bronchitis c. pneumonia d. allergic
13. Tiny living beings so small they cannot be seen without a microscope. Most are bacteria or viruses
that can cause illness.
a. dander b. cells c. germs d. energy
14. A small ball of chewed food just as it is about to be swallowed.
a. chyme b. bolus c. saliva d. fiber
15. Hair-like projections in the walls of the small intestine that help move along food as it is being
digested.
a. spinal cord b. cells c. fiber d. villi
16. Sources of nourishment and energy, especially from the food we eat.
a. nutrients b. energy c. organs d. fiber
17. An instrument used to listen to sounds produced inside your body, usually by your heart and lungs.
a. bronchitis b. mitral c. stethoscope d. dander
18. A long, flat bone in the center of the chest that supports most of the ribs and protects the heart and
lungs.
a. aortic b. sternum c. stethoscope d. femur
19. The number of times the heart beats in a certain amount of time, usually a minute.
a. brisk b. heart rate c. energy d. peristalsis
20. A clear liquid produced by glands around the mouth.
a. chyme b. bolus c. saliva d. urine
21. The smallest units, or structures, that make up the body.
a. membrane b. villi c. cells d. lobes
22. Relating to or having to do with the lower part of the back.
a. fuse b. flexible c. lumbar d. cervical
23. The skull, especially the parts that enclose the brain.
a. cranium b. cervical c. membrane d. thoracic
24. The bundle of nerves that runs through from the brain through the backbone and branches out through
the rest of the body.
a. lobes b. fuse c. bone marrow d. spinal cord
25. Able to be bent without breaking.
a. saliva b. flexible c. fiber d. allergic
SCIENCE VOCABULARY
47
26. Relating to or having to do with the thorax – the part of the body between the neck and the abdomen
that includes the rib cage and makes up the chest.
a. cervical b. pneumonia c. tricuspid d. thoracic
27. Scaly or dry skin in an animal’s fur, coat, or feathers that may cause an allergic reaction or asthma
attack in humans.
a. dander b. germs c. lobes d. energy
28. Smoke or fumes that come from an engine, usually through the tailpipe of the car.
a. germs b. exhaust c. dander d. chyme
29. Power or force; a lively action using a lot of power or force.
a. exhaust b. flu c. energy d. fuse
30. An infection of one or both lungs in which fluid builds up in the lungs and it becomes difficult to
breathe deeply or catch one’s breath.
a. germs b. flu c. pneumonia d. bronchitis
31. Parts of sections of something, either divided into segments or hanging.
a. lobes b. cells c. membrane d. fuse
32. An illness that infects the lining of the bronchial tubes in which the tubes swell up and create a lot of
mucus, sometimes leading to a bad cough to get rid of the mucus.
a. dissolve b. pneumonia c. abdomen d. bronchitis
33. A thick liquid formed in the stomach and passed on to the small intestine, consisting mostly of gastric
juices and partly digested food.
a. chyme b. bolus c. saliva d. fiber
34. Having to do with the stomach.
a. villi b. peristalsis c. abdomen d. gastric
35. To mix a solid substance, such as sugar or salt, into a liquid so that the substance becomes part of the
liquid or evenly spread throughout the liquid.
a. fuse b. dissolve c. exhaust d. bolus
36. The contracting and expanding motion of the muscles throughout the alimentary canal that moves
food along from the esophagus through the stomach and the intestines.
a. infection b. villi c. peristalsis d. exhaust
37. A material found in food containing cellulose and other substances that digestive juices do not break
down easily and that are not absorbed into the body’s cells.
a. bolus b. chyme c. fiber d. villi
SCIENCE VOCABULARY
48
38. The passage that extends from the back of your throat to the end of the large intestine
a. alimentary canal b. abdomen c. bolus d. trachea
39. Anything having to do with the heart.
a. cardiac b. thoracic c. membrane d. pulmonary
40. The largest blood vessel in the human body.
a. mitral b. tricuspid c. cranium d. aorta
SCIENCE VOCABULARY
49
Name: ____________________
Date: ____________________
Body Systems Vocabulary Posttest
Directions: Circle the correct answer.
1. The attack on the healthy parts of your body by germs.
a. heart rate b. cardiac c. infection d. gastric
2. Sources of nourishment and energy, especially from the food we eat.
a. nutrients b. energy c. organs d. fiber
3. A long, flat bone in the center of the chest that supports most of the ribs and protects the heart and
lungs.
a. aortic b. sternum c. stethoscope d. femur
4. An instrument used to listen to sounds produced inside your body, usually by your heart and lungs.
a. bronchitis b. mitral c. stethoscope d. dander
5. Anything having to do with the lungs or breathing.
a. allergic b. pulmonary c. lobes d. cardiac
6. Anything having to do with the heart.
a. cardiac b. thoracic c. membrane d. pulmonary
7. The number of times the heart beats in a certain amount of time, usually a minute.
a. brisk b. heart rate c. energy d. peristalsis
8. The largest blood vessel in the human body.
a. mitral b. tricuspid c. cranium d. aorta
9. A clear liquid produced by glands around the mouth.
a. chyme b. bolus c. saliva d. urine
10. Solid waste matter as it is ready to leave the body through the rectum
a. urine b. stool c. bolus d. fiber
11. The part of the body, often called the belly, that contains the digestive organs.
a. bolus b. abdomen c. cranium d. spinal cord
12. The smallest units, or structures, that make up the body.
a. membrane b. villi c. cells d. lobes
13. The skull, especially the parts that enclose the brain.
a. cranium b. cervical c. membrane d. thoracic
14. Relating to or having to do with the lower part of the back.
SCIENCE VOCABULARY
50
a. fuse b. flexible c. lumbar d. cervical
15. A thin layer that forms a covering, lining, or boundary of a structure.
a. membrane b. cells c. bone marrow d. bolus
16. Body parts, such as the heart, liver, or lungs, which perform certain functions.
a. gastric b. organs c. cells d. membrane
17. The bundle of nerves that runs through from the brain through the backbone and branches out through
the rest of the body.
a. lobes b. fuse c. bone marrow d. spinal cord
18. Relating to or having to do with the thorax – the part of the body between the neck and the abdomen
that includes the rib cage and makes up the chest.
a. cervical b. pneumonia c. tricuspid d. thoracic
19. Able to be bent without breaking.
a. saliva b. flexible c. fiber d. allergic
20. To blend or join together.
a. fiber b. dissolve c. fuse d. exhaust
21. Having a reaction to certain substances, such as dust, plants, some foods, or animal fur leading to
sneezing, runny eyes and nose, or difficulty breathing.
a. dander b. bronchitis c. pneumonia d. allergic
22. Scaly or dry skin in an animal’s fur, coat, or feathers that may cause an allergic reaction or asthma
attack in humans.
a. dander b. germs c. lobes d. energy
23. Power or force; a lively action using a lot of power or force.
a. exhaust b. flu c. energy d. fuse
24. Smoke or fumes that come from an engine, usually through the tailpipe of the car.
a. germs b. exhaust c. dander d. chyme
25. A severe infection of the respiratory system causing fever, body aches, and the build-up of mucus.
a. pneumonia b. flu c. exhaust d. allergic
26. Tiny living beings so small they cannot be seen without a microscope. Most are bacteria or viruses
that can cause illness.
a. dander b. cells c. germs d. energy
27. An infection of one or both lungs in which fluid builds up in the lungs and it becomes difficult to
breathe deeply or catch one’s breath.
SCIENCE VOCABULARY
51
a. germs b. flu c. pneumonia d. bronchitis
28. An illness that infects the lining of the bronchial tubes in which the tubes swell up and create a lot of
mucus, sometimes leading to a bad cough to get rid of the mucus.
a. dissolve b. pneumonia c. abdomen d. bronchitis
29. Parts of sections of something, either divided into segments or hanging.
a. lobes b. cells c. membrane d. fuse
30. Having to do with the bronchi that lead from the trachea (windpipe) to the lungs.
a. abdomen b. bolus c. bronchial d. aortic
31. A small ball of chewed food just as it is about to be swallowed.
a. chyme b. bolus c. saliva d. fiber
32. A thick liquid formed in the stomach and passed on to the small intestine, consisting mostly of gastric
juices and partly digested food.
a. chyme b. bolus c. saliva d. fiber
33. To mix a solid substance, such as sugar or salt, into a liquid so that the substance becomes part of the
liquid or evenly spread throughout the liquid.
a. fuse b. dissolve c. exhaust d. bolus
34. Having to do with the stomach.
a. villi b. peristalsis c. abdomen d. gastric
35. Liquid containing excess water, salt, and other substances not needed by the body and removed from
the blood by kidneys.
a. saliva b. urine c. stool d. exhaust
36. Hair-like projections in the walls of the small intestine that help move along food as it is being
digested.
a. spinal cord b. cells c. fiber d. villi
37. The contracting and expanding motion of the muscles throughout the alimentary canal that moves
food along from the esophagus through the stomach and the intestines.
a. infection b. villi c. peristalsis d. exhaust
38. The passage that extends from the back of your throat to the end of the large intestine
a. alimentary canal b. abdomen c. bolus d. trachea
39. A material found in food containing cellulose and other substances that digestive juices do not break
down easily and that are not absorbed into the body’s cells.
a. bolus b. chyme c. fiber d. villi
SCIENCE VOCABULARY
52
40. To break down (food) in the alimentary canal into substances that can be absorbed and used by the
body.
a. exhaust b. digest c. stool d. chew
SCIENCE VOCABULARY
53
Appendix B
Concept Definition Map
Another Synonym
Definition
New Word and
Page Number
Examples,
Memory Device or
Picture Non-Example
Sentence from the Book
My Original Sentence
SCIENCE VOCABULARY
54
Appendix C
Note-taking Chart for New Vocabulary
SCIENCE VOCABULARY
55
Appendix D
Vocabulary Knowledge Rating Survey
Week 1: Pre
Vocabulary Term I’ve never heard of
the term
I’ve seen or heard
of this term before
I think I know this
term
I know this term
and can explain it
Infection 1 2 3 4
Nutrients 1 2 3 4
Sternum 1 2 3 4
Stethoscope 1 2 3 4
Pulmonary 1 2 3 4
Cardiac 1 2 3 4
Heart Rate 1 2 3 4
Aortic 1 2 3 4
My Vocabulary Knowledge Rating:
Week 1: Post
Vocabulary Term I’ve never heard of
the term
I’ve seen or heard
of this term before
I think I know this
term
I know this term
and can explain it
Infection 1 2 3 4
Nutrients 1 2 3 4
Sternum 1 2 3 4
Stethoscope 1 2 3 4
Pulmonary 1 2 3 4
Cardiac 1 2 3 4
Heart Rate 1 2 3 4
Aortic 1 2 3 4
My Vocabulary Knowledge Rating:
SCIENCE VOCABULARY
56
Appendix E
Concentration Word Game and Word Sort
INFECTION The attack on healthy parts of your body by
germs.
NUTRIENTS Sources of nourishment and energy,
especially from the food we eat.
STERNUM A long, flat bone in the center of the chest that supports most of the ribs and protects
the heart and lungs.
STETHOSCOPE An instrument used to listen to sounds
produced inside your body, usually by your heart and lungs.
PULMONARY Anything having to do with the lungs or
breathing.
CARDIAC Anything having to do with the heart.
HEART RATE The number of times the heart beats in a certain amount of time, usually a minute.
AORTA The largest blood vessel in the human
body.
SCIENCE VOCABULARY
57
Pneumonia Lobes Bolus Dissolve
Bronchitis Bronchial Chyme Gastric
Emphysema Lungs Chew Stomach
Laryngitis Breath Saliva Intestines
Croup Respiration Digest Peristalsis
Flu Chest Swallow
SCIENCE VOCABULARY
58
Appendix F
Del Siegle’s Spreadsheet for Calculating t-Tests
Pre- Post- Test Independent Samples t-Test
Pre- Post Test Subset Independent Samples t-Test
Pre- Post Knowledge Rating Survey Paired t-test
SCIENCE VOCABULARY
59
Appendix G
IRB Approved Treatment Group Parental Consent Form
SCIENCE VOCABULARY
60
Appendix H
IRB Training Completion Report