Scientificnewsfrom Russia(¡he surveyofinvestigationsof ancienthistory 1989-1991)

Part 1: The Invest¡gationsofGreek H¡story

y. KUzíSHCHINUniversidadde Lomonosof.Moscú

1989 yearwasbeenin Soviet Ancienthistoriographyfruitful in sphereof prehistory.Herewerepublishedseveralfundamentalinvestigations‘.Atfirst it is necessaryto namethe capitalmonographof directorof Institut ofArchaeology,theacademiciany. Alexeev,Historical aníropologyandeth-nogenesis,Moscow,1989 (in Russian).Thismonographwas beenresultofseveralyearsandfruitful activity of eminentsovietscholarunexpectedlydiedsoonafter thepublicationof his book.In monographwereinvestiga-ted as the theoreticalproblemsof historicalantropologyas historical-an-tropologicalstudyof concreteethnogeneses.

The monographconsistof threeprincipal parts.Part 1: PhysicalAn-tropology: theconntoursof science,in wich weresummedup the resultsandmarkedthe perspectivesof moderninvestigations,analysedtheco-rrelationof antropologywith adjacentdisciplina,in particular,with thehu-manmorphology,the geneties,the humanecology,alsowas discussedtheimportanceof scientific legacyof greatrussianscholarN. Vavilov for his-torical anthropology.

2 part of monograph:«Theoreticalproblemsof ethnogeneticalrecons-tructions»,herewereanalysedthegeneralproblemsof etnogenesis,thedif-ferencebetweensynchronousanddiachroniccomparisonsof ethnograp-hic phenomena,the meaningof ethographicaltales,linguistic dataandanthropologicalmaterials,thecorrelationbetweenpaleoanthropologyandhistory. In 3 part: «Historicalanthropologicalstudyof concretethnogene-ticalsituations»werestudiedthepaleoanthropologyof curo-asiansteppesof scythiantime,theproblemsof origin of sornesmallnationsof Caucasus,

In presentsurveywereconsideredonly thepublishedduring 1989-1991yearsmono-

graphicworks. Thejournalarticleswere drawnassomeexceptions.

Gerión, 11. 1993 - Editorial ComplutensedeMadrid.

388 y. Kuzishchin

ín particular,themodernl3alkar andKarachayandOsetpeoples,also themostancientEuropeoidpopulationsof SovietCentralAsia andtheiroffs-prings,antropologicalaspectsof thestudyof indoiranianproblem,theori-gensomesmallpeoplesof Siberia(ancientEuropeoidpopulationsof Mi-nusaBasin,Tashtikpopulationsof the Khakasyandsoon. In specialandveryinterestingchapterwereinvestigatedthe maínmorphologicalfeatu-resof AmericanIndiansandthe problemof first peoplingof America.

Aboyementionedstructureof monographreflectsthelogical transitionfrom onestructurelevel of antropologyto otherlevel, from fundamentalproblemsof antropologyto concreteprobleme,wherethe antropologystepsforwardas the importanthistoricaldiscipline,meaningthe valuablehisto-rical (not anthropologicalstritly speaking)information.The colossalma-terialsof sources,very careful studyof theoreticalproblemsandskilledanalyseof concreteethnogenesesis doing thisbook the eminentachieve-mentof soviet and russianhistoriographyin general.The resultsof thiswork areveryimportantfor studythe complicatedcomplexesof first andsecondcivilisátions,including the ancientmediterraneancivilisations,inparticular,the newanddifficult problemsof ethnogeneseof diversandnu-merouspopulations,nations,peoplesandtribesof enormousworld of an-cient Mediterranean.

Chronologicallymorenextto strictly AncientHistory werebeenthein-vestigationsof the problemsof origin andbecomingof the first civilisation,including the ancientMediterranean.In 1989 yearthepeculiarattentionhadattractedtheproblemof riscof Food-Productionandits role in thede-velopmentof AncientSociety.This interestwas takenby severalinvesti-gationsof prof. y. Shnirelmanpublishedthe monographTite rise ofFood-Production,Moscow,1990 (in Russian).Butearlyin 1989in the mainorganof sovietspecialistsin sphereof Ancient History Journai of AncientHis-tory (in Russian)was organisedthe discussionaboutproblems«The Riseof Food-productionandits Rolein the developmentof AncientSociety».The discussionwas openedby the generalisedarticle of V. Shnirelman«Main Fóci of Early Food-Productionin the light of modernAdvances».Using the modernarcheologicaldatathe authordevelopsN. Vavilov’ the-ory of primaryandsecondaryfoci of cultivationandanimalhusbandry.Th-reestagesaredistinguishedin the evolutionof foodproduction:A. matu-ringof preconditionsforthedevelopmentof earlyformsof food production;B. the emergenceof foodproductionas a secondarysectorwithin a fdod-gatheringeconomy; C. victory of food productionand transitionto a wayof life basedon cultivation andanimal husbandry.The processunderre-view varied in different areasof the world dependingon the initial pre-conditionsandfactors,durationof theprocess,level of socialdevelopmentof thesocietiesconcerned,andsoon. In sorneareasa complexcultivationwith animalhusbandryeconomytook shape;in otheronly cultivation eco-nomíes-

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The authordistinguishedsevenprimaryfoci: 1. Near Eastern(9th-lthmillenniaB.C.); 2. South-eastAsian (óth-3thmillenniaB.C.);3. EastAsia(6th-5thmillennia B.C); 4. Sahara-Sudanese(4th-3thmillennia B.C.); 5.Ouinea-Cameroun(4th-2th millennia B.C); 6. Meso-Americanmountai-nous(9th-2ndmillenniaWC.) and7. Andean(6th-2ndmillenniaE.C). Inaddition around20 secondaryfoci, in wich elementsof a food productioneconomy wereintroducedfrom outside,canhe distinguished.

This articlebecamethe subjectof an interestingdiscussionthecontri-butors to wich werethe wellknow sovietscholarsandour foreign collea-gues,in particular,y. Alexeev(Moscow),Micro-Foci, Foci andareasofin-fluencein Plant-cultivation and Behavioural Prerequisitesfor animalDomestication;Yu. Beryozkin(Leningrad),TiteFormationofAgriculture:tite View ofan Americanist;L. Kubbel (Moscow),Foodproductionandpo-litical organisanion;Ye. Antonova(Moscow),ConcerningCertain SpecificFeaturesof World perceptionin tite early Food-ProducnionEpoch;J. Pey-ros (Moscow),Concerningtite correlation ofarcitaeologyand linguisuicsintite Swdyoftite Food-Production;Yu. Militaryov (Moscow),Additional ob-servaíionsabountite origin ofagriculture basedon data ofProto-Afrasian(proto-Semito-Hamiíic)linguisticreconstruction;AP. Francfort(Paris),Onproto-itistorical agriculture in centralAsia and its histori cal interpreíation;M. Tosi (Rome)Titeproblemofdomesticationon tite arabiancoase(alí ar-ticles werepublishedin 1/DI, 1989,N 1).

‘¡‘he discussionhaddemostratedthe differenceandcomplexityof tran-sition to food-production,thevariety of factorsincludingthe speedandin-tensityof proceses,their meaning,themanyinfluencesin diversregionsofancientworld, wich was realisedin lastresult in variety of socialeconomi-cal andculturalstructuresas ancientasmodernpopulations.

¡fin thediscussionaroundthe worksof V. Shnirelmanwerearisentheproblemsof the transitionto moreancientcivilisations in the monographof directorof archaeology’sInstitut in Leningrad(nowadaysSan-Peters-burg),prof. Y MassonTite~sr civilizations(in Russian)analysestheitselfprocessof becomingof the first civilisations.Formationof the first civili-sationsis consideredas the epochalphenomenonthat havebeenpromo-tedon the prosceniumof the Oíd andNew World atthe endof the primi-tive age. Combinationof high productedandlarge-scaleagriculturewithspecializedcraftsweretypicalfor thetecnologicalsideof production.Bothcreationof elite subcultureandthegreatnumberof cultural innovationsallow statingthatthecultural revolutiontook placein the ageswhereworldthe first civilizations wereformed.Their typeis strictly interpretedin anumberof ancientcultures,eachof them hasits distinguishedunrepeate-abletraits in the technologicalsideof productionin ideology,insocialpsy-cology,in a estheticalcanons.In thebook arecharacterizedtheformationof the first civilizationsin diversregionsof Oíd andNewWorlds, in parti-cular: in Mesopotamia,in Asia Minor, in SyriaandPalestina,in Iran,in In-

390 V. Kuzishchin

dia, in China, in MesoamericaandPeru.y. Masson,well-nown soviet ar-cheologist,hadcollectedandanalysedskilled the enormousnew archeo-logycalmaterialsanddata.

ProfessorV. Sofronovthe knowninvestigatorof bronzeageof south-easternEuropehadpublishedin 1983 the monographProblemsof indo-europeanfirstmatiterland, Orgionikidze,1983 (in Russian).But afterthepublicationof generalizedwork of V. Ivanov andT. GamkrelidzeIndoeu-ropean languageand tite indoeuropeansy. 1-II, tbilisi, 1984 (in Russian)wherewas formulatedthe knewtheory of indo-europeancomunityV. So-fronovhadremadeseriouslybisformerconceptionandhadissuedin 1989thenew fundamentalinvestigationTite indo-Furopeanprimeriestmotiter-lands,Gorki (nowadaysNigenij Novgorod) 1989 (in Russian).The resultof thiswork is so interestingandparadoxalthat let myself to caracterizethis investigationmoredetailedley.Y Sofronovis revisingthe severalset-tíedduring200 yearsstudiesof indo-europeanproblempostulates.

Carefullyanalyzingthe availabledata(mainly thearchacologicaldata)theauthorhadrefusedtheconceptionof unitedstaticmother-landandhadformulatedtheprincipal new conceptionof the existanceof severalmot-her-landsof Indo-curopeancommunity,determinedtheir chronologyandtemporalcorrelationand the archeologicalcultures-equivalentscorres-pondingsto stagesof evolutionof indocuropeanculture.

Accordingto linguistic dataon threelong periodsin developmentofPIE(Protoindo-europeans)languagetheauthorshowsthreelargeareasofPIE habitation-»PIEhomelands»andarchaeologicalcultureslocatedinthesearcasandin thistimewich correspondesto the differentPIE languageevolutionstages.ThesethreePIEculturalequivalentsaregeneticallycon-nectedto cadi other. líe earlyhomelandis situatedin Asia Minor in ticSouthof CentralAnatolia;ChatalHñuk is regardedas tie EarlyPIE cul-ture —equivalentVII-VI mill. B.C. Ihe Middle PIE homclandis locatedin NorthernBalkans;theVinca culturesupposedto be an archaeologicalcorrespondance—to tie Middle PIE culture (sccondhalf of V-IV mill.WC.). Tie latePIE homelandwassituatedin the CentralEurope,whereatthistime (IV- tic beginningII mill. B.C.) hadexistedtwo archeologicalcultures—thc Lengyelandthe

FunnelBcakerculture (FBC), wich were geneticallyconnected.Thedynamicsof tic PIEhome-landdcvelopmentis expressed.ina graduatespreadingthePIE areafrom asmallregion—in .WesternSlovakia—to thesocalledcontinuum—from the Balkansto Scandinaviaandfrom theRbi-netowesternUkraine.FBCwas foundto ariseon thebaseof Lengyelcul-ture during its secondstageintie middle of IV mill. B.C. and to developparalelíto tie Lengyeltilí the PIE desintegrationin tic beginningII mili.B.C.

Tie autior thinksthatjust Proto-Indo-europeansat the middle stageof PIE entity evolution (tbe Vinca culture)wcretie creatorsof the most

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ancientcivilisation. Accordingto theauthornot Asia,butEuropewas tbecradleof tbe first civilization; not SumeriansandEgyptiansbut Indo-eu-ropeanswcreits creatorsandthatmeansradicalchangein traditionalviewsof modcrnlinguistic andarchacologicalknowledge.Thoughonecantracesornefeaturesof theearliestcivilization in theLatePIEculture—theLeng-yel andthe FBC—thc LatePIE cultureis characterizedby a definite re-gress.Tbe writing systcmandsometraditionsof metallurgyfelí into decay.Theexplanationof asuchregressis that ratbersmallgroupsof newcomersindo-europeanswereadjustingto the newcthnicmilieu.

The lndo-Europcancolonizationof Europetook placein theperiodofHolocenemaximumof the aridclimate in the IV-líl mill. B.C. hada per-niciouseffect on agricultureandthewholesystcmof lifc-support,thrcate-ning to stablebarvestsassistingtsthe transitionof PIE farmersto cattle-brcadingand it causedthe first long-distantmigrationsof PIE peopletotheEastin grassysteppesorto tbe Southwberetheycould find thehigb-landsrich with water.Migrationsof theproto-Grcckstogcthcrwith otherpeoples—paleobalcaniclanguagesspcakcrs—causedthc appearenceofEarly Helladic 1: therearesignificantelementsin theEarly Helladic tra-dition wicb resultedfrom thc cultural traditionof such the CentralEuro-pe culturesas the Lengyel,the FBC, the Boleraz-Baden,theJordansmul.In his monographthe authorunderlinesthe tremendouscontributionofthe Indo-Europeanspeoplesto the developmentof the world civilization(productiveeconomics,domesticationof animals,invention of wheelledtransport,creationof the mostancientwriting system,discoveriesin geo-graphy,tradeandvariouscontactsamongthepeoplesetc.).

The sornenaturalcontinuationof the aboyespokenworks aboutthemostancienttimeswas tbestudyof history 111-II mill. B.C. thatis thebron-zecivilisation, thehistory of CreteandAchaeanGreece.In this sphereatfirst it is possibleto mark two monographsof prof. Ju. Andrecv,namely:the monographTite islandsettlementsofAegeanworld in bronzeage,Le-ningrad,1989 (in Russian)andthe book Titepoetryof Mytit andtite proseof itis¡ory, Leningrad,1990 (in Russian).

The essenceof the first monographin tbe complicatedanddiscusscdproblemof the emergenceof ancienturbanisme,of origin of carlierformsof city andurbanlife whichhadbeenthebasisof total ancientmediterre-neancivilisation. Ju.Andreevhadcollectedven’ big archacologicaldatafrom alí regionsof the Aegean,includingCrete,BalcanicGreece,but es-peciallyfrom the Cyclades.He hadinvestigatedin detail the characterofdiscoveredscttlementsand its transformationin urban structures.To bisopinion, thebeginningof proccssof urbanisationin theAegeanhadrisento III mill. B.C. andhadcausedby thcdifferetiation (the split) of horno-geneousrnassof neolethicvillages,scttlemcntswith sorneprimitive featu-res of town, narnely: the compactbuilding, thc elementsof regularplan-ning, thewell-appointedhouse,sometimesthc defensivebuildings (the

392 . y. Kuzishchin

elementsof fortification) —for examplePolyochniat LemnosandFermiat Lesbos.In theMiddleandLatebronzeagesthe leadingrole in processof urbanizationliad becameCrete,wherewascreatedthe mostancientpa-lace-civilization.

The palace-complexof Knossos,Mallia, Zakros,Festoswith theadja-centquartersJu. Andreevhaddetermenedas the proto-town.The analo-gic formsof proto—townwereformedin BalcanicGreecein XIV-XII 1 cent.B.C.Howeversideby sidewith thesemoredevelopedurbanstructureshadexistedandmorearchaicstructures,which it is possible to’ determineasquasi-urbanor thc real villages.Ihe typeof thc aegeanproto-townwithpalace-complexas the centrewasconnectedverycloselywith palace-sta-tesof CreteandArchaeanGreeceandhadsharedits fate attheend II mill.B.C.

Otherwayof developmentof Aegeanurbanisationis possibleto seeinurbanstructuresatthe Cyclades.Probablybecauseof smallterritory of theislands,of irnportantrole of theseain life andproductionof peoplesat theCycladeshadnot risenthe Palace-ComplexesandPalace-States.Herethemaindevelopmenthadotherspaceorganisationof territory, wherea dcci-síverole liad not thepalace-cornplex,but compactlygrouppedpatriciasvi-lías and thesanctuaries(rather rememberingthe classicaltemenos)withdefinitetendencyto guarantingof cornmunalsecurityandwell-appointing.Fromtotal known nowadaysformsandtypesof Aegeanproto-cuty,un-derlinesJu. Andreev,perhaps,just the islandsettlemcntsinthe mostde-greeanswerthcideaaboutmoreancientimageof greekpolis.

In sccondmonographTite ponry of Mytit and tite proseof itistory Ju.Andreevanalyzesspeciallytheproblemof correlationbetweenthc infor-mationaboutthe realevents,thctracesof realhistoricalfacts andthepo-etic fantasy.In detail he analyzesthe meaningof five cyclesof rnythologi-cal stories:the cretancycle,the storiesaboutTroian war, thc mythsofOdisseosandargonautesandthe story aboutthe lossof mysteriousAtían-tide.The authorof monographdrawsaratherpessimisticconélusionabouttheinsignificanceof realhistoricaldatain the myth, rneta-phoricallycom-paringrealfactswith severalthrcadsinto thebigcarpetwovenby thefancyof author,includingthe story aboutTroian war. However.Ju. Andreevin-derlinesthatthe roleofMyth in scicntific histofical investigationis ratherbig. The Myth is ourguideandguide-bookjust now, but not in scarchofruinsonceperishedof palaceandcitadels,but in morecomplicatedanddif-ficult voyage in thelabyrinthsof Ancientreligiousandphilosophicsystems,permittedto look in themselveshiddenandrnisteriousdepthsof spirituallife of ancientpeoples.

Specialinvestigationof .Ju. Andreevwas devotedto.theinterpretationof the myth aboutDedaleandbis stayin Crete(1/DI, 1989 N 3), Tite Mi-noenDedale(in Russian).Heretheauthortracesthroughdetailedanaly-se of bigarchaeologicalandlinguisticaldata,thc transforrnationof themi-

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noengod the psygogetes,thetransferorof soul from the world of alivesinthe world of the deads(very analogicallatest Hermes)into thegreatar-chitectandengineer,thebuilderof Labyrinthandthecreatorof first flyingapparatus,fixed in classicalgreekrnythology.

Thecontinuationof the formerworksIu. Andreevis the his investiga-tion about«TheMinoan matriarchy»published1/DI 1992N 2 (in Russian).Theauthorproposeshis comprehensionof this peculiarhistoricalplieno-rnenain minoancivilisation.Thehighrole of womeninsocialandreligiouslife of CreteJu. Andreevexplainsas the defensivereactionof deeplyar-chaicsocialsystemto veryrapid developmentof societyfrom theprirniti-veconditionin thecivilization, wich was redoubledby thegreatearthqua-keshakedCretein XVIII-XVII cent. WC. In theseconditionsthe wornenas themoreconservativeand traditionalythinking part of creteansocietyas keepers of hearth-homeandthe chtoniccultshadplayeda part of thebreakingstrenghtfor theprogressivegoinginto theuncertaindevelopment.The stronginfluenceof minoanwomenliad permittedto controlethebe-haviourof their husbandsandbrothers,to restraintheir excessivepassion,the thirst of newsand the inclination to adventures.Iu. Andreevinclinesto considerthe minoanculture andsocietyin generalas «raffinierte Pri-mitivitat», determinessornehistoricaldamagingof minoanculturein total.

In presentsurvey it is properto mention the commonwork A. Mol-chanov,Y Nerosnakand5. Sharypkin,Tite remainsofmoreancientgreekwrighhng. An introducei~o mycenology.Moscow, 1988 (in Russian).Thiswork generalizestheexistingin sovietmycenologyinvestigations.‘¡‘he bo-ok consistof threeparts. 1— Object of mycenology,its origin anddeve-lopment (A. Molchanov), II— The languageof myceneaninscriptionsoflinear E (5.Sharypkin),III— Dictionaryof maincretean-rnyceneanvoca-bulary (y. Neroznak)andalsosupplement«MinoanLanguage:thepro-blemsandfacts»(A. Molchanov).Ihis bookis thegeneralizationof resultsof properinvestigationsof themselvesauthorsas the known specialistsofmycenologybut atthesametime it is thetextbookveryusefulfor students.

Someinterestof specialistshadcalledtheseveralpublicationsprof. L.Klein. Elsein 1986yearhe hadissuedoriginal investigationaboutthestruc-tureof Iliad «Ilion andTroia» (in Russian).l-Iowevertheproblemsof struc-tural analyseIliad veryactivelywasstudicdby L. Klein in lastyears,in par-ticular, hehadpublishedseriesof articlesnamely«I-Iomerictitíesof greeksandAncient Orient» (in Russian)in theJournal tite Nationsof Asia andAfrica, 1990 N 1, «Achaeansongsof ¡liad» (in Russian)in: Folk-lore andetitnographyProblemsof reconstructionoffactsoftite traditional cultureLeningrad,1990;Danaen«Iliads» (VDJ, 1990, N 1), «The rnostancientsongsof Iliad» (in Russian)(VDJ, 1992,N 2).

Using alí modernmethodesof linguistic analyze,carefullycornparingarchacological,historicalandfolklorical dataincludingthehettitetextstheauthorsupposesthatin thetotal textof lIjad it is possibleto distinguishthe

394 V. Kuzishc hin

threegroups namely:achacansongs,danaensongsandargivesongs.In hisopinionthesethreepartsdemostratethreemain sourcesof litad andthreeauthorsfor everytheseparts.Moreoverthe specialinvestigationof acha-eanpart Iliad (in article «Themostancientsongsof ¡liad», VDJ, 1992, N2) permitsto drawa conclusionthat itself achacan.part mayto divide intwo partsnamelya. collecting-achaeanandb. Achilí-achacansongs.Thespecialanalysedemostratesthat thefirst group(just 11-1V,VI-VII) is themostancientfrom total text of Iliad. Thisgroupof collecting-achaeansongsprobablyistheremainderof moreancienteposarisingto myceneantimesandwas includedin text of ¡liad in more latetime.

The naturalcontinuationof investigationsof myceneanandhornericproblemswereseveralmonograplisabout thearchaicperiod of ancientGreekhistory. Mere it is necesaryto mark the monographV. JailenkoAr-chaicGreeceand Near EastMoscow, 1990 (in Russian).DoctorY Jailen-ko was the authorof detailedessayaboutthe archaicGreecein surnrnarywork ÁncientGreece,Moscow,1983 (in Russian).In newmonograph,ho-wever,y. Jailenkostudiestheproblemof thegenesisof archaicsocietyfrornotherpoint of view, namely;from thepoint of interactionof forrning ar-chaic andNear-Easterncivilisations.The secondfeatureof author’s met-hod is the specialrogorismin the choiceof lis sources,and theemphasi-zedrigidity of method’sinvestigation.EstablishingtIc peculiarfragmentaryandcomplexityof sourcesaboutarchaicGreece,thestrongmodernisationabouttíesetimesby theauthorsIV cent.B.C. for example,Aristotle, notspeakingaboutmorelateauthors,Y Jailenkoanalysesrnainly tIc sourcesauthenticfor IX-VII cent. BC., namely: the archacologiccomplexiesoffhis time, tIc informationof Hesiodandthe first lyrists (Archilochos,So-Ion, Tyrteas).Even the dataof Theognis,which it’s seemquite had inclu-ded in archaictime, Y Jailenkodo not uses,becausein the corpusTheog-nis sideby sidewith theauthenticwork of Theogniswereincludedthetextof morelatetime (V-IV cent.B.C.). By the peculiarmanystratumandverybig deformationof the dataof ¡liad andOdysseyY Jailenkoalsoexcludesthernout of sphereof his sources.

Limiting himself, like that,out of tIc possibledeformationsandremi-niscencesin detail analisedthe selecteddataof sourcestheauthorinvestí-gatesin ¡ part of monograpíthe social-political institutsof early-ardhaicepodí.V. JailenkobeginstIc archaicepochnot from \flfl century,but XcenturyB.C. thatis frorn the cndof thedonenmigrations.Justin this timewas stabilizedthepopulationof BalcanicGreece,was confirmedthesimi-lar level of life, hadbegunthe formation of aristocraticgentes,becamestrongerthe independenceof oikos,were establishedthe foundationsofurbanlife, was begunaneolicandionic colonisationof westernpartof Mi-nor Asia.Espcciallyhg transformationsweretook placein greeksocietyjust in VIII centuryB.C., wich haddeterminedthe total consequentpecu-liarity ofpoleiscivilisation. iustabouttheendIX-beginningVIII cent.B.C.

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hadhappcncdthe «discovery»of Eastby theGreeks,the establishmentofnarrowtieswith nearesternculturalworld. Theseclose ties liad resultedto the loaningby the Greeksthe manyarchievemcntsof near-easterncívi-lisation in the sphereof technology,arts,religion, customsand language.The creativeremakingof thesearchievrnenthadbeenthe powerstimulusfor becomingof thc properclassicalcultures.

Fromthepointof view Y Jailenkothccreativeimpulsesgot by Greeksfrom NearEasthadpermittedto overcomethat blind-alleyway, on wichgrcek cultureof theDark Ages liad posed,beingbasedonly on myceneanor doreanlegacyandwich was realisedin thc materialsof geornetricstyle.

Out of otherworksof archaicgreekhistory it is possibleto namemo-nograph1. ShtalEpic tegendsofAncientGreece:geratomacitia. Tite arpe-rimennof nypological¿mdgenrereconstruction,Moscow, 1989 (in Russian)andthe monographA. DovatourTiteognisandhis time,Leningrad,1989.1. Shtal is known specialistof homericeposin herrnonographhadthcspe-cial investigationthe story aboutthebattleof pygmieswith the cranesinGeranomacitiaas thehistoricalsourceandtriesto determinethe degreeofreality of theeventrepresentedin it. By theresultsof thisanalysetheaut-hor makesthe paradoxalconclusion.It is turnedout, that thepygmiesofpoernwerethe nationnot lcgendarybut real, to opinionof 1. Shtalpopu-lating «thesignificantterritory in the limits of ancientoikumeneandpro-bablybeyondit», in particular,theterrirory of Skytitieandevenin nextpro-xirnaty to the Greecenamely in CarieandPhrygia.Accordingto 1. Shtal,the pygmieshad lived in regionstilí to VII cent. B.C. andin realty werefoughtwith thc cranesandwerebanishedby thecraniesfromscythianandminor-asianterritories.The realpygmiesnot werethesuchcaricaturemons-tersastheywererepresentedin theeposandin the vase-painting,but wc-re the rathernormalpeoples,only of smallstature.The pygmicshashadtheirmythsandeposesreachcdto thegreekauthorsandthetransferredinforni of analysedpoernGeranomachiawich 1. Shtalattributes,if not thesa-me Horner,to bis circle andshedatesVII cent. B.C. And thoughthecon-ccpt of 1. Shtalhadthecriticism (thereviewM. Gasparov,1/DI, 1991,N 2)the paradoxalconclusionsof 1. Shtalattractstheattentionto her mono-graph.

Moretraditionalandquict characterhastheconceptionof onepatriarchof sovietscienceof Antiquity dic lateprofessorof Leningrad(now Saint-Petersbourg’s)university Aristide Dovatur (1897-1982)by title Titeognisand itis time,Leningrad,1990 (in Russian).Themonographof A. Dovaturis thernost completeinvestigationof worksof suchcomplicatedauthorasTheognis.The detailedstudyof corpusTheognispermitsto makethecon-clusion:thecorpusbelongsreally to poetTheognis,the life of poetwasda-ted about550-490(480). ‘¡‘he contentsof elegiesreflects really the insidelife in Megara(there is the spccialchapteraboutit), but from the extre-mely subjectivepositions.Thesepositionswcre determinedas very con-

396 y. Kuzishchin

servative,strietlyaristocratic.Thcognisdid not wantto approvethe parti-cipationin governmentnot only the demo~,but eventhe uppersof demos,sotospeakthc newclite in distinctionfrom theauthorof Pscudo-Xenop-honpoliteia. Theimportantconclusionof A. Dovatur,thatthedataof ele-giesdo not perrnit to státeaboutrealty of citizen war in Megaraand thcparticipationof Iheognisin it. The datahavingin othersourcesaboutci-tizenconflictsinMegarabelongto othcr times,but not to time of Theog-nis. In supplementof monographis therethe transíationof the first, themain bookof Theogniscorpus,wichjust is consideredas themodelof aris-tocraticmoralin paganantiquity.

Elseonediscusscdproblemin archaicGreecewasstudiedin rnonograpliL. ShrnudPyragorasandhisscitool, Leningrad,1990 (in Russian).As it iswell known,thePhytagoreanquestionis very complicatedandmisteriousandpracticallydo not exist the commonbalanceof positions.L. Shmudproposeshis conceptionof phytagoreanproblem.In monographwerein-vestigatedthebiographyof Phytagoras,thecharacterof Phytagoreanscho-ol, the interrelationsbetweentheprofessorandschool.Themain attentionof authoris concentratedon theanalyscof scicntific studiesof PhytagorasandPhytagoreans,in particular,by mathematics,acoustics,harrnony,as-tronomy, medicineandbiology. In this analyzcL. Shmuddeterminesthccorrelationof mythologicallcgacyandtheeastern(especiallybabylonean)influencesand the investmentof Phytagorasand the Phytagorcansin ge-nesisof greekscience.Speciallytheauthorstudiesthe philosophicbasisofphytagoreanscience.He statesthat the scientific studiesof thePhytago-reanliad not arisenfrorn greekmythology andthe samesciencewasnotthe successiverationalizationof greekrnyths.Fromauthor’spoint of vicwin IV cent.B.C. therationalisticideasbasingon the practicexperiencesandempiricnotionwereconfirmedin placeof theformermythologicalnotions,but did not grown up out of them.Justso it is necessaryto perceivethere-volutionary roleof scientific studiesof Phytagorasandthe Phytagoreans.And if in theirsjudgementsandthetheseswereincludedthesomeelementsof the traditionalandrnythologicalnotionsthis doesnot confirm thethe-sis thatthe total contestsof phythagoreanscienceandphilosophyfollowsfrom tradition andmythology. Other importantconclusionof rnonograph:the pythagoreanschoolwasspecificreligiouscommunityof private typewithout somecult andit is not hinder the scientific studies but on the con-trary hadcreatedthercligious motivationto them. In soviet literaturethemonographof Shrnudis morecompleteinvestigationof complicatedanddiscussedpythagoreanquestion.Thebookof professorE. Frolov Tite torchof Prometiteus.Tite essaysof ancientsocial titrougitt, Leningrad,1991 (inRussian),analysesthe origin anddevelopmentof greeksocial thought(mainly the political thought)fromhomerietimestilí to Aristotle.Themo-nographconsistof two parts.¡nl part is studiedthegenesisof political ide-ology VIII-V cent. B.C. that is in the timesof formation and prosperity of

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sovereignpolises.In II partis investigatedthesocialthoughtin theperiodof crisesof independentpolisesendingby the establishmentof macedone-anhegemonyin Greece.

The main achievementof greeksocialthoughtof VIII-V cent.B.C. E.Frolov statesin tlie creationof rationaldoctrineof the stateandlaw. Theauthortracesthestagesof this doctrinefrom theseparateopinionsof Ho-merthroughseveralideasof Hesiodandearlylyrics, throughthe first so-ciological generalizationof Heraclitos,separateformulation of politicaltheoryof 1-lerodotosto the moresystematicanddeepnotionsof Thucydi-des.Sornecompletionthe conceptionof the stateandlaw liad receivedinthe works of sophists,wich liad studiedthe such important aspectsof so-cial life as theorigin of statcandlaw (the theoryof socialtreaty),thedivi-sion of powersby thenatureandby the law, the conceptionof naturallaw,andsoon.

Thetimeof endV andthebeginningof IV cent.B.C. was beenthe tur-ning point. The sovereignpolis hadenteredin the confusionandthis cri-seswasbeenthe strong stimulus for thedevelopmentof socialthought,wich liad tryed to proposethe solutionof ilí social problernsE. Frolov at-tachesthe big importancein its developmentthc activity of Socrates.So-crateswas the first thinker who liad proposedto resolvethe complicatedsocialproblcrnsnot from point of view of cornmunitybut just from pointof view of interestsof person.Theathenianthinker hadseenthe

singleway for the renovationof ilí greeksociety in the intimate trans-formationandtheperfectionof person.

The IV cent.B.C. the greeksocial thoughtunderthe influenceof So-cratesandbis schoolhadproposedseveralthcoreticalconceptionsof trans-formationof society (in particularby PlatoandAristotle). In the opinionof E. Frolov theproposedmodelsof socialtransformation,includingsornesocialistconceptions,werebasedon the vich philosophicalandtheorcticalground andwere actualnor only for thcir timesbut alsofor more lateti-mes tilí to roman andeventhe moderntimes.Very interestingconclusionof the monographin thc sorneproximity betweenthe sornethesesof So-cratesand the more latephilosophyof stoicirn andevenof earlycliristia-n ity.

Oneout of directionsof socialthought in IV cent.B.C. was theemer-genceof utopianprojectsof thccreationof happysociety in comediesAris-toplianes,in worksof Xenophontos,of PlatoandAristotle.

Howeverif in the book of E. Frolov the analyzeof utopianthoughtislirnited only IV ccnt. B.C. in the monographof Y Gutorov,AncientSocialUtopia, Leningrad,1989 (in Russian)the invcstigationsof utopiancon-ceptionswas conductedin the fulí volumeincluding the hellenisticandro-manepoclis.

The manyproblemsof coexistanceof two greatpolitical powerof Vcent.H.C. — PeloponnesianLeagueandAthcnianEmpireweretheobject

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of monographV. StrogetzkyTitePolis andEmpirein ClassicalGreece,Niz-ney Novgorod, 1991 (in Russian).Prof. V. Strogetzkyinvestigatestheori-gin, the formation andthc concretehistory of the resistanceof thesepo-wers in the periodpentekotaetie,that is from 480to 431 yearsWC. Iheauthor distinquishesthreestagesof thishistory: 1) 478-462;2) 462-445;3)445-431B.C. The main featureof this work is this investigationof foreignpolicy of SpartaandAthcnstogetherwith the evolutionof insidestructu-re as spartanas atheniansocieties.

In the monographis tracedtlie origin of tendencicsto the unificationbetweengreek polises,realizedintwo mainforms: 1) in form of Pelopon-nesianLeagueand2) in forrn united AthenianEmpire.V. Strogetzkyliaddemonstratedthat in SpartanLcaguehadbeenconfirmingtheconservati-ve-oligarchicorientationandthe traditionsof polis ideology,but in Athe-manEmpirewith morehigh level of integrationupto the creationof uni-tedstatehadbeenconfirmingthe radical-dernocraticelementswith empirepolitical ideas.

Fiercefighting of thesepolitical doctrineshadconductedto the mostdestructivewar —Peloponnesianwar in wicli this oppositionliad thehig-hestmanifestation.At the sametime Peloponnesianwar liad dernonstra-ted that the polisorganisationwasenoughstablcandon thecontrarythetimeof existanceof thecentralizedterritorial unionsof typeAthenianEm-pire doesnot come.

Thehistory of hellenisticperiodwas theobjectof studicsof severalmo-nograph.Among themthe importantplacehasthe collectivemonographpublishedby thegroupof the knownsovietspecialists,TiteHellenism. TiteEconomy,tite Politics, tite Culture, Moscow,1990(in Russian).In thebookthereis sornegencralizationof the resultsin the invcstigationsof hellenis-tic civilization in soviet historiography1980 years.The structureof thiswork in following: Hellenism: to tite discussionsaboutessence(the author—G. Koshelcnco);Tite itistoricalgroundofhellenism(E. Frolov); Tite ide-ologicaipreparationofHellenism (Y Isaeva);AlexanderMacedonianandtite genesisof Hellenism (L. Marinovich); Greecein itellenisticperiod (G.Koshelenco);Hellenistic Rodos(¿¡u. Gorlov); Delos II cent. B.C. (O. Lo-pukhova);Olbia and Bosporusiii hellenisíicperiod(V. Jalenko);Tite for-mation of territorical Kitersonesianstate(Ju. VinogradovandA. Shche-glov). In the rnonographthe liellenistic history was investigatedin twodirection:on oneside,the authorsstudythe samenotion «Hellenisrn»,thcessenceof «Hellenism»as the universalnotion but on othersideby theexamplesof concretehellenisticsocieties(BalcanicGreece,Rodos,OcIos,Bosporus,Khersonesos)haddefinedtheconcreteforrnsof interactionandsynteseof the economical,social, political andcultural structuresof cías-sical GreeceandancicntOrient, includedin unitedhellenisticoikumene.

Thepolitical historyof BalcanichellenisticGreece,inparticularenoughpopularandvery discussedproblemof ancientfederationwas the object

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of the investigationin two monograph5. Sisov,AcitaeanLeague.Tite itis-tory ofancientgreekfederalstate(281-221B.C.), Moscow, 1989 (in Rus-sian) andFederalsnateof hellenisticperiod. Aetolian League,Nizny Nov-gorod, 1990 (in Russian).In iheseworkswere tracednot only theorigin,formation,existanceand the dismissalof two thc biggestunionsof helle-nisticGreecebut was investigatedtlie moregeneralproblemof theessen-ceandfate of greekfederalismin general.Author supposesthat theinte-gration of polisesand its inclusion in the territorial unions were theinevitableconsequancesof crisesof city-statestructures.Howeverif in he-llenistic Orientthc suchunion of poliseswasrealizedundermonarchicpo-wer, in BalcanicGreecethe integrationof city-statcsliad the form of re-publicanfederation.The federaltendencies—underlinesauthor—wasthevery importanteventin political life of GreeceIII cent.B.C. The stableexistanceof AcheanandActolian Leaguesin III cent. B.C. was beentherealizationandsuccessfulbalanceof oppositeprincipIes—thetendenciesto sovereigntyof city-stateandto their unification in the disturbingsitua-tions III cent. B.C. This foundcomprorniseof suchcontrarypolitical ten-denciesin form of federalunion was beenthe archievmentof politicalthoughtof Greeceandin future in rornanandmodcrntimeshadreceivedmoredecpinvestigationandrealisation.

Ihe history andcultureof easternhellenisticregionswereconsacratedtwo monographs5. Novikov, Southern-westernIran in ancienttime,Mos-cow, 1989 (in Russian)and.1. Pichikjan, Tite cultureofBactria. Achamenidandhellenisticperiods,Moscow,1991 (in Russian).5. Novikov studiesthehistory of southern-westernIran during 5 centuries(frorn 331 B.C. to 224A.D.) including: the characterof ancientwrighting tradition, the urbanstructure,social-economícrelationsand the classicalslaveryin the citiesandin citora, the featuresof political evolution,thevillagesandscttlements.The specialattcntion attachesthe interactionof greekand local elementsin diversspheresof life, thccontactsof settledpopulationandthenomads.Analyzing the history of south-westernIran duringfive centuries,authorhaddefinedtwo periods:hellenistic (Selcucid)andposthellenistic(Part-hian). In Seleucidperiod it is possibleto observethe combinationof gre-ek andlocalelernentsin social-economicalrelationsandpolitical instituts,but in parthiantimestherole of greekelementsin thesesphereswas beenvery little. Theothersituationwastracedin sphereof cultureandideology.To theopinion’s authorin sphereof culturein seleucidtirne thecombina-tion of greek andlocal elementshadnot becomebecausetlie greekpoliseshadresistedto this combination.And only after destructionof greekpoli-ses in parthiantimesis begunthe real combinationof synthesingof grcekand local elementsin diversspheresof culture.

The fundamentalmonographof J. Pichikjan is studiedthehistory andcultureof oneout of misteriousregionof centralAsia-Bactria(tilí nowwasusedthespecificterm «bactrianrnirage»).

400 y. Kuzishchin

Collectedby authorenoughbig dataof newsourcespermitsto recons-truct therealpictureof bactriansocietyandculture,thecharacterof inte-ractionsof Bactriawith westernIran and easternMediterranean,to reve-al the peculiarity of developmentBactria in achemenidand hellenisticperiods.The main attentionof.authorhadreferredto the analyzeof dis-cussedproblemandinterpretationof threebig discoveries:Arnu-Oariatre-asure,the templeOx at Thakhti Sangin(southTadgikistan)and theruinsof greek city Aj Khanum(nothernAfgranistan). ‘¡‘he study liad demons-tratedthat in cultureof achernenidandhellenisticBactriahadexistedthestablesuccessionandeventhe intentionalcopyingof achemenidtraditionsin hellenistictime as in the political organisationas in architecture.Thestateorganisationof Bactriawas the diminishedcopy of political organi-sationof Achemenidempire.Theextremecentralizationof powerhadde-terminedthepeculiarfeaturesof its culture:theproclaiming,thecanoning,thestandartsymbolisrn,andthe elitarity. AII thesefeatureswerereprodu-cedin theerninentcultural monumentsof hellenisticBactria.

Owing to studyof new dataBactriawasbeenthe very interestingandenoughinvestigatedregionin the enormousterritory of hellenisticOrient.Nowadaysit is possibleto statethat former «greek-bactrianmirage»haddissipated.Thestimulusfor developmentof hellenisticartsandculturewe-re: the forcedorganisatioríof greekdomination,thefounding of newpoli-sesand fortresses,the regularcontactswith greek cities of easternMedi-terranean,the greekcolonisationof Bactria.

The formationof architecturalandartistic eastern-hellenistickoineonthe enormousterritory of central Asia stimulatedthe developmentof artsandthe prosperityof local school.In 111-II cent. B.C. theethnic,religiousandcultural traditionsof GreeksandBactriansliad mixed in theunitedandpeculiargreek-bactrianphenomen.

In nexttwo essaysis supposedtodo thesurveyof sovietinvestigations:1) in sphereof ancientRomanhistory; 2) in sphereof ancienthistory ofEasternandNothernCoastsof Black.

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