scientific process
DESCRIPTION
Scientific Process. Observation of phenomenon Pose a question Tentative explanation of phenomenon (hypothesis is a testable explanation; >1 multiple hypotheses) Design experiment (controls, dependent and independent variables). Major Features. Observation: uses senses/tools - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
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Scientific Process
1. Observation of phenomenon
2. Pose a question
3. Tentative explanation of phenomenon
(hypothesis is a testable explanation; >1 multiple hypotheses)
4. Design experiment (controls, dependent and independent variables)
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Major Features
Observation: uses senses/tools
Hypothesis: testable explanation
Theory: supported with extensive data
Law: general statement explaining observation, holds true for all tests
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Scientific Process
5. Collect data (qualitative and quantitative)
6. Analyze data (interpretation-does it make sense)
7. Report findings (is hypothesis correct?)
8. Peer reviewed/Challenge
9. Publish results (communication is essential)
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Assumptions/Advantages
*Assumes natural phenomena can be explained through careful observation and experimentation
*Theories and Laws are NEVER proven correct*As our observations improve, theories and laws
may no longer be valid. The scientific method incorporates new information.
* Nonjudgmental-not good or bad
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Amalgamation Mining in South America Basic Statistics
•Hg Released in Amazonia– 100-200 tons/year during past
20-70 yrs. (Pfeiffer et al, 1993; Malm, 1998)
– 2000-3000 tons total during current gold rush (Malm, 1998)
• Number of Gold Miners in South America– 543,000 - 1,039,000 (Veiga,
1997)
• In Brazil– 200,000 - 400,000 (Malm,
1998)– 650,000 in 1993 (Jernelov &
Ramel, 1994)– 1,600,000 – Peak mining
(Pfeiffer and Lacerda, 1988)
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Evidence for Significant Environmental Impacts of Amalgamation Mining
• Physically watch Hg being released to the water and atmosphere; 65 % to 83 % atmospheric;– Hg in soils exhibited an Hg gradient, with the highest values
adjacent to gold refining shops
• In comparison to other environments, high Hg values in fish, water, sediments, and soils– High Hg values measured at sites 100-150 km downstream of
mining operations– Sediment cores in floodplains and floodplain lakes suggested
increases concentrations of Hg recent years
• Elevated levels of Hg in human hair and urine
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0 100km
Porto Velho
Manaus
Rio SolimoesRio Amazonas
Humaita
Manicore
Borba
Rio
Aripuana
RioJamari
M1
M8
Amalgamation Mining
Rio
Madeira
M6
RioNegros
MF4
South America
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Regional Geochemical Trends along the Madeira River, Brazil
(Investigators)
• Paul J. Lechler, Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology
• Drude de Lacerda, University of Fluminense, Nitero, Brazil
• Jerry R. Miller, Western Carolina University
• W. Berry Lyons, The Ohio State University
• John J. Warwick, University of Florida
• Jean-Claude Bonzongo, University of Florida
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0 100km
Porto Velho
Manaus
Rio SolimoesRio Amazonas
Humaita
Manicore
Borba
Rio
Aripuana
RioJamari
M1
M8
Amalgamation Mining
Rio
Madeira
M6
RioNegros
MF4
South America
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0 100km
Porto Velho
Manaus
Rio SolimoesRio Amazonas
Humaita
Manicore
Borba
Rio
Aripuana
RioJamari
M1
M8
Amalgamation Mining
Rio
Madeira
M6
RioNegros
MF4
South America
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Primary Sources of Hg in Tropical Regions of South America
• Hg Amalgamation Mining– Modern (~100-120 tons/yr in Brazil in 1980s & 90s)
– Historic Stocks (196,000 tons from 1545 to 1900 in South and Central America)
• Release of Hg during biomass burning.• Naturally high concentrations of Hg in soils and
alluvial deposits – Hg sequestered in Lateritic soils is released during
erosion of deforested terrain.
After Roulet et al. 1995, 1998, 1999; Malm, 1998; Nriagu, 1994
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Venezula
AtlanticOcean
Suriname
EssequiboRiver
Puruni River
MazaruniRiver
0100 100
Miles
Sample Site
Issano
Omai
GeorgeTownBartica
PataroRiver
KanawarukRiver
Guyana
Guyana
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Hg Concentrations in Fish of the Potaro River
• 57 % of carnivorous fish exceeded the WHO consumption level of 0.5 ppm.– Mean concentration for some species exceeded 1 ppm.
– Highest Hg concentration was 3.771 ppm.
• 0 % of non-carnivorous fish exceeded the WHO consumption level of 0.5 ppm.
Data from: An Orientation Survey conducted by GGMC in cooperation withGEPA, UG, Fisheries and Oceans Canada & CANMET
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Venezula
AtlanticOcean
Suriname
EssequiboRiver
Puruni River
MazaruniRiver
0100 100
Miles
Sample Site
Issano
Omai
GeorgeTownBartica
PataroRiver
KanawarukRiver
Guyana
Guyana
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Venezula
AtlanticOcean
Suriname
EssequiboRiver
Puruni River
MazaruniRiver
0100 100
Miles
Sample Site
Issano
Omai
GeorgeTownBartica
PataroRiver
KanawarukRiver
Guyana
Guyana
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Downstream Trends in Hg concentration(Mazaruni River - Channel Samples)
0.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
0 100 200 300 400
Distance Upstream from Bartica (km)
Hg
(u
g/g
)
CuyuniTakutu
KurupuraIssano
Puruni R.
Flow Direction
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Downstream Trends in Hg Concentration(Essequibo River)
0.000
0.050
0.100
0.150
0.200
0.250
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Distance Upstream from Bartica (km)
Hg
(u
g/g
)
Channel Floodplain
Omai
Potaro Kanawaruk
Flow Direction
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Depositional Unit Comparsion Mazaruni River
0.077 0.0860.0560.049
0.121
0
0.04
0.08
0.12
0.16
Hg
(p
pm
)
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Histogram of Sample ConcentrationsChannel & Sand Bar Samples
4
0
41 1
9
15
0
5
10
15
20
0-40 40-80 80-120 120-160 160-200 200-250 >250
Hg Range (ppb)
Nu
mb
er o
f S
amp
les
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Evidence for Measurable Anthropogenic Hg
• Hg Levels exceeding “Background” data in channel bed, recent floodplain, and mud flat deposits;
• Decreases in Hg concentration with depth (time) in 3 of the 4 cores collected;
• Increases in Hg downstream of tributaries with significant mining activity.
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Anthropogenic Sources of Hg in the River Systems
Mining Inputs
River Water, Sediments,Biota
Indirect• Hydraulic Mining
• Deforestation
•Release of Elemental• Hg to River Waters
• Amalgam “Burning”
Direct
Other Sources
Atmospheric
•Biomass Burning
Deforestation & Soil Erosion
•Logging
•Agriculture
•Road Construction