Scientific Writing

All scientists are faced with the pressure to publish!

Why publish?

• Share ideas and results• Leave a record of research to which others can add• Receive due recognition• Attract interest and funding• Receive expert feedback• Legitimize research; receive independent verification

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Why is it difficult to publish?

Not all research is sufficiently novel Experiments do not always work: positive results are

easier to publish Scientific journals have specific requirements which are

often difficult to meet Communicating your ideas can open you up to criticism

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No one correct way to write; however

CLARITY IS EVERYTHING

Writing should be concise (express yourself in as few words as possible while still being clear and succinct) and precise (accurate, not ambiguous).

Avoid informal language, metaphors

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Jargon

Know your audience; if very broad, avoid jargon

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Abbreviations and Acronyms

Do not begin a sentence with an abbreviation

Do not fill a paper with abbreviations and acronyms, overuse of these makes reading and comprehension difficult.

A few relevant terms are acceptable.

Define all abbreviations/acronyms at first use, e.g.Analysis of variance (ANOVA)

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Unit abbreviations

Always have a space between a number and the abbreviated unit:100 mM, 15 μmol.ml-1, 2.5 min

Exceptions: percentage and degrees:25%, 37°C

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Tenses:

Past tense: Use in the methods (telling what you did) andthe results results (telling what your results were)Also use in the discussion of your results

Present tense: Most of the introduction should be in the present tense

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What is a peer reviewed article:

The first printed report of a scientist’s research

It is written following a standard format of introduction, methods, results and discussion

Published in a journal that evaluates manuscripts

Printed in a format that will be available to other researchers

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When is it time to write?

As a scientist, you should be writing all the time!

When is it time to publish?

• You have valid results

• Your findings will improve knowledge

• The work has not been published already.

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How to get started.

• Get all papers and data together

• Get in the right frame of mind, remove distracts

• Have an open day

• Make a start!

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Making a start:

Write a Synopsis of the Paper:

Questions

Hypothesis / Aims

Observations / Main results

Integration with published work

Conclusions

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The conventional structure of a research article in science – AIMRaD

AbstractIntroductionMethods and MaterialsResultsDiscussion

Always check INSTRUCTIONS to AUTHORS before starting.

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AIMRaD: hour glass “shape” of a generic research article

Abstract

B Introduction (1)

(2)

(3)

C Methods

A Results

D Discussion

A. The whole structure is governed by the results; everything in the article must relate and be connected with the data.

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AIMRaD: hour glass “shape” of a generic research article

Abstract

B Introduction (1)

(2)

(3)

C Methods

A Results

D Discussion

B.(1) The introduction begins with a broad focus. Your starting point should be one that attracts the interest of your audience.

B.(3) The introduction ends with a focus parallel to the results; often a statement of the aim(s) or purpose of the work.

B.(2) Between these points, background information and previous work are woven together to connect with the problem addressed in the paper.

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AIMRaD: hour glass “shape” of a generic research article

Abstract

B Introduction (1)

(2)

(3)

C Methods

A Results

D Discussion

C. The methods section establishes credibility for the results by showing how they were obtained; allows the experiments to be reproduced.

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AIMRaD: hour glass “shape” of a generic research article

Abstract

B Introduction (1)

(2)

(3)

C Methods

A Results

D Discussion

D. The Discussion begins with the same breadth of focus as the results; but ends more broadly (as the starting point in the introduction). At the end, you are showing how your work is important in the “bigger picture”.

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Results: The key driver of an article

The Results turn the data into knowledge

The data illustrates your scientific story, presenting the evidence to either support or reject the hypothesis

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Results: The key driver of an article

When preparing a paper, first identify from your results a clearly connected story leading to your “take home” messages.

Focus on your figures and tables first. Write a list of one or two points highlighting the message of the data.

Sort the figures and tables into the best order to connect the story together

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Results: The key driver of an article

Then consider:What data to include/exclude.The important points that form the storyWhat is the take home message

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RESULTS

NB: Tables and Figures should stand alone!

The reader should not need to consult the text of the article to understand the data presented in the table or figure.

All necessary information should appear in the table/figure legend or footnotes.

Show stats in the legend.

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What is better, a table or a figure?

Tables are useful for:

• Recording data

• Showing actual data values and their precision

• Allowing multiple comparisons between elements in many directions

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What is better, a table or a figure?

Figures are useful for:

• Showing an overall trend

• Comprehension of a story through shape rather than numbers

• Allowing simple comparisons between a few elements

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Figure legends and table titles

Should explain what the data being presented are,and highlight the key points as they relate to the main story.

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Figure legends have a general form of 5 parts:

1. A title, summarizes what the figure is about.2. Details of the results shown.3. Additional explanation of components of the figure,

methods used (don’t describe the experiment).4. Description of units and statistical notation.5. Explanation of symbols or notation used.

Tables will have a title, and only brief parts of point 2 and 3.

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Writing the first draft

• Focus on getting ideas onto paper (just write)[don’t worry about grammar at this stage, if you try and write and edit at the same time, neither get done well]

• Use the outline and write the easiest sections first.

• Try and write without distractions[ have short breaks, and keep at it!]

• Cite references in the text as you write

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Revise Manuscript

Once a draft is complete, put it aside for a day or two, and then revise.

1. Go through paper and check that it reads logically and clearly

2. Correct grammar and spelling (use the spell check!)3. Condense information4. Remove superfluous words; check your word choice

Has a complex word been used where a more appropriate simple word could have been usedHave meaningless qualifiers been used e.g. rather small, very…

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References:

Make sure all cited references are relevant

Either use author or numerical systemCheck instructions on referencingCitations -Author: reference list in alphabetical order

e.g. (Jones & Bulani, 2009)e.g. (Khumalo et al., 2010)

Number: Number in order that the reference first appears in the text

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The Title

Many people will read the title in search engines, in a journal, and in secondary publications.[If not worded correctly, many will stop reading at that point]

Your paper may not reach its audience if the title is not to the point

Aim for a clear, concise, informative title.

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The Abstract

An abstract is a mini version of your paper and it is often preferable to write it towards the end.

After the title , it is the next port of call for an interested reader.

A few sentences of introduction, methods, results and discussion.

It should not contain literature citations, much data or meaning clauses (We discuss results…)

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Co-authorships

Who was involvedWho had the ideasSenior authorship?

Acknowledgements

Expert technical assistanceFunding agencies

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Before Submitting

Get feedback from a peer and a proof-reader from outside the field.

Ask the following:Does it read easilyDoes it tell a logical storyIs the punctuation correctAre all cited references in the reference listIs the format consistent throughout

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Developing scientific writing skills;

Journal clubsreading, critical discussion

Writing feedback from colleagues

Practice, practice…………………………………

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Practises of successful authors

1. Review manuscripts for colleagues and journals(they develop a framework for research writing and critique)

2. Plan their research to meet quality criteria.

3. Use structured review processes from colleagues to improve manuscripts.

4. Use referee reports to improve their manuscripts.