Scientific WritingDr. Catherine Haase, Montana State University

Science Writing•Research question

•Hypothesis

•Introduction

•Lit Synthesis

•Methods

•Data analysis

•Discussion

•Citation

What is the point of the study?Are there spatial or temporal differences in variable Y?

What is the effect of factor X on variable Y?

Are the measurements of variable Y consistent with the predictions of hypothesis H?

Using measurements of variable Y, what is the best estimate of parameter P in model Z?

Goals and Objectives• A goal is an overarching principle that guides decision making.

• Objectives are specific, measurable steps that can be taken to meet the goal.

A common way of describing goals and objectives is to say that :

Goals are broad Objectives are narrow

Goals are general intentions Objectives are precise

Goals are intangible Objectives are tangible.

Goals are abstract Objectives are concrete.

Goals are generally difficult to measure Objectives are measurable

Framing a Quality Goal1. Do not write a vague goal

2. The goal should be in line with the problem statement

3. Use simple language to write a goal: Avoid jargon and technical terms

4. Keep only one goal for a proposal: As the goal is a broad statement it will surely encompass multiple things which would be addressed through the various objectives.

Framing Quality Objectives1. While framing the objectives ensure that they provide answers to the 5Ws:

1. Why: are you proposing a particular thing?2. What: approach will you adopt to reach the desired goal?3. When: will you conduct the particular project?4. Where: will you implement the project?5. Who: will be the primary stakeholders? or who will be doing the project?

2. Objectives should support the goal.

3. Objectives should follow a logical order.

4. Use action verbs while drafting objectives.

5. Keep 3-4 objectives.

6. Frame SMART objectives.

SMART Objectives

Reflection ExerciseTake 15 minutes to draft one goal and 2-3 objectives for your research.

Writing an Introduction• Convince your audience that you are answering an

important question and providing unique insights of information on an important aspect of science

• Include a brief background about research topic

• Rationale for undertaking this study

• Key references to preliminary work or closely related papers

• Clarification of terms, definitions, or abbreviations

• Review of pertinent literature

Introduction StructureStart broadly and narrow until you reach your hypothesis

• Begin by stating your area of research and then show what is already known

• Then move on to what is unknown, or the gaps in knowledge in this field

• Lastly, describe how you will resolve this gap in knowledge with your study – introducing your research questions, hypotheses, and predictions

Reflection ExerciseSpend 15 minutes creating your “triangle”

- What is known about your research problem?

- What is the GAP in knowledge?

- What are some ways you can fill that gap?

Break into groups and discuss your answers.

What is a Hypothesis?“Hypotheses are single tentative guesses, good hunches –assumed for use in devising theory or planning experiments intended to be given a direct experimental test when possible.” (Rogers, 1966)

“A statement of the relation between two or more variables.” (Kerlinger, 1956)

“Hypothesis is a formal statement that presents the expected relationship between an independent and dependent variable.”(Creswell, 1994)

“A hypothesis can be defined as a tentative explanation of the research problem, a possible outcome of the research, or an educated guess about the research outcome.” (Sarantakos, 1993: 1991)

“An hypothesis is a statement or explanation that is suggested by knowledge or observation but has not, yet, been proved or disproved.” (Clark & Hockey)

Scientific Hypotheses• The hypothesis is a clear statement of what is

intended to be investigated.

• A problem cannot be scientifically solved unless it is reduced to hypothesis form.

• Hypotheses are NOT opinions or predictions; they are reasonable expectations based on factual information.

Criteria of a proper hypothesis• It can be tested –verifiable or falsifiable

• Hypotheses are not moral or ethical questions

• It is neither too specific nor to general

• It is considered valuable even if proven false

Example: DandelionsObservation: Dandelions growing in fertilized agricultural plots appear to grow larger leaves than those in untreated fields.

Research question: Where do dandelion leaves grow larger, in fertilized or unfertilized fields?

Hypothesis: Nitrogen enrichment causes dandelions to grow larger leaves.

Prediction: Dandelions in agricultural plots will grow larger leaves than those in untreated fields.

Scientific vs. Statistical Hypotheses• Scientific hypotheses are testable and falsifiable

proposed explanations to account for observed patterns or trends

• Statistical “hypotheses” are statements about whether or not a pattern or trend or difference is present in your data

Statistical HypothesisNULL HYPOTHESES (H0)

Represents a theory that has been put forward, either because it is believed to be true or because it is to be used as a basis for argument, but has not been proven

ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESES (HA)

A statement of what a hypothesis test is set up to establish◦ Opposite of Null Hypothesis

◦ Only reached if H0 is rejected◦ Frequently “alternative” is actually what the researchers believe will happen

Example: DandelionsObservation: Dandelions growing in fertilized agricultural plots appear to grow larger leaves than those in untreated fields.

Research question: Where do dandelion leaves grow larger, in fertilized or unfertilized fields?

H0: The application of nitrogen to agricultural plots has no effect on the size of dandelion leaves.

HA: The dandelion leaves in agricultural fields that are treated with nitrogen are significantly larger than those in untreated fields.

Reflection ExerciseDevelop your own hypothesis:

Based on your research questions, develop a general hypothesis statement for your own research

Next, take it a step further by developing null and alternative hypotheses for your research

Based on your hypothesis, form a prediction for what you think the outcome of your work might be

Break up into small groups and share your hypotheses and predictions with one another

Peer-reviewed Literature

What is peer-reviewed literature?• Peer review is the process used by publishers and

editors of academic / scholarly journals to ensure that the articles they publish meet the accepted standards of their discipline

• Manuscripts are sent to independent experts in the same field to evaluate:

• Quality of the scholarship

• Reliability of findings

• Relevance to the field

• Appropriateness for the journal

Three categories of information:1. Newspapers and magazines: written by reporters who may or may not be

experts in the field of the article; articles may contain incorrect information.

2. Journals containing articles written by academics and/or professionals: although the articles are written by “experts,” any particular “expert” may have some ideas that are really “out there!”

3. Peer-reviewed (refereed or scholarly) journals: written by experts and are reviewed by several other experts in the field before the article is published in the journal in order to insure the article’s quality. (The article is more likely to be scientifically valid, reach reasonable conclusions, etc.)

Is an article is peer-reviewed?You can determine if an article is peer-reviewed by:

1. Limiting database search to peer-reviewed journals only

2. Examine the publication to see if it is peer-reviewed

3. Examine the article to see if it is peer-reviewed

Free Access Resources to Find Literature

Tips for effective searchingBoolean operators

AND = retrieves articles that include both keywords

OR = retrieves articles that includes one keyword or another

NOT = filters out concepts that you don’t need

* = when placed at the end of a root word you get results that include all derivations of the word

“word” = searches for an exact match to title, phrase or topic

Literature Synthesis• Examine a number of studies on a shared topic and note aspects that are of

interest for your own work

• Draw and state a conclusion about the similarities and differences

• Specifically note any important differences that are relevant to your study and describe each article briefly in ways relevant to your study

• Do NOT:• Review one article after another instead of comparing points

• Give too much detail

• Copy and paste